Journal of Materials Processing Technology 115 (2001) 313±325

A study of oblique cutting for different low cutting speeds

Zone-Ching Lina,*, Yeou-Yih Linb
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, 43 Keelung Road, Section 4, Taipei 106, Taiwan, ROC
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, De Lin Institute of Technology, 1, 380 LN, Chin-Yung Road, Tucheng, Taipei Hsien, Taiwan, ROC
Received 17 August 1999

Abstract

In this paper, the ®nite deformation theory and an updated Lagrangian formulation (ULF) were used to describe the oblique cutting
process. Either the tool geometrical location condition or the strain energy density constant was combined with the twin node processing
method to be adopted as the chip separation criterion. An equation for 3D tool face geometrical limitation was established to inspect and
correct the relation between the chip node and tool face. In addition, a 3D ®nite difference equation for heat transfer was derived. Based on
this approach, a coupled thermo-elastic±plastic large deformation ®nite element model for oblique cutting was established, for which mild
steel was used as the workpiece material and P20 as the tool.
Under the different cutting speed conditions, the chip deformation process and the effect of different cutting speeds on the chip ¯ow
angle, cutting force and speci®c cutting energy were ®rst explored. Then, the effect of different cutting speeds on the separation location of
the chip node and the geometrical phenomenon at the instant of chip separation from the tool face, and on both stress and temperature
distributions on the chip surface, were analyzed. Finally, the effect of different cutting speeds on the residual stress, displacement and
temperature distributions on the machined surface after cutting were investigated to understand the relation between the cutting speeds and
the integrity of the machined surface.
During the chip deformation process, the simulated chip ¯ow angles under the different low cutting speed conditions approximately
matched with the designated tool inclination angle, which complied with the geometrical requirements of Stabler's criterion. Further, the
simulated speci®c cutting energy under a given low cutting speed condition was compared with the experimental data, the result of which
was within an acceptable range, and the trend of speci®c cutting energies under the different low cutting speed conditions were the same as
the experimental trends. It is obvious from the above ®ndings that the model presented in this paper is consistent with the geometrical and
mechanics requirements, which veri®es that the proposed model is acceptable. # 2001 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

Keywords: Cutting speeds; Oblique cutting; Finite element; Finite difference; 3D Tool face equation

1. Introduction
Metal cutting is a well-known and complex manufactur-
ing process. An understanding of the material removal
process, and the changes of such physical quantities as
cutting force, stress, temperature and residual stress of the
workpiece, helps to control the quality of the cutting process
and improve the product quality. Lajczok [1] presented a
simpli®ed orthogonal cutting model in which the chip was
ignored. The cutting force and thrust force were measured
through experiments to serve as the input conditions of
simulation. Usui and Shirakashi [2] designated the values
of shear angle, chip geometrical con®guration and material
¯ow line to simulate steady-state orthogonal cutting. Iwata
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: ‡886-2-2737-6455;
fax: ‡886-2-2737-6460.
E-mail address: zclin@mail.ntust.edu.tw (Z.-C. Lin).
et al. [3] developed the rigid±plastic ®nite element model for
orthogonal cutting. Strenkowski et al. [4±6] used the equiva-
lent plastic strain as the basis of chip separation to analyze
the changes in temperature, stress and strain of the work-
piece, chip and tool under an adiabatic chip±tool interface
condition. It was found that the separation criterion changed
along with the change in depth of cut. Hashemi et al. [7] used
the elastic±plastic ®nite element method and an ultimate
plastic strain chip separation criterion to simulate the for-
mation of both continuous and discontinuous chips. Liu and
Barash [8] measured the residual stress on the workpiece
subsurface in consideration of tool ¯ank wear. Their ®ndings
indicated that under the condition of a lower cutting speed,
the mechanical load had a greater impact on residual stress,
while the thermal effect became the major factor affecting
residual stress under a higher cutting speed.
The above studies are limited to discussions of the 2D
orthogonal cutting, and fail to provide a comprehensive

0924-0136/01/$ ± see front matter # 2001 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

PII: S 0 9 2 4 - 0 1 3 6 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 9 9 7 - 9
314 Z.-C. Lin, Y.-Y. Lin / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 115 (2001) 313±325
understanding of the entire machining process. Since 1993,
therefore, there have been more in-depth studies on the 3D
cutting because of suf®cient computer memory capacity and
rapid computer execution speed.
Maekawa and Maeda [9] took account of elasticity,
plasticity, temperature, strain rate, friction and tool ¯ank
wear to predict the effect of tool front edge and side edge on
the workpiece during the 3D cutting process. Sasahara et al.
[10] considered the material's geometrical nonlinearity in
the 3D ®nite element model for cutting to investigate the
changes of stress and strain inside the chip and workpiece
and predict the chip ¯ow direction. Ueda and Manabe [11]
also developed a 3D rigid±plastic ®nite element model for
cutting to explore the chip formation process of a mild steel
workpiece under an extremely low cutting speed and dif-
ferent tool inclination angle conditions, while ignoring the
effects of temperature and strain rate on the ¯ow stress. Lin
and Yarng [12] developed a 3D elastic±plastic ®nite element
model for orthogonal cutting in which either the tool geo-
metrical location condition or the strain energy density
constant was combined with the twin node processing
method to act as the chip separation criterion. Lin and
Lin [13] established a thermo-elastic±plastic ®nite element
model for oblique cutting under a constant low cutting speed
condition, in which they investigated the temperature effect
on such physical properties as cutting force, speci®c cutting
energy and stress distribution on the chip surface during the
oblique cutting process. The ®rst two studies described in
this section both assumed the condition of chip already being
attached on the tool face, which prevented the simulation of
tool's initial cutting into the workpiece. The third study
described above did not discuss the effects of strain rate and
temperature, and the residual stress was unknown after
cutting. The last paper focused on a constant low cutting
speed and established a fundamental model of thermo-
elastic±plastic ®nite element simulation for the purpose of
oblique cutting analysis. However, the paper did not further
explore the geometrical phenomenon of the chip separation
angle along the 3D tool face and changes in the machined
surface displacement on surface integrity, nor did the study
investigate the effect of different low cutting speeds on the
foregoing phenomena, and on such physical properties as
chip deformation, chip ¯ow angle, cutting force, speci®c
cutting energy, etc.
The objective of this paper was to develop a coupled
thermo-elastic±plastic large deformation ®nite element
model for oblique cutting under the condition of different
low cutting speeds. In this model, tool advancement was
achieved in displacement increments step-by-step from the
incipient tool contact with the workpiece until the formation
of steady cutting force. Under the different low cutting speed
conditions, the deformation process of the chip and the
variations of the chip ¯ow angle, cutting force and speci®c
cutting energy were ®rst explored, and the above data were
further compared with the experimental data to verify that
the proposed model is reasonable. Then, the effect of
different cutting speeds on the separation location of the chip
node and the geometrical phenomenon of the chip separation
angle along the 3D tool face, and on both the stress and tem-
perature distributions on the chip surface, were analyzed.
Finally, the relation between the cutting speeds and residual
stress distribution, temperature distribution, etc. on the
machined surface after cutting was studied and the relation
between the cutting speeds and integrity of the machined
surface was then investigated from the residual displacement
distribution on the machined surface after cutting.
2. Theoretical foundation
2.1. Constitutive equation
In this paper, based on the ®nite deformation theory [14],
it is assumed that the workpiece deformation follows the
Prandtl±Reuss ¯ow rule and the von-Mises yield criterion,
possessing isotropically strain hardening characteristics and
the stress is considered as a function of strain, strain rate and
temperature. Then, the stress±strain relationship can be
written as
fdsg ˆ ‰De Šfdee g (1)
in the elastic range, where {ds} is the stress increment, [De]
the elastic stress±strain relation matrix and {dee} the elastic
strain increment.
fdsg ˆ ‰Dep Š…fdeg fdet g†
_ de_ ‡ …@R=@T† dTg
‰De Šf@f =@sgf…@R=@ e†
‡ (2)
H 0 ‡ f@f =@sgT ‰De Šf@f =@sg
in the plastic range, where [Dep] is the elastic±plastic stress±
strain matrix, {de} the total strain increment, {det} the
thermal strain increment, f the plastic potential, R the
magnitude of the yield surface which is a function of the
equivalent plastic strain, strain rate and temperature, and H0
the strain hardening rate.
2.2. Finite element formulation
This study is primarily based on the principle of virtual
work. Given the Jaumann rate of Euler's stress as the stress
rate of the constitutive equation, an updated Lagrangian
formulation (ULF) and the characteristics of the ®nite
element method with CST element were combined [15] to
derive a governing equation of a ®nite element model for
oblique cutting.
By ignoring the body force, the equilibrium condition for
the principle of virtual work should be [14]
Z Z
T
fd_eg fs_ 1 g dv ˆ fdug_ T ff_ 0 g ds (3)
v s
where f_eg is the velocity gradient vector, fs_ 1 g the intrinsic
rate of Lagrange stress, fug _ the deformation velocity, and
ff_ 0 g the traction rate based on the current area.
 Z.-C. Lin, Y.-Y. Lin / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 115 (2001) 313±325 315

The relation between the intrinsic rate of Lagrange stress

fs_ 1 g in Eq. (3) and the Jaumann rate of Euler's stress s
~ is
sg ‡ ‰DG Šf_eg
fs_ 1 g ˆ f~ (4)
G
where [D ] is the initial stress matrix.
Eq. (4) is incorporated into Eq. (3), and Eq. (2) is
represented in rate form. At the same time, it is assumed
_
that r=r is zero in order to satisfy the material incompres-
sibility, then the ®nite element formulation can be derived as
Z
_
…‰Kep Š ‡ ‰KG Š†fdg ˆ ‰Be ŠT ‰Dep Šf_et g dv
Zv
‰Be ŠT fR_ eT _ 0g
_ g dv ‡ fF (5)
v
P R T ep Fig. 1. Illustration of the coordinate transformation at the chip±tool
where ‰Kep Š ˆ all elements v ‰Be Š ‰D ŠfBe g dv; ‰KG Š ˆ interface.
P R P R
T G _ T
all elements v ‰Be Š ‰D ŠfBe g dv; and ‰F 0 Š ˆ surface s ‰NŠ
‰ _f 0 Š ds. the physical quantities of the local and global coordinates,
Here [Kep] is the elastic±plastic stiffness matrix, [KG] the respectively, and
geometrical stiffness matrix, fdg _ the nodal velocity, fR_ _ g
eT ‰K ss Š ˆ ‰TŠT ‰Kep
ss
‡ KGss Š‰TŠ; ‰K si Š ˆ ‰TŠT ‰Kep
si
‡ KGsi Š;
the rate form of the last item in Eq. (2), fF_ 0 g the nodal force
is
rate and [N] the shape function of the CST element. ‰K is Š ˆ ‰Kep ‡ KGis Š‰TŠ; ii
‰K ii Š ˆ ‰Kep ‡ KGii Š (8)
It is assumed that both the magnitude and direction of the Here [T] is the coordinate transformation matrix. It can be
local coordinate of the chip±tool interface experience derived after two times of coordinate transformation, as
change before and after traction deformation, from which shown in the following:
a load-corrective matrix [Kc] is derived. The frictional force 2 3
at the chip±tool interface is also transformed into a friction- cos i cos b cos i sin b sin i
corrective matrix [Kf] according to Coulomb's law of fric- ‰TŠ ˆ 4 sin b cos b 0 5 (9)
tion. Thus, Eq. (5) becomes sin i cos b sin i sin b cos i
_
…‰Kep Š ‡ ‰KG Š ‡ ‰Kc Š ‰Kf Š†fdg where i is the tool inclination angle, and
Z Z p
ˆ ‰Be ŠT ‰Dep Šf_et g dv ‰Be ŠT fR_ eT _ ng
_ g dv ‡ fF (6) bˆ an ; tan an ˆ tan ar  cos i
v v
2
where fF_ n g is the normal loading rate of the contact node at Here an is the normal rake angle of the tool and ar the rake
the chip±tool interface. angle.
Eq. (6) is called a governing equation of a coupled
thermo-elastic±plastic large deformation ®nite element 2.3. Mathematical model for 3D tool face configuration
model for oblique cutting, where the values of [Kep] and and the criterion for chip node modification
[KG] are derived on the global coordinate, while those of
[Kc] and [Kf] are derived on the local coordinate. It is more During the oblique cutting process, the chip ¯ow direction
convenient to represent the chip and tool interface by a local is implied in the total displacement of the chip node derived
coordinate as shown in Fig. 1, a proper correction in the and accumulated in Eq. (7). Therefore, a mathematical model
coordinate being needed for the item ([Kep] and [KG]) in for 3D tool face con®guration that changes along with tool
Eq. (6), as shown below: advancement was established in this paper to constantly
8 s9 correct the chip node that could fall inside the tool face.
" > d_ l >
#> >
> >
si <
K ‡K
ss c Kf
ss
K si K


=
f 2.3.1. Mathematical model for 3D tool face configuration
K is K ii >
>


>
> Under the space coordinate, a plane can be expressed as
: i >
> ;
G d_ ax ‡ by ‡ cz ‡ k ˆ 0 (10)
8 9
> 0 > where a, b, and c are coefficients, and k is a constant.
>
> >
< F_ > = Z Z
The tool face is assumed to be a plane, which changes con-
n
ˆ ‡ ‰Be ŠT ‰Dep Šf_et g dv ‰Be Š fR_ eT
T
_ g dv (7) stantly along with tool displacement, as shown in Fig. 2. Let
>
>


>
> v v
: >
> ; the total tool feed be n  Dx, then Eq. (10) can be rewritten as
0
a…x n  Dx† ‡ by ‡ cz ‡ k ˆ 0 (11)
where `s' represents the node at the chip±tool interface, `i'
refers to the node inside the workpiece, `l' and `G' represent where n is the number of feed, and Dx the instant feed.
316 Z.-C. Lin, Y.-Y. Lin / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 115 (2001) 313±325

lies on the tool face. Using this way of gradual correction,

the divergence phenomenon can be avoided during the
numerical simulation.

2.4. Heat analysis

During the cutting process, heat is produced when the tool

contacts with the workpiece. After the heat accumulates to a
certain quantity, the temperature rises to cause thermal
deformation in the workpiece, which affects the process
quality, and, thus, deserves attention.
Fig. 2. Diagram of the tool face displacement.
2.4.1. Heat generation
Eq. (11) is called an equation for 3D tool face geometrical Plastic deformation and friction at the chip±tool interface
limitation. This equation is an important condition in limit- are the two major heat sources during the cutting process.
ing the ¯ow path of the chip node during the oblique cutting The temperature rise DTd, which is induced by plastic
process. deformation within time interval Dt, is given by
_
s
eDt Zt sDe Zt
2.3.2. Criterion for chip node modification DTd ˆ ˆ (13)
According to the geometry, any geometrical shape in Jcr 100 Jcr 100
a space can be expressed by a function F…x; y; z†. Let there where Zt is the percentage of work transferred into heat
be two points in a space, P1 …x1 ; y1 ; z1 † and P2 …x2 ; y2 ; z2 †, (usually 85±95), c the specific heat, and r the material
then density.
 The heat generated from friction Qf takes the form
P1 …x1 ; y1 ; z1 †  P2 …x2 ; y2 ; z2 † ˆ k (12)
 txyc u_ c Ac Dt
where k is a real number. Qf ˆ (14)
The following conditions can be obtained according to the J
attribute of k : where txyc is the frictional shear stress at the chip±tool
interface, u_ the tangential velocity component at the
1. If k > 0, then P1 and P2 are located on the same side as chip±tool interface, and Ac the frictional area at the chip±
F. tool interface.
2. If k ˆ 0, then either P1 or P2 is located on F. The friction heat source, Qf, in Eq. (14) is distributed into
3. If k < 0, then P1 and P2 are located on a different side the chip and tool in the ratio of aw/at, so that the following
from F. equations are satis®ed [16]:
Let F…x; y; z† be an equation for 3D tool face, and P1 and aw 1 at 1
P2 be the neighboring chip nodes. As shown in Fig. 3, if the DTfw ˆ Qf ; DTft ˆ Qf
aw ‡ at cw rw Vaw aw ‡ at ct rt Vat
condition 2 or 3 appears, it signi®es the possibility that chip
node P2 has been inserted into the tool face, which does not (15)
conform with the physical signi®cance. Therefore, it should where Vaw and Vat are the volumes of the elements at the
be corrected to bring it on to the tool face. Taking node P1 as interface, and aw and at can be defined as
the center and the length of P1P2 as the radius, insertion node  1=2  1=2
P2 is moved gradually with a small angle to point P02 which kw kt
aw ˆ ; at ˆ (16)
rw cw rt ct
Here kw and kt are the thermal conductivities of the chip and
tool, respectively.

2.4.2. 3D finite difference equation for heat transfer

Fig. 3. Diagram of the chip's node correction.
Elements inside the workpiece experience plastic defor-
mation and sustain force, and friction when in contact with
the tool, both of which produce heat sources. One may
assume that the heat sources occur from the very instant at
the beginning of each simulation stage, and then transfer
evenly within a certain period of time Dt. Given that Dt is
very small, the above assumption is reasonable. Thus, the
problem can be treated as a transient heat transfer problem.
 Z.-C. Lin, Y.-Y. Lin / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 115 (2001) 313±325 317

At the same time, convection and radiation into the sur- elements after heat transfer in Step 1. Thus, the initial
rounding air are also included in the heat transfer model. The temperatures of the workpiece and tool in Step 2 are formed.
partial differential equation for heat transfer using Cartesian Then the tool again advances in a displacement increment.
coordinates is given by These temperatures are incorporated in the 3D ®nite differ-
 2  ence equation for heat transfer to derive the temperature
@T @ @2 @2 distributions of the workpiece and tool after heat transfer in
ˆ at ‡ ‡ T (17)
@t @x2 @y2 @z2 Step 2.
where at is the thermal diffusivity (ˆk/rc). As the tool continues to advance in displacement incre-
Eq. (17) can be written in ®nite difference form after ments, the above process is repeated. Thus, the temperature
substituting the appropriate central differences for both the distribution results of the workpiece and tool after heat
time and space derivatives as transfer in Steps 3, 4, 5, etc. can all be obtained.

p p
p‡1 Ti;j;k =Dt at ‰…Ti‡1;j;k ‡ Tip 1;j;k †=…Dx†
2 p
‡ …Ti;j‡1;k p
‡ Ti;j 1;k †=…Dy†
2 p
‡ …Ti;j;k‡1 p
‡ Ti;j;k 2
1 †=…Dz† Š
Ti;j;k ˆ (18)
1=Dt 2at ‰1=…Dx†2 ‡ 1=…Dy† ‡ 1=…Dz†2 Š2

where Tip 1;j;k ; Ti;jp p p p p

1;k ; Ti;j;k 1 ; Ti;j;k ; Ti‡1;j;k ; Ti;j‡1;k and 3. Problem statement
p
Ti;j;k‡1 are the initial temperatures of the control volumes
…i 1; j; k†; …i; j 1; k†; …i; j; k 1†; …i; j; k†; …i‡1; j; k†; …i; j ‡ Under the three low cutting speed conditions of 137.4,
p‡1
1; k† and …i; j; k ‡ 1† at each simulation stage, and Ti;j;k is the 274.8 and 400.0 mm/s, mild steel was used as the workpiece
temperature of the control volume …i; j; k† undergoing heat material and P20 as the tool. The workpiece material
transfer during the time interval Dt, for the interior control behavior accounted for the effect of strain, strain rate and
volume of heat transfer. temperature, its ¯ow stress being expressed as [17]
If the boundary control volume of heat transfer is con-  0:0195
e_
sidered, convection and radiation into the surrounding air s ˆ A0 …T; e_ † e0:21 (19)
must be included in Eq. (18). 1000
It is worth noting that in Eq. (17), there is no heat source where s is the flow stress (MPa), T the temperature (K), e_ the
item on the right-hand side of the equation because the two strain rate (10 3±104 s 1), e the total strain (0.05±2.0 mm/
heat sources of plastic deformation and interface friction mm), and
have been processed by means of Eqs. (13) and (15) to 0:00118T 0:0000184‰T …943‡23:5 ln…_e=1000††Š2
transform into corresponding temperature. Therefore, it is A0 ˆ 1394 e ‡ 339 e
not necessary to add the heat source items into Eq. (17) once Here, the elastic modulus of mild steel was 188 GPa, Poisson's
more. The above heat analysis can be summarized into the ratio was 0.3 and the linear thermal expansion coefficient was
temperature analysis of the workpiece and tool during the 1:28  10 5 mm=…mm  C†. Furthermore, the input data per-
cutting process as follows. taining to heat transfer are listed in Table 1. The value of the
Given the assumption that the initial temperature of the convective heat transfer coefficient of surrounding air was
workpiece and tool is the room temperature, Step 1 of the taken as 17.04 W/(m2 K) and the Stefan±Boltzmann constant
cutting simulation starts with the tool cutting into the work- for radiative heat transfer as 5:669  10 8 W=…m2 K4 †.
piece and advancing in a displacement increment. At the Fig. 4 shows the initial ®nite element mesh model and
same time, the 3D ®nite difference heat transfer equation, boundary conditions. There are a total of 315 nodes and 840
i.e. Eq. (18) is incorporated to solve the temperature dis- CST elements. The workpiece length stands at 2.5 mm, the
tribution of the workpiece and tool after heat transfer in Step width of cut at 0.6 mm, and the depth of cut at 0.2025 mm.
1, and also the state of the workpiece deformation is Both the rake angle and clearance angle of tool are set at 208,
determined. If it is in the elastic range, it exists only in and the tool inclination angle at 108. The workpiece bottom
the heat source produced by friction at the chip±tool inter- sustains a ®xed support, while nodes at the bottom are
face, so that Eq. (15) can be used to transform the frictional subject to complete limitations in all x, y and z directions.
heat source into the corresponding temperature rises The left-hand side enjoys a roller support, while nodes at this
DTfw and DTft. If it is in the plastic range, the heat source side are x-direction limited but able to move freely in the y
produced by plastic deformation and interface friction can
be obtained. Eqs. (13) and (15) can be used to transform the Table 1
above two heat sources into the corresponding temperature Thermal properties of the workpiece and the tool
rises DTd, DTfw and DTft. If the above temperature rises Material c (J/kg K) r (kg/m3) K (W/m K)
are regarded as occurring from the very instant at the
Mild steel 461 7849 59.00
beginning of Step 2, they can be added to the temperature
Tool (P20) 234 12700 33.50
distribution results of the corresponding workpiece and tool
318 Z.-C. Lin, Y.-Y. Lin / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 115 (2001) 313±325
Fig. 4. The initial finite element mesh model and the boundary conditions: (a) top view; (b) 3D view.
and z directions. Further, no constraints exist on the right-
hand side, while nodes at this side are free in all directions.
4. Results and discussion
In this paper, a coupled ®nite element model of thermo-
elastic±plastic large deformation for oblique cutting was
established, in which mild steel was used as the workpiece
and P20 as the tool. Under the three cutting speed conditions
of 137.4, 274.8 and 400.0 mm/s, the chip deformation
process and the effect of different cutting speeds on the
chip ¯ow angle, cutting force and speci®c cutting energy
were ®rst explored. Then, the effect of different cutting
speeds on the separation location of the chip node and on
both the stress and temperature distributions on the chip
surface were analyzed. Finally, the effect of different cutting
speeds on residual stress, displacement and temperature
distributions on the machined surface after cutting were
investigated to understand the relation between the cutting
speeds and the integrity of the machined surface.
Fig. 5 shows the chip deformation along with tool
advancement under the condition of a cutting speed of
274.8 mm/s. D is the total displacement of the tool. The
®gures indicate that the ¯ow line formed by the displace-
ment path of the chip node does not show the phenomenon of
partial nodal insertion into the tool face during the oblique
cutting process. This proves that the equation for 3D tool
face geometrical limitation established in this paper can be
applied in correcting the chip node and renders the simula-
tion of oblique cutting more reasonable.
When the tool passes the ®rst node of the workpiece,
which is designated as twin nodes containing a chip node
and a machined surface node, the former moving upward
along the tool face. At this time, the equation for 3D tool face
geometrical limitation is used to examine and correct the
node to make it advance on the tool face.
When the tool is about to pass the second node, either the
tool geometrical limitation condition or the critical strain
energy density constant is adopted as the node separation
criterion [12]. When the tool is yet to pass this node and the
accumulated strain energy density has reached the critical
constant, this node is deemed separated into twin nodes. On
the contrary, if the tool tip is about to pass this node, but the
accumulated value has yet to reach the critical constant, then
this node is forced to separate. Similar to the ®rst node, the
chip node moves upward along the tool face as the tool
gradually advances. The node is inspected and modi®ed in
the same manner as mentioned earlier. In the previous case,
the ®rst chip node was examined based on the criterion for
chip node modi®cation, which determines the relationship
between these two nodes, and whether it is necessary to
modify the chip node position.
The above procedures are repeated as the tool continues
to advance. When the accumulated normal force of the
uppermost contact node changes from a compressive force
into a tensile force, it is considered to be a free node
separated from the tool face.
 Z.-C. Lin, Y.-Y. Lin / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 115 (2001) 313±325 319

angle, denoted by Z. The simulation results from Table 2

Fig. 5. The chip deformation under the cutting speed of 274.8 mm/s for:
(a) D ˆ 0:14851 mm; (b) D ˆ 0:64315 mm; (c) D ˆ 0:97291 mm; (d)
D ˆ 1:30267 mm.
Fig. 6 shows the notation of the cross-section at the
workpiece. Since there are ®ve nodes in the z-axis direction
in this paper, each row of to-be chip nodes along the
x-direction is considered as a ¯ow line, with a total of ®ve
¯ow lines. The angle formed by the ¯ow line on the local
coordinate (X00 Y00 Z00 ) and X00 -axis is called the chip ¯ow
indicate that the faster the cutting speed, the greater is the
displacements in the X00 and Z00 directions, which derive a
smaller chip ¯ow angle because of the slightly different
displacement in the Z00 -direction under the condition of a
small tool inclination angle. However, the differences
among these low cutting speed conditions are very limited,
and the simulated angles are very close to the tool inclination
angle, which meet the geometrical requirements speci®ed by
Stabler's criterion. The above ®ndings establish that the ¯ow
path of the chip completely satis®es the geometrical require-
ments in oblique cutting.
In this paper, based on the simulation results, the force
components in the local coordinate system (X00 Y00 Z00 ) are ®rst
derived. Then, after two times of coordinate transformation,
the force along cutting speed direction on the global coor-
dinate system is obtained and called the cutting force.
According to the orthogonal cutting model, the speci®c
cutting energy is the energy consumed per unit volume of the
material removed and it is independent of the cutting speed,
therefore it also equals the cutting force divided by the cross-
sectional area of the uncut chip [18]. Referred to the similar
de®nition in the orthogonal cutting model, the speci®c
cutting energy in this oblique cutting model is obtained.
Table 3 lists a comparison of the simulated cutting forces
and speci®c cutting energies under the different low cutting
speed conditions. The results indicate that the faster the
cutting speed, the higher is the temperature rise, which
causes the material to soften and makes the cutting easier.
As a result, the cutting force decreases and thus a decreased
speci®c cutting energy is obtained.
Fig. 7 shows the diagram of the experimental speci®c
cutting energies and simulated values under the different
low cutting speed conditions. According to the orthogonal
cutting experiment under the cutting speeds of 274.8, 416.3
and 597.0 mm/s [19], the cutting forces measured by a
dynamometer are 1475.29, 1427.66 and 1401.79 N, which
yield the speci®c cutting energies of 1561.15, 1510.75 and
1483.38 N/mm2. It is shown that the negative-slope curve

Table 2
Comparison of the simulated chip flow angles under the different low cutting speed conditions
 
DZ 00
Cutting speed (mm/s) DZ00 (mm) DX00 (mm) Simulated chip flow angle, Z tan 1
(8)
DX 00
137.4 0.03647 0.20433 10.11922
274.8 0.03688 0.22468 9.32096
400.0 0.03740 0.23095 9.19861

Table 3
Comparison of the simulated cutting forces and specific cutting energies under the different low cutting speed conditions

Cutting speed Cutting Width of Depth of Cross-section area Simulated specific

(mm/s) force (N) cut (mm) cut (mm) of uncut chip (mm2) cutting energy (N/mm2)

137.4 186.07 0.6 0.2025 0.1215 1531.44

274.8 165.25 0.6 0.2025 0.1215 1360.08
400.0 158.51 0.6 0.2025 0.1215 1304.61
320 Z.-C. Lin, Y.-Y. Lin / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 115 (2001) 313±325

Fig. 6. Notation of the cross-section at the workpiece.

that is obtained points to an inversely proportional correla-
tion between the cutting speed and speci®c cutting energy.
The trend of the speci®c cutting energy resulting from the
simulation is the same as that of the above experimental
results.
Table 4 lists a comparison of the simulated speci®c cutting
energy and experimental data under the condition of a
cutting speed of 274.8 mm/s. After comparison, the result
shows an error of 12.88%. This con®rms that the proposed
model is acceptable in terms of mechanics.
During the cutting process, the separation process and the
variations of both the stress and temperature distributions on
the chip surface are dif®cult to be measured and analyzed
using an experimental method. In this paper, whether the
chip node is separated from the tool face and the variations
of both stress and temperature distributions on the chip

Fig. 7. The experimental data and simulated values of specific cutting energy under the different cutting speed conditions.
Table 4
Comparison of the specific cutting energy under the condition of a cutting speed of 274.8 mm/s

Cutting Width of Depth of Cross-section area of Specific cutting Error Reference

force (N) cut (mm) cut (mm) uncut chip (mm2) energy (N/mm2) (%)

Experimental data 1475.29 3.5 0.2700 0.9450 1561.15 [19]

Simulated value 165.25 0.6 0.2025 0.1215 1360.08 12.88

Fig. 8. Equivalent stress distributions on the chip surface close to the tool face when steady cutting is achieved under the low cutting speed conditions of: (a)
v ˆ 274:8 mm=s; (b) v ˆ 137:4 mm=s; (c) v ˆ 400:0 mm=s.
322 Z.-C. Lin, Y.-Y. Lin / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 115 (2001) 313±325

surface can be observed from the change of chip node's stress near the tool tip is the maximum, then it decreases
normal force. gradually away from the tool tip and the uneven stress
Fig. 8 shows the equivalent stress distributions on the chip distribution appears at the location of the chip nodes sepa-
surface close to the tool face. The ®gure indicates that the rated possibly from the tool face (including nodes 27, 90,

Fig. 9. Temperature distributions on the chip surface close to the tool face when steady cutting is achieved under the low cutting speed conditions of: (a)
v ˆ 274:8 mm=s; (b) v ˆ 137:4 mm=s; (c) v ˆ 400:0 mm=s.
 Z.-C. Lin, Y.-Y. Lin / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 115 (2001) 313±325 323

Table 5 gradually left the tool face, the temperature distribution

Comparison of the separation angles under the different low cutting speed becomes asymmetrical and uneven.
conditions
 00   00  In the cutting process, the variations of residual stress,
DX a DX b displacement and temperature distributions on the machined
Cutting speed lS1 (8) lS2 (8)
DZ 00 S1 DZ 00 S2
(mm/s) workpiece surface after cutting are the most important
137.4 0.3342047 18.4799 0.2420651 13.6076 factors in the integrity of the machined surface, but it is
274.8 0.3387632 18.7145 0.2906341 16.2057 dif®cult to measure the above quantities using the experi-
400.0 0.3411428 18.8367 0.2945907 16.4145 mental method. In this paper, the cause of unevenness of the
a
DX00 or DZ00 is the coordinate difference between the point (which lies machined surface is investigated from the simulated residual
in the middle between 26 and 27) and node 153 along the X00 or Z00 stress, displacement and temperature distributions.
direction. Fig. 10 shows the residual stresses around the nodes on the
b
DX00 or DZ00 is the coordinate difference between the point (which lies machined surface along the cross-section Lxy3 . It is shown
in the middle between 279 and 280) and node 153 along the X00 or Z00
that the greater residual stresses occur around the nodes
direction.
closer to the tool tip and the lower residual stresses occur
around the nodes far away from the tool tip because the
153, 216 and 279). At the same time, it is more dif®cult to elastic stress relaxation at the former is lower than that at the
machine under the condition of a lower cutting speed as latter. Residual stresses at node 160 are found to be still
shown in Fig. 8(b), therefore, the uneven stress distribution higher in Fig. 10(b) and (c), which cause a larger convex
on the chip surface appears near the tool tip. According to
the simulation result under the condition of a cutting speed
of 274.8 mm/s in Fig. 8(a), nodes 27, 90 and 280 have been
separated along the ®rst, second and ®fth ¯ow lines and node
153 is separated along the third ¯ow line at
D ˆ 1:30267 mm. There must be a separation point lying
between node 26 still attached on the tool face and node 27.
Because there are no nodes between these two nodes for the
sake of this proposed ®nite element mesh, a proper separa-
tion point is selected. In the same manner, another separation
point lying between node 279 attached on the tool face and
node 280 is also selected. In this paper, the proper separation
point means the middle one. To connect these two points
with node 153, an approximate separation line at the chip±
tool interface can be drawn. The chip node is exactly
separated from the tool face when its location exceeds this
line as shown in Fig. 8(a). Using the numerical method of
interpolation, the locations of separation point along the
second and fourth ¯ow lines can be found. The trend of chip
node's separation process from the tool face in Fig. 8(b) and
(c) is also the same as that in Fig. 8(a). Since the left portion
of the chip surface (including nodes 27, 90 and 153) has
gradually left from the tool face whilst the right (including
nodes 216 and 279) is still attached on the tool face, the
stress at the right is greater than that at the left.
Table 5 lists a comparison of the simulated approximate
separation angles. It is found that the left separation angles
(lS1) are about two times the tool inclination angle and the
right separation angles (lS2) are smaller than the left ones.
This implies that the phenomenon of 3D chip curl occurs
during the cutting process.
Fig. 9 shows the temperature distributions on the chip
surface close to the tool face. The higher temperature occurs
at the chip±tool interface near the tool tip because this zone
is subject to both plastic deformation and friction. It also
reveals that the further away from the tool tip, the lower is Fig. 10. Residual stresses around the nodes on the machined surface along
the temperature distribution. In addition, since the left the cross-section Lxy3 under the low cutting speed conditions of: (a)
portion of the chip surface far away from the tool tip has v ˆ 137:4 mm=s; (b) v ˆ 274:8 mm=s; (c) v ˆ 400:0 mm=s.
324 Z.-C. Lin, Y.-Y. Lin / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 115 (2001) 313±325

Fig. 12. Residual displacements of the nodes on the machined surface

along the cross-sections (a) Lxy3 and (b) Lyz0 3 under the low cutting speed
conditions.

which results in a ¯atter machined surface. Thus, a better

Fig. 11. Residual stresses around the nodes on the machined surface along
the cross-section Lyz0 3 under the low cutting speed conditions of: (a)
v ˆ 137:4 mm=s; (b) v ˆ 274:8 mm=s; (c) v ˆ 400:0 mm=s.
integrity of the machined surface can be ef®ciently achieved.
Fig. 13 shows the temperature distribution on the
machined surface along the cross-section Lxy3 . It indicates
that the higher temperature occurs at the place closer to the
tool tip, and the temperature gradually decreases when the
place is gradually away from the tool tip. Further, it is found

displacement at this node because no constraints exist on the

right boundary of the workpiece, while in Fig. 10(a), this
phenomenon is not obvious. Residual stresses and displace-
ments at node 161 are lower than that at the other nodes
along this layer because it is assumed to be a separation.
Fig. 11 shows residual stresses around the nodes on the
machined surface along the cross-section Lyz0 3 . It reveals that
the faster the cutting speed, the softer is the material, which
makes the cutting easier and results in the lower and more
even residual stress distribution on the machined surface.
It is also found from Figs. 10 and 11 that since the oblique
cutting model presented in this paper is a 3D one, residual
stress in the z-direction still exists. However, its value is very
small because of a small tool inclination angle.
Fig. 12 shows residual displacements of the nodes on the
machined surface along the cross-sections Lxy3 and Lyz0 3 . It Fig. 13. Temperature distributions on the machined surface along the
reveals that the faster the cutting speed, the more even is the cross-section Lxy3 after cutting under the different low cutting speed
residual displacement distribution on the machined surface, conditions.
 Z.-C. Lin, Y.-Y. Lin / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 115 (2001) 313±325
from the ®gure that the faster the cutting speed, the higher is
the temperature distribution.
5. Conclusions
From the above ®ndings, the following conclusions can be
drawn.
1. An equation for 3D tool face geometrical limitation was
established to make the chip displacement path follow a
certain flow line, and a 3D finite difference equation for
heat transfer was derived. Under the different low
cutting speed conditions, the faster the cutting speed, the
smaller is the chip flow angle. However, the differences
are very limited, and they roughly match the tool
inclination angle, which meet the geometrical require-
ments specified by Stabler's criterion.
2. The faster the cutting speed, the higher is the
temperature, which causes the material to soften and
makes the cutting easier. As a result, the cutting force
decreases and thus a decreased specific cutting energy is
obtained. The simulated specific cutting energy yields
an acceptable error with the experimental one.
3. A large equivalent stress distribution on the chip surface
is found to concentrate at the chip near the tool tip, then
the further away from the tool tip, the lower is the stress
distribution. At the same time, an uneven stress
distribution on the chip surface appears near the tool
tip under the condition of a lower cutting speed. In
addition, since the left portion of the chip surface far
away from the tool tip has gradually left the tool face
whilst the right is still attached to the tool face, the stress
at the right is greater than that at the left. It is also found
that the left separation angles are about two times the
tool inclination angle and the right separation angles are
smaller than the left ones. This implies that the
phenomenon of 3D chip curl occurs during the cutting
process.
4. The higher temperature occurs at the chip±tool interface
near the tool tip because this zone is subject to both
plastic deformation and friction. It also reveals that the
further away from the tool tip, the lower is the
temperature distribution. In addition, since the left
portion of the chip surface far away from the tool tip
has gradually left the tool face, the temperature
distribution becomes asymmetrical and uneven.
5. Greater residual stresses and higher temperature occur at
the nodes closer to the tool tip on the machined surface,
and lower residual stresses and temperature occur at the
nodes far away from the tool tip along the longitudinal
cross-section. In addition, the faster the cutting speed,
the lower are the residual stresses and temperature, and
the more even are the residual displacements. The faster
the cutting speed, the lower and more even are the
325
residual stresses at the nodes on the machined surface
along the transverse cross-section. Since the oblique
cutting model is a 3D one, residual stress in the z-
direction still exists. However, its value is very small
because of a small tool inclination angle.
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