Chapter-II

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

Internal combustion engine is the engine designed to derive its power from fuel, burn within
cylinder. Fuel is mixed with the air and burned in gas turbine plant as shown in figure. The hot
gasses are passed through the turbine to generate the power and then the gasses are exhausted. In
this case, the same working fluid (air) cannot be used again in the cycle. During the next cycle,
again, the fresh air is taken and mixed with the fuel for heating. It uses the expansive force of
gasses produced by burning the fuel within the cylinder. The motion of the piston rotates a
crankshaft with the help of a connecting rod. The heat that supplies the energy for working
substance is generated within cylinder. Hence, the name is given as Internal Combustion Engine
where suction, compression, combustion and expansion are carried out in different components.
1. Engine component and their function
The arrangements of different engine parts for 4-stroke spark ignition engine (petrol engine) and
4-stroke compression ignition engine (Diesel engine) are shown in Figs. 3 and 8.The purpose of
each part is described in short as follows:
a. Cylinder.
The cylinder of an I.C. engine is considered as the main body o f the engine in which piston
reciprocates to develop power. It is a part of the engine which confines the expanding gases and
forms the combustion space. It provides space in which piston operates to suck the air or air-fuel
mixture. The piston compresses the charge and the gas is allowed to expand in the cylinder,
transmitting power for useful work. It has to withstand very high pressures (about 70 bars) and
temperatures (about 2200 ° C) because there is direct combustion inside the cylinder. Therefore,
its material should be such that it can retain strength at high temperatures, should be good
conductor of heat and should resist to rapid wear and tear due to reciprocating parts. Generally
ordinary cast iron is used, but in case of heavy duty engines, alloy steels are used. Sometimes,
when engine blocks are heavy and for easy maintenance, sleeves or liners are inserted into the
cylinders which can be replaced when worn out. Liners are generally made o f Nickel chrome
iron.
b. Cylinder head.
The cylinder head closes one end of the cylinder. It houses the inlet and exhaust valves through
which the charge is taken inside the cylinder and burned gases are exhausted to the atmosphere from the
cylinder.Cylinder head is usually east as one piece and bolted to the top of the cylinder, A cupper asbestos
gaskets are provided between the cylinder and cylinder-head to obtain a gas-tight joint. The material used
for the cylinder-head is also cast iron.
c. Piston and Piston Rings.
It is a cylindrical part closed at one end which maintains a close sliding fit in the engine cylinder.
It is connected to the connecting rod by a piston pin. The functions of the piston are to compress
the charge during compression stroke and to transmit the gas force to the connecting rod and then
to the crank during power stroke. The force of the expanding gases against the closed end of the
piston, forces the piston down in the cylinder. This causes the connecting rod to rotate the
crankshaft. The pistons of I.C. engines are usually made of cast iron, cast steel and aluminum
alloy. The aluminum alloy has the advantage of higher thermal conductivity and lower specific
gravity. Piston is the heart of the engine. The piston rings are housed in the circumferential
grooves provided on the outer surface of the piston. It gives gastight fitting between the piston
and the cylinder and prevents the leakage of high pressure gases. These are made of special
grade cast iron or pressed steel alloy. This material retains its elastic property at very high
temperature. The upper piston rings are called the compression rings and the lower piston rings
are called the oiling or oil control rings. The functions of the ring are as follows:
 It forms a gas tight combustion chamber for all positions of piston.
 It reduces contact area between cylinder wall and piston wall for preventing friction
losses and excessive wear.
 It controls the cylinder lubrication and transmits heat away from the piston to cylinder
walls.

d. Connecting Rod.
It is special type of rod, one end of which is attached to the piston and the other end to the
crankshaft. It transmits the power of combustion to the crankshaft and makes it rotate
continuously. It is usually a steel forging of circular, rectangular, I, T, or H section and is highly
polished for increased endurance strength. Its small end forms a hinge and pin joint with the
piston and its big end is connected to the crank by crank pin. It has a passage for the transfer of
lubricating oil from the big end bearing to small end bearing (gudgeon pin).
e. Crank and Crankshaft.
Crankshaft is the main shaft of an engine which converts the reciprocating motion of the piston
into rotary motion of flywheel. Both are steel forged and machined to a smooth finish. The two
are held together by means of a key. Crankshaft is supported in main bearings and has a heavy
wheel as counter weights throughout its length to have counter balance of the unit, called
flywheel, to even out the fluctuations of torque. The power required for any useful purpose is
taken from crankshaft only. The crankshaft is the back bone of the engine. Crankshaft is
subjected to bending as well as twisting from the connecting rod end.
f. Piston Pin or Wrist Pin: It is also called Gudgeon pin. The piston pin provides the bearing
for the oscillating small end of the connecting rod. Piston pin is used to join the connecting
rod to the piston. It provides a flexible or hinge like connection between the piston and the
connecting rod. It is usually made of case hardened alloy steel.
g. Valve Spring: The valves are kept closed by the valve springs.
h. Cam-shaft:
It is a shaft which raises and lowers the inlet and exhaust valves at proper time. Camshaft is
driven by crankshaft by means of gears, chains or sprockets. The speed of the camshaft is exactly
half the speed of the crankshaft in four stroke engine. The function of the cam shaft is to operate
the intake and exhaust valves through the cams, cam followers, push rods and rocker arms. The
cam shaft is driven positively from the crankshaft at half the speed of the crankshaft.

i. Cam and Cam-follower: It is made of a required profile to give desired motion to the valve
through the follower.
j. Timing gear:
Timing gear is a combination of gears, one gear of which is mounted at one end of the camshaft
and the other gear on the end of the crankshaft. Camshaft gear is bigger in size than that of the
crankshaft gear and it has twice as many teeth as that of the crankshaft gear. For this reason, this
gear is commonly called Half time gear. Timing gear controls the timing of ignition, timing of
opening and closing of valves as well as fuel injection timing.
k. Push-rod and Rocker Arm: The motion of the cam is transmitted to the valve through the
push rod and rocker arm. These links together are also known as valve gear.

Figure 1: components and assembly of 4-stroke petrol engine

 Figure 2: Main Component of I.C engine

Figure 3: Component involve in valve operation and timing of gear

l. Crank case: The crankcase is that part of the engine which supports and encloses the
crankshaft and camshaft. It provides a reservoir or the sump for the lubricating oil of the
engine. It also serves as a mounting unit for such accessories as the oil pump, oil filter,
generator, starting motor and ignition components. The upper portion of the crankcase is
usually integral with cylinder block. The lower part of the crankcase is commonly called oil
pan and is usually made of cast iron or cast aluminum.
m. Water Jacket: The jackets are provided as shown in Fig. and are used for cooling the
engine. In dry linear cooling water is not in contact with metal whereas in wet liners, metal
come in contact with the cooling water.

Figure 4: Position of water jacket in engine cylinder.

n. Bed Plate: The lower portion of the crank case is known as bed-plate. The bed plates are
held by the bed bolts to concrete foundations.
o. Flywheel:
It is a wheel mounted on the crankshaft which stores excess energy during the power stroke and
returns that energy during the other strokes and maintains a fairly constant output torque on the
crankshaft (reduces cyclic variation of speed). Fly wheel is made of cast iron. It’s main functions
are as follows:
i. It stores energy during power stroke and returns back the same energy during the idle
strokes, providing a uniform rotary motion by virtue of its inertia.
ii. It also carries ring gear that meshes with the pinion of starting motor.
iii. The rear surface of the flywheel serves as one of the pressure surfaces for the clutch,
plate.
iv. Engine timing marks are usually stamped on the flywheel, which helps in adjusting the
timing of the engine.
v. Sometime the flywheel serves the purpose of a pulley for transmitting power
p. Governor: It is run by a drive from the crankshaft. The function of the governs regulate the
charge in case of petrol engine and amount of fuel in case of Diesel engine to ma the speed of
the engine constant, when the load requirement varies. The components described above are
commonly used for all types of internal combustion engines. The few components which are
used in some types of engines only are described below.
q. Carburetor: The function of the carburetor is to supply the uniform air-fuel cylinder of a
petrol engine through the intake manifold. The mass of the mixture enter cylinder is
controlled by a throttle valve.
r. Spark Plug: The function of the spark plug is to initiate the mixture after completing the
compression in the petrol engine. It is generally mounted in the cylinder head. This is only
used in petrol engine.
s. Fuel Pump: It forces the fuel oil at high pressure through fuel nozzle into the cylinder at the
end of compression stroke in diesel engine.
t. Fuel Nozzle: The function of fuel nozzle is to break up the oil into a fine spray as it enters
the cylinder of diesel engine.
u. Inlet Valve: This valve controls the admission of the charge into the petrol engine or air into
diesel engine during suction stroke of the engine. It is fitted by the side of the cylinder head.
v. Exhaust Valve: The removal of exhaust gases after doing work on the piston, is controlled
by this valve. It is capable of with-standing high temperature of burnt gases.

Figure 5: Position of Inlet and Exhaust manifold

2. Basic Engine Nomenclature

In addition to the above parts, certain standard terminology commonly used for I.C. engines is
given below:
a. Bore: The inside diameter of the cylinder is known as bore.
b. Stroke: The maximum distance travelled by the piston in the cylinder in one direction is
known as stroke and it is equal to twice the radius of the crank.
c. Top Dead Centre (TDC): The extreme position of the piston at the top of the cylinder (head
end side) is called “top dead centre” (TDC) position. In the case of horizontal engines this is
known as “inner dead centre” (IDC) position.
d. Bottom Dead Centre (BDC): The extreme position of the piston at the bottom of the
cylinder is called “bottom dead centre” (BDC) position. In case of horizontal engine this is
known as “outer dead centre” (ODC) position. The distance between these two extreme
positions is known as “stroke length”.
e. Clearance Volume: The volume contained in the cylinder above the top of the piston when
the piston is at TDC, is called the clearance volume and is denoted by vc
f. Piston Displacement or Swept Volume: The volume swept through by the piston in moving
between TDC and BDC is defined as the piston displacement or swept volume and it is
denoted by vs. Therefore cylinder volume = (vs + vc). Swept volume = Area of Piston ×
Stroke Length.
g. Compression Ratio: The ratio of the volume when the piston is at BDC to the volume when
the piston is at TDC is called the compression ratio and it is denoted by Rc= V1÷ V2 = (VS +
Vc) ÷ Vc

Figure 6: Terminology used in Engine Cylinder

3. Principle and Working of I.C engine.

3.1 Principle.
A mixture of fuel of correct amount of air is explored in an engine cylinder which is closed at
one end. As a result of explosion, heat is released and this causes the pressure of the burning
gases to increase. This pressure increase, forces a close fitting piston to move down the cylinder.
This movement of piston is transmitted to a crankshaft by a connecting rod so that the crankshaft
turns a flywheel. To obtain continuous rotation of crankshaft this explosion has to repeat. Before
this can happen, the used gasses have to expelled from cylinder, the fresh charges of fuel and air
most be admitted and the piston must be moved back to its starting position. This sequence of
events is known as working cycle.
3.2 Working.
I.C engine converts the reciprocating motion of piston into rotary motion of crank shaft by means
of connecting rod. This piston which reciprocates in the cylinder is very close fit in the cylinder.
Rings are inserted in the circumferential grooves of the piston to prevent leakage of gases from
sides of the piston. Usually a cylinder is bored in a cylinder block and a gasket, made of copper
sheet or asbestos is inserted between the cylinder and the cylinder head. The combustion space is
provided at the top of the cylinder head where combustion takes place. There is a rod called
connecting rod for connecting the piston and the crankshaft. A pin called gudgeon pin or wrist
pin is provided for connecting the piston and the connecting rod of the engine. The end of the
connecting rod which fits over the gudgeon pin is called small end of the connecting rod. The
other end of the connecting rod fits over the crank pin is called big end of the connecting rod.
The crankshaft rotates in main bearings which are fitted in the crankcase. A flywheel is provided
at one end of the crankshaft for smoothing the uneven torque produced by engine. There is oil
sump at the bottom of the engine which contains lubricating oil for lubricating different parts of
the engine. Mechanical cycle of internal combustion engine can be completed in two ways:
a. When the cycle is completed in two revolutions of the crankshaft, it is called four stroke
cycle engines.
b. When the cycle is completed in one revolution of the crankshaft, it is called two stroke cycle
engines.

Figure 7: Working Components of I.C Engine

 4. Four Stroke Cycle Petrol or Spark Ignition Engine
4.1 Working Principle.
In four stroke cycle engine, all the events taking place inside the engine cylinder; and working
cycle is completed in four strokes of the piston or in 2 revolutions of crank and petrol is used as
fuel. This engine has got valves for controlling the inlet of charge and outlet of exhaust gasses.
The opening and closing of the valve is controlled by cams, fitted on camshaft. The camshaft is
driven by crankshaft with the help of suitable gears or chains. The camshaft runs at half the
speed of the crankshaft. The complete working cycles of its covers all events in systematic
manner.
a) Suction Stroke: The piston is at the top most position (TDC) and is ready to a move down
drawing the mixture of fuel (petrol) and air. The inlet valve is open and exhaust valve is closed.
As the piston moves downwards, a fresh charge of fuel-air mixture enters the cylinder through
the inlet valve due to the suction created as shown in figure. This continues until piston reaches
BDC. At this position, the inlet valve closes. This downward movement of the piston is known
as suction stroke and the crank rotates by 180° during this period.
Compression Stroke: During this stroke, both valves (inlet and exhaust) are closed and the
piston moves upward and compresses the charge enclosed in the cylinder. The pressure and
temperature of the mixture increases continuously during this process. As the piston reaches the
top dead centre position, the mixture is ignited by an electric spark. The burning of the mixture is
more or less instantaneous and the pressure and temperature of the gases increase while the
volume remains constant.
b) Power Stroke or Expansion Stroke: The increased pressure of the mixture exerts a large
force and pushes the piston down. During the expansion stroke, both valves remain closed. The
high pressure and high temperature gases push the piston downwards and the gas pressure
gradually decreases. During this stroke, the piston moves from TDC to BDC. This stroke is
known as power stroke, as work is done during this stroke. The exhaust valve opens as the piston
reaches BDC position and pressure falls suddenly to atmospheric pressure at constant volume.
Exhaust Stroke: During the upward motion of the piston, the exhaust valve is open and inlet
valve is closed. The piston moves up in cylinder pushing out the burnt gases through the exhaust
valve. As the piston reaches the TDC, again the inlet valve opens and fresh charge is takenin
during next downward movement of the piston and the cycle is repeated
 Figure 8: Working of 4-stroke petrol engine.

4.2 Theoretical and Actual p-v Diagram.

In the above operations, the following assumptions were made:
 Suction and exhaust take place at atmospheric pressure.
 Suction and exhaust take place through 180° rotation of crank.
 Compression and expansion also take place through 180 degrees rotation of the crank.
 Compression and expansion are isentropic.
 The combustion takes place instantaneously at constant volume at the endcompression
stroke.
 Pressure suddenly falls to the atmospheric pressure at the end of expansion stroke.
With these assumptions, the working of the cycle on p-v diagram is as shown in Fig. 9 (a)which
issimilar to the theoretical Otto cycle.
5-1 Suction stroke and 1-2 Compression stroke.
3-4 Expansion stroke and 1-5 Exhaust stroke.
2-3 Instantaneous-combustion and 4-1 Sudden fall in pressure.
The working of the engine during four strokes is shown in Fig.9 (a)
In the above operations, all the ideal conditions are assumed but in practice, the actual conditions
differ from the ideal as described below.
1. The suction of mixture in the cylinder is possible only if the pressure inside the cylinder is
below atmospheric pressure.
2. The burnt gases can be pushed out into the atmosphere only if the pressure of the exhaust
gases is above atmospheric pressure.
3. The compression and expansion do not follow the isentropic law, as there will be heat
exchange during these processes.
4. Sudden pressure rise is not possible after the ignition as combustion takes some time for
completion and actual pressure rise is less than theoretical considered. The pressure increase
takes place through some crank rotation, or increase in volume.
5. Sudden pressure release after the opening of expansion valve is not possible and it alsotakes
place through some crank rotation.

Figure 9: Theoretical and actual p-v diagrams for 4-stroke petrol engine
If all these modifications are taken into account, then the cycle can be represented on p-v
diagrams as shown in Fig.9 (b).
The area 4'-5-l-4' representing negative work is called negative loop or pumping loop. This work
is required for admitting the fresh charge and for exhausting the burnt gases. This loss of work is
known as pumping loss and power consumed for this is known as pumping horse-power.

5. Four Stroke Cycle Diesel or Compression Ignition Engine

5.1 Working Principle:
The working cycle of the engine is completed in four strokes and diesel oil is used as fuel,
therefore, it is known as four stroke diesel engines. The working of the engine is described as
follows.
a) Suction Stroke: The suction is similar to that in petrol engine except that only air is taken
into the cylinder.
b) Compression Stroke: Compression is also similar, but near the end of compression, pressure
and temperature of the air is about 60 bar and 600°C respectively.
c) Expansion Stroke: During this stroke, the inlet and exhaust valves are closed and fuel valve
opens just before the beginning of the third stroke. The supply of fuel is continued during a small
part of the expansion stroke. The temperature of the air at the end of compression stroke is
sufficient to ignite the fuel. The combustion of fuel is continued at constant pressure as long as
the fuel valve is open. The high pressure and high temperature gases push the piston down even
after the fuel valve is closed. The exhaust valve opens when the piston reaches BDC.
d) Exhaust Stroke: During this stroke, the inlet and fuel valves remain closed and exhaust
valve remains open. The piston moves up in the cylinder and pushes out the burned gases. The
piston reaches the TDC and completes the exhaust stroke and becomes ready for the next cycle.

Figure 10: Working of 4-stroke diesel engine

5.2 Theoretical and Actual P-V Diagram.
The following assumptions are made during the 4-strokes of the cycle discussed above:
1. Suction and exhaust take place at atmospheric pressure.
2. Suction and exhaust take place during 180° of crank rotation.
3. Compression and expansion also take place during 180° rotation of crank
4. Compression and expansion are isentropic.
5. The combustion takes place at constant pressure during a small part of expansestroke.
6. Pressure suddenly falls to atmospheric pressure at the end of expansion stroke.
With the above assumptions, the working cycle can be represented on p-v diagram as shown in
Fig. 11(a) and it is similar to the theoretical Diesel cycle.
But in practice, the actual conditions differ from the ideal as described below.
1. The suction of the air inside the cylinder is possible only if the pressure inside thecylinder is
below atmospheric.
2. Exhausting of gases is possible only if the pressure of the exhaust gases is aboveatmospheric
pressure.
3. The compression and expansion do not follow the isentropic process, as there are heat and
pressure losses.
4. The combustion at constant pressure is not possible as the fuel will not burn as it is introduced
into the cylinder.
5. The sudden pressure release after the opening of expansion valve is not possible and it takes
place through some crank rotation.
The operations of the cycle, taking the modifications into account are represented on p-v diagram
in Fig.11 (b).

Figure 11: Theoretical and actual p-v diagrams for 4-stroke diesel engine

6. Two Stroke Petrol Engine.

In this engine, the working cycle is completed in two strokes of the piston or one revolution of
the crankshaft instead of 4-strokes or two revolutions of crankshaft as in case of 4-stroke engine.
In case of two strokes engine, the values are replaced by the ports. Two rows of the ports at
different levels are cut in the cylinder walls as shown in Fig. These are known as Exhaust ports
and transfer ports. In the case of single cylinder engines, a third row of ports is provided below
the first two and these are known as inlet ports. A specific shape is given to the piston crown as
shown in Fig which helps to prevent the loss of incoming fresh charge being short-circuited
through the transfer ports and helps for exhausting only the burnt gases. The charging of the
cylinder with air-fuel mixture in cases of petrol engine or with air in case of diesel engine,
compression of mixture of air, expansion of gases and exhausting of burnt gases from the
cylinder are carried out in two strokes. This can be done by using the following two methods.
a) By using the closed crank-case compression. In this method, the crank case works as an air-
pump as the piston moves up and down. The charge or air to be admitted in the cylinder is
compressed in the crank-case by the pumping action of the underside of the piston as shown
 in Fig. This system is known as three channel system and commonly used for single cylinder
small power engines as scooter and motorcycle engines.
b) A separate pump outside the cylinder is provided to compress the charge or air before forcing
it into the cylinder. The pump is an integral part of the engine and it is driven by the engine
itself. This method of charging is used for large capacity multi cylinder engines.
6.1 Working Principle.
It will be easier to describe the cycle beginning at the point when the piston has reached to TDC
completing the compression stroke. The position of the piston at the end of compression is
shown in Fig 13 (a). The spark is produced by the spark plug as the piston reaches the TDC. The
pressure and Temperature of the gases increase and the gases push the piston downward
producing the power stroke. When the piston uncovers (opens) the exhaust port as shown in Fig.
13 (b) during the downward stroke, the expanded burnt gases leave the cylinder through the
exhaust port. A little later, the piston uncovers (opens) the transfer ports also as shown in Fig.13
(c). In this position, the crank case is directly connected to the cylinder through transfer port.
During the downward stroke of the piston, the charge in the crank-case is compressed by the
underside of the piston to a pressure of1.4 bars. At this position, as shown in Fig. 13 (c), the
compressed charge (fuel + air) is transferred through the transfer port to the upper part of the
cylinder. The exhaust gases are swept out with the help of fresh charge. The piston crown shape
helps in this sweeping action as well as it prevents the loss of fresh charge carried with the
exhaust gases. This is continued until the piston reaches BDC position.
This action of sweeping out the exhaust gases with the help of fresh charge is known
as“Scavenging”. The scavenging helps to remove the burnt gases from the cylinder. During this
strokeof the piston (downward stroke) the following processes are completed.

Figure 12: Two stroke petrol engine

a) Power is developed by the downward movement of the piston caused by the high pressure
gases.
b) The exhaust gases are removed completely from the cylinder by scavenging.
c) The charge is compressed in the crank-case with the help of underside of the piston
As the piston moves upward, it covers the transfer ports stopping the flow of fresh-charge into
the cylinder, A little later, the piston covers the exhaust ports and actual compression of the
charge begins. This position of the piston is shown in Fig. 13d. The upward motion of the piston
during this stroke lower the pressure in the crank case below atmosphere, therefore, a fresh
charge is induced in the crank case through the inlet ports as they are uncovered by the piston.
The compression of the charge is continued until the piston reaches to its original position (TDC)
and the cycle is completed as shown in Fig. 13 (a).

Figure 13: Working of 2-stroke petrol engine.

a. Partly scavenging takes place as the piston moves from BDC to the position shown in Fig. 13
(c).
b. The fresh charge is sucked in the crankcase through the carburetor.
c. Compression of the charge is completed as the piston moves from the position shown in Fig.
13 (c) to TDC as shown in Fig.13 (a).
The cycle of the engine is completed within two strokes of the piston.

7. Comparison of S.I. and C.I. Engines.

Following points are important for the comparison of petrol engines and diesel engines.
Petrol Engine Diesel Engine
1. A petrol engine draws a mixture of petrol 1. A diesel engine draws only air during
and air during suction stroke suction stroke.
2. The carburetor is employed to mix air and 2. The injector is employed to inject the fuel at
petrol in the required proportion and to supply the end of compression stroke.
 it to the engine during suction stroke
3. Pressure at the end of compression is about
3. Pressure at the end of compression is about
50 to 75 bar
10 to 15 bar
4. The charge (i.e. petrol and air mixture) is 4. The fuel is injected in the form of fine spray.
The temperature of the compressed air
ignited with the help of spark plug. (about 600°C at a pressure of about 50
bar) is sufficiently high to ignite the fuel.
5. Combustion of fuel takes place
5. Combustion of fuel takes place
approximately at constant pressure. In
approximately at constant volume. In other
other words, it works on Diesel cycle.
words, it works on Otto cycle.
6. A diesel engine has compression ratio
6. A petrol engine has compression ratio
approximately from 14 to 22.
approximately from 6 to 10.
7. The starting is little difficult due to high
7. The starting is easy due to low compression
compression ratio.
ratio.
8. As the compression ratio is high, the diesel
8. As the compression ratio is low, the petrol
engines are heavier and costlier.
engines are lighter and cheaper.
9. The running cost of diesel engine is low
9. The running cost of a petrol engine is high
because of the lower cost of diesel.
because of the higher cost of petrol.
10. The maintenance cost is high.
10. The maintenance cost is less.
11. The thermal efficiency is up to about 40%.
11. The thermal efficiency is up to about 30%.
12. Overheating trouble is less due to high thermal
12. Overheating trouble is more due to low
efficiency.
thermal efficiency.
12. These are relatively low speed engines. (2000
13. These are high speed engines. (5000 RPM)
RPM).
14. The diesel engines are generally employed in
14. The petrol engines are generally employed in
heavy duty vehicles like buses, trucks, and
light duty vehicles such as scooters, motor- earth moving machines and small capacity
cycle, cars power plants (2 to 5 MW).