BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

UNIT 1-Introduction: nature and importance of research, the role of business research, aims of social
research, research process, pure research vs. applied research, qualitative research vs. quantitative research,
exploratory research, descriptive research and experimental research, ethical issues in business research.
Research process – types of research – defining research problem –formulation of hypothesis – testing of
hypothesis.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction:
The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. It means to search again. So research
means a systematic investigation or activity to gain new knowledge of the already existing facts. Research
refers to search for knowledge or search for facts. Research is an art of scientific investigation.
Definitions of Research:
The following are the important definitions of research:
According to P.M. Cook “Research may be defined as a method of studying problems whose
solutions are to be derived partly or wholly from facts.”
According to Clifford Woody “Research is a systematic effort to gain new knowledge.”
According to J. Francis Rummel “Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts
and their meanings or implications with reference to a given problem. The product or findings of a given
piece of research should be an authentic, verifiable contribution to knowledge in the field studied.”
According to Redman mory “Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge”. The search
for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem research.
Features of Research
1. It means the discovery of new knowledge
2. Is essentially an investigation
3. Is related with the solution of a problem
4. It is based on observation or experimental evidences.
5. It demands accurate observation or experimentation.
6. In research, the researchers try to find out answers for unsolved questions
7. It should be carefully recorded and reported
2. Nature and importance of research,
Nature of research:
1. Research is a systematic and critical investigation into a phenomenon.
2. It adopts scientific method
3. It is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence
4. Research is directed towards finding answers to question and solutions to problems
5. It emphasizes the development of generalization, principles and theories.
6. A good research must be systematic, logical and verifiable
7. Procedure followed in research must be sufficiently described
8. Research procedure should be so described that objective of research can be achieved
Importance of research
The main importance of research is to produce knowledge that can be applied outside a research
setting. Research also forms the foundation of program development and policies everywhere around the
universe. It also solves particular existing problems of concern. Research is important because we are able to
learn more about things, people, and events. In doing research, we are able to make smart decisions.
Marketing research is important because it allows consumers and producers to become more familiar
with the products, goods, and services around them. Research is important to society because it allows us to
discover more and more that might make are lives easier, more comfortable, and safer. It presents more
information for investigation. This allows for improvements based on greater information and study. It is
very important. Research encourages interdisciplinary approaches to find solution to problems and to make
new discoveries. Research is a basic ingredient for development and therefore serves as a means for rapid
economic development.
 The main importance or uses may be listed as under:
 It provides basis for government policies
 Helps in solving various operational and planning problems of business and industry
 Research helps in problem solving
  Is useful to students, professionals, philosophers, literary men, analysts and intellectuals
Scope of research
1. Marketing research
2. For making government polices
3. Operational research
4. Motivational research
5. Stimulation research
Purpose / Aims / Objectives of Research
1. To find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered so far.
2. Aims at advancing systematic knowledge and formulating basic theories about the forces influencing
the relation between groups as well as those acting on personality development and is adjustment
with individuals.
3. Try to improve tools of analysis or to test these against the complex human behaviour and
institutions.
4. To understand social life and thereby to gain a greater measure of control over social behaviour.
5. To provide an educational program in the accumulated knowledge of group dynamics, in skills of
research, in techniques of training leaders and in social action.
Limitations of Research
1. Conclusions in research are based upon data collected. Therefore when the data collected are not
valid or adequate, the conclusion will not be conclusive or appropriate
2. Research results in theory
3. Activities in a society are influenced by various internal and external factors
4. Small organizations cannot afford to have research on various issues
5. Many people in society depend on customs, traditions, routines and practices for taking decision;
instead of going for research.
6. Research is usually based on sample studies. But in many cases samples are not true representatives.
Therefore the research reports based on these samples may not be accurate
3. THE ROLE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH,
Business research refers to systematic collection and analysis of data with the purpose of finding
answers to problems facing management. It can be carried out with the objective to explore, to describe or to
diagnose a phenomenon. It involves establishing objectives and gathering relevant information to obtain the
answer to a business issue and it can be conducted to answer a business related question, such as: What is
the target market of my product? Business research can also be used to solve a business-related problem,
such as determining how to decrease the amount of excess inventory on hand.
Definition of Business Research: 1. “Business research is defined as the systematic and objective
process of generating information for aid in making business decisions.” •
The above definition suggests:
1. Research information is neither intuitive nor haphazardly gathered.
2. The information generated or data collected and analyzed should be accurate.
3. The objective is to facilitate the managerial decision-making process for all aspects of a business:
finance, marketing, personnel, and so on.
4. An essential tool for management in its problem-solving and decision-making activities, business
research generates and provides the necessary qualitative or quantitative information upon which to
base decisions. By reducing the uncertainty of decisions, research reduces the risk of making wrong
decisions.
“Business research is a systematic inquiry that provides information to guide managerial decisions.
More specifically, it is a process of planning, acquiring, analyzing, and disseminating relevant data,
information, and insights to decision makers in ways that mobilize the organization to take appropriate
actions that, in turn, maximize business performance.”
Why study Business Research?• Is it to solve day to day problems? ex. Restaurant and ROI Mobile
phone• Business has to work with internal and external environment.
Importance of Research in Management/Role of Business Research: –
The role of research has increased in the field of business and economy as a whole. – Because it
provides the knowledge and skills to solve the problems and meet the challenges of today’s modern pace of
development. – The following factors stimulate people to conduct an inquiry of a management dilemma, the
problem or opportunity that requires a management decision.
1. Increased role of information technology;
2. Active role of stakeholders;
3. Cut throat competition;
4. Increased government’s intervention;
5. More complex decisions;
6. Development of management as a group of disciplines;
7. Greater computing power and speed:
A. Lower-cost data collection;
B. Better visualization tools;
C. Powerful computations;
D. More integration of data;
E. High speed access to information;
F. Advanced analytical tools for enhanced insights;
G. Customized reporting
8. New perspectives on established research methodologies.
When deciding whether business research is to be conducted or not, the firm keeps in mind factors
like the availability of data, time constraints and the value of the research information to the company.
Adequate planning and information-gathering are essential to derive results for business.
4. Aims of social research,
Social research refers to research conducted by social scientists. It is the scientific investigation
conducted in the field of social sciences and also in the behavioral sciences. Social research methods can
generally vary along a quantitative/qualitative dimension. While various methods may sometimes be
classified as quantitative or qualitative, most methods contain elements of both. Social scientists employ a
range of methods in order to analyse a vast breadth of social phenomena; from census survey data derived
from millions of individuals, to the in-depth analysis of a single agents' social experiences; from monitoring
what is happening on contemporary streets, to the investigation of ancient historical documents. The social
science research is a systematic method of exploring, analyzing and conceptualizing social life in order to
expand, correct or verify knowledge whether that knowledge aids in the construction of theory or in the
practice of an art.
Aims
1. Engaging in critical social research that challenges the status quo.
2. Connecting our research into local, national and international contexts.
3. To carry out research that is relevant to and/or rooted in local communities. Doing research with
communities, not on them.
4. A commitment to research that addresses issues of social inequality.
5. Ensuring that research has an influence outside of academia.
6. The inclusion of students in the Centre as researchers and also researching issues that impact on the
student body/experience.
Objectives
Based on these principles, the Centre will have the following objectives:
 To develop critical social research
 To engage with publics outside academia.
 To engage students in the work of the Centre.
 To raise the profile of sociological research at Birmingham City University.

The work of the Centre for Critical Social Research is interdisciplinary in nature and covers a broad
range of subject areas and issues. The Centre is united by the core concerns and approaches to research that
are listed above. Due to the range of expertise and focus in sociological research, the work of the Centre will
be organised around clusters based on staff interests. The four clusters that will make up the Centre are:
the five major objectives of social research, i.e
(1) Manipulation of Things, Concepts and Symbols, (2) Generalization, (3) Verification of Old Facts, (4)
Extension of Knowledge, and (5) Knowledge May be Used for Theory Building or Practical Application.
1. Manipulation of Things, Concepts and Symbols:
While, dealing with things the scientist remains at the concrete level. He is able to purposefully
handle things for experimentation. But at this level his results are at best limited to the particular thing in a
specific situation and none else. Therefore the concepts symbolizing the things and their properties are also
dealt with, so as to make much sense to conduct controlled inquiries through abstract notions. Use of
concepts or symbols in the process of manipulation not only reduces the content and load of the things but
also provides the scientist with greater facility and effect.
2. Generalization:
The sole purpose with which manipulation of things, concepts or symbols is undertaken is to arrive
at statements of generality. It implies that the findings of controlled investigation should be a conclusion
which will enable us to expect that under certain class of conditions influencing a class of things, something
will happen in a generalized manner, notwithstanding its degree.
But in any case the absence is generality cannot characterize science. Therefore the propositions
derived on the basis of observations and through manipulation of things, concepts or symbols may vary in
their levels of generality, may maintain a high or low degree but should never reach the null point.
Otherwise those will move beyond the framework of science. In this regard, Slesinger and Stepheson
have given the example of a physician or automobile mechanic as playing the role of a researcher. Whereas
the automobile mechanic endeavors to generalize about the automobiles, the physician attempts to make
ailments for a given class of patients.
3. Verification of Old Facts:
A major purpose of social research is verification of conclusions which have already been accepted
as established facts. Since there is no place for complacency in the arena of science, the established system
of knowledge always warrant frequentative scrutiny so as to confirm whether or not the observations are in
accordance with the predictions made on the basis of the established corpus of knowledge. In case it is
confirmed, the empirical observation strengthens the established system of knowledge. Otherwise in the
light of the research outcome, the system of established corpus of knowledge calls for revision or even
rejection.
4. Extension of Knowledge:
As a sequel to generalization the seemingly inconsistencies in the existing corpus of knowledge are
brought into light and attempts are made to reconcile these inconsistencies. The new general proposition,
established as an outcome of research also identifies gaps in the established system of knowledge. A gap in
knowledge implies the inadequacy of the theory as well as the failure of a conceptual scheme to explain and
account for certain aspects of a social phenomenon.
The gap is bridged up in the light of the new empirical observations. Thus knowledge gets expanded.
The expansion of systematic knowledge occurs at least in a couple of ways. First in cognizing certain
aspects of phenomena which were not examined in these terms prior to the advent of the new general
proposition.
Secondly in the light of new observation, the phenomena under investigation may be incorporated in
a comparatively large class of phenomena, so as to be governed by a uniform law. As a result, the new
system of knowledge not only accumulates more units under its conceptual scheme, but also appreciates
greater depth of understanding and bettering of predictions.
5. Knowledge May be Used for Theory Building or Practical Application:
By seeking to explain the unexplained social phenomena, clarifying the doubtful one and correcting
the misconceived facts relating to it, social research provides the scope to use the fruits of research in two
possible ways:
(a) Theory building
(b) Practical application.
In its basic or pure form social research gathers knowledge for the sake of it, for building a theory in
order to explain human behaviour in its totality, only for the satisfaction of knowing. For construction of
theoretic models, the researcher organizes knowledge into propositions and then meaningfully articulated
those propositions to constitute a more abstract conceptual system pertaining to a class of phenomena,
influenced by a certain class of conditions.
In its practical or applied form, social research gathers information regarding the betterment of
quality of life in social settings. The findings of social research are used as the means to an end, not
construed just as an end in itself From its utilitarian point of view the results of social research provide
decision makers with proper guidelines for policy making, social welfare, amelioration of practical
problems, mitigation or resolution of social conflict and tensions as well as rectification and removal of
social evils.
5. Pure research vs. applied research,
Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging
to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or in the future. Thus
such work often involves the testing of hypotheses containing very abstract and specialised concepts.Pure
research is also concerned with the development, examination, verification and refinement ofresearch
methods, procedures, techniques and tools that form the body of research methodology.Examples of pure
research include developing a sampling technique that can be applied to a particular situation; developing a
methodology to assess the validity of a procedure; developing an instrument, say, to measure the stress level
in people; and finding the best way of measuring people’s attitudes. The knowledge produced through pure
research is sought in order to add to the existing body of knowledge of research methods.
Applied research is concerned with the solution of particular problems. It aims at finding a solution
for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial organization. It is empirical and practical. It is
concerned with applied aspects of life. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may
affect a particular institution or the marketing research are examples ofapplied research.
6. Qualitative research vs. Quantitative research,
Quantitative research is applicable to phenomena that are measurable so that they can be expressed in terms
of quantity. Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon. Research designed to find out
how people feel or what they think about a particular subject is a qualitative research. Qualitative research is
especially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover underlying motives of human
behaviour.
7. Exploratory research,
Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two aspects of
a situation or phenomenon. This type of research attempts to explain, for example, why stressful living
results in heart attacks; why a decline in mortality is followed by a fertility decline; or how the home
environment affects children’s level of academic achievement.
The viewpoint of the objectives of a study, is called exploratory research. This is when a study is
undertaken with the objective either to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the
possibilities of undertaking a particular research study. When a study is carried out to determine its
feasibility it is also called a feasibility study or a pilot study. It is usually carried out when a researcher
wants to explore areas about which s/he has little or no knowledge. A small-scale study is undertaken to
decide if it is worth carrying out a detailed investigation. On the basis of the assessment made during the
exploratory study, a full study may eventuate. Exploratory studies are also conducted to develop, refine
and/or test measurement tools and procedures. The types of research study from the viewpoint of objectives.
Although, theoretically, a research study can be classified in one of the above objectives–perspective
categories, in practice, most studies are a combination of the first three; that is, they contain elements of
descriptive, correlational and explanatory research. In this book the guidelines suggested for writing a
research report encourage you to integrate these aspects.
8. Descriptive research and experimental research,
Descriptive research includes survey and fact finding enquiries of different kinds. It describes the state of
affairs as it exists at present. The researcher has no control over the variables. He can only report what has
happened or what is happening.
Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone. It is data based research coming up with
conclusions capable of being verified by observation or experiment. It can be experiment research. In
empirical research, the researcher has to first set up a hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then
works out to get enough facts to prove or disprove his hypothesis.
Empirical studies have a great potential for they lead to inductions and deductions. Thus research
enables one to develop theories and principles and to arrive at generalizations. As research is based on
observations and empirical evidences it improves knowledge and understanding as well as decision making
skill and ability.
9. Ethical issues in business research. Business research defined as the systematic and objective
process of gathering, recording ad analyzing data for aid in making business decision. Ethics are norms or
standards of behavior. The ethical research means should not harm to others.
Ethical issues
1. Philosophical questions
2. Societal norms
3. Codes of behavior
Rights and obligations of the respondent
The obligation to be truth full, privacy, deception, the right to be informed.
Rights and obligation of the researcher
1. The purpose of research is research
2. Objectivity
3. Misrepresenting research
4. Protect the right to confidentiality both subjects and clients.
5. Discrimination of faulty conclusions 6. Advocacy research
Rights and obligation of the client sponsor (user)
1. Ethics between buyer and seller
2. An open relationship with research suppliers
3. An open relationship with interested parties.
4. Privacy
5. Commitment of research
6. Pseudo-pilot study
10. Research process –
Before embarking on the details of research methodology and techniques, it seems appropriate to
present a brief overview of the research process. Research process consists of series of actions or steps
necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps. The chart shown in
Figure 1.1 well illustrates a research process.

The chart indicates that the research process consists of a number of closely related activities, as
shown through I to VII. But such activities overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed
sequence. At times, the first step determines the nature of the last step to be undertaken. If subsequent
procedures have not been taken into account in the early stages, serious difficulties may arise which may
even prevent the completion of the study. One should remember that the various steps involved in a research
process are not mutually exclusive; nor they are separate and distinct. They do not necessarily follow each
other in any specific order and the researcher has to be constantly anticipating at each step in the research
process the requirements of the subsequent steps. However, the following order concerning various steps
provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the research process:
a. Formulating the research problem;
b. Extensive literature survey;
c. Developing the hypothesis;
d. Preparing the research design;
 e. Determining sample design;
f. Collecting the data;
g. Execution of the project;
h. Analysis of data;
i. Hypothesis testing;
j. generalisations and interpretation, and (11) preparation of the report or presentation of the
results,
i.e., formal write-up of conclusions reached.
A brief description of the above stated steps will be helpful.
1. Formulating the research problem:
There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those which
relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher must single out the problem he
wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would
like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if
any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered
before a working formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific
research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in
formulating the research problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into
meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with those
having some expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the researcher can seek the help from a guide
who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind. Often, the guide puts forth
the problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the problem in
operational terms. In private business units or in governmental organisations, the problem is usually
earmarked by the administrative agencies with whom the researcher can discuss as to how the problem
originally came about and what considerations are involved in its possible solutions.
The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself acquainted with
the selected problem. He may review two types of literature—the conceptual literature concerning the
concepts and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to the
one proposed. The basic outcome of this review will be the knowledge as to what data and other materials
are available for operational purposes which will enable the researcher to specify his own research problem
in a meaningful context. After this the researcher rephrases the problem into analytical or operational terms
i.e., to put the problem in as specific terms as possible. This task of formulating, or defining, a research
problem is a step of greatest importance in the entire research process. The problem to be investigated must
be defined unambiguously for that will help discriminating relevant data from irrelevant ones. Care must,
however, be taken to verify the objectivity and validity of the background facts concerning the problem.
Professor W.A. Neiswanger correctly states that the statement of the objective is of basic importance
because it determines the data which are to be collected, the characteristics of the data which are relevant,
relations which are to be explored, the choice of techniques to be used in these explorations and the form of
the final report. If there are certain pertinent terms, the same should be clearly defined along with the task of
formulating the problem. In fact, formulation of the problem often follows a sequential pattern where a
number of formulations are set up, each formulation more specific than the preceeding one, each one
phrased in more analytical terms, and each more realistic in terms of the available data and resources.
2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written
down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the
topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval.At this juncture the
researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose, the
abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to.
Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on
the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The
earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand, should be carefully studied. A good library will
be a great help to the researcher at this stage.
3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear
terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to
draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the manner in which research hypotheses
are developed is particularly important since they provide the focal point for research. They also affect the
manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is
required for the analysis. In most types of research, the development of working hypothesis plays an
important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has
to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to
keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of
the problem. It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.
How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the following approach:
i. Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in
seeking a solution;
ii. Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities and other clues;
iii. Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
iv. Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale
with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical
aspects of the problem.
Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about the subject, examination of the
available data and material including related studies and the counsel of experts and interested parties.
Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms. It may as well be
remembered that occasionally we may encounter a problem where we do not need working
hypotheses,specially in the case of exploratory or formulative researches which do not aim at testing the
hypothesis. But as a general rule, specification of working hypotheses in another basic step of theresearch
process in most research problems.
4. Preparing the research design:
The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to
prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which research would be
conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding
maximal information. In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of
relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be achieved
depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., (i)
Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation. A flexible research design which
provides opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the
purpose of the research study is that of exploration. But when the purpose happens to be an accurate
description of a situation or of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one that
minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed.
There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing.
Experimental designs can be either informal design (such as before-and-after without control, after-only
with control, before-and-after with control) or formal designs (such as completely randomized design,
randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the
researcher must select one for his own project.
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves usually the
consideration of the following:
a. The means of obtaining the information;
b. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
c. Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised
and the reasoning leading to the selection;
d. The time available for research; and
e. The cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
5. Determining sample design:
All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A
complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed
that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is
obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get
larger and larger as the number of observations increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the
element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry
involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Not only this, census inquiry is not possible in practice
under many circumstances. For instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we
select only a few items from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is
technically called a sample.
The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample
design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected
for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the plan to select 12 of a city’s 200 drugstores in a
certain way constitutes a sample design. Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability
samples. With probability samples each element has a known probability of being included in the sample but
the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability. Probability samples
are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling
whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota
sampling techniques.
6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are
inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several ways of
collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources
at the disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts
an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he
examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one
or more of the following ways:
(i) By observation
(ii) Through personal interview.
(iii) Through telephone interviews
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires
(v) Through schedules
7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the
execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and
dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If the
survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In
such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may becoded. If the data are to be collected
through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers.
The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which explain clearly the job of the
interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the interviewers are doing
their assigned job sincerely and efficiently.
A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as much realistic
as possible. This, in other words, means that steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under
statistical control so that the collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined standard of
accuracy. If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods should be designed to tackle
this problem. One method of dealing with the non-response problem is to make a list of the non-respondents
and take a small sub-sample of them, and then with the help of experts vigorous efforts can be made for
securing response.
8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them.
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the
application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.
The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further
analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding
operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that
may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With
coding the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified
data are put in the form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal
of data, specially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also make
it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.
Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process of analysis,
relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to
tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s). For
instance, if there are two samples of weekly wages, each sample being drawn from factories in different
parts of the same city, giving two different mean values, then our problem may be whether the two mean
values are significantly different or the difference is just a matter of chance. Through the use of statistical
tests we can establish whether such a difference is a real one or is the result of random fluctuations. If the
difference happens to be real, the inference will be that the two samples come from different universes and if
the difference is due to chance, the conclusion would be that the two samples belong to the same universe.
Similarly, the technique of analysis of variance can help us in analysing whether three or more varieties of
seeds grown on certain fields yield significantly different results or not. In brief, the researcher can analyse
the collected data with the help of various statistical measures.
9. Hypothesis-testing: After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be
contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Various tests, such
as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be
tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research
inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher
had no hypotheses to start with, generalisations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses
to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.
10. Generalizations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be
possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value
of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start
with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The
process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further
researches.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has
been done by him.
11. Types of research –
a) Pure research Vs. applied research
b) Qualitative and quantitative research
c) Exploratory research
d) Descriptive research
e) Experimental research
Fundamental (or Basic)
Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalization with the formulation of a theory. It is
a research concerning principles or laws or rules. It aims at the achievement of knowledge and truth.
Research studies concentrating on some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples
of fundamental research. It aims at some theoretical conclusions. It may verify the old theory or establish a
new one. It tries to explain the cause and effect relationship in social phenomena. It is essentially positive
and not normative. That is, it explains the phenomena as they are and not as they should be.
Conceptual Research
Conceptual research is that related to some abstract ideas or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to interpret existing ones.
Analytical research
In Analytical research one has to use facts or information already available and analyse these to make a
critical evaluation of the material.
12. Defining research problem –
WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?
A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the
context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same. Usually we
say that a research problem does exist if the following conditions are met with:
a. There must be an individual (or a group or an organisation), let us call it ‘I,’ to whom the problem
can be attributed. The individual or the organisation, as the case may be, occupies an environment,
say ‘N’, which is defined by values of the uncontrolled variables, Yj.
 b. There must be at least two courses of action, say C1 and C2, to be pursued. A course of action is
defined by one or more values of the controlled variables. For example, the number of items
purchased at a specified time is said to be one course of action.
c. There must be at least two possible outcomes, say O1 and O2, of the course of action, of which one
should be preferable to the other. In other words, this means that there must be at least one outcome
that the researcher wants, i.e., an objective.
d. The courses of action available must provides some chance of obtaining the objective, but they
cannot provide the same chance, otherwise the choice would not matter. Thus, if P (Oj | I, Cj, N)
represents the probability that an outcome Oj will occur, if I select Cj in N, then PbO1| I , C1, Ng ¹
PbO1| I , C2 , Ng . In simple words, we can say that the choices must have unequal efficiencies for
the desired outcomes.
* We talk of a research problem or hypothesis in case of descriptive or hypothesis testing research studies.
Exploratory or formulative research studies do not start with a problem or hypothesis, their problem is to
find a problem or the hypothesis to be tested. One should make a clear statement to this effect. This aspect
has been dealt with in chapter entitled “Research Design”.
13. Formulation of hypothesis –
Formulation of Hypothesis
The word hypothesis consists of two words –Hypo+Thesis. ‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject to the
verification. ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of the problem. Thus the literal meaning of the term
hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the
problem that is to be verified empirically and based on some rationale.
Again, ’hypo’ means the composition of two or more variables which are to be verified and ‘thesis’ means
position of these variables in the specific frame of reference.
Definitions of Hypothesis:
John W. Best
“It is a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted to explain observed
facts or conditions and to guide in further investigation.”
Gorge J. Mouly
“Hypothesis is an assumption whose testability is to be tested on the basis of the compatibility of its
implications with empirical evidence and previous knowledge.”
Hypothesis is a tentative statement showing the relationship between two or more variables, the reliability
and validity of which is to be tested and verified. It expresses the nature and degree of relationship between
variables. Hypotheses are -
o Assumptions
o Tentative statements
o Propositions
o Answering the questions
o Proposed solution to a problem
o Statements which are to be tested
o To be accepted of rejected
o To be verified empirically on the basis of sample
 Why Hypothesis
o Gives the direction of research
o Specifies the sources of data
o Determines the data needs
o Type of research
o Appropriate techniques of research
o Contributes to the development of theory
 Role of Hypothesis
o It guides the direction of the study
o It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not
o It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate
o It provides a frame work for organising the conclusions that result
Sources of Hypothesis
o Observation –based on the behavior pattern
o Relation between price and demand is hypothesized,
o the sales and ad may be hypothesized
o Analogies casual observations in nature
o Poor people buy more lottery
o Intuitions and personal experiences –
o The story of Newton and falling of apple,
o The wisdom of Budha under the banyan tree
o A sparking in our mind at particular occasions
o Findings of studies
o State of Knowledge – the theorems may be modified
o Culture –castes, beliefs, habits, behaviour
o Contribution of research – the rejection of certain hypothesis may lead to further research
o Theory –large concerns earn more profit, return on capital is an index of business success
Different Types of Hypothesis
Descriptive Hypothesis – Describing the characteristics of a variable (may be an object, person,
organisation, event, and situation)
o Eg. Employment opportunity of commerce graduates is more than the arts students.
Relational Hypothesis – Establishes relationship between two variables. It may be positive,
negative or nil relationship.
o Eg. High income leads to high savings
Causal Hypothesis – The change in one variable leads to change in another variable i.e. Dependent and
independent variables, one variable is a cause and the other one is the effect
Statistical Hypothesis – association or difference between two variables are hypothesized
Null Hypothesis – it points out there is no difference between two populations in respect of same property.
Alternative Hypothesis- when we reject the null hypothesis, we accept another hypothesis known as
alternate hypothesis.
Nature of Hypothesis:
a. Conceptual: Some kind of conceptual elements in the framework are involved in a
hypothesis.
b. Verbal statement in a declarative form: It is a verbal expression of ideas and concepts. It is
not merely mental idea but in the verbal form, the idea is ready enough for empirical
verification.
c. It represents the tentative relationship between two or more variables.
d. Forward or future oriented: A hypothesis is future-oriented. It relates to the future verification
not the past facts and information.
e. Pivot of a scientific research: All research activities are designed for verification of
hypothesis. Functions of Hypothesis:
H.H. Mc Ashan has mentioned the following functions of hypothesis;
a. It is a temporary solution of a problem concerning with some truth which enables an
investigator to start his research works.
b. It offers a basis in establishing the specifics what to study for and may provide possible
solutions to the problem.
c. It may lead to formulate another hypothesis.
d. A preliminary hypothesis may take the shape of final hypothesis.
e. Each hypothesis provides the investigator with definite statement which may be objectively
tested and accepted or rejected and leads for interpreting results and drawing conclusions that
is related to original purpose.
f. It delimits field of the investigation.
g. It sensitizes the researcher so that he should work selectively, and have very realistic
approach to the problem.
h. It offers the simple means for collecting evidences for verification.
Importance of a Hypothesis:
a) Investigator’s eyes: Carter V. Good thinks that by guiding the investigator in further investigation
hypothesis serves as the investigator’s eyes in seeking answers to tentatively adopted generalization.
b) Focuses research: Without hypothesis, a research is unfocussed research and remains like a random
empirical wandering. Hypothesis serves as necessary link between theory and the investigation.
c) Clear and specific goals: A well thought out set of hypothesis places clear and specific goals before
the research worker and provides him with a basis for selecting sample and research procedure to
meet these goals.
d) Links together: According to Barr and Scates, “It serves the important function of linking together
related facts and information and organizing them into wholes.”
e) Prevents blind research: In the words of P.V. Young, ”The use of hypothesis prevents a blind search
and indiscriminate gathering of masses of data which may later prove irrelevant to the problem under
study."
f) Guiding Light: ”A hypothesis serves as powerful beacon that lights the way for the research work.”
g) It provides direction to research and prevent the review of irrelevant literature and the collection of
useful or excess data.
h) It sensitizes the investigator certain aspects of situation which are irrelevant from the standpoint of
problem at hand.
i) It enables the investigator to understand with greater clarity his problem and its ramification.
j) It is an indispensible research instrument, for it builds a bridge between the problem and the location
of empirical evidence that may solve the problem.
k) It provides the investigator with the most efficient instrument for exploring and explaining the
unknown facts.
l) It provides a frame work for drawing conclusion.
m) It stimulates the investigator for further research.
Forms of Hypothesis:
According to Bruce W. Tuckman following are the forms of hypothesis;
(i) Question form:
A hypothesis stated as a question represents the simplest level of empirical observation. It fails to fit
most definitions of hypothesis. It frequently appears in the list. There are cases of simple investigation which
can be adequately implemented by raising a question, rather than dichotomizing the hypothesis forms into
acceptable / rejects able categories.
(ii) Declarative Statement:
A hypothesis developed as a declarative statement provides an anticipated relationship or difference
between variables. Such a hypothesis developer has examined existing evidence which led him to believe
that a difference may be anticipated as additional evidence. It is merely a declaration of the independent
variables effect on the criterion variable.
(iii) Directional Hypothesis:
A directional hypothesis connotes an expected direction in the relationship or difference between
variables. This type of hypothesis developer appears more certain of anticipated evidence. If seeking a
tenable hypothesis is the general interest of the researcher, this hypothesis is less safe than the others
because it reveals two possible conditions. First that the problem of seeking relationship between variables is
so obvious that additional evidence is scarcely needed. Secondly, researcher has examined the variables very
thoroughly and the available evidence supports the statement of a particular anticipated outcome.
Formulation of Testable Hypothesis:
A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory. It is used as a guide in the
investigation of other facts and theory that are as yet unknown. Its formulation is one of the most difficult
and most crucial step in the entire scientific process. A poorly chosen or poorly worded hypothesis can
prevent the following:
a. The obtaining of enough pertinent data,
b. The drawing of conclusions and generalizations ,and
c. The application of certain statistical measures in the analysis of the result.
Hypothesis is the central core of study that directs the selection of the data to be gathered, the
experimental design, the statistical analysis and the conclusions drawn from the study. A study may be
devoted to the testing of one major hypothesis, a number of subsidiary hypothesis, or both major and
subsidiary hypotheses. When several hypotheses are used, each should be stated separately in order to
anticipate the type of analysis required and in order to definitely accept or reject each hypothesis on its own
merit. Irrespective of number or type used each hypothesis should be testable and based upon a logical
foundation.
Fundamental Basis of Hypothesis:
The researcher deals with reality on two levels;
1. The Operational Level:
On the operational level researcher must define events in observable terms in order to operate with the
reality necessary to do researches.
2. The Conceptual Level:
On the conceptual level the researcher must define events in terms of underlying communality with
other events. Defining at a conceptual level, the researcher can abstract from single specific to general
instance and begin to understand how phenomena operate and variables interrelate. The formulation of a
hypothesis very frequently requires going from an operational or concrete level to the conceptual or abstract
level. This movement to the conceptual level enables the result to be generalized beyond the specific
conditions of a particular study and thus to be of wider applicability.
Research requires the ability to move from the operational to the conceptual level and vice–versa. This
ability is required not only in constructing experiments but in applying their findings as well. The process of
making conceptual contrasts between operational programme is called conceptualization or
dimensionalization.
Difficulties in the Formulation of Useful Hypothesis:
Moving from the operational to the conceptual level and vice –versa is a critical ingredient of the research to
demonstration process. The following are the difficulties in the formulation of hypothesis:
i. Absence of knowledge of a clear theoretical framework.
ii. Lack of ability to make use of the theoretical framework logically.
iii. Lack of acquaintance with available research technique resulting in failure to be able to phrase the
hypothesis properly.
14. Testing of hypothesis.
Setting Up Of Hypothesis: -
Specification of working hypothesis is a basic step in the research process. A hypothesis is a
tentative conclusion logically drawn. The research work is conducted to test the truth of this hypothesis.
Testing of Hypothesis: - Depending upon the nature of data and conclusions to be arrived one or two
of these tests can be applied. Testing of hypothesis will results in either accepting or rejecting the
hypothesis. Testing of hypothesis may prove or disprove a theory and a theory facilitates formulating of a
further hypothesis. Testing of hypothesis will result in contribution to existing theory or the generation of a
new theory.
How to test
o State the two hypotheses - null and alternative
o Decide the test statistic t, Z, F, Chi-square
o Fix the level of significance
o Make the computations
o Take the decision
o Type 1 error and Type 11 error
o Degree of freedom (based on probability, distribution)
Hypothesis Testing:
After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis, if any, he had
formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypothesis or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual
question which is to be answered by applying various tests like‘t’ test, ’F’ test etc. F test have been
developed by statisticians for the purpose .Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or
in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, generalizations established on the basis of
data may be stated.