Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2011) 53:275–284
DOI 10.1007/s00170-010-2821-1
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Effects of layer thickness and binder saturation level
parameters on 3D printing process
Mohammad Vaezi & Chee Kai Chua
Received: 13 March 2010 / Accepted: 28 June 2010 / Published online: 14 July 2010
# Springer-Verlag London Limited 2010
Abstract Various parameters, such as binder properties,
printing layer thickness, powder size, and binder saturation
level, have effects on the strength and surface finish of the
three-dimensional printing (3D printing) process. The
objective of this research is to study the effects of two
parameters of layer thickness and binder saturation level on
mechanical strength, integrity, surface quality, and dimen-
sional accuracy in the 3D printing process. Various speci-
mens include tensile and flexural test specimens and
individual network structure specimens are made by the 3D
printing process under different layer thicknesses and binder
saturation by use of ZCorp.'s ZP102 powder and Zb56
binder. Two printing layer thicknesses, 0.1 and 0.087 mm,
are evaluated at 90% and 125% binder saturation levels.
Experimental findings show that under the same layer
thickness, increment of binder saturation level from 90% to
125% would result in an increase of tensile and flexural
strengths of the specimens and decrease of dimensional
accuracy and surface uniformity of specimens. On the other
hand, under the same binder saturation conditions, increase
in layer thickness from 0.087 to 0.1 mm would decrease
tensile strength and increase flexural strength. Also, it gives
better uniformity on the surface.
M. Vaezi (*)
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Babol Noshirvani University of Technology,
P.O. Box 484, Babol, Iran
e-mail: vaezi2006@yahoo.co.uk
C. K. Chua
School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,
Nanyang Technological University,
50 Nanyang Avenue,
Singapore 639798, Singapore
Keywords 3D printing . Layer thickness . Binder
saturation . Surface quality . Mechanical strength .
Dimensional accuracy
1 Introduction
Shortening of lead times for product development is the one
of most pressing issues in production. Rapid prototyping
(RP) is an innovative manufacturing process which can
enable customers to fabricate physical models layer-by-
layer directly from computer-aided design (CAD) data in a
short period of time. The main trait of RP technologies is
that they build parts in one step, directly from the CAD
data. RP technologies are fast becoming standard
approaches in product development and manufacturing
[1]. In fact, RP is a suitable technology in a computer-
integrated manufacturing environment. As a single-stage
fabrication process, there would be a direct relationship
between CAD and computer-aided manufacturing. By
applying RP synthesized with concurrent engineering, a
substantial improvement in the manufacturing processes
can be expected.
There are many methods of RP [2, 3]. One of the most
effective RP techniques is three-dimensional printing (3D
printing). The 3D printing technology was developed at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology [1]. 3D printing is a
RP technology whereby the sliced two-dimensional (2D)
profile of a computer model is printed on a fresh layer of
powder via deposition of a suitable binder. Successive 2D
profiles are then printed, each time on a freshly laid layer of
powder until the whole model is finished. Binder, which is
deposited by an inkjet head, would join the respective
profiles of each layer together. Upon completion,
unbound powder is removed from the part and suitable
276
post-processing is carried out [4]. To increase durability
and strength, the part can then be infiltrated with epoxy
resin, wax, or other materials. 3D printing has demon-
strated the capability of fabricating parts of a variety of
materials, including ceramics, metals, shape memory
alloys (SMA), and polymers with an array of unique
geometries [5–11].
Despite the unique capability of 3D printing in rapidly
fabricating parts with complicated shapes, in practice, there
are limitations such as surface quality and strength.
However, the need to efficiently use this technology for
making fine details, high strength parts with lowest
dimensional deviation, and suitable surface quality is ever
increasing. For instance, 3D printing has been utilized by
tissue engineers to produce 3D porous scaffolds. 3D
printing allows the design and fabrication of complicated
scaffold shapes with a fully interconnected pore network
with both a novel micro- and macro-architecture [12].
Hence, more effort seems to be necessary for the
optimization of effective parameters in the 3D printing
process. In this way, the process of research on the
development of the 3D printing process has entered a new
stage in a manner that effort has been significantly
increased toward optimization of process and its utility in
new fields. Different researches have been performed on
the simulation and optimization of the 3D printing process
and using new powders with better strength and perfor-
mance for certain uses like those in electronics and
medicine. In 2003, Lanzetta and Sachs [13] improved the
surface quality of the 3D printing process by use of a
bimodal powder distribution. Liou et al. [14] offered a 3D
simulation of droplet formation during inkjet printing. In
[12, 15], inkjet printing has been used to fabricate tissue
scaffolds. Stopp et al. [16] offered a novel approach for 3D
printer calibration and increment of parts accuracy. Their
method was based on the setting of bleed compensation.
Dimitrov et al. [17] investigated achievable dimensional
accuracy of the 3D printing process. Their research
provided general international tolerance grades of the 3D
printing process for parts printed using different powders.
Suwanprateeb and Suwanpreuk [18] developed a new
composition of powder and binder that resulted in the
fabrication of transparent models like stereolithography
models. Czyżewski et al. [19] made an electrically
conductive model via impregnation of the plaster-based
3D printing model by a dispersion of carbon nanofibers in
epoxy resin. Chiu and Yu [20] utilized the 3D printing
process for manufacturing of functionally graded material
parts. Ramakrishnan et al. [21] studied the performance of
ceramic inks with alumina and zirconia powders in ethyl
alcohol and they also performed mathematical modeling
and simulation of drop formation and spread in direct
ceramic inkjet printing. Pilipović et al. [22] performed an
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2011) 53:275–284
experimental research work to compare two different RP
processes from part mechanical properties point of view.
There are generally two significant specifications for
industrial parts made by 3D printing method: strength and
surface quality. In fine detail, parts with thin wall thickness,
mechanical strength, and fracture strength are more impor-
tant than surface quality since high strength in such brittle
parts would prevent unwanted failure under different
operations like depowdering, etc. In bigger parts like most
of automotive or aerospace parts as well, most parts have
sufficient strength for high volume to surface ratio. These
parts specifications for surface quality, dimensional accura-
cy, and sharp edges are more important than mechanical
strength since, in most cases, they are used as master model
for casting or rapid tooling process [23]. So, it can be said
that 3D printing prototypes are classified into two main
groups in terms of surface quality and required strength:
Group A: Parts with fine details and high strength,
Group B: Big and heavy parts with high level of accuracy
and surface quality.
Figure 1 shows some examples from different classified
parts under groups A and B.
Various factors, such as printing layer thickness, binder
properties, powder size, and binder saturation level, have
effects on the strength and surface finish of the 3D printing
process. Among these factors, binder saturation and
printing layer thickness affect strength and surface quality
most. Fortunately, it is possible to easily adjust and control
these parameters in the 3D printing process. So, by suitable
adjustment of layer thickness and binder saturation level
parameters, any one of industrial parts belonging to group
A or B can be made in the best way, as close as possible to
the required properties. In fact, by clever adjustment of
these parameters, the 3D printing process can be custom-
ized for certain applications (to reach greater strength or
higher surface quality and dimensional accuracy). Hence,
having a good understanding and scientific insight of the
practical effects of these two parameters on the strength and
surface quality seems to be necessary. The objective from
this research work is to give a general view about the
effects of layer thickness and binder saturation parameters
on the two mentioned properties in the 3D printing process.
2 Effective factors on 3D printing process
As mentioned earlier, various factors such as powder
particle size, binder viscosity, droplet size, binder satura-
tion, and printing layer thickness play an important role in
the strength and surface quality of the 3D printing process.
Powder size and its homogenous dispersion affect the 3D
printing process. If powder size is too small, because of low
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2011) 53:275–284 277

Architecture Automotive Fuel Cell Systems

Group A, Group B, Group A,

High integrity and fine details
required for art models.
(Source: Babol University of
technology)
Precise, Smooth surface and
sharp edges models required for
automotive industry.
(Source: Babol University of
technology)
Fine details and high integrity
model required for functional
tests.
(Source: Babol University of
technology)

Fig. 1 Different 3D printing prototypes have been divided into the two groups of A and B, corresponding to their characteristics

powder flowability, it would not be spread in thin layers saturation level were the best printing conditions that
properly. Moreover, the spread roller may over press the offered the highest strength and dimensional accuracy for
powder. On the other hand, in case the powder size is too TiNiHf SMA.
large, the structure would lack good strength and small In addition, high-performance composite materials have
parts would not be strong enough. Lu et al. [24] studied been specifically designed to take advantage of the heater
experimentally the effect of powder size on the 3D printing modules in the current generation of 3D printers. The final
process. Their study on TiNiHf SMA powder showed that, green strength (the strength of an uninfiltrated part) makes
in general, smaller particle size produced higher green it easier to remove built model from the build bed and
strength and surface quality. handle it during infiltration [27]. ZP102 powder is a plaster-
Also, the binder must have special properties such as based powder developed by ZCorp. specifically for the 3D
low viscosity and sufficient surface tension. Smaller printing process. Parts made by this powder would have
droplets are more sensitive for disturbance. Thus, with suitable strength after infiltration operation with epoxy
smaller size of the droplet, the quality and accuracy of the resin in a manner that, in addition to making a concept
3D printing process would not be improved. However, model, it can be even used for functional test as well. In
higher droplet speed compared to their small size may order to widen the range of utilization of ZP102 powder in
improve the process of binder spray over the powder 3D printing of various industrial parts, in this research, the
surface [25]. effects of layer thickness and binder saturation parameters
Likewise, studies have proved that layer thickness and on the 3D printing process with ZP102 powder would be
binder saturation level combined together have a significant studied experimentally.
effect on the 3D printing process. Specifically, these two
parameters have a significant effect on strength, integrity,
and dimensional accuracy. Lu and Reynolds [11] focused
on the study and fabrication of 3D mesh structures of
300 μm wire width with TiNiHf SMA powder via the 3D
printing process. SMA classifies a group of novel materials
which has the ability to return to some previously defined
shape after being subjected to specified thermal- or stress-
induced procedures [26].They investigated experimentally
the effects of binder saturation level and layer thickness on
the dimensional accuracy and strength of the TiNiHf SMA
3D printing. For this reason, they designed an individual
3D mesh structure and fabricated it by TiNiHf SMA in
three printing layer thicknesses of 20, 35, and 50 μm at two
binder saturation levels of 110% and 170%. Their research
showed that 35 μm layer thickness and 170% binder Fig. 2 Designed 3D network structure to be printed
278
Table 1 Nominal and test values of binder saturation level for
different printing layer thicknesses
Layer thickness
0.1mm 0.087mm
Nominal values of binder saturation 100% – ≤3 mm
Test values of binder saturation 90%, 125% 90%, 125%
3 Materials and methods
To evaluate the effect of the parameters binder saturation and
layer thickness, two different laboratory methods were used:
(a) Mechanical tests: to evaluate the effects of mentioned
parameters on strength.
(b) Microscopic examinations: to evaluate the effects of
mentioned parameters on surface quality and dimen-
sional accuracy.
According to the standards ISO 527:1993 and ISO
178:2001, tensile and flexural tests specimens were made
under different conditions of layer thickness and binder
saturation, and the mechanical strength of green specimens
was studied. Also, a small network structure with wall
thickness as per 0.7 mm was designed and made under
conditions of layer thickness and binder saturation the same
as tensile and flexural tests specimens and they were
studied using stereomicroscope. The test specimens were
made by 3D printing procedures on ZCorp.'s Z510/Cx 3D
printer apparatus. ZCorp. uses inkjet print heads with a
resolution of 600 dots per inch. The print heads provide
droplets based on a drop-on-demand approach. The print
head moves extremely close to the powder, thereby
reducing inaccuracies related to fanning of the binder spray.
As mentioned before, the materials used for the test
specimens made on Z510/Cx were plaster-based ZP102
powder and water-based Zb56 binder. The technical
characteristics of materials can be found in the literature.
Infiltration is the process of applying a liquid resin to a
printed part to provide strength and specific properties. The
lower viscosity of infiltrant allows the resin to soak into the
porous surface without leaving a thick film on the top
Fig. 3 Shape of test specimen for flexural testing
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2011) 53:275–284
Table 2 Dimensions of loading, support, and flexural test specimen
Loading and Dimensions
supports
Loading radius R1 =5±0.1 mm
Support radius R2 =2±0.2 mm—for test specimens of thickness
R2 =5±0.2 mm—for test specimens of thickness
>3 mm
Test specimen
Length l=80±2 mm
Width b=10±0.2 mm
Thickness h=4±0.2 mm
surface [27]. The volume of penetrated resin inside the part
during the infiltration operation has a direct relationship to
the final strength of the prototype. If an infiltrant penetrates
well into the part, void space would be better filled between
powder particles and, as a result, the part strength would be
higher. Despite the relative problems in low samples
strength and their brittleness, the green strength of speci-
mens was evaluated. Because the volume of infiltrant has
an effect on the surface quality and strength of parts, it is
very difficult, not impossible, to exactly control the resin
rate in an infiltration operation with methods like brushing
or dripping. Also, bleeding compensation has not been
enabled during the fabrication of specimens.
An individual network structure was designed for the
evaluation of surface quality and the possibility to make
small features with the lowest dimensional deviation. It was
10 mm×9.8 mm in which the lowest wall thickness was
0.7 mm. The SolidWorks design of the network structure
specimen is shown in Fig. 2.
Four network structure specimens with different layer
thicknesses and binder saturations were made, two of which
were of constant layer thickness of 0.1 mm and binder
saturation at 90% and 125% and the other two specimens
had constant layer thickness of 0.087 mm and binder
saturation again equal to 90% and 125%. Table 1 gives the
conditions of layer thickness and binder saturation recom-
mended by the supplier and conditions selected for the
given tests. It should be mentioned that, because of the low
Fig. 4 Shape of test specimen for tensile testing
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2011) 53:275–284 279

Table 3 Dimensions of tensile test specimens

Dimensions(mm)

l3 = total length ≥150a

l1 = length of the narrow parallel part 80±2
r = radius 20–25
l2 = distance between expanded parallel part 104–113b
b2 = width at the end 20±0.2
b1 = width of the narrow end 10±0.2
h = thickness 4±0.5
L0 = measurement length 50±0.5
L = initial distance between the machine jaws 115±1
a
For some materials, the length has to be increased (e.g., l3 =200 mm) to
avoid fracture or sliding in the jaws of the test machine
b
In dependence on l1, r, b1, and b2, but within the tolerance limits

strength of the two network structure specimens having the

binder saturation of 90%, they broke in the depowering
Fig. 6 Diagram of tensile stress–strain for uninfiltrated ZP102
step. Then, a stereomicroscope was used for the evaluation powder
of surface quality and dimensional accuracy.
For the study of the specimens' mechanical properties
carrying out the tensile tests and the Instron Apparatus
like tensile strength and flexural strength, other test speci-
Model 1122 Load Cell 500N was used for carrying out the
mens were made according to the standard. Figure 3 and
flexural tests. The above mechanical tests were performed
Table 2 show flexural test specimen shape and its
under environmental conditions of 18.5°C and humidity of
dimensions according to ISO 178:2001 standard. Figure 4
50%. It should be noted that, to obtain more exact results,
and Table 3 show the shape of tensile test specimen and its
ten series of the same kind of tensile and flexural tests
dimensions according to ISO 527:1993 standard.
specimens were made and tensile and flexural tests were
In this way, according to the standard, tensile and
performed ten times on specimens.
flexural tests specimens were made in four different states
Orientation of the specimens in the building chamber
of layer thicknesses and binder saturations. For the drying
strongly affects the final mechanical properties of the
test specimens, they were placed in the furnace after
specimens. So, all specimens were fabricated in the same
fabrication for 30 min under 50°C. Figure 5 shows the
orientation to provide similar experimental conditions. All
specimens made by the 3D printing process.
In this research work, the Gotech Mechanical Testing
Machine Model TCS-2000 Load Cell 20 KN was used for

Fig. 7 Diagram of flexural stress–strain for uninfiltrated ZP102

Fig. 5 The specimens made by the 3D printing process powder
280 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2011) 53:275–284

Table 4 Tensile properties of ZP102 test specimens

Tensile strain (%) UTS (MPa)

0.1 mm layer thickness 0.20 1.990

90% saturation
0.087 mm layer thickness 0.19 2.279
90% saturation
0.1 mm layer thickness 0.28 3.048
125% saturation
0.087 mm layer thickness 0.26 3.562
125% saturation

specimens were built in a way that they had minimum

height.

4 Results and discussions

Figures 6 and 7 and Tables 4 and 5 show the results of

tensile and flexural tests under various layer thicknesses Fig. 8 The block diagram of tensile and flexural strengths variations
when binder saturation value is increased from 90% to 125%
and binder saturation conditions.
As seen in Tables 4 and 5, under the same printing layer
thickness, a higher saturation level resulted in a higher would be higher which in turn will increase the tensile
volume of sprayed binder and, subsequently, higher tensile strength of the specimens. It is also worthy to note that, as
and flexural strengths. Figure 8 shows the percentage of seen in Table 5, contrary to what was expected, under the
increment of tensile and flexural strengths when binder same binder saturation, when layer thickness was decreased
saturation level was increased from 90% to 125% under from 0.1 to 0.087 mm, contrary to tensile strength, the
constant layer thicknesses of 0.1 and 0.087 mm. As seen for flexural strength would somehow decrease. In this case
a constant layer thickness of 0.1 mm, 35% increase in (under the same binder saturation), when layer thickness
binder saturation level, as an average, would result in the decreases, the sprayed binder would penetrate better in
increment of tensile and flexural strengths of the specimens vertical and lateral directions over the surface and, as a
for 34.7% and 41%, respectively. On the other hand, for a result, there would be lesser unoccupied space between
constant layer thickness of 0.087 mm, 35% increase in powder particles so the specimen would have lesser
binder saturation level, would result in increment of tensile
and flexural strengths of the specimens for 36% and 42.4%,
respectively.
In general condition, an increase of layer thickness results
in better powder spraying. However, under the same binder
saturation level, when layer thickness decreases, the number
of layers would be increased and, as a result, the integrity

Table 5 Flexural properties of ZP102 test specimens

Flexural strain Flexural stress

(%) (MPa)

0.1 mm layer thickness 0.42 4.32

90% saturation
0.087 mm layer thickness 0.43 3.83
90% saturation
0.1 mm layer thickness 0.40 7.33
125% saturation
0.087 mm layer thickness 0.43 6.65
125% saturation Fig. 9 The block diagram of tensile and flexural strengths variations
when layer thickness value is decreased from 0.1 to 0.087 mm
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2011) 53:275–284 281

Fig. 10 Stereomicroscope im-

age of specimen with 0.1 mm
layer thickness and 90%
saturation

porosity. Figure 9 shows the percentage of increase/
decrease of tensile and flexural strengths when layer
thickness was decreased from 0.1 to 0.087 mm under
constant binder saturations of 90% and 125%.
Considering Fig. 9 under the same binder saturation of
90%, increase in layer thickness from 0.087 to 0.1 mm
would, as an average, decrease tensile strength by 12.7%
and increase flexural strength by 11.3%. Also, under the
same binder saturation of 125%, increase in layer thickness
from 0.087 to 0.1 mm would, as an average, decrease
tensile strength by 14.4% and increase flexural strength by
9.3%. It is worthy to note that, always under the same
binder saturation conditions, tensile strength of the speci-
mens would not increase with a decreased layer thickness
but a decreased layer thickness to certain limits would
increase the tensile strength of the material. Under general
condition, binder spreading distance vertically would be
less than that laterally. In such conditions, in case the layer
thickness is selected less than a certain limit, the binder
would completely penetrate vertically and the powder is

Fig. 11 Stereomicroscope im-

age of specimen with
0.087 mm layer thickness and
90% saturation
282 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2011) 53:275–284

Fig. 12 Stereomicroscope im-

age of specimen with 0.1 mm
layer thickness and 125%
saturation

saturated, while in lateral direction the binder would not
penetrate completely. So, incomplete spreading of the
binder laterally would decrease sample integrity and tensile
strength. Therefore, comparing the variation percentages, it
can be generally said that, under layer thickness and binder
saturation conditions of this research, the effect of binder
saturation parameter on mechanical properties of the speci-
mens was more than the effect of layer thickness.
Figures 10, 11, 12, and 13 show the images of the
stereomicroscope from network structure specimens with
wall thickness of 0.7 mm. As seen in all specimens, there
were significant dimensional deviations of approximately
+0.5 mm for wall thickness. In practice, the average wall
thickness in specimens was 1.2 mm.
As seen in Figs. 12 and 13, under the constant binder
saturation of 125% when layer thickness was decreased
from 0.1 to 0.087 mm, the quality and uniformity of walls
surface was decreased and more non-uniform masses were
seen on the specimen walls. Also, according to Figs. 10 and
11, in constant binder saturation of 90% when layer

Fig. 13 Stereomicroscope im-

age of specimen with
0.087 mm layer thickness and
125% saturation
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2011) 53:275–284
Table 6 Average wall thickness of specimens with different conditions
Layer thickness (mm) 0.1 0.087 0.1 0.087
Saturation (%) 90 90 125 125
Ave. wall thickness (μm) 1,048.6 1,186.3 1,273.9 1,327.1
thickness was decreased from 0.1 to 0.087 mm, similarly, a
decrease in quality and uniformity of surface and increased
non-uniform masses around the specimen walls were seen.
The reason may be explained as follows:
With a decrease of layer thickness, the binder penetrates
quickly to the bottom of the layer. However, the previous
layer printed prevents the binder from further spreading. In
the lateral direction, the binder spreads without such
limitation [11].
Table 6 shows the measured average wall thickness of
network structure specimens with different conditions of
binder saturation and layer thickness. As seen in Table 6,
under the constant binder saturation of 125% when layer
thickness was decreased from 0.1 to 0.087 mm, the average
wall thickness measured in the specimens increased from
1,273.9 to 1,327.1 μm. Also, under the constant saturation
of 90% when the layer thickness decreased from 0.1 to
0.087 mm, the average wall thickness measured in the
specimens increased from 1,048.6 to 1,186.3 μm. As
explained earlier, this resulted from more binder spreading
in the lateral direction.
In comparing Figs. 10 and 12, it is found that, in the
state of layer thickness of 0.1 mm and 90% binder
saturation, there would be a better and more uniform
surface than that of 0.1 mm layer thickness and 125%
binder saturation. It was, however, expected since, under
constant layer thickness with lower binder saturation, lesser
volume of binder would be spread on the surface and so the
binder dispersion in lateral direction would be less.
This result is clearly seen in the network structure
specimens having constant layer thickness of 0.087 mm and
binder saturations at 125% and 90% in Figs. 11 and 13.
5 Conclusion
In this research, the significant effects of layer thickness
and binder saturation level on the mechanical properties,
integrity, and dimensional accuracy of the 3D printing
process have been experimentally studied. Practical find-
ings in the 3D printing process with the use of commercial
ZP102 powder and Zb56 binder showed that:
& All network structure specimens having wall thickness
of 0.7 mm had high dimensional deviation of about
+0.5 mm.
283
& Under the same layer thickness, specimens having 90%
binder saturation had lower strength and integrity than
specimens with 125% of binder saturation but, because
of lower volume of binder, they had more uniformed
surface.
& Under the same binder saturation, a decrease in layer
thickness from 0.1 to 0.087 mm increased the tensile
strength in specimens and decreased the flexural
strength while giving a worse surface quality and
uniformity.
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