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Abstract
In this paper, the ®nite deformation theory and an updated Lagrangian formulation (ULF) were used to describe the oblique cutting
process. Either the tool geometrical location condition or the strain energy density constant was combined with the twin node processing
method to be adopted as the chip separation criterion. An equation for 3D tool face geometrical limitation was established to inspect and
correct the relation between the chip node and tool face. In addition, a 3D ®nite difference equation for heat transfer was derived. Based on
this approach, a coupled thermo-elastic±plastic large deformation ®nite element model for oblique cutting was established, for which mild
steel was used as the workpiece material and P20 as the tool.
Under the different cutting speed conditions, the chip deformation process and the effect of different cutting speeds on the chip ¯ow
angle, cutting force and speci®c cutting energy were ®rst explored. Then, the effect of different cutting speeds on the separation location of
the chip node and the geometrical phenomenon at the instant of chip separation from the tool face, and on both stress and temperature
distributions on the chip surface, were analyzed. Finally, the effect of different cutting speeds on the residual stress, displacement and
temperature distributions on the machined surface after cutting were investigated to understand the relation between the cutting speeds and
the integrity of the machined surface.
During the chip deformation process, the simulated chip ¯ow angles under the different low cutting speed conditions approximately
matched with the designated tool inclination angle, which complied with the geometrical requirements of Stabler's criterion. Further, the
simulated speci®c cutting energy under a given low cutting speed condition was compared with the experimental data, the result of which
was within an acceptable range, and the trend of speci®c cutting energies under the different low cutting speed conditions were the same as
the experimental trends. It is obvious from the above ®ndings that the model presented in this paper is consistent with the geometrical and
mechanics requirements, which veri®es that the proposed model is acceptable. # 2001 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.
Keywords: Cutting speeds; Oblique cutting; Finite element; Finite difference; 3D Tool face equation
1. Introduction et al. [3] developed the rigid±plastic ®nite element model for
orthogonal cutting. Strenkowski et al. [4±6] used the equiva-
Metal cutting is a well-known and complex manufactur- lent plastic strain as the basis of chip separation to analyze
ing process. An understanding of the material removal the changes in temperature, stress and strain of the work-
process, and the changes of such physical quantities as piece, chip and tool under an adiabatic chip±tool interface
cutting force, stress, temperature and residual stress of the condition. It was found that the separation criterion changed
workpiece, helps to control the quality of the cutting process along with the change in depth of cut. Hashemi et al. [7] used
and improve the product quality. Lajczok [1] presented a the elastic±plastic ®nite element method and an ultimate
simpli®ed orthogonal cutting model in which the chip was plastic strain chip separation criterion to simulate the for-
ignored. The cutting force and thrust force were measured mation of both continuous and discontinuous chips. Liu and
through experiments to serve as the input conditions of Barash [8] measured the residual stress on the workpiece
simulation. Usui and Shirakashi [2] designated the values subsurface in consideration of tool ¯ank wear. Their ®ndings
of shear angle, chip geometrical con®guration and material indicated that under the condition of a lower cutting speed,
¯ow line to simulate steady-state orthogonal cutting. Iwata the mechanical load had a greater impact on residual stress,
while the thermal effect became the major factor affecting
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: 886-2-2737-6455;
residual stress under a higher cutting speed.
fax: 886-2-2737-6460. The above studies are limited to discussions of the 2D
E-mail address: zclin@mail.ntust.edu.tw (Z.-C. Lin). orthogonal cutting, and fail to provide a comprehensive
understanding of the entire machining process. Since 1993, different cutting speeds on the separation location of the chip
therefore, there have been more in-depth studies on the 3D node and the geometrical phenomenon of the chip separation
cutting because of suf®cient computer memory capacity and angle along the 3D tool face, and on both the stress and tem-
rapid computer execution speed. perature distributions on the chip surface, were analyzed.
Maekawa and Maeda [9] took account of elasticity, Finally, the relation between the cutting speeds and residual
plasticity, temperature, strain rate, friction and tool ¯ank stress distribution, temperature distribution, etc. on the
wear to predict the effect of tool front edge and side edge on machined surface after cutting was studied and the relation
the workpiece during the 3D cutting process. Sasahara et al. between the cutting speeds and integrity of the machined
[10] considered the material's geometrical nonlinearity in surface was then investigated from the residual displacement
the 3D ®nite element model for cutting to investigate the distribution on the machined surface after cutting.
changes of stress and strain inside the chip and workpiece
and predict the chip ¯ow direction. Ueda and Manabe [11]
also developed a 3D rigid±plastic ®nite element model for 2. Theoretical foundation
cutting to explore the chip formation process of a mild steel
workpiece under an extremely low cutting speed and dif- 2.1. Constitutive equation
ferent tool inclination angle conditions, while ignoring the
effects of temperature and strain rate on the ¯ow stress. Lin In this paper, based on the ®nite deformation theory [14],
and Yarng [12] developed a 3D elastic±plastic ®nite element it is assumed that the workpiece deformation follows the
model for orthogonal cutting in which either the tool geo- Prandtl±Reuss ¯ow rule and the von-Mises yield criterion,
metrical location condition or the strain energy density possessing isotropically strain hardening characteristics and
constant was combined with the twin node processing the stress is considered as a function of strain, strain rate and
method to act as the chip separation criterion. Lin and temperature. Then, the stress±strain relationship can be
Lin [13] established a thermo-elastic±plastic ®nite element written as
model for oblique cutting under a constant low cutting speed fdsg De fdee g (1)
condition, in which they investigated the temperature effect
on such physical properties as cutting force, speci®c cutting in the elastic range, where {ds} is the stress increment, [De]
energy and stress distribution on the chip surface during the the elastic stress±strain relation matrix and {dee} the elastic
oblique cutting process. The ®rst two studies described in strain increment.
this section both assumed the condition of chip already being fdsg Dep
fdeg fdet g
attached on the tool face, which prevented the simulation of
_ de_
@R=@T dTg
De f@f =@sgf
@R=@ e
tool's initial cutting into the workpiece. The third study (2)
described above did not discuss the effects of strain rate and H 0 f@f =@sgT De f@f =@sg
temperature, and the residual stress was unknown after in the plastic range, where [Dep] is the elastic±plastic stress±
cutting. The last paper focused on a constant low cutting strain matrix, {de} the total strain increment, {det} the
speed and established a fundamental model of thermo- thermal strain increment, f the plastic potential, R the
elastic±plastic ®nite element simulation for the purpose of magnitude of the yield surface which is a function of the
oblique cutting analysis. However, the paper did not further equivalent plastic strain, strain rate and temperature, and H0
explore the geometrical phenomenon of the chip separation the strain hardening rate.
angle along the 3D tool face and changes in the machined
surface displacement on surface integrity, nor did the study 2.2. Finite element formulation
investigate the effect of different low cutting speeds on the
foregoing phenomena, and on such physical properties as This study is primarily based on the principle of virtual
chip deformation, chip ¯ow angle, cutting force, speci®c work. Given the Jaumann rate of Euler's stress as the stress
cutting energy, etc. rate of the constitutive equation, an updated Lagrangian
The objective of this paper was to develop a coupled formulation (ULF) and the characteristics of the ®nite
thermo-elastic±plastic large deformation ®nite element element method with CST element were combined [15] to
model for oblique cutting under the condition of different derive a governing equation of a ®nite element model for
low cutting speeds. In this model, tool advancement was oblique cutting.
achieved in displacement increments step-by-step from the By ignoring the body force, the equilibrium condition for
incipient tool contact with the workpiece until the formation the principle of virtual work should be [14]
of steady cutting force. Under the different low cutting speed Z Z
conditions, the deformation process of the chip and the T
fd_eg fs_ 1 g dv fdug_ T ff_ 0 g ds (3)
variations of the chip ¯ow angle, cutting force and speci®c v s
cutting energy were ®rst explored, and the above data were where f_eg is the velocity gradient vector, fs_ 1 g the intrinsic
further compared with the experimental data to verify that rate of Lagrange stress, fug _ the deformation velocity, and
the proposed model is reasonable. Then, the effect of ff_ 0 g the traction rate based on the current area.
Z.-C. Lin, Y.-Y. Lin / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 115 (2001) 313±325 315
At the same time, convection and radiation into the sur- elements after heat transfer in Step 1. Thus, the initial
rounding air are also included in the heat transfer model. The temperatures of the workpiece and tool in Step 2 are formed.
partial differential equation for heat transfer using Cartesian Then the tool again advances in a displacement increment.
coordinates is given by These temperatures are incorporated in the 3D ®nite differ-
2 ence equation for heat transfer to derive the temperature
@T @ @2 @2 distributions of the workpiece and tool after heat transfer in
at T (17)
@t @x2 @y2 @z2 Step 2.
where at is the thermal diffusivity (k/rc). As the tool continues to advance in displacement incre-
Eq. (17) can be written in ®nite difference form after ments, the above process is repeated. Thus, the temperature
substituting the appropriate central differences for both the distribution results of the workpiece and tool after heat
time and space derivatives as transfer in Steps 3, 4, 5, etc. can all be obtained.
p p
p1 Ti;j;k =Dt at
Ti1;j;k Tip 1;j;k =
Dx
2 p
Ti;j1;k p
Ti;j 1;k =
Dy
2 p
Ti;j;k1 p
Ti;j;k 2
1 =
Dz
Ti;j;k (18)
1=Dt 2at 1=
Dx2 1=
Dy 1=
Dz2 2
Fig. 4. The initial finite element mesh model and the boundary conditions: (a) top view; (b) 3D view.
and z directions. Further, no constraints exist on the right- applied in correcting the chip node and renders the simula-
hand side, while nodes at this side are free in all directions. tion of oblique cutting more reasonable.
When the tool passes the ®rst node of the workpiece,
which is designated as twin nodes containing a chip node
4. Results and discussion and a machined surface node, the former moving upward
along the tool face. At this time, the equation for 3D tool face
In this paper, a coupled ®nite element model of thermo- geometrical limitation is used to examine and correct the
elastic±plastic large deformation for oblique cutting was node to make it advance on the tool face.
established, in which mild steel was used as the workpiece When the tool is about to pass the second node, either the
and P20 as the tool. Under the three cutting speed conditions tool geometrical limitation condition or the critical strain
of 137.4, 274.8 and 400.0 mm/s, the chip deformation energy density constant is adopted as the node separation
process and the effect of different cutting speeds on the criterion [12]. When the tool is yet to pass this node and the
chip ¯ow angle, cutting force and speci®c cutting energy accumulated strain energy density has reached the critical
were ®rst explored. Then, the effect of different cutting constant, this node is deemed separated into twin nodes. On
speeds on the separation location of the chip node and on the contrary, if the tool tip is about to pass this node, but the
both the stress and temperature distributions on the chip accumulated value has yet to reach the critical constant, then
surface were analyzed. Finally, the effect of different cutting this node is forced to separate. Similar to the ®rst node, the
speeds on residual stress, displacement and temperature chip node moves upward along the tool face as the tool
distributions on the machined surface after cutting were gradually advances. The node is inspected and modi®ed in
investigated to understand the relation between the cutting the same manner as mentioned earlier. In the previous case,
speeds and the integrity of the machined surface. the ®rst chip node was examined based on the criterion for
Fig. 5 shows the chip deformation along with tool chip node modi®cation, which determines the relationship
advancement under the condition of a cutting speed of between these two nodes, and whether it is necessary to
274.8 mm/s. D is the total displacement of the tool. The modify the chip node position.
®gures indicate that the ¯ow line formed by the displace- The above procedures are repeated as the tool continues
ment path of the chip node does not show the phenomenon of to advance. When the accumulated normal force of the
partial nodal insertion into the tool face during the oblique uppermost contact node changes from a compressive force
cutting process. This proves that the equation for 3D tool into a tensile force, it is considered to be a free node
face geometrical limitation established in this paper can be separated from the tool face.
Z.-C. Lin, Y.-Y. Lin / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 115 (2001) 313±325 319
Table 2
Comparison of the simulated chip flow angles under the different low cutting speed conditions
DZ 00
Cutting speed (mm/s) DZ00 (mm) DX00 (mm) Simulated chip flow angle, Z tan 1
(8)
DX 00
137.4 0.03647 0.20433 10.11922
274.8 0.03688 0.22468 9.32096
400.0 0.03740 0.23095 9.19861
Table 3
Comparison of the simulated cutting forces and specific cutting energies under the different low cutting speed conditions
that is obtained points to an inversely proportional correla- shows an error of 12.88%. This con®rms that the proposed
tion between the cutting speed and speci®c cutting energy. model is acceptable in terms of mechanics.
The trend of the speci®c cutting energy resulting from the During the cutting process, the separation process and the
simulation is the same as that of the above experimental variations of both the stress and temperature distributions on
results. the chip surface are dif®cult to be measured and analyzed
Table 4 lists a comparison of the simulated speci®c cutting using an experimental method. In this paper, whether the
energy and experimental data under the condition of a chip node is separated from the tool face and the variations
cutting speed of 274.8 mm/s. After comparison, the result of both stress and temperature distributions on the chip
Fig. 7. The experimental data and simulated values of specific cutting energy under the different cutting speed conditions.
Table 4
Comparison of the specific cutting energy under the condition of a cutting speed of 274.8 mm/s
Fig. 8. Equivalent stress distributions on the chip surface close to the tool face when steady cutting is achieved under the low cutting speed conditions of: (a)
v 274:8 mm=s; (b) v 137:4 mm=s; (c) v 400:0 mm=s.
322 Z.-C. Lin, Y.-Y. Lin / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 115 (2001) 313±325
surface can be observed from the change of chip node's stress near the tool tip is the maximum, then it decreases
normal force. gradually away from the tool tip and the uneven stress
Fig. 8 shows the equivalent stress distributions on the chip distribution appears at the location of the chip nodes sepa-
surface close to the tool face. The ®gure indicates that the rated possibly from the tool face (including nodes 27, 90,
Fig. 9. Temperature distributions on the chip surface close to the tool face when steady cutting is achieved under the low cutting speed conditions of: (a)
v 274:8 mm=s; (b) v 137:4 mm=s; (c) v 400:0 mm=s.
Z.-C. Lin, Y.-Y. Lin / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 115 (2001) 313±325 323
from the ®gure that the faster the cutting speed, the higher is residual stresses at the nodes on the machined surface
the temperature distribution. along the transverse cross-section. Since the oblique
cutting model is a 3D one, residual stress in the z-
direction still exists. However, its value is very small
5. Conclusions because of a small tool inclination angle.