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Applications of Non-Destructive Testing in Rail Tracks

Research · October 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.2943.5608

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Guan Bin Lee

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 NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND AEROSPACE ENGINEERING

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
MP4A06

CONTINUAL ASSESSMENT PROJECT

-APPLICATIONS OF NDT IN RAIL TRACKS-

LEE GUAN BIN (U1121920K)

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Contents
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1. Specimen 1 .............................................................................................................................. 3
1.2. Specimen 2 .............................................................................................................................. 3
2. Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LP) ..................................................................................................... 4
2.1. Procedure ................................................................................................................................ 4
2.2. Specimen 1 .............................................................................................................................. 4
2.3. Specimen 2 .............................................................................................................................. 4
3. Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)................................................................................................. 5
3.1. Procedure ................................................................................................................................ 5
3.2. Specimen 1 .............................................................................................................................. 5
3.3. Specimen 2 .............................................................................................................................. 5
4. Eddy Current Inspection ................................................................................................................. 6
4.1. Procedure ................................................................................................................................ 6
4.2. Specimen 1 .............................................................................................................................. 6
4.3. Specimen 2 .............................................................................................................................. 6
5. Radiography Inspection .................................................................................................................. 7
5.1. Procedure ................................................................................................................................ 7
5.2. Specimen 1 .............................................................................................................................. 7
5.3. Specimen 2 .............................................................................................................................. 7
6. Ultrasonic Inspection ...................................................................................................................... 8
6.1. Procedure ................................................................................................................................ 8
6.2. Specimen 1 .............................................................................................................................. 8
6.3. Specimen 2 .............................................................................................................................. 8
7. Comparison ..................................................................................................................................... 9
7.1. Liquid Penetrant...................................................................................................................... 9
7.2. Magnetic Particle Inspection .................................................................................................. 9
7.3. Eddy Current ........................................................................................................................... 9
7.4. Radiography ............................................................................................................................ 9
7.5. Ultrasonic ................................................................................................................................ 9
8. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 10

Table 1: Comparison chart on ability of detection ................................................................................. 9

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1. Introduction
Non-destructive testing or NDT is the use of non-invasive techniques to determine the
integrity of a material, component or structure. These techniques allow for inspection
without interfering with the specimen’s final use.

With the recent spike in train disruptions occurring in Singapore’s rail network, it is
important to look into the network’s rail maintenance. The focus will be on track inspection
and maintenance in this paper and will look into 5 NDT techniques and its applications. The
advantages and disadvantages of each method will also be described and compared.

1.1.Specimen 1
Surface Defect Defect Data:
Material: Steel Height: 5mm
Depth: 0mm
Distance from Middle Length: 50mm
X: 20mm Width: 2mm
Y: 0mm
T: 70mm

Figure 1: Specimen 1

1.2.Specimen 2
Sub-surface Defect Defect Data:
Material: Steel Height: 5mm
Depth: 3mm
Distance from Middle Length: 20mm
X: 20mm Width: 3mm
Y: 0mm
T: 70mm

Figure 2: Specimen 2

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2. Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LP)
Liquid penetrant inspection is a method that is used to reveal surface defects by bleed-out
of a coloured or fluorescent dye from the defect. The technique is based on the ability of a
liquid to be drawn into a "clean" surface breaking flaw by capillary action. After a period of
time called the "dwell," excess surface penetrant is removed and a developer applied. This
acts as a blotter. It draws the penetrant from the flaw to reveal its presence.

2.1.Procedure
1) Surface Preparation: One of the most critical steps is the surface preparation. The
surface must be free of contaminants.
2) Penetrant Application: Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and dried, the
penetrant material is applied by spraying or brushing. Allow for dwell time.
3) Excess Penetrant Removal: Wipe away the excess penetrant from the surface of the
sample while removing as little penetrant as possible from defects.
4) Developer Application: A thin layer of developer is then applied to the sample to
draw penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface where it will be visible.
5) Inspection: Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to detect
indications from any flaws which may be present.
6) Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the part surface to
remove the developer from the parts that were found to be acceptable.

2.2. Specimen 1
Liquid penetrant is suitable for the detection of this surface defect. It also allows for a
rough gauge on the length and depth of the defect. When excess penetrant is removed
and a developer is applied, the surface rack would be visible by the presence of the
penetrant dye.

2.3. Specimen 2
Liquid penetrant is not suitable for the detection of this sub-surface defect. After wiping
away the excess penetrant, it would only reveal the raw surface of the rail.

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3. Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)
MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic iron filings to detect defects in components.
The only requirement is that the component being inspected must be made of a
ferromagnetic material such as iron, nickel, or some of their alloys. Ferromagnetic materials
are those that can be magnetized to a level that will allow the inspection to be effective.

3.1. Procedure
1) Prepare the part surface: The surface should be relatively clean but this is not as
critical as compared to LP. A thin layer of paint, rust or scale will reduce test
sensitivity but can sometimes be left in place with adequate results.
2) Apply the magnetizing force: Use an electromagnetic yoke to establish the
necessary magnetic flux.
3) Dust on the dry magnetic particles: Dust on a light layer of magnetic particles.
4) Gently blow off the excess powder: With the magnetizing force still applied, remove
the excess powder from the surface with a few gentle puffs of dry air.
5) Terminate the magnetizing force: If the magnetic flux is being generated with an
electromagnet or an electromagnetic field, the magnetizing force should be
terminated. If permanent magnets are being used, they can be left in place.
6) Inspect for indications: Look for areas where the magnetic particles are clustered.
7) Resetting the magnetisation: Demagnetise the part once the inspection is complete.

3.2. Specimen 1
MPI can detect this surface defect. Its dimensions are more accurate as MPI is more
sensitive as compared to LPI. However, only the length can be measured and depth and
height cannot be measured. Similar to LPI, the character of the crack can be seen easily
as well.

3.3. Specimen 2
Although MPI can detect some near-surface defects (1-2 mm), this sub-surface defect is
3mm deep. Therefore, it cannot be detected accurately, if not, not at all.

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4. Eddy Current Inspection
Eddy current inspection uses the principal of “electromagnetism” as the basis for conducting
examinations. Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagnetic induction.
When alternating current is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a magnetic field
develops in and around the conductor. This magnetic field expands as the alternating
current rises to maximum and collapses as the current is reduced to zero. If another
electrical conductor is brought into the close proximity to this changing magnetic field,
current will be induced in this second conductor.

4.1. Procedure
1) Setup equipment: Select and setup the instrument and probe, select a frequency to
produce the desired depth of penetration.
2) Calibrate instrument: Adjust the instrument to obtain an easily recognizable defect
response using a calibration standard or setup specimen.
3) Calibrate probe: Place the inspection probe on the component surface and null the
instrument.
4) Inspect for indications: Scan the probe over the surface in a pattern that will provide
complete coverage of the area being inspected. Care must be taken to maintain the
same probe-to-surface orientation; a shift can affect the interpretation of the signal.
5) Monitor the readings: Look out for a local change in impedance that will occur as the
probe moves over a discontinuity.

4.2. Specimen 1
Eddy Current Inspection can easily detect this defect as it is within range of the inverted
cone of induction. The length and depth of the crack can also be located. However, the
character of the crack cannot be determined.

4.3. Specimen 2
Eddy Current Inspection can also easily detect this defect as it is within range of the
inverted cone of induction. The length and depth of the crack can also be located.
However, the character of the crack cannot be determined.

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5. Radiography Inspection
Radiography inspection is a method of inspecting materials for hidden flaws by using the
ability of short wavelength electromagnetic radiation to penetrate various materials. Either
an X-ray machine or a radioactive source can be used as a source of photons. Since the
amount of radiation emerging from the opposite side of the material can be detected and
measured, the intensity of radiation is used to determine thickness or composition of
material.

5.1. Procedure
1) Setup: Preparation of specimen and equipment layout. The specimen is to be placed
between the radiation source and the capture film, followed by a lead screen.
2) Exposure: Expose the specimen to the radiation source for a period of time,
depending on the intensity of the x-ray, thickness of the specimen and type of film.
3) Post Processing: Develop the film, enhance the image, wash and dry off.
4) Inspection: View the film with the aid of suitable lighting.

5.2. Specimen 1
Procedure is the key element in the ability to detect defects. The x-ray beam is required
to be parallel to the crack direction for it to be detected. From the film, the length and
character of the crack can be determined. However, the height and depth of the crack
cannot be determined.

5.3. Specimen 2
Radiographic Inspection can also detect the sub-surface crack as the x-rays can penetrate
the material. Similar to the surface crack in specimen 1, the length and character of the
crack can be obtained but not the height and depth.

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6. Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic inspection uses high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations and make
measurements. A typical UT inspection system consists of several functional units, such as
the probe, transducer, and display devices. A probe is an electronic device that can produce
high voltage electrical pulses and receives the feedback. Driven by the pulser, the
transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic energy. The sound energy is introduced and
propagates through the materials in the form of waves. When there is a discontinuity in the
wave path, part of the energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected
wave signal is transformed into an electrical signal by the transducer and is displayed on a
screen. The signal travel time can be directly related to the distance that the signal travelled.

6.1. Procedure
1) Surface Preparation: Ensure surface is cleaned and free of surface irregularities.
2) Calibration: Using calibration blocks, calibrate the equipment and obtain DAC curves.
3) Conduct Examination: Ensure enough couplant is used otherwise reading will be
inaccurate. Select a suitable frequency for the probe so that the defect can be
detected. Place probe on specimen surface and move it over the entire surface.
4) Interpretation of Results: Compare reading with calibrated DAC curve and look for
irregularities in the signal which would indicate the presence of a defect.

6.2. Specimen 1
Ultrasonic Inspection may detect the defect, however will produce very poor results. This
is due to the near field effect, where signals are initially unstable at the surface, then
slowly stabilize as the waves penetrate deeper into the specimen.

6.3. Specimen 2
Ultrasonic Inspection can detect the defect, also, its length and depth can be measured.
Length is measured from the distance between the signals in the DAC curve, the depth is
measured from the difference between the time taken for the pulse to reach the crack
and the time taken for the pulse to reach the bottom of the specimen. By placing another
probe on the opposite side to receive the diffracted signals from the defect, its location
and height can be determined.

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7. Comparison
Magnetic
Ability to Liquid Eddy
Particle Radiography Ultrasonic
detect Penetrant Current
Inspection
Specimen 1 √ √ √√ √ √
Specimen 2 √ √√ √√
Table 1: Comparison chart on ability of detection

7.1. Liquid Penetrant

Although LP is able to detect the defect in specimen 1; it is not a suitable procedure as it
comes with multiple drawbacks. The surface of the rail is susceptible to rust and must
first be cleaned, also, to achieve a sensitive reading; the environmental conditions in
the open will hinder the ability to view the defects. This process is impractical, overall
time consuming and inefficient.

7.2. Magnetic Particle Inspection

Similar to LP, MPI is able to detect the defect in specimen 1; it is not a suitable
procedure as it comes with multiple drawbacks. The surface of the rail is susceptible to
rust and must first be cleaned, also, to achieve a sensitive reading; a layer of contrast
paint must first be applied to the rail. This process is overall time consuming and
inefficient.

7.3. Eddy Current

This technique is good for detecting surface and reasonable for detecting near sub-
surface defects, however not for deep sub-surface defects. The probe used can also be
customised to fit the profile of the rail track and enhance its accuracy and sensitivity.

7.4. Radiography
Although radiography is able to detect both defects in both specimens, it is not an
appropriate procedure for the inspection of rails while they are still being used in
service. It is impractical to remove a rail section to place a film underneath it. It would
otherwise take up too much resource for just 1 section of rail to be inspected.

7.5. Ultrasonic
This technique is good for detecting sub-surface defects but poor in surface and near
sub-surface defects. The probe used can be oriented to the optimal angle for detection
inspection, thus improving its accuracy. However, this method is more time consuming.

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 8. Conclusion
Eddy current inspections form a vital part of checking rails for the cracks and faults that can
lead to serious accidents. Ultrasonic inspections alone do not cover all areas the rail as the
technique cannot ‘see’ surface and near-surface defects. As many of the cracks appearing in
rails are fatigue induced and thus surface-breaking, it is important to employ eddy current
inspection methods in order to detect them. A combination of eddy current and ultrasonic
inspections would prove most accurate and efficient in the detection of defects in a rail
while the rail network is undergoing maintenance services.

However, in cases whereby investigation for fault finding in a rail track where the entire
section of rail is under scrutiny, all the above discussed techniques can be utilised for
detection of discontinuities in the comfort of an enclosed area, for example a clean room
laboratory. All techniques can also be utilised for the investigation of rail failure, during
investigation of post-accidents. This would be similar to air crash investigations.

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