Facts at your Fingertips

Measurement guide for replacement seals

Steam Tracer Lines and Traps
Positive Displacement Pumps
Low-Pressure Measurement for Control Valves
Creating Installed Gain Graphs for Control Valves
Aboveground and underground storage tanks
Chemical Resistance of Thermoplastics
Heat Transfer: System Design II
Adsorption
Flowmeter Selection
Specialty Metals
Choosing a Control System
Energy Efficiency in Steam Systems
Membrane Configurations
Pipe Sizing
Column Internals
Fluid Flow
Alternative Fuels
Heat Transfer
Crystallization
Valves
Vacuum Processing
Humidity Control
Acid Handling
Tower Packing
Membranes
Pressure Relief
Centrifuging
Sealing Systems
Pump Selection and Specification
Pristine Processing
Heat Transfer
Materials of Construction
Fuel Selection
Solvent Selection
Controlling Crystal Growth
Hazardous Area Classification
Reaction Engineering
Rathinasankar@gmail.com
 Measurement guide
for replacement
Department Editor: Scott Jenkins seals

M
echanical seals play a pivotal role in the chemical Radial space available Shaft Tap depth
process industries (CPI). As the sealing interface around shaft center line or stud
Bolt/stud to top of length
between rotating process equipment and the Bearing bearing
circle
materials contained inside, these devices prevent diameter Sleeve length
product leakage and fugitive emissions, while per- from mounting
mitting process machines, pumps and compressors surface
to operate at ever-increasing pressures, vacuums,
temperatures and speeds. Even the most basic Shaft/sleeve dia.
Recess
mechanical seal is a complex assembly. diameter Shaft length Vessel
Correct measurement of the machinery for (if any) from mounting I.D.
replacement seals can be an underappreciated Bearing surface
aspect of maintenance planning. shelf
to shaft Distance to Recess
The following steps outline basic procedures and Bolt/stud bearing from
Bearing center depth
considerations involved in measuring machinery for pattern height line
mounting surface (if any)
replacement seals.

MEASURING FOR SHAFT SEAL REPLACEMENT

Step 1. Shaft diameter MBC MBC
Measure the shaft diameter (ø) where the replacement seal will
be installed. It’s important to actually take a measurement of
the shaft and sleeve, rather than relying on dimensions from the
machinery’s blueprints.
Z
The shaft diameter can vary slightly at different points along
its length, so take the measurement where the seal will be
Z
positioned. This may mean removing the existing seal, or at least
sliding it out of the way.
The shaft may be worn or fretted, so obtain an average
measurement of the shaft. This can be accomplished by taking X
X
several measurements with a micrometer or caliper, then averag- MBC = X / cos 30 deg
MBC = X
ing them. An alternate way to get an average measurement of Verify MBC = Ø + 2(Z ) Verify MBC = Ø + 2(Z)
the shaft is to use a diameter-reading tape measure. These are
precision tapes with a vernier scale, which allows you to mea-
MBC
sure shaft diameters to within 0.001 in. MBC
After taking the most precise measurement possible of the Z3 Z2
shaft and the sleeve, if any, it may be useful to take a photo-
graph of the shaft if it is fretted or worn. Your seal supplier can
be a resource for more information. Y X

Step 2. Radial clearance Z

Using a rule or tape measure, measure the radial clearance around Z4 Z1
the shaft and identify the nearest radial obstruction. If more than
one obstruction exists, measure and mark all on a sketch.
X
Step 3. Axial clearance
MBC = √X 2 + Y 2 MBC = 2(X)
Measure the axial clearance to the first obstruction. This is usu- Verify MBC: if Z 1 = Z 2 = Z 3 = Z 4 Verify MBC = Ø + 2(Z )
ally the distance from the seal mounting point to the bearing or then MBC = Ø + 2(Z)
drive assembly. There may, however, be other closer obstruc-
tions, such as shaft couplings. A sketch can be helpful in com- MBC
municating your needs.
Step 5. Mounting surface
Step 4. Seal mounting Check the surface on which the seal
Determine how the existing seal is mounted. For example, are will be mounted. Is it flat or perpendic-
X
there bolts or studs fastening it in place? If so, how many are ular to the shaft? Use a straightedge
there, what size are they, and how are they distributed around and a machinist’s square to verify this
the diameter of the shaft? information, which will be important
Start by measuring the distance between the centers of each when mounting a new seal. Z
pair of adjacent bolts (X). Take this measurement for every pair Note that some equipment has a
of bolts — bolt spacings may not be equal around the circle. machined recess around the shaft
See the accompanying illustrations for how to convert com- cutout, where a boss on the seal is ⎛ ⎛
MBC = 2(X ) ⎜ sin 67.5 deg ⎜
mon bolt patterns to a mounting bolt circle (MBC). You can intended to fit for centering purposes. ⎝ sin 45 deg ⎝
check your work by measuring from the shaft outer diameter to If there is such a recess, measure Verify MBC = Ø + 2(Z )
each bolt center. Twice this distance, plus the shaft diameter, both the diameter and the depth.
should also equal the MBC dimension. Careful attention is
important here because the shaft may not be centered exactly ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
within the bolt circle.
If studs are used for fastening, determine their lengths. Measure Material for this month’s Facts at Your Fingertips was provided by Woodex Bear-
lengths and provide details of thread length, as well as whether or ing Co. (Georgetown, Maine; www.mecoseal.com) general manager Starkey
not the studs are welded onto or threaded into the machine. Steuernagle, and seal designer Matt King.
 Steam Tracer
Lines and Traps
Department Editor: Scott Jenkins

S
Temperature differential
team tracer lines are designed to maintain the fluid in a
150 160 180 200 240 300 400 500 700 900 1050
primary pipe at a designated uniform temperature. In most
cases, these tracer lines are used outdoors, which makes 11 11
10 10
ambient weather conditions a critical consideration. 9 9
The primary purpose of steam traps on tracer lines is to retain 8 8
the steam until its latent heat is fully utilized, and then discharge 7 7
the condensate and non-condensable gases. As is true with any
6 6
piece of heat transfer equipment, each tracer line should have its

Btu/ft2/h/ºF temperature difference

own trap. Even though multiple tracer lines may be installed on 5 5
the same primary fluid line, unit trapping is required to prevent
4.5 4.5
short-circuiting.
In selecting and sizing steam traps, it is important to consider 4.0 4.0
their compatibility with the objectives of the system, as traps must
3.5 3.5
accomplish the following:
3.3 3.3
1. Conserve energy by operating reliably over a long time period
2. Provide abrupt periodic discharge in order to purge the 3.0 3.0
condensate and air from the line 2.8 '
2.8
3. Operate under light load conditions (
4. Resist damage from freezing if the steam is shut off 2.6
)
2.6
The cost of steam makes wasteful tracer lines an exorbitant 2.5 I 2.5
+
7 9;
overhead that no industry can afford. 2.4 ,
K H< 2.4
'& J
I
< B7
Trap selection for steam tracer lines 2.3 2.3
The condensate load to be handled on a steam tracer line can
be determined from the heat loss from the product pipe by using 2.2 2.2
this formula:
2.15 2.15
L ×U × T × E
Q=
S×H 2.10
Where:
FIGURE 2. (above) The graph
Q = Condensate load in lb/h /h depicts heat loss of an uninsulated
L = Length of product pipe pipe. The temperature differential is
between tracer line derived from the process tempera-
traps in ft ture minus ambient design (T=75˚F)

U = Heat transfer factor in

Btu/ft2/°F/h Safety factor
ΔT = Temperature differentiall in °F Use a 2:1 safety factor whether
E = One minus the efficiency cy of insulation exposure to ambient weather
(example: 75% efficientt insulation or conditions is involved or not.
1 – 0.75 = 0.25 or E = 0.25) Do not oversize steam traps or
tracer lines. Select a steam trap
S = Linear feet of pipe line per ft2 of surface
to conserve energy and to avoid
H = Latent heat of steam in Btu/lb plugging with dirt, scale and
metallic oxides.
EXAMPLE
Installation
Three tracer lines at 100 psig g steam pressure are Install distribution or supply lines
used on a 20-in.-dia., 100-ft-long
ong insulated pipe at a height above the product lines
to maintain a process temperature
ature of 190°F with requiring steam tracing. For the
an outdoor design temperature re of –10°F. Assume efficient drainage of condensate
further that the pipe insulation
n is 75% efficient. and purging of non-condensables,
What is the condensate load?? pitch tracer lines for gravity drain-
Using the formula: age and trap all low spots. This
FIGURE 1. A con- will also help avoid tracer line
100 ft × 2.44 Btu/ft 2 / o F/ h × 200 o F × 0.25 densate manifold freezing (see Figure 1).
=72 lb/h
0.191 ft lin /ft 2 × 880 Btu/lb shows multiple tracer To conserve energy, return con-
lines and steam traps densate to the boiler. Freeze-pro-
Divide by three in order to get the load per tracer line: 24 lb/h. tection drains on trap discharge
On most tracer line applications, the flow to the steam trap headers are suggested where
is surprisingly low; therefore, the smallest trap is normally freezing conditions prevail.
adequate. Based on its ability to conserve energy by operating Acknowledgements
reliably over a long period of time, handle light loads, resist Material for this month’s “Facts at Your Fingertips” column
freezing and purge the system, an inverted bucket trap is recom- was supplied by Armstrong International,
mended for tracer line service. Three Rivers, Mich.

Facts at Your Fingertips was sponsored by

 Positive
Displacement
Department Editor: Scott Jenkins Pumps

P umps are essential equipment in the chemical process industries (CPI).

Given the imperatives to reduce production costs and maximize energy
efficiency, pump selection is crucial. Knowledge of pumping basics,
along with the fluid characteristics for a particular application can help
engineers make the best choice.
PD PUMP OPERATING PRINCIPLES
t

1%
QVNQT
EJTQMBDF
UIF
TBNF
WPMVNF
PG
MJRVJE
XJUI
FBDI
SPUBUJPO
PG
UIF

shaft, so flow is proportional to pump speed
t

1%
QVNQT
BSF
TFMGQSJNJOH
t

1%QVNQ
NFDIBOJDT
SFRVJSF
DMPTFmUUJOH
JOUFSOBM
QBSUT
XJUI
TPNF
SVOOJOH

While the majority of pumps in use in CPI plants are kinetic energy pumps clearance
(the largest category being centrifugal pumps), positive displacement (PD) t

1%
QVNQT
SFRVJSF
B
QSFTTVSFSFMJFG
NFDIBOJTN
FJUIFS
SFMJFG
WBMWFT
PS
SVQ-
pumps are an important class of industrial equipment. The following is a ture discs) in case of discharge blockage
collection of information on several types of PD pumps and an outline of the
differences between positive displacement pumps and centrifugal pumps. TYPES OF PD PUMPS
SELECTION STARTING POINT Internal gear pumps
Internal gear pumps have an outer gear Rotor
Idler
Crescent
called the rotor that is used to drive a
In pump selection, first consider what the expectations of the pump will
smaller inner gear called the idler. The
be. The following parameters must be determined before a pump can be
idler gear rotates on a stationary pin
selected:
and operates inside the rotor gear. As
Inlet conditions — To avoid suction problems, the pump should be located the two gears come out of mesh, they
as close as possible to the liquid supply create voids into which the liquid flows.
Flowrate — The flowrate requirements for the pump should be considered When the gears come back into mesh,
Differential pressure — Smaller pipe size and longer pipe runs reduce volumes are reduced and liquid is forced
initial system cost, but the higher pressure differential raises energy consump- out of the discharge port. A “crescent”
tion and reduces pump lifetime is formed between the two gears that
Liquid characteristics — The properties of the fluid to be pumped — includ- functions as a seal between the suction
ing material compatibility, viscosity, sensitivity to shear stress and presence of and discharge by trapping the volume
particulates or solids — are important factors of liquid carried between the teeth of the
rotor and idler.
Internal gear pumps are effective with
PD VERSUS CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS viscous liquids, but do not perform well
for liquids containing solid particles.
PD and centrifugal pumps behave differently. As a means to move liquids,
centrifugal pumps rely on kinetic energy, forcing liquid out of the pump with
External gear pumps
energy imparted to the liquid as it moves toward the outer diameter of a
External gear pumps have a similar
rotating impeller (pressure is created and flow results). PD pumps work by
pumping action to internal gear pumps in
capturing confined amounts of liquid and transferring them from the suction to
that two gears come into and out of mesh
the discharge port (flow is created and pressure results).
to produce flow. The difference is that
The following plots represent examples of the performance behavior differ-
external gear pumps have two identical
ences for centrifugal and PD pump types:
gears rotating against each other. Each
A. Flowrate versus pressure — Centrifugal pumps exhibit variable flow gear is supported by a shaft with bear-
depending on pressure, whereas the flow in PD pumps is largely indepen- ings on both sides of each gear.
dent of pressure External gear pumps work well in high-
pressure applications, such as hydraulics,
B. Efficiency versus viscosity — For centrifugal pumps, efficiency but are not effective in applications
decreases at greater viscosities. Positive displacement pumps are actually requiring critical suction conditions.
more efficient at higher viscosities
C. Flowrate versus viscosity — Centrifugal pumps lose flow as viscosity Lobe pumps
increases, while the flow of a PD pump can actually increase at higher Lobe pumps resemble external gear
viscosities pumps in operation, except that the
pumping elements do not make contact.
D. Efficiency versus pressure — Changes in pressure have minimal effect
Lobe contact is prevented by external
on PD pumps, but have a dramatic effect on centrifugal pumps.
timing gears.
Lobe pumps perform well with liquids
A. Performance B. Viscosity
250 100 that contain solid materials, but do not
perform well with low-viscosity liquids.
200 80
Efficiency, %
Head feet

Positive Positive
Vane Pumps Rotor
150 60 Sliding vane pumps have a rotor with
100 40 radial slots, and it is positioned off-center
Centrifugal in a housing bore. Vanes that fit closely
Centrifugal into rotor slots slide in and out as the ro-
50 20
tor turns. Pumping action is caused by the
0 0 expanding and contracting volumes con-
0 50 100 150 0 250 500 750 1,000 tained by the rotor, vanes and housing.
Capacity, gal/min Viscosity, cSt Vane pumps are effective for low-
viscosity liquids, and when dry-priming is
required. They are not ideal for abrasive
C. Flowrate D. Head liquids. Vane Push rod
110 80
Positive
100 Positive
Efficiency, %

References
Flowrate, %

90 70
1. Petersen, J. and Jacoby R., Selecting a Positive Displacement Pump, Chem.
80 Eng., August 2007, pp. 42–46.
60
70 Centrifugal 2. Viking Pump Inc., When to use a Positive Displacement Pump, The Pump
60 Centrifugal 50 School Website, Viking Pump Inc., www.pumpschool.com, 2007.
50 3. Soares, C., “Process Engineering Equipment Handbook,” McGraw Hill,
40 40 New York, 2002.
0 100 200 300 400 500 55 80 105 4. “Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook,” 8th ed. McGraw Hill, New
Viscosity, cSt Feet of head York, 2008.
 Low-Pressure
Measurement
Department Editor: Scott Jenkins

B
ecause of the behavior of materials under vacuum, including
lowered boiling points, low-pressure operations are useful tools
in chemical processing, as well as in research and develop-
ment and manufacturing. Areas where a vacuum system is neces-
sary or useful include the following:
t

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MJRVJET

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t

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NBUFSJBMT

5IJT
*(
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JT
DIBSBDUFSJ[FE
CZ
UIF
HFOFSBUJPO
PG
B
EJT-
t

1SFWFOUJOH
VOXBOUFE
DIFNJDBM
SFBDUJPOT
CFUXFFO
QSPDFTT
NBUFSJ-
als and the surrounding environment by removing air
t

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IFBU
USBOTGFS
UISPVHI
MJRVJET
CZ
SFNPWJOH
BJS

t

%SZJOH
TPMVUFT
SFNPWJOH
TPMWFOU
maintains a cathode-anode discharge by applying a magnetic
t

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NBUFSJBMT
USBOTGFS
PS
BJEJOH
mMUFS
QSPDFTTFT
CZ
BQQMZJOH

differential pressures
t

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PO
TVSGBDFT

TVDI
BT
JO
UIF
NJDSPFMFDUSPOJDT
the vacuum space.
industry and other areas
t

5FTUJOH
XJUI
NBTT
TQFDUSPTDPQZ
LOW-PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Because of vacuums’ central role in processing and research, it is
important to be able to measure pressures that may be a tiny frac-
tion of typical atmospheric pressures.
5BCMF

TIPXT
B
UZQJDBM
CSFBLEPXO
PG
WBDVVN
RVBMJUZ
5IF

SBOHFT
EP
OPU
IBWF
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BHSFFEVQPO
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IPXFWFS
TABLE 1. TYPICAL RANGES FOR VACUUM QUALITY
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PG
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#"UZQF
HBHF

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–3
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o torr.
Crossed-electromagnetic-field IG
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&.'
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charge between cathode and anode that is maintained with a
NBHOFUJD
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HBHF

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mFME
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UIF
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directly to the anode; instead, they travel in helical paths through
5IF
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XIFO

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HBT
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greater mass than electrons, they are unaffected by the magnetic
mFME
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PG
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JT
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UP
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current generated by the ion collection process is an indirect indica-
tion of vacuum pressure.
5BCMF

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BOE
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PG
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DBUIPEF
*(T
BOE
DSPTTFE&.'
*(T
TABLE 2. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ECG
VERSUS CROSSED-EMF IONIZATION GAGES

Pressure in torr Pressure in Pa Advantages Disadvantages

Atmospheric pressure 760 101.3 kPa Emitting- t

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than emitting cathode
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t

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IONIZATION GAGES
Selecting IGs
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"
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GPS

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pressure measurement in the high- and ultrahigh-vacuum ranges.
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7
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t
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CF
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mechanism for measuring electric current. t
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t
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References
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B


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/+


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#"
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HBHF
*O
B
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HBHF


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PG
7BDVVN
*O
i*OTUSVNFOUBUJPO
3FGFSFODF
#PPL

electrons are emitted in a well-controlled, regular fashion from
SE
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FE
CZ
8BMUFS
#PZFT

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#VSMJOHUPO

B
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mMBNFOU
DBUIPEF

BOE
BDDFMFSBUFE
UPXBSE
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QPTJUJWFMZ
.BTT

charged wire grid anode. 
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1
.FDIBOJDBM
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o
1BSU
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Chem.
As electrons pass through the space between the electrodes, Eng.,
0DU

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o
they collide with gas molecules in the vacuum system to generate 
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emission rate, the formation of positive ions is directly propor- 
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UP
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 Creating Installed
Gain Graphs for
Department Editor: Scott Jenkins Control Valves

I
nstalled gain graphs can help improve the selection of control valves by using the equations in the ISA/IEC valve sizing standard (ANSI/
for chemical processing. The graphs are plotted to analyze together ISA-75.01.01).
control-valve flow characteristics and process-system flow character-
istics, and better illustrate the relationship between a control valve and Step 4: Express the flowrate in terms of
the system. Predicting installed gain can help to increase controllability percent process variable (%PV)
of the system and help avoid oversized valves. Installed gain graphs Use the range of the process-variable measurement device and its rela-
can reveal ranges of valve travel where the valve gain might impede tionship to flowrate to determine the %PV for the installed characteristic
controllability. They can also show the travels for which the control valve graph points. For example, if the process variable is flowrate, divide
will perform optimally. each flowrate on the curve by the full span of the flowmeter.

GENERATING AN INSTALLED GAIN GRAPH 2.2

Installed gain

2.0
Step 1: Determine the control valve’s inherent flow characteristic
1.8 Maximum
a) Inherent flow characteristic describes how the capacity of a control 1.6
gain
valve changes with valve travel. 1.4
b) The inherent flow characteristic plot has the same shape as valve

Gain
1.2 Minimum
gain
flow coefficient (CV) curve. Common curve shapes are: 1.0
Linear — Slope changes little over the normal working range of the valve 0.8
Quick-opening — Slope changes faster over first 25% of valve travel 0.6
and slower at high travels 0.4
Equal percentage — Slope 0.2
0
changes more slowly at 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent of rated flow coefficient

low travels and faster at Valve travel, %

g
in

high travels
en
op

c) Plot CV versus valve travel. Step 5: Develop installed gain graph

ck

Find the slope of the installed flow characteristic graph at each valve
ui

ar
Q

ne

Step 2: Determine sys- travel. The plot of Δ%PV / Δ%travel for each percent travel increment is
Li

tem characteristic curve the installed gain graph.

e
ag
nt

The system curve defines

ce
er

piping head and friction Step 6: Interpret results

lp

losses. Plot flowrate vs. The installed gain graph can aid in the analysis of whether the control
ua
Eq

pressure. Assuming the
control valve is not un-
dersized, it will have one
position that can fulfill both
the flowrate and pressure conditions required by the system.
225
200
175
Pressure, psia
valve inherent characteristic is suitable for the system. An installed gain
0
0 100 equal to one for the entire valve travel would indicate that the other
Percent of rated travel components of the control system would not have to compensate for the
installed valve gain (that is, the control system tuning parameters used at
one value of valve travel would allow equally acceptable controllability
at other travels).
System pressure characteristic It is more than likely the installed gain will not equal one across the
full valve travel. Guidelines for desirable installed gain values have
been established. In most cases, installed gain values of between 0.5
Maximum
and 2.0 should be the target.
Normal If the installed gain falls outside this range for valve travels that are

Minimum expected to be used for controlling the process, the controllability will
150
not be optimal. For example, controller tuning setpoints that function
125 P1 for valve well at low valve travel values might cause system instability if used at
travels with a high installed gain.
P2 for valve
100

75 DEFINITIONS
100 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000
Flow, gal/min Valve gain — The change in flow for a given change in travel
Valve travel — The degree of openness of the valve; the valve stroke
Step 3: Determine installed flow characteristic graph Control range — The control range of an installed valve is the range of
a) Pressure conditions across a control valve are not constant. Values of travels for which the installed gain remains within the recommended 0.5
the liquid-pressure recovery factor and the pressure-drop ratio factor for to 2.0 range
control valves vary with valve travel. CV — The valve flow coefficient of a device (such as a valve) represents
b) For several values of valve travel, determine where on the system a relative measure of its efficiency at allowing fluid flow. It involves the
curve (flow versus pressure) the process will be operated and what the relationship between the pressure drop across a valve system and the
flowrate would be. The location on the system curve can be determined corresponding flowrate
Inherent flow characteristic — The relationship between control valve
Installed flow characteristic capacity and valve stem travel
3,000
Installed flow characteristic — Actual system flow plotted against valve
2,500 Maximum opening. Pressure drops vary with valve travel when valves are installed
with pumps, piping, fittings and other process equipment
2,000 Normal
Flow, gal/min

Minimum
1,500
References
1. Niesen, M., Using installed gain to improve valve selection. Chem. Eng.
1,000 October 2008, pp. 34–37.
500 2. Fitzgerald, B. and Linden, C., The control valve’s hidden impact on the
bottom line. Valve Manufacturer’s Association, Washington, D.C., 2003.
0 3. “Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook,” 8th ed., McGraw Hill, N.Y.,
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Valve travel, % 2008.

Department Editor: Scott Jenkins
T
he ultimate objective of storing liquid,
fluid and gaseous products, which may
be corrosive, flammable or unstable, is
to store material in an environmentally safe
and economically viable manner. Storage
tanks in the chemical process industries
(CPI) can be most broadly divided into
those buried underground, and those
constructed aboveground. The following is
an outline of considerations associated with
each category and positive and negative
aspects of each. Also included are poten-
tially applicable regulations and codes from
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), the Occupational Health and Safety
Administration (OSHA) and others.
UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANK
(UST) ADVANTAGES
Physical safety — USTs are out of the way
of automobile traffic
Fire safety — With a relatively constant un-
derground temperature, USTs have superior
vapor suppression and fire protection for
flammable and volatile contents, as well as
a reduced need for fire hazard permits
Security — The American Petroleum Institute
has shown that vandalism is a leading
cause of tank failures. USTs are less subject
to vandalism and easier to protect
Aesthetics — USTs are out of sight, which
eliminates a possible public objection
Land use — USTs offer a more efficient use
of land space and allow more flexibility in
placement location
UST DISADVANTAGES
Leak detection and containment — Leak moni-
toring, detection and containment is more
difficult and more expensive underground
Installation complexity and cost — Excava-
tion and special backfill materials add costs
Depreciation — Real estate depreciation is
possible due to threat of contamination
ABOVEGROUND STORAGE TANK
(AST) ADVANTAGES
Construction — ASTs are simpler and less
expensive to construct and install. One
significant aspect eliminated is the need for
excavation and special backfill materials
Maintenance — Visual inspection is pos-
sible, which leads to more reliable leak
detection and easier repair
Insurance — Lower pollution insurance pre-
miums because of reduced risk of ground-
water contamination
Regulatory burden — ASTs are subject to
less regulatory requirements than USTs
Costs — ASTs have lower monitoring and
record-keeping costs
Aboveground
and underground
storage tanks
REGULATIONS AND CODES POTENTIALLY APPLICABLE TO UST AND AST
Regulation name Applicability Governing
Body
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Subtitle C AST and UST EPA
— hazardous waste regulations
Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasures within AST and UST EPA
Clear Air Act amendments of 1990
Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response AST and UST OSHA
Regulations — 29 CFR 1910.120
Flammable and Combustible Liquids Standard — 29 CFR AST and UST OSHA
1910.106
Hazard Communication Standard — 29 CFR 1910.1200 AST and UST OSHA
Confined Space Safety Standard — 29 CFR 1910.146 AST and UST OSHA
Oil Pollution Act of of 1990 AST only EPA
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System AST only EPA
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation AST only EPA
and Liability Act (CERCLA)
Benzene — 29 CFR 1910.1028 AST only OSHA
Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Chemi- AST only OSHA
cals, Explosives and Blasting Agents — 29 CFR 1910.119
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Subtitle I — UST only EPA
regulations addressing USTs storing petroleum and haz-
ardous substances — 40 CFR 280
Stage II Vapor Recovery Regulations — established in UST only EPA
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990
Clean Air Act Title V — operating permits UST only EPA
Emergency planning and Community Right-to-know Act — UST only EPA
Title III of Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act.
National Fire Protection Association NFPA 30 AST and UST NFPA code
(Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code)
International Code Council (ICC) International Fire Code AST and UST ICC code
AST DISADVANTAGES and federal requirements. Regulatory frame-
works are different for AST and UST
Physical safety — ASTs are more vulnerable Space — Space requirements to separate an
to vandalism, contact with automobiles and AST from traffic, buildings, property lines,
external damage present and future can be significant, while
Fire safety — ASTs have an elevated fire they are not an issue for USTs. Fire codes
risk relative to USTs generally dictate separation distances
Aesthetics — ASTs may be objectionable in Security — Protection from vandalism is
certain locations more difficult for ASTs
Space use — more real estate required to Cost — Several aspects of cost should be
house ASTs considered, including: storage tank, tank
system equipment, initial installation cost,
Temperature variation — ASTs experience ongoing maintenance cost, security cost,
greater ambient-product-temperature fluctua- land cost, regulatory cost and secondary
tions than USTs containment cost
MAKING THE CHOICE References:
1. Geyer, W.B. To Bury or Not to Bury: Steel
When making decisions about whether to Tank Technology Decisions. In: “Handbook
use an AST or a UST, consider the following: of Storage Tank Systems,” Marcel Dekker,
New York, 2000.
Regulatory — The local authority in the
2. Cheremisinoff, P.N., and Vallamar, O. Aboveg-
area where the tank system will be as- round and Underground Storage Tank Com-
sembled has control of whether a tank parison. In: “Storage Tanks. Advances in
permit will be issued, based on whether Environmental Control Technology Series,”
plans for the tank comply with local, state Gulf Publishing, Houston, 1996.
 Chemical
Resistance of
Department Editor: Scott Jenkins Thermoplastics

C
orrosion is estimated to account for a
significant portion — 8–10% — of total
annual-plant-capital expenditures for the
chemical process industries. To avoid it, engi-
neers can consider corrosion-resistant plastics
for process piping and storage vessels. Ther-
moplastics are generally resistant to chemical
attack and thus suitable for many process ap-
plications. However, plastics must be selected
based on process specifics. When chemicals
affect plastics, it usually happens as: chemical
solvation or permeation, where physical prop-
erties may change, but the polymer molecular
structure is not chemically altered; and direct
chemical attack, where a chemical reaction
with the polymer occurs.
References
1. “Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook: 8th
ed.” McGraw Hill, New York, 2008.
2. Nibco Chemical Resistance Guide. Nibco Inc.
Elkhart, Ind. 2003.
3. Plastics Pipe Institute. Chemical Resistance of
Thermoplastics. Techincal Report 19. 2007.

CHEMICAL RESISTANCE OF SELECTED COMMERCIAL THERMOPLASTICS AND ELASTOMERS

Name Notes Recommended Uses Uses to Avoid
ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene Smooth inner surface and resis- t$PNNFSDJBM
TBOJUBSZ
TZTUFNT Oxidizing acids
styrene) tance to deposit formation t8FBL
BDJET
Resistant to a wide variety of
materials up to 65ºC (150°F)
PVC (polyvinyl chloride) Most frequently specified of all t$IJMMFE
XBUFS 1PMBS
TPMWFOUT

TVDI
BT
LFUPOFT
thermoplastic materials t%FJPOJ[FE
XBUFS

JSSJHBUJPO
t4BMU
TPMVUJPOT

t"DJET

t"MLBMJT
CPVC (chlorinated polyvinyl Better chemical resistance than t)PU
DPSSPTJWF
MJRVJET Ultraviolet (UV) radiation
chloride) PVC t)PU
PS
DPME
XBUFS
PE (polyethylene) Lowest-cost commercially avail- t&UIBOPM

NFUIBOPM t%JFUIZMFUIFS
able plastic. Pipes generally t4PEJVN

QPUBTTJVN

DBMDJVN
t.FUIZMFOF
DIMPSJEF
must be supported hydroxide (30%) t&UIZMFOF
DIMPSJEF
t(MZDPM
t0JMT

OBUVSBM
HBT

HBTPMJOF
PP (polypropylene) Lightweight polyolefin t0SHBOJD
TPMWFOUT t4USPOH
PYJEJ[JOH
BHFOUT
Can be used at higher tem- t3FTJTUBODF
UP
TVMGVSCFBSJOH
t$IMPSJOBUFE
IZESPDBSCPOT

peratures than PE compounds t"SPNBUJDT
t4BMUXBUFS
EJTQPTBM
MJOFT
t$SVEFPJM
QJQJOH
t.JYUVSFT
BOE
BDJET

CBTFT


solvents
17%'
QPMZWJOZMJEFOF
nVPSJEF
#FTU
DPNCJOBUJPO
PG
TUSFOHUI

t8FU
PS
ESZ
DIMPSJOF

CSPNJOF

Fuming sulfuric acid
DIFNJDBM
SFTJTUBODF
BOE
XPSL- other halogens
ing temperatures t"DJET

CBTFT

PSHBOJD
TPMWFOUT
&1%.
FUIZMFOF
QSPQZMFOF
(PPE
BCSBTJPO
BOE
UFBS
7BSJFUZ
PG
BDJET
BOE
CBTFT

t1FUSPMFVN
PJMT

diene monomer) resistance BMDPIPMT

LFUPOFT t4USPOH
BDJET

t4USPOH
CBTFT
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene (PPE
SFTJTUBODF
UP
P[POF

4BMU
TPMVUJPOT

OJUSJD

TVMGVSJD

Fuming nitric and sulfuric acids
)ZQBMPO
nBNFT IZESPnVPSJD
BDJET
Neoprene Among the first synthetic t'PPE
BOE
CFWFSBHF
t4USPOH
PYJEJ[JOH
BHFOUT
rubbers developed applications t$IMPSJOBUFE

TPMWFOUT
t7FHFUBCMF
PJMT t&TUFST

t,FUPOFT
Nitrile Copolymer of butadiene and t4PMWFOU
t)JHIMZ
QPMBS
TPMWFOUT

acrylonitrile t0JM t$IMPSJOBUFE
IZESPDBSCPOT
t8BUFS
t)ZESBVMJD
nVJE
Polyamide (Nylon) )ZHSPTDPQJD
NBUFSJBM t(BTPMJOF t4USPOH
PYJEJ[JOH
BHFOUT
(PPE
BCSBTJPO
SFTJTUBODF t"MLBOFT t1IFOPMT
t"DFUPOF

NFUIZMFUIZM
LFUPOF t.JOFSBM
BDJET
Fluorocarbon Inherently compatible with a t.JOFSBM
BDJET Steam
wide spectrum of chemicals t4BMU
TPMVUJPOT

t$IMPSJOBUFE
IZESPDBSCPOT

t1FUSPMFVN
PJMT
1PMZUFUSBnVPSPFUIZMFOF
Most chemically resistant plas- Outstanding resistance to most Molten metals
15'&
5FnPO
tic commercially available chemicals and solvents
1&&,
QPMZFUIFS
FUIFSLFUPOF
Can be used at higher tem- t)FBU
USBOTGFS
nVJET
$PODFOUSBUFE
OJUSJD

IZESPDIMP-
peratures than PTFE; physical t4UFBN SJD

IZESPCSPNJD

IZESPnVPSJD

characteristics approaching t)ZESPDBSCPOT and sulfuric acids
some metal
Polyethylene teraphthalate Shows resistance to ultraviolet t)ZESPDBSCPO
GVFMT t$PODFOUSBUFE
TVMGVSJD
BDJE
(PET) radiation t8BUFS t1IFOPM
t&UIBOPM

FUIZM
FUIFS t"DFUPOF

Department Editor: Scott Jenkins
EXPANSION TANK
A well designed expansion tank:
1. Maintains a static pump-suction head
2. Compensates for temperature-related
volume and pressure changes
3. Provides a means of venting moisture
and low boilers
4. Prevents fluid oxidation
Usually, the expansion tank is installed
at the highest point in the system and is
connected to the suction side of the pumps.
It should serve as the main venting point of
the system, as well as provide for system
fluid expansion, which can be 25% or

stream and downstream of each pump and
more depending on fluid choice and on the
operating temperature range. For heat-
ing circuits, the expansion tank should be

HBTLFUT
BOE
shut-off.
sized so that it is one-quarter full at ambient
temperature and three-quarters full when

mCFSSFJOGPSDFE
SVCCFS
tive in minimizing system leakage. For valve
the system is at operating temperature. For
cooling, it should be vice versa.
The double drop-leg expansion tank
provides greater flexibility of operation
than a single leg tank. From a single-leg
expansion tank, venting of nonconden-
sibles is often difficult in heating systems
as is purging of air and water on startup.
A double-leg expansion tank provides unin-
terrupted flow on startup and significantly
improves the venting capability of the
system. All vent lines should be routed to a

nVJE
JT
QVNQFE
performance in service with organic
safe location.
Experience indicates that systems with
expansion tanks open to the atmosphere

nVJE
nPXT
UISPVHI
UIF
References and further reading
have fluid contamination problems related
to oxidation and excessive moisture. There-
fore, open expansion tanks should not be
employed in systems using organic heat
transfer fluids.
An effective way to minimize fluid oxida-
tion is to blanket the expansion tank vapor
space with an inert gas (for example, nitro-
gen, CO2, or natural gas). When using a
nitrogen blanket, moisture should be driven
off from the fluid before the gas pressure is

POF
PS
NPSF
FMFD- #7239128C, Solutia Inc., 1999.
set. If this is not practical, air contact can
be minimized by a cold seal trap arrange-
ment. Low boilers and moisture can collect

UIF
IFBUJOH
FMFNFOUT

in the cold seal trap, so the fluid in the trap
should be discarded periodically.
CONTROLS
Install heater controls to regulate the firing
mechanism in direct proportion to the
required output. These controls should
increase or decrease the heat input to
maintain the heat transfer fluid at the oper-
ating temperature required by the energy
demand. Small units may be operated
FACTS AT YOUR FINGERTIPS Sponsored by
satisfactorily by relatively simple “on-off”
or “high-low” controllers. However, units
of all sizes will operate more uniformly if
equipped with modulating temperature con-
trols. Install user controls to regulate the flow
of the heat transfer fluid in proportion to
the energy consumption of the equipment.
In a multiple-user system, separate controls
should be installed on each consuming unit
to assure the proper energy delivery.
FIRE RESISTANCE
Materials considered NOT fire-resistant:
t

-PX
NFMUJOH
QPJOU
NFUBMT
BMVNJOVN
copper
t

&MBTUPNFST
t

1PMZUFUSBnVPSPFUIZMFOF
15'&
packing
t

/POBTCFTUPT
bound gaskets
Materials considered fire resistant:
t

)JHINFMUJOHQPJOU
NFUBMT
DBSCPO
BOE

stainless steel, nickel alloys
t

'MFYJCMF
HSBQIJUF
QBDLJOH
BOE
HBTLFUT
t

"TCFTUPT
QBDLJOH
BOE
HBTLFUT
HEATER
Two basic fired-heater designs for indirect
heat transfer systems are available: liquid
tube and fire tube types.
t

*O
MJRVJE
UVCF
IFBUFST
through the tubes as it is heated. The fire
is outside the tubes.
t

*O
mSF
UVCF
IFBUFST
heater “shell” around the outside of the
fire tubes.
Liquid tube heaters are preferred at all
temperatures. At temperatures below
500°F (260°C), fire tube heaters with a
special baffle design to eliminate hot spots
can be used.
Two basic configurations for electrical
heaters are available: container design and
tubular design.
t

*O
UIF
DPOUBJOFS
EFTJHO
trical heating elements are inserted into a
container through which fluid flows.
t

*O
UIF
UVCVMBS
EFTJHO
are inserted longitudinally into tubes
through which the fluid flows.
The tubular design is preferred for the heat-
ing of organic fluids. If the container design
is to be used, due to the unpredictable
flow conditions around the elements, heat
flux should be limited to 1–2 W/cm2. For
all heater types, the maximum heat flux at
the surface of the heat source and the fluid
velocity over it should be in proper balance
to avoid excessive film temperature. Careful
Heat Transfer:
System Design II
attention must be paid to achieving turbu-
lent flow (without stagnation zones) around
the heat transfer surfaces to eliminate hot
spots and localized fluid boiling.
VALVES
Cast- or forged-steel valves with 13-chrome
trim are satisfactory for service in organic
heat-transfer-fluid systems. Globe valves
with an outside screw (as a protection
against high temperatures) should be used
throughout the system when tight sealing of
fluids is desired, and should be installed up-
at each user. Gate valves are acceptable
for use, but not to provide reliable positive
The use of valve stem seals can be effec-
stem seals:
t

'MFYJCMF
HSBQIJUF
QBDLJOH
XJUI
JOOFS

and outer anti-extrusion rings of braided
graphite fiber gives the best results for
elevated temperature systems.
t

15'&
QBDLJOH
PGUFO
XPSLT
JO
TZTUFNT

operating up to 400°F (200°C).
t

.FUBM
CFMMPXTTFBMFE
WBMWFT
BSF
GSFRVFOUMZ

used with excellent results, but these
valves are relatively expensive, especially
in larger sizes.
t

'JCFS
QBDLJOH
NBUFSJBMT
IBWF
HJWFO
QPPS

fluids, and are not recommended.
1. Wagner W. “Heat Transfer Technique with
Organic Media.” Grafelfing-München: Technis-
cher Verlag Resch KG, 1977.
2. Gamble CE. Cost Management in Heat Trans-
fer Systems. Chemical Engineering Progress,
July 2006 pp. 22–26.
3. “Systems Design Data.” Pub. #7239193ver. C,
Solutia Inc., 1999.
4. “System Design and Maintenance.” Pub. #TBS
10-25 (E), Solutia Inc., 1998.
5. “Liquid Phase Design Guide.” Pub.
Acknowledgment
Material for this “Facts at Your Fingertips” was
supplied by Solutia Inc.
NOTICE: Although these recommendations are
believed to be correct, Solutia Inc. makes no
representations or warranties as to the complete-
ness or accuracy thereof. Nothing contained
herein is to be construed as a recommendation
to use any product, process, equipment or
formulation in conflict with any patent, and So-
lutia Inc. makes no representation or warranty,
express or implied, that the use thereof will not
infringe any patent.
 Adsorption

Department Editor: Kate Torzewski

S
NOMENCLATURE
uccessful adsorber design requires
information about certain adsorbent 1 E A Henry’s law coefficient
1 Aj
properties, including: adsorbent densi- E B empirical coefficient
ties and void fractions; isotherms or other Bij 
1 E C Concentration (subscripts: 0, initial;
equilibrium data; and data on mass-transfer 1 Ai (7) f, final; i, instantaneous)
kinetics and fixed-bed dynamics. Here, E
dp particle diameter
these adsorbent properties are explained,
DAB adsorbate diffusivity in the liquid
along with corresponding equations. KINETICS DATA Deff effective diffusivity
DENSITIES AND VOID FRACTIONS Kinetics data describe the intraparticle F fractional conversion
mass-transfer resistance and control the i assigned to strongly adsorbed com-
Three densities are relevant: bulk, particle cycle time of a fixed-bed adsorption ponent
and solid. There are four pertinent void frac- process. Fast kinetics, or a high rate of j assigned to less strongly adsorbed
tions, three corresponding to the three den- diffusion, occur when the effluent concen- component
sities, and one representing the overall void tration remains level until the adsorbent is jD Colburn-Chilton j-factor
fraction in the bed of adsorbent (
). These almost saturated, then rises sharply. Slow k fluid-to-particle mass transfer coeffi-
terms are related in the following way: kinetics, on the other hand, occur when the cient
effluent concentration begins fluctuating
R B  1 E B R P  1 E B 1 E P R S soon after adsorption starts. The effect of
l particle radius (for a sphere or cyl-
inder), or half-thickness (for a rect-
 1 E R S (1) slow diffusion can be overcome by add- angular solid)
ing adsorbent at the product end, or by
L bed length
Bulk density is the mass of adsorbent in a increasing the cycle time. It is also possible
given volume. Particle density is the mass to use small particles. n* adsorbent loading
of adsorbent per volume occupied by the Intraparticle diffusion is characterized Re Reynolds number
particle. Solid density is the mass of the by an effective diffusivity Deff, which equals Sc Schmidt number
adsorbent per volume occupied by the par- DABερ/τ. Dimensionless time is expressed t elapsed time
ticle, but with the pores’ volume deducted. as Deff t/l 2, which allows the determination xi mole fraction in fluid phase
of the fractional change (during adsorption
yi mole fraction in adsorbed phase
EQUILIBRIUM DATA or regeneration), as shown below.
α selectivity, 1<α<infinity
Adsorption-equilibrium data are usually β selectivity, 0<β<1
gathered at a fixed temperature and plot- ε void fraction (subscripts: B, bulk; P,
ted or tabulated as isotherms: adsorbent particle; S, solid)
capacity (loading) versus fluid-phase μ fluid viscosity
concentration (or partial pressure, for gases
ρ fluid density (subscripts: B, bulk; P,
and vapors). Below are three equilibrium (8) particle; S, solid)
equations for isotherm data.
τ tortuosity
Henry’s Law: This equation shows that, when searching υs superficial velocity
for an effective adsorbent, it is usually safe ψ particle shape factor
n*  AC (2) to choose one having a large diffusivity, a
small diameter, or both.
The particle shape factor, ψ, is 1.0 for
Langmuir Isotherm:
beads, 0.91 for pellets and 0.86 for flakes.
AC FIXED-BED DYNAMICS αi is the ratio of particle interfacial area to
n*  (3)
1  BC volume, which equals 6(1 – ε)dP.
Interstitial mass transfer in fixed beds,
Another major factor in bed dynamics is
primarily fluid-to-particle transfer, can be
pressure drop. Most adsorbers are designed
Freundlich Isotherm: related to the fluid, adsorbent and system
to operate with relatively low pressure drop,
properties via either of two equations,
n*  AC B because large particles are used whenever
(4) depending on the value of the system’s
possible and the velocity is typically low,
Reynolds number.
to allow equilibration of the fluid with the
Henry’s Law is the simplest isotherm,
adsorbent. The pressure drop in a fixed bed
while the Langmuir Isotherm takes surface (9)
is represented by the Ergun Equation, below.
coverage into account, and the Freundlich
Isotherm is the result of fitting isotherm data For 10<Re<2,500, use Equation (10),
to a linear equation on log-log coordinates. where Sc equals μ/ρDAB. ΔP ⎛ 1 − εB ⎞⎛ ρυ 2s 1 − ε B ⎞
= ⎜150 + 175⎟⎜⎜ ⎟
⎠⎝ gc dp ε B3 ⎠⎟
In situations that involve multiple adsor-
L ⎝ Re
bate components in the feed, the concept jD   k Us Sc0.667  1.17 Re 0.415
of selectivity comes into play. Selectivity, α (10)
(12)
and β in the three equations below, is the
References
ratio of the capacity of an adsorbent for For lower flowrates, corresponding to
1. Knaebel, K., The Basics of Adsorber Design,
one component to its capacity for another. values of a modified Reynolds number, Re’,
Chem. Eng., April 1999, pp. 92–101.
of below 50, use Equation (11).
yi y j 2. Knaebel, K., For Your Next Separation,
A ij  Consider Adsorption, Chem. Eng., November
xi x j (5) jD  0.91Y Re' 0.51 (11) 1995, pp. 99–102.
3. Masel, R.I., “Principles of Adsorption and Reac-
A ij  Ai A j (6) (11a) tion on Solid Surfaces,” Wiley-Interscience,
New York, 1996.
 Flowmeter
Selection
Department Editor: Kate Torzewski

W
hen a flowmeter is needed, the selec-
Fluids Tem-
tion process should include study- Accuracy
Turn- (liquid, Pipe Sizes,
Maximum
perature
ing the characteristics of respective Flowmeter (full scale, pressure,
down gas, solid, in. range,
measurement technologies and analyzing the F; rate, R) psig
slurry) (º F)
advantages/disadvantages for different plant
environments. This effort will help ensure Square-edged,
orifice differential 0.5–1.5% R 4 to 1 L, G, S 0.5–40 8,800 –4–2,300
that a meter with the right performance and pressure
reliability, for a particular installation, is
selected. Some of the most common industrial Electromagnetic 0.2–2% R 10 to 1 L 0.15–60 5,000 –40–350
flowmeter designs are described here.
Turbine 0.15–1% R 10 to 1 L, G 0.5–30 6,000 –450–600

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE Ultrasonic

A differential pressure meter operates by
measuring the pressure differential across the
meter and extracting the square root. These
meters have a primary element that causes
a change in kinetic energy, which in turn
creates differential pressure in the pipe. A
secondary element measures the differential
pressure and provides a signal or readout,
which is converted to the actual flow value.
Two basic types of primary elements rely
on this measurement: orifice plates and
Venturi tubes. Both element types rely on the
law of conservation of energy and Bernoulli’s
energy equation to determine volumetric
flowrates.
ELECTROMAGNETIC
Electromagnetic meters (commonly referred to
as “mag” meters), employ Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction, which states that
voltage will be induced when a conductor
moves through a magnetic field. The liquid
serves as the conductor. Energized coils out-
side the flow tube create the magnetic field.
The amount of voltage produced is directly
proportional to the flowrate.
Magnetic flowmeters are only applicable
for fluids with some electrical conductivity,
typically those with conductivity values above
5 μS/cm. Most aqueous solutions contain
enough conductive dissolved solids to meet
this requirement. However, ultrapure water,
some solvents, and most hydrocarbon-based
solutions do not.
CORIOLIS
Coriolis meters provide mass-flow data by
measuring fluid running through a bent tube,
which is induced to vibrate in an angular,
harmonic oscillation. Due to the Coriolis
forces, the tube will deform, and an ad-
ditional vibration component will be added
to the oscillation. This causes a phase shift
over areas of the tube, and this shift can be
measured with sensors. Density measure-
ments are made by analyzing the frequency
shift of the vibrating pipe as the fluid flows
past the pickup.
THERMAL MASS
Thermal mass meters utilize a heated sensing
element that is isolated from the path of fluid
flow. The flow stream conducts heat from
the sensing element, and this heat is directly
proportional to the mass flowrate. The meter’s
electronics include the flow analyzer, temper-
ature compensator and a signal conditioner
1–30% R 50 to 1
(doppler)
Ultrasonic down to
0.5–5% R
(transit time) zero flow
Vortex 0.5–2% R 20 to 1
Positive
displacement
0.152% R 10 to 1
Coriolis 0.1–0.3% R
10 to 1, to
L, G
80 to 1
Thermal (gases) 1% F 50 to 1
Thermal (liquids) 0.5% F 50 to 1
that provides a linear output, which is directly
proportional to mass flow.
The electrical current required to maintain
the temperature at the temperature sensor
is proportional to the mass flow through the
flowmeter. These flowmeters are commonly
used in automobiles to determine the air
density as it travels into the engine.
VORTEX SHEDDING
In this instrument, fluid vortices are formed
against the meter body. These vortices are
produced from the downstream face of the
meter in an oscillatory manner. The shed-
ding is sensed using a thermistor, and the
frequency of shedding is proportional to
volumetric flowrate.
TURBINE
Turbine meters incorporate a freely suspend-
ed rotor that is turned by fluid flow through
the meter body. Since the flow passage is
fixed, the rotor's rotational speed is a true
representation of the volumetric flowrate. The
rotation produces a train of electrical pulses,
which are sensed by an external pickoff and
then counted and totalized. The number of
pulses counted for a given period of time is
directly proportional to flow volume.
Turbine meters are used extensively to
measure refined petroleum products, such as
gasoline, diesel fuel or kerosene in custody-
transfer applications.
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT
Positive displacement (PD) meters separate
liquid into specific increments. The accumula-
tion of these measured increments over time
is given as the flowrate. As the fluid passes
through the meter, a pulse, which represents
a known volume of fluid, is generated.
Some of the design types included in
the positive-displacement flowmeter family
L, G, SL 0.5–200 6,000 –40–250
L, G 1–540 6,000 –40–650
L, G, S 0.5–16 1,500 –330–800
L 0.25–16 2,000 –40–600
0.06–12 5,700 –400–800
G 0.125–8 4,500 32–572
L 0.06–0.25 4,500 40–165
include oval gear, rotary piston, helical,
nutating disk and diaphragm flowmeters. In
all design types, the fluid or gas forces a me-
chanical element, such as a set of gears, a
disk, or a piston, to move within the primary
device. For every revolution of a gear, or the
complete movement of a piston or plate, a
known volume of material is displaced.
ULTRASONIC
Ultrasonic meters operate by comparing the
time for an ultrasonic signal to travel with
the flow (downstream) against the time for
an ultrasonic signal to travel against the flow
(upstream). The difference between these
transit times is proportional to the flow, and
the flowmeter converts this information to
flowrate and total flow.
They are particularly useful for measuring
the flow of non-conductive fluids, such as
solvents and hydrocarbons in large pipes —
applications for which a magnetic flowmeter
will not work. Ultrasonic flowmeters are also
often used in district heating and chilled-
water systems.
Doppler ultrasonic flowmeters have one
transducer mounted at an oblique angle to
the pipe. The transducer generates a signal
into the fluid, which is reflected back from
suspended particles or air bubbles.
Transit-time ultrasonic flowmeters have two
transducers, likewise mounted at an oblique
angle to the pipe, on opposite sides of the
pipe. Allternating, one transmitter sends
sound waves through the fluid to the other.
References
1. Keith, J., Evaluating Industrial Flowmeters
Chem. Eng., April 2007, pp. 54–59.
2. Kohlmann, M., Selecting the Right Flowmeter
for the Job. Chem. Eng., September 2004, pp.
60–64.
3. “Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 8th
ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 2008.

Department Editor: Kate Torzewski
O
ne of the most important factors to con-
sider when evaluating a specialty metal
for use in valves, fittings and instrumen-
tation is its corrosion resistance or corrosion
rate of the metal in the target media. Each
material discussed here has its own niche,
and depending on the processing environ-
ment and the needs of the application, the
metal’s strengths and weaknesses may or
may not be suitable. In either H2SO4 or
HCl solutions, the corrosion resistance of
tantalum is second to none, followed by
zirconium, nickel alloys and titanium. Ther-
mal expansion coefficient and melting point
data for each metal are given in the table.
TANTALUM
The physical properties of tantalum are
similar to those of mild steel, although
tantalum has a higher melting point. Tan-
talum is the most corrosion-resistant metal
that is in common use, due to its tenacious
oxide layer. Its superb corrosion resistance
is comparable to glass and is practically
inert to most oxidizing and reducing acids,
except fuming sulfuric acid, hot alkalis
and HF. While tantalum is an ideal choice
from a corrosion-resistance point of view,
it is typically cost prohibitive, even when
cladded. Only in process conditions where
no other material will perform adequately is
tantalum a material of choice, at least in its
traditional forms. This limits tantalum’s use
to heating coils, bayonet heaters, coolers
and condensers operating under severe
conditions. When economically justified,
larger items of equipment, such as reactors
or tanks, may be fabricated with tantalum
liners. Since tantalum linings are usually
very thin, very careful attention to design
and fabrication details is required.
Tantalum can typically be found in ap-
plications that deal with hot concentrated
acids. Due to its negligible corrosion rate,
it is ideal for use in the pharmaceutical and
food manufacturing industries [2].
Recently, tantalum has been processed to
create a surface alloy on valves and other
fittings, instrumentation and equipment. This
relatively new option exhibits all the chemi-
cal properties of tantalum, allowing excel-
lent corrosion resistance without the high
costs. However, this option is not suitable
for slurries or solutions that contain abrasive
particles that could lead to mechanical ero-
sion and abrasion of the surface.
ZIRCONIUM ALLOYS
Zirconium alloys exhibit excellent resistance
to corrosive attack and work well in many
organic and inorganic acids, salt solutions,
strong alkalies, and some molten salts. It
FACTS AT YOUR FINGERTIPS sponsored by:
Metal UNS Coefficient of Thermal Ex-
Number pansion (10–6 mm/(mm°C)
Nickel alloy 200 N02200 13.3
Titanium R50250 8.6
Zirconium R60702 5.2
Tantalum R05200 6.5
owes its corrosion resistance to the natural
formation of a dense, stable, self-healing
oxide film on its surface. Unalloyed zirconi-
um has excellent resistance to H2SO4 up to
60% concentration at the boiling point, and
has excellent corrosion resistance in HCl.
Zirconium is also highly resistant to most
alkali solutions up to their boiling point.
Zirconium’s corrosion resistance could
be compared with titanium in many ways,
but it is much more robust than titanium in
withstanding organic acids, such as acetic,
citric, and formic at various concentra-
tions and elevated temperatures. However,
zirconium can still be corrosively attacked
by fluoride ions, wet chlorine, aqua regia,
concentrated sulfuric acid (above 80%),
and ferric or cupric chlorides [3]. Zironium
has excellent resistance to reducing environ-
ments, but oxidizing agents frequently
cause accelerated attack. Commercial-
grade zirconium, which contains up to
2.5% hafnium, is often used in hydrogen
peroxide production, rayon manufacture,
and the handling of phosphoric acid, sulfu-
ric acid and ethyl benzene.
TITANIUM
Titanium is an established metal when deal-
ing with corrosive applications. Titanium is
available in a range of different alloys with
the most-corrosion-resistant grades being
titanium 7, 11 (containing 0.15% Pd), and
12 (containing 0.3% Mo and 0.8% Ni).
Titanium and its alloys offer good corro-
sion resistance that is due to a strong oxide
film. The oxide film formed on titanium is
more protective than on stainless steel, and
it often performs well in media such as
seawater, wet chlorine and organic chlo-
rides. While titanium offers good corrosion
resistance to these solutions, it certainly is
not immune to them, especially at elevated
temperatures (for example, seawater at
temperatures greater than 110°C) [3]. It has
a number of disadvantages as well, as it is
not easy to form, it has a high springback
and tends to gall, and welding must be car-
ried out in an inert atmosphere.
Titanium metal can be found in a variety
of industries, including chemical processing,
pulp and paper, and marine applications.
It is also used extensively in the production
of chlorine.
Specialty Metals
Temperature Melting tem-
range, °C perature, °C
20–90 1,440–1,450
0–100 1,705
0–100 1,860
0–200 2,996
NICKEL ALLOYS
Nickel alloys are commonly used when typi-
cal steel materials don’t offer the corrosion
performance that is needed. To enhance the
performance of nickel in aqueous-solution
service, the most important alloying ele-
ments are Fe, Cu, Si, Cr and Mo. Cr and
Mo play a major role in nickel’s corrosion
resistance. Varying the concentrations of
these elements in the nickel alloys changes
the corrosive environments in which nickel
alloys can be successfully applied, but they
are typically used in a range of acid, salt
and alkali applications. The addition of Cr
(15–30%) improves the corrosion resistance
to oxidizing solutions, while the addition of
Mo (up to 28%) improves the resistance to
non-oxidizing acids.
The nickel alloys C-22, C-276, and B-2
all have good corrosion resistance in a
variety of media. In the case of HCl, the
corrosion resistance of these alloys depends
greatly on the Mo content. The alloy with
the highest concentration of Mo, B-2, exhib-
its the best corrosion resistance.
In solutions such as nitric acid (HNO3),
Cr is an essential alloying element for pro-
viding corrosion resistance. Nickel alloys’
weaknesses revolve around their interaction
with the media and their environment in
the form of impurities. Under ideal testing
conditions, these alloys (for example, B-2),
work well in pure de-aerated H2SO4 and
HCl, but deteriorate rapidly when oxidizing
impurities, such as oxygen and ferric ions,
are present. Another consideration is the
presence of chlorides (Cl–), which generally
accelerate the corrosion attack at different
degrees for various alloys.
Having a wide range of applicability in
acids, salt solutions, and caustic environ-
ments, nickel alloys have found their way
into a variety of industries, such as chemi-
cal, petrochemical, oil and gas, nuclear,
conventional power generation and paper.
References
1. Gambale, D., Valves & Specialty Metal Materi-
als, Chem. Eng., October 2008, pp. 38–41.
2. Burnstein, G.T., others, “Corrosion Volume 1 &
2”, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, 1994.
3. Roberge, P.R., “Handbook of Corrosion Engi-
neering”, McGraw Hill, New York, 2000.
4. “Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 8th
ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 2008.

Department Editor: Kate Torzewski
TECHNOLOGY REQUIREMENTS [1]
1. Control architecture
Does the solution provide an integrated
automation platform?
New systems should manage process knowl-
edge through a combination of advanced
technologies, industrial domain expertise,
and Six Sigma methodologies.
Choose an open, scalable control system
that is fully redundant, includes robust
control algorithms and provides on-process
upgrades to minimize plant downtime. The
system should be embedded with best-in-
class applications for advanced control, asset
management and control monitoring, and
include a human interface integrating plant-
wide information and delivering realtime
process data. Additionally, the system should
comply with open industry standards.
2. Field instrumentation
Does the solution integrate “smart” devices?
Control solutions should support digital
integration of field instruments, allowing
processes to be linked with monitoring
and control equipment, and providing the
platform needed to operate plants more
profitably. An automation provider should
offer a maintenance-management program
incorporating all of field assets — tradi-
tional and fieldbus alike — and providing
tools for integrating all device information in
a single database.
3. User interface
Does the solution support complex human-
machine interface (HMI) requirements?
Instead of requiring customers to support
DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM (DCS)
Should be used when:
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an outdated HMI platform or abandon it
entirely, control-system suppliers should pro-
vide the means to leverage existing invest-
ments and intellectual property, and at the
same time migrate plant control rooms and
engineering stations to newer, more robust
technology. This can include field upgrade
“kits” allowing users to retain their existing
hardware and industrial-class furniture,
while expediting the transition to the latest
operator environment.
4. Networks
Does the solution employ open
or proprietary protocols?
Control systems employing open network
protocols provide process plants with
new levels of connectivity. Users have
the freedom to select the best control and
instrumentation solutions for a given task. Be
sure the control system you choose makes
full use of recognized open standards, and
is equipped to integrate the industry-leading
field network protocols. These include Foun-
dation Fieldbus, Profibus, HART, DeviceNet
and ControlNet, among others.
5. Optimization
Does the solution support
redesigned work processes?
When selecting a new control system, it is
important that the vendor offer a solution
tightly integrating optimization, multivari-
able control and advanced process control
(APC). Moreover, these tools should be
embedded in a system architecture that
captures and leverages process knowledge
over time. A methodology will also be in
place for continuous improvement.
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC)
Should be used when/for:
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Choosing a
Control System
6. Asset management
Does the solution focus on the entire process?
A supplier’s asset-management solution
should be “process centric.” Users have an
enterprise-wide view of the relationships
between all installed assets, and as such,
can make informed decisions affecting plant
availability. This approach allows the user
to determine: 1) the impact of equipment
problems on the process; 2) the association
between these problems and the business;
and 3) the priority of needed repairs.
CHOOSING A DCS OR A PLC [2]
When choosing a control system for a par-
ticular process application, there are many
considerations that can help influence the
decision. Remember that a DCS is optimally
designed for process control with refinery
control origins and a PLC is optimally
designed for machine or motion control
with car factory relay panel origins. While
PLCs are sometimes used for process-control
applications, there are some trade-offs in
terms of degree of programming, robust-
ness and operational suitability. This is most
often attempted with small or non-hazardous
processes where the loss of benefits is less
visible. Below, each type of system and
those areas where it typically performs best
are listed.
References
1. Gregg, J., Control System Selection, Chem.
Eng., August 2002, pp. 62–66.
2. Bohan, J., Industry Solutions Manager,
Honeywell Process Solutions (Phoenix, Ariz.),
personal communication, Apr. 6, 2009.
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minimal communication between them, and the communication will not
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Department Editor: Kate Torzewski
I
n today’s typical process plants, prevent-
ing steam loss and improving condensate
return are key opportunities to make a
process more energy efficient.
To be the most effective, steam gener-
ally needs to be dry (such as for process
usage), or superheated (for instance, for
use in turbines). These requirements dictate
utility-system operating procedures for
generating the highest quality steam pos-
sible, and then distributing it to the points
of use with minimal deterioration. Since
steam becomes condensate after its heat
energy is expended, strategies must be in
place to remove condensate as quickly as it
is formed, in the steam-supply portion of the
circuit and during steam usage alike.
Furthermore, superheated steam is
typically desuperheated by injecting hot
condensate into the system. As a result, ex-
cessive wetness can also occur downstream
of the desuperheating station. In either
case, if such condensate is not removed
from the steam supply, the negative impact
on the steam system can be substantial, as
seen in Table 1.
Improving condensate return. At many
plants, the operators admittedly realize that
condensate must be removed as quickly
as it is formed, but a suitable condensate
drainage or transportation system is not
in place. In such cases, the condensate is
often sewered or sent to a field drain. Some
possible outcomes of removing condensate
but not handling it effectively are outlined in
Table 2.
Condensate is traditionally removed from
steam systems by steam traps or by equip-
ment combinations involving level pots and
outlet control valves. Process situations in
which high backpressure from the down-
stream portion of the condensate-return
system tend to create a “stall.” Then, a
different system incorporating both a pump
and trap in the design is needed to drive
the condensate while also trapping the
steam; this process may be referred to as
pump-trapping or power-trapping.
Because there are at least three
condensate-drainage alternatives, it makes
more sense to think in terms of required
“condensate discharge locations” rather
than referring to condensate removal de-
vices indiscriminately as “steam traps.” This
broader mind-set helps avoid any predispo-
sition to install steam traps in applications
that need a different type of condensate
drainage solution.
Engineered separator-drains remove
condensate that is entrained in a moving
steam supply (including flash or regener-
ated steam). The result is highest quality
steam delivered for plant use. Compare that
to steam traps, which remove condensate
that has already fallen out of the steam. As
their name suggests, steam traps remove
condensate and “trap steam.” Meanwhile,
level pots can be used in certain instances
Energy Efficiency
in Steam Systems
High-
temperature
fluid
Trap Trap Trap
FIGURE 1. Preferred method to drain jacketed pipe for
high-melting-point fluids, such as sulfur
FIGURE 2. Alternative, practical redesign method for ex-
isting installations to drain jacketed pipe for high-melting-
point fluids, such as sulfur (no “stall”)
High-
temperature
fluid
Trap Trap Trap
TABLE 1. RESULTS OF FAILING TO REMOVE CONDENSATE
FROM THE STEAM SUPPLY
Loss of yield: Entrained water does not carry as much heat to a process as does steam
Damage to nozzles: Entrained water erodes nozzles and can adversely affect vacuum
generation or atomization
Loss of power: Entrained water causes turbines to operate less efficiently
Increase maintenance loading; Water hammer can damage equipment such as turbine
blades and control-valve packing
Increased safety risk: Water hammer can injure personnel
Poor process control: Flooding exchanges can lead to control swings
TABLE 2. RESULTS OF REMOVING CONDENSATE,
BUT FAILING TO HANDLE IT EFFECTIVELY
Profit loss due to waste of heated and treated condensate
The extremely wasteful effect of opening bypass valves around process equipment or
turbines to prevent waterlogging or damage
A possible increase in system corrosion because too much makeup water must be
treated
where steam traps cannot meet the high cally arises when modulating steam pres-
pressure or capacity requirements. sure creates a negative pressure differential
Special situations. There can be many situa- across the condensate drain device. So-
tions in a plant where effective condensate called, Type II secondary pressure drainers
removal requires specialized drainage of the pump-trap type are used on equip-
designs. For instance, Figures 1 and 2 ment with a negative pressure differential.
show two options for condensate drainage Because wasted condensate is a valuable
from a jacketed pipe that conveys high- resource to be saved, use Type I secondary
melting-point materials, such as liquid sulfur pressure drainers of a “pump only” type to
or high-boiling hydrocarbons. recover collected condensate and power it
Other examples of specialized applica- back to the boiler.
tions include options to effectively drain
steam-supplied heat exchangers. A key References
consideration is to first determine whether 1. Risko, J., Handle Steam More Intelligently,
a stall condition exists or not; when it does, Chem. Eng., November 2006, pp. 38–43.
condensate will not drain effectively through 2. Aggarwal, S., Boost Energy Efficiency In Plant
a simple steam trap. Such a situation typi- Utilities, Chem. Eng., April 2002, pp. 70–73.

Department Editor: Kate Torzewski
M
embrane polymers are pack-
aged into a configuration,
commonly called a device
or an element. The most-common
element configurations (figure) are
tubular, capillary fiber, spiral wound,
and plate and frame.
TUBULAR
Made from ceramic, carbon,
stainless steel or a number of
thermoplastics, tubular elements
have inside diameters from 1/4
in. up to about 1 in. Typically, the
membrane is coated on the inside
of the tube, and the feed solution
flows through the interior (lumen)
from one end to the other, with
the permeate passing through the
wall and collected on the outside
of the tube.
CAPILLARY (HOLLOW FIBER)
These elements are similar to the
tubular element in design. They
are, however, smaller in diameter
and usually consist of unsupport-
ed membrane polymers, which re-
quire rigid support on each end.
This support is provided by an
epoxy “potting” of a bundle of the
fibers inside a cylinder. The feed
flow is either down the interior of
the fiber or around its outside.
SPIRAL WOUND
This type of element is made from
an envelope of sheet membrane,
wound around a permeate
tube that is perforated to al-
low collection of the permeate.
Feed water becomes purified by
passing through one layer of the
membrane and flowing into the
permeate tube. This is by far the
most common configuration in
water-purification applications.
PLATE AND FRAME
This kind of element employs
sheet membrane, stretched over a
frame to separate the layers and
facilitate collection of the perme-
ate, which goes to a center tube.
Membrane
Configurations
CHOOSING A CONFIGURATION Tubular
In selecting a membrane configu- Porous
Membrane substrate
ration, it is important to consider
how the packing density and con- Concentrate
centration polarization of each Feed
configuration affects membrane
fouling resistance.
Permeate
Packing density. From the perspec-
tive of cost and convenience, it is Capillary
beneficial to pack as much mem- Permeate
flow
brane area into as small a volume Hollow fibers
as possible. The higher the packing
Concentrate
density, the greater the membrane Feed
area enclosed in a device of a
given volume, and, generally, the
lower the cost of the membrane
element. The disadvantage of Spiral wound
Feed Concentrate
membrane elements having
high packing density is Permeate
their greater propensity flow Permeate
flow
for fouling, as outlined in
the table.
Concentration polarization. Membranes
Concentration polarization is the ac- Feed
cumulation of rejected particles to an spacer
extent that transport to the membrane Plate and frame
surface becomes limited. It reduces Concentrate
the permeability of the solvent and
can lead to a limiting flux and a
Cartridge
higher fouling tendency. Membranes
The type of membrane module used
Feed
in a process affects the influence of
Permeate
concentration polarization; and it is
difficult to balance high fluxes and
low fouling with low investment and
operating costs. Tubular modules can COMPARISON OF MEMBRANE ELEMENT
CONFIGURATIONS
accommodate high cross flow and
large particles, but their capital costs Element Packing Fouling
configuration density* resistance**
and ratio of relative price to mem-
Capillary filter medium high
brane area are considerably higher
than those for spiral-wound modules. Plate and frame low high
Spiral-wound modules, on the other
Spiral wound medium moderate
hand, enjoy the advantages of lower
Tubular low high
installed costs and easier changeout.
* Membrane area per unit volume of element
Channel height can be varied by the
** Tolerance to suspended solids
use of distance keepers, also known
as spacers.
References
Capillary membrane modules can be
1. Cartwright, P., Membranes for Process Water
backwashed inline during filtration to Reuse, Chem. Eng., June 2004, pp. 38–42.
remove particles from the membrane 2. Baird, A., Making High-Purity Water, Chem.
or to add chemicals from the permeate Eng., May 2005, pp. 36–43.
side. Like tubular modules, they have 3. Buecker, B., Microfiltration for CPI Wastewater,
Chem. Eng., May 2007, pp. 63–65.
high investment costs, but their ability to
4. Lipnizki, J., Strategies for Controlling Membrane
backwash at regular intervals reduces the Fouling, Chem. Eng., September 2007, pp.
potential for fouling. 62–64.

Department Editor: Kate Torzewski
FRICTION FACTOR
Fluid flowing through pipes experiences
resistance due to viscosity, turbulence and
roughness of the pipe surface. The Darcy-
Weisbach Equation (1) is commonly used for
the analysis of steady-state, Newtonian-fluid
flow inside pipes. It summarizes the relations
between frictional head loss, fluid properties,
pipe geometry and discharge.
(1)
For laminar flow (Re < 2,100), the friction fac-
tor is a function of Reynolds number only.
(2)
In turbulent flow (Re > 4,000), f depends upon
Reynolds number and pipe roughness.
Hydraulically smooth pipes. In this case, the
friction factor is solely a function of Re. For the
determination of friction factor, Von Kármán
and Prandtl [2] developed Equation (3).
(3)
This correlation must be solved by iterative
procedures, but simpler correlations given by
Colebrook [3] and Blasius [4] are written as
Equations (4) and (5), respectively.
Re
(4)
(5)
Commercial pipe. In this case, f is governed
by both Re and relative roughness, expressed
as F/D. The Colebrook-White’s Equation (6) is
used to calculate f [3].
(6)
As this equation requires trial-and-error solu-
tion, Altshul [5] has developed Equation (7), a
computationally simpler choice.
(7)
PRESSURE DROP
To determine pressure drop, discharge and
diameter must be known.
Hydraulically smooth pipes. Using Equa-
tion (1) and the friction factor correlation for
smooth pipe, Equation (8) is found.
(8)
Commercial pipes. Using Equation (1) and
the friction factor correlation for smooth pipe,
Equation (9) is found.
(9)
DISCHARGE
To determine discharge, pressure drop and
diameter must be known.
Hydraulically smooth pipes. Equations (1)
and (3) allow us to find an expression for the
discharge of a smooth pipe.
(10)
(11)
Commercial pipes. Equations (1) and (6) allow
us to find an expression for the discharge of a
commercial pipe.
(12)
PIPE DIAMETER
Rearranging Equation (1) to yield an expres-
sion for pipe diameter gives Equation (13).
(13)
Smooth pipes. Substituting Equation (5) for f
yields a correlation for pipe diameter.
(14)
Commercial pipes. Determining the diameter
of a rough pipe requires the use of Gu, the
dynamic roughness.
(15)
Manipulating Equation (7) to reflect Gu and
substituting into the expression for pipe di-
ameter gives Equation (17), commercial pipe
diameter. Several design parameters can be
condensed into a constant, named M.
(16)
(17)
The range of Gu is: 0 < Gu < 106, based on
the known ranges of Re and F/D for all pipe
and flow conditions. Substituting these two ex-
treme values of Gu into Equation (15) gives the
following extreme cases, which a pipe diameter
must fall between.
Case 1: Extremely smooth pipe. Gu = 0.
(18)
Case 2: Extremely rough pipe. Gu = 106
(19)
Here, we see that even for very rough pipe (F/D
= 0.01, Re = 108), the diameter estimate will be
only about five thirds of that for smooth pipe.
Pipe Sizing
NOMENCLATURE
D Diameter of pipe, m
DR Diameter of very rough pipe, m
DS Diameter of very smooth pipe, m
D1 Diameter of standard commercially
available pipe, m
f Darcy friction factor, dimensionless
g Gravitational acceleration, m/s2
Gu Dynamic roughness, dimensionless
hf Frictional head loss, m
L Length of pipe, m
Q Volumetric flowrate, m3/s
$P Pressure drop, N/m2
Re Reynolds number, dimensionless,
Re = 4QR/PMD
X Dimensionless parameter (Eq. [11])
E Pipe roughness, m
L Dimensionless parameter (Eq. [16])
M Viscosity, N-s/m2
R Density, kg/m3
C Diameter multiplier, dimensionless
1.8
1.7
1.6
Diameter multiplier, ψ
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
1,000 1x104 1x105 1x106
1 10 100
Gu
Figure 1 is a plot with Gu as abscissa and : as
ordinate. It has the expected limit at Gu = 0, at
: = 1. First, estimate a pipe diameter assuming
smooth pipe. Using this diameter, calculate Gu from
Equation (15). Then, from Figure 1, get the value
of : and multiply it by the diameter to get actual
diameter needed for the commercial pipe.
GRAPHICAL SIZING METHOD
To avoid lengthy calculations, a graphical
method can be used to approximate pipe
diameter. Dividing Equation (17) by Equation
(18), we get the diameter multiplier, :.
(20)
A graphical method using : can help to quickly
estimate the degree of roughness the chosen
pipe can withstand.
References
1. Gulyani, B. B., Approximating Equations for Pipe Siz-
ing, Chem. Eng., February 2001, pp. 105–108.
2. Von Kármán, T. J., Turbulence and skin friction, J.
Aerospace Sci., 7, 1–20, 1934.
3. Colebrook, C. F., and White, C. M., J. of Institution
of Civil Engineers (London), 10, 1, pp. 99–118,
1937–1938.
4. Blausius, H., Das Anlichkeitsgesetz bei Reibungs-
vorgängen in Flüssigkeiten, Forschungsarbeit Arb.
Ing.-Wes., No. 131, Belin, 1913.
5. Altshul A. D., and Kiselev, P. G., “Gidravlika i Aerodina-
mika,” 2nd ed., pp. 166–`96, Strojizdat Moscow, 1975.

Department Editor: Kate Torzewski
H
ere, we present criteria needed for
the intelligent, effective specification
of trays for a distillation or stripping
column.
Among the key parameters and acces-
sories during specification are column
diameter, tray spacing, number of trays,
number of passes, type of downcomers,
weir heights, provision of downcomer
backups, tray pressure drops, design
of bottom seal pan, column bottom
arrangement, and nozzle location and
orientation.
TRAY SPACING
The vertical distance between adjacent
trays varies from 450 to 900 mm in
the columns generally employed in the
chemical process industries (CPI), as
seen in Table 1.
Spacing involves a tradeoff between
column height and column diameter; with
greater tray spacing, the column height
increases, while the required diameter
decreases.
Height/diameter ratios greater than
25–30 are generally not recommended.
TRAY PASSES
Set the number of passes such that liquid
loads do not exceed 70 m3/h per meter
weir length.
After the number of passes has been
selected, if necessary, adjust the column
diameter in order to arrive at a minimum
path length of 400 mm.
t

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The downcomer clearance should be
2,100 mm: use two passes at maxi-
mum
t

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0.45–0.50 m/s.
use three passes at maximum
t

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four passes at maximum
DOWNCOMERS
Downcomers are conduits having
circular, segmental or rectangular cross
sections that convey liquid from a tray to
the one immediately below.
Liquid velocities in downcomers:
t

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0.12–0.21 m/s
t

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0.09–0.18 m/s
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0.06–0.09 m/s
Downcomer areas and clearances
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the cross-sectional area of the downcom-

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ers, values less than 5–8% of the column
Tray Column
Design
TABLE 1. Guidelines for Selection of Tray Spacing
Description Tray Spacing, mm Comments
Column diameters The tray support beams restrict
larger than 3,000 > 600 crawling space available; hence
mm the large tray spacing
Column diameters This spacing is sufficiently wide to
between 1,200 600 allow a worker to freely crawl be-
and 3,000 mm tween trays
Crawling between the trays is sel-
Column diameters
dom required, because the worker
between 750 and 450
can reach the column wall from
1,200 mm
the tray manways
Fouling and cor-
> 600 Frequent maintenance is expected
rosive service
Systems with a At least 450 mm,
Required to avoid premature
high foaming but preferably 600
flooding
tendency mm or higher
Columns At least 450 mm,
Required to avoid excessive
operating in spray but preferably 600
entrainment
regime mm or higher
Columns Lower tray spacing restricts
operating in froth < 450 allowable vapor velocity, thereby
regime promoting froth-regime operation
cross-sectional area should not be speci- exceed the clearance normally employed
fied. Also, the downcomer width should under the tray downcomers. It should be
not be less than 10% of the column at least 50 mm.
diameter. The distance that the downcomer
Specify the downcomer clearance to extends downward within the seal pan
be less than the outlet weir height; other- should be about the same as the clear-
wise, vapor will flow up the downcomer ance between downcomer bottom and
rather than through the tray deck above. pan floor.
Downcomer sealing: To achieve a proper The distance between bottom tray floor
downcomer seal, the bottom edge of and seal pan floor should be 150 mm
the downcomer should be about 10 mm greater than the normal tray spacing.
below the top edge of the outlet weir.
NOZZLE ORIENTATION
selected such that the liquid velocity 'PS
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under the downcomer does not exceed tray, the nozzle should be perpendicular
to the downcomer of the top tray.
Nozzles feeding liquid at intermediate
OUTLET WEIRS trays can be placed anywhere except
in the downcomer segment. The space
t

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between the two trays should be at least
restricted to 50–80 mm
800 mm.
t

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the spray regime should be 20–25 mm
8FJS
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GBMM
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COLUMN BOTTOM
range of 15 to 70 m3/h per meter weir Inlets for the bottom feed and reboiler
length. return lines should be at least 300 mm
above the high liquid level.
PRESSURE DROP
The bottom feed and reboiler return
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should not impinge on the bottom seal
their best efficiency point, the dry-tray pan, seal pan overflow, or the bottom
pressure drop must be roughly equal to downcomer.
the hydraulic-tray pressure drop. The tops of both pipes should be at
least 400–450 mm below the bottom tray.
SEAL PANS
References
The clearance between the seal pan 
.VLIFSKFF
floor and the bottom downcomer should Details, Chem. Eng., September 2005, pp. 52–58.
 Fluid Flow

Department Editor: Kate Torzewski

DEFINITIONS ¨ N N4 · NOMENCLATURE
Newtonian fluid. A fluid is known to be f  16 ©1  1 He 1 3 He7 ¸
NRe © 6 N Re 3 f NRe ¸ (11) a Dimensionless parameter
Newtonian when shear stresses associated with d ª d d¹
flow are directly proportional to the shear rate A Dimensionless parameter
DVR B Dimensionless parameter
of the fluid NRed  (12)
Power law fluid. A structural fluid has a structure
Md D Diameter, m
that forms in the undeformed state, but then D2 RT 0 f Fanning friction factor, dimensionless
breaks down as shear rate increases. Such a N He  (13) fL Laminar friction factor, dimensionless
fluid exhibits “power law” behavior at intermedi-
M d2
fT Fully turbulent friction factor, dimensionless
ate shear rates
TURBULENT PIPE FLOW fTr Transition friction factor, dimensionless
Bingham plastic fluid. A plastic is a material that
g Gravitational acceleration, m/s2
exhibits a yield stress, meaning that it behaves
as a solid below the stress level and as a fluid Since most turbulent flows cannot be analyzed L Length of cylinder or pipe, m
above the stress level from a purely theoretical perspective, data and m Consistency coefficient, (N)(s)/m2
generalized dimensionless correlations are used. n Power law fluid flow index, dimensionless
Newtonian fluid. The friction factor for a NHe Hedstrom number, dimensionless
LAMINAR PIPE FLOW Newtonian fluid in turbulent flow is a function of NRe Reynolds Number, dimensionless
both NRe and the pipe relative roughness, ε/D,
For steady flow in a pipe (whether laminar or NRe,pl Power law Reynolds Number, dimensionless
which can be read off the Moody diagram [5].
turbulent), a momentum balance on the fluid gives NRe,plc Power law Reynolds Number at transition
The turbulent part of the Moody diagram (for
the shear stress at any distance from the pipe from laminar to turbulent flow, dimensionless
NRe > 4,000) is accurately represented by the
centerline.
Colebrook equation (14). NRe∞ Bingham-plastic Reynolds Number,
T rx  $&r  T w r (1) dimensionless
2L R 1  4 log ¨ E D  1.255 · (14) P Pressure, Pa
© ¸
In Equation (1), Φ = P + ρgz. The volumetric f ª¾ 3.7 NRe f ¹¾ Q Volumetric flowrate, m3/s
flowrate Q can be related to the local shear rate
When NRe is very large, the friction factor depends r Radial position in a pipe or a cylinder, m
by doing an integration by parts of Equation (2).
R only on ε/D. This condition is noted with fT as the R Pipe or cylinder radius, m
Q  P ∫¾ r G rx dr
2˙
(2) “fully turbulent” friction factor in Equation (15). V Velocity, m/s
0 z Vertical elevation above a horizontal refer-
1 = – 4 log ⎡ ε D ⎤ (15)
Newtonian fluid. For a Newtonian fluid, ⎢⎣ 3.7 ⎥⎦ ence plane, m
fT α Dimensionless parameter
τrx = μγtrx, which gives the following volumetric
flowrate, known as the Hagen-Poiseuille equation. The Churchill Equation [2] represents the entire γtrx Shear rate in tube flow, s–1
4 Moody diagram, from laminar, through transition
Q  P$&D (3) flow, to fully turbulent flow. It is presented here as
ε Wall roughness, m
128 ML μ Newtonian viscosity, Pa–s
Equations (16), (17), and (18).
It can be written in dimensionless form in Equation 1
μ∞ Bingham Plastic limiting viscosity, Pa–s
(4) with the two terms defined in Equations (5) ¨¥ ´
12 · 12 ρ Density, kg/m3
and (6). f  2 ©¦ 8 µ  1
1.5
¸ (16) τ0 Yield stress, N/m2
f = 16 / NRe (4)
©§ NRe ¶
ª  A  B ¸
¹ τrx Stress due to force in x direction acting on r
16 surface, N/m2
P 2 D5  $& ¨ ¥ ´· τw Stress exerted by fluid on tube wall, N/m2
f  (5) ©
32RLQ2 ¦ µ¸ Φ Flow potential, P + ρgz, Pa
A  ©2.457 ln¦ 1 µ¸
© (17) ΔΦ Ιncrease in flow potential, Pa
4QR ¦ ¥ 7 ´ 0.9 0.27E µ ¸
NRe  (6) © ¦§ ¶  µ¸
PDM ª¾ § Re D ¶ ¹¾
Bingham plastic. For the Bingham plastic, fT is solely
Power law. A fluid that follows the power law 16
¥ 37, 530 ´ a function of NRe∞ and NHe, as represented by
model obeys the relationship τrx = –μ(–γtrx)n. This B¦ (18)
µ Equations (26)–(29).
gives the following equation. § NRe ¶
1 1
3n+ 1
τ
Q=π ⎞ w⎞
n
⎞ n ⎞R n (7)
Power law. For a power-law fluid, the friction fac-
tor depends only upon Equation (9) and the flow

f  f Lm  fTm m (26)

⎠mR⎠ ⎠3n + 1⎠ index, as represented by Equations (19)–(25) [3]. a

Equation (7) can be rearranged into the following fT  10 (27)
f = (1 − α ) f L + α 0.193
NRe
dimensionless form. d
[ ]
1 (19)
f = 16 / NRe, pl (8) fT−8 + −8
fTr 8

27
3 n
RQ 2
n
fL  16
;
a 
14.7 1  0.146 e 
2.9 s 10

5
N He = (28)
NRe, pl  (9) (20)
n NRe, pl
¨3n  1 · m  1.7 
40, 000 (29)
mP 2
n D 4
3n © n¸
ª ¹ 0.0682n
0.5 NRe
fT  1 (21)
Bingham plastic. In this case, there is a solid-like [ NRe, pl ] (1.87 2.39 n)
“plug flow” region from the pipe centerline (where References
τrx = 0) to the point where –τrx = τ0 (that is, at r 0.414 0.757 n [
5.24 n]
1.Darby, R., Take the Mystery Out of Non-Newtonian
= r0 = R x τ0/ τw). The result is a flow integral fTr  1.79 s 10
4 NRe, pl e Fluids, Chem. Eng., March 2001, pp. 66–73.
(22)
modified from Equation (2). For a Bingham plas- 2.Churchil, S. W., Friction Factor Equation Spans all Fluid-
Flow Regimes, Chem. Eng., November 1997, p. 91.
tic, –τrx = τ0 + μ∞(–γtrx). Using this expression and A 1
(23) 3.Darby, R., and Chang, H. D., A Generalized Correla-
the modified flow integral, the Buckingham-Reiner 1  4
$ tion for Friction Loss in Drag-reducing Polymer Solutions,
Equation (10) is found. AIChE J., 30, p. 274, 1984.
$  NRe, pl
NRe, plc (24)
4
PR3T w ¨© 4 ¥ T 0 ´ 1 ¥ T 0 ´ ·¸ 4.Darby, R., and Chang, H. D., A Friction Factor Equation
Q 1
¦ µ  ¦ µ (10) The value of NRe where transition from laminar to for Bingham Plastics, Slurries and Suspensions for all
4 M d © 3 § T w ¶ 3 §T w ¶ ¸ turbulent flow occurs (NRe,plc) is given by Equa- Fluid Flow Regimes, Chem. Eng., December 28, 1981,
ª ¹ pp. 59–61.
tion (25).
The equivalent dimensionless form is given by 5.Darby, R., “Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers,”
Equations (11), (12) and (13). NRe, plc  2, 100  875(1
n) (25) Vol. 2, Marcel Dekker, New York, N.Y., 2001.

Department Editor: Kate Torzewski
B
iodiesel can be produced from
vegetable oils by three types
of reactions: base catalyzed
transesterification of the oil; direct
acid-catalyzed transesterification of
the oil; and conversion of the oil to its
fatty acids, and then to biodiesel.
Biodiesel is typically produced by
a base-catalyzed reaction (Figure 2).
This method of production has several
advantages, including the following:
low temperature (150˚F) and pressure
(20 psi) reaction that requires only
standard materials of construction;
direct conversion to biodiesel with no
intermediate compounds; and high
conversion (98%) with minimal side
reactions and a low reaction time.
In the chemical reaction for base-
catalyzed biodiesel production,
vegetable oil is reacted with a short
chain alcohol (signified by ROH)
in the presence of a catalyst to
produce glycerin and biodiesel. The
fatty acid chains associated with
the oil, which are mostly palmitic,
stearic, oleic, and linoleic acids for
naturally occurring oils, are repre-
sented by R', R'' and R''' (Figure 1).
PRODUCTION STEPS
Mixing of alcohol and cata-
lyst. The catalyst is typically sodium
hydroxide (caustic soda) or potassium
hydroxide (potash). It is dissolved in
the alcohol using a standard agitator
or mixer. Methanol or ethanol is com-
monly used as the alcohol.
Reaction. The mixture of alcohol
and catalyst is charged into a closed
reaction vessel, and the oil is added.
The reaction mix is kept just above the
boiling point of the alcohol, 160°F,
to speed up the reaction, although it
is sometimes recommend to run the
reaction at room temperature. The
reaction time can vary from 1–8 h.
Excess alcohol is used to ensure total
conversion of the oil to its esters.
The amount of water and free
fatty acids in the incoming oil must
be monitored, because if either
level is too high, it can inhibit soap
Biodiesel
Production
formation and the separation of
glycerin downstream.
Methanol Catalyst
Separation. Glycerin and biodiesel
are the two main products of reac-
tion, with each containing an amount
of unreacted alcohol. Since the Mixer
Soybean oil
glycerin phase is much more dense
than biodiesel phase, the two phases
can be separated by gravity in a
settling vessel, with glycerin simply
drawn off the bottom of the settling Reactor
Excess methanol
vessel. Alternatively, a centrifuge can
be used to separate the two materials
more quickly.
Glycerin neutralization. The Settler
separated glycerin contains unused
catalyst and soaps, which are neutral- Biodiesel Glycerin
ized with an acid. Water and alcohol
are removed to produce glycerin
at 80–88% purity to sell as crude Neutral-
glycerin. Alternatively, glycerin can Wash
ization
distilled to 99% purity or higher for
selling to the cosmetic and pharma-
ceutical industries.
Methyl ester wash. After the
biodiesel is separated from glyc-
Distillation
Distillation
erin, residual catalyst or soaps can
be removed with a gentle warm
water wash.
Alcohol removal. Unreacted alco-
hol in both the glycerin and biodiesel
phases is removed by flash evapora- Biodiesel Glycerin
tion or distillation. The recovered alco-
hol is then reused for mixing with the ASTM specifications. Additionally, all
catalyst. Alcohol removal can occur biodiesel produced must be regis-
after the wash and neutralization, as tered with the U.S. Environmental
shown in Figure 2 to the right, but it Protection Agency (Washington, D.C)
can occur before these steps as well. under 40 CFR Part 79.
Product quality and registra- References
tion. Prior to use as a commercial 1. Biodiesel Production & Quality Standards,
fuel in the U.S., the finished biodiesel July, 2008. National Biodiesel Board,
www.biodiesel.org/resources/fuelfactsheets
must be analyzed to ensure it meets
CH2OCOR’’’ CH2OH R’’’ COOR
Catalyst
CH2OCOR’’ + 3 ROH CH2OH + R’’ COOR
CH2OCOR’ CH2OH R’ COOR
Vegetable Alcohol Glycerin Biodiesel
oil
 Heat Transfer
System Design
Department Editor: Kate Torzewski

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FACTS AT YOUR FINGERTIPS Sponsored by


Department Editor: Kate Torzewski
C
rystallization is a method of solid-
fluid separation in which pure
chemical crystals are formed.
Crystallization kinetics consists of
three major phenomena: nucleation
(the birth of a crystal), transfer of the
solute from the supersaturated solution
to the crystal surface, and a reaction
during which the solute becomes incor-
porated into the crystal.
SUPERSATURATION
In order to drive the process of crystal-
lization, the solution must be supersatu-
rated with solute.
The solubility of the solution, related
to crystal size, is defined by the Kelvin
equation:
Supersaturation can be quantified by
the ratio of the mass solute concen-
tration in the bulk solution to the
concentration in the solution at the
point of saturation. Alternatively, it
can be described by relative super-
saturation, which is calculated by the
following equation:
NUCLEATION
Nucleation occurs at the point that a
crystal begins to form. The relative
rates of nucleation and growth are
critical to crystallization kinetics, as
they determine both crystal size and
size distribution. Nucleation is catego-
rized as primary if the supersaturated
solution is free of crystals, or second-
ary if the solution already contains
crystals. Primary nucleation requires a
higher level of supersaturation and is
the principal mechanism occurring in
precipitation. Secondary nucleation oc-
curs in commercial crystallizers, where
crystalline surfaces are present in order
to produce large crystals.
Primary nucleation
Primary nucleation, when occurring
homogeneously, takes place in a
Crystallization
supersaturated solution that is free of
foreign matter. First, molecules in the
Nomenclature
solution will associate into a micro- A Frequency factor
scopic cluster, which will either dis- As Surface area of crystal
sociate or continue to grow. When the B0 Rate of homogeneous pri-
cluster develops until it forms a lattice mary nucleation
structure, it is then called an embryo. A
c Mass solute concentration
stable crystalline nucleus is established
in the bulk supersaturated
when the crystal size exceeds Dp given
solution
by the Kelvin equation for the solution’s
specific supersaturation ratio. cs Mass solute concentration
in the solution at satura-
Combining the Kelvin equation with
tion
laws of chemical kinetics gives the rate
of homogeneous nucleation, which is c/cs Supersaturation ratio
described as follows: dm/dt Rate of mass deposited on
the crystal surface
Dp Crystal diameter
kc Mass transfer coefficient
ki Kinetic coefficient
kN, b, j, r Constants determined ex-
perimentally
MT Mass of crystals per vol-
ume of magma
Secondary nucleation N Agitation rate
Industrial crystallizers typically rely on Na Avogadro’s number
secondary nucleation, which is caused R Gas Constant
by the presence of existing crystals in s Relative supersaturation
the supersaturated solution. This can
t Time
occur by one of three mechanisms in
which nuclei are removed from a crys- T Temperature
tal surface, including the following: s,L Interfacial tension
—fluid shear Molar volume of crystals
s
—collision of crystals with each other Number of ions/molecule
—collision of crystals with metal of solute
surfaces
Solute diffusivity
The phenomena of secondary nucle-
ation is too complex to derive a simple Solution density
kinetic theory, so an empirical power-
law function has been developed to
describe this process, which is based incorporated into the crystal-lattice
structure. By combining these steps, the
on experimentally derived constants for
rate of mass transfer in crystal growth
a particular system:
is expressed as follows:
Through a series of calculations, this
CRYSTAL GROWTH
expression can be used to define the
particle size of a crystal at any time,
Based on data proving that a solution
assuming that Dp0 << Dp:
in contact with a crystal is supersatu-
rated, there is an accepted two-step
theory of crystal growth, referred to as
the diffusion-reaction theory. In the first
step, mass transfer of solute from the
solution to the crystal-solution interface
occurs. In the second step, the kinetic
References
step, a first-order reaction occurs at the
1.Seader, J. D. and Henley, E. J., “Separation
surface of the crystal, during which sol- Process Principles,” 2nd ed., John Wiley and
ute molecules from the solution become Sons, Inc., New Jersey, 2006.

Department Editor: Kate Torzewski
GATE
Gate valves are designed to
operate fully open or fully closed;
When fully opened, there is very
little pressure drop across the
valve, and when fully closed there
is good sealing against pressure.
With the proper mating of a disk
to the seat ring, very little or no
leakage occurs across the disk
when the gate valve is closed.
Gate valves open or close slowly,
which prevents fluid hammer and
subsequent damage to the piping
system. Gate valves are usually
classified by the type of disk used,
and a variety of disk types are
available, such as solid wedge,
split wedge or parallel disk.
GLOBE
The basic principle of globe valve
operation is the perpendicular
movement of the disk toward, or
away from, the seat. This causes
the annular space between the
disk and seat ring to gradually
close as the valve is closed. It is
this characteristic that gives the
globe valve good throttling ability.
When the valve is closed, there
is no blocked-in volume, as occurs
in a gate valve, so a globe valve
has much less leakage around
the seat. Also, the disk-to-seat-ring
contact is much closer to forming
right angles, so the force of clos-
ing tightly seats the disk.
PINCH
This valve consists of a flexible
tube that is mechanically pinched
from the outside of the valve
body. The principal advantages of
this type of valve are that the flow
passage is straight without any
crevices, and there are no internal
moving parts. The soft valve body
has the ability to seal around
trapped solids, so pinch valves
are suitable for handling slurries
and solids, which would clog in
the obstructed flow passages of
other valve types. They are also
used for the sanitary handling of
foodstuffs and pharmaceuticals
because the media are isolated
from the working parts.
DIAPHRAGM
The flow passage in diaphragm
valves is free of crevices and
is unobstructed by moving
parts, making them suitable for
applications where cleanliness,
bubble-tight shutoff and chemical
compatibility are important. The
diaphragm valve is considered
Gate
valve
Diaphragm
valve
Butterfly
valve
to be the valve least likely to
cause contamination. For this
reason, it is popular in high-
purity applications.
It is available in two general
designs, weir and straightway.
The weir-style diaphragm valve is
utilized for higher-pressure applica-
tions. The straightway diaphragm
valve, having no flow path obstruc-
tions, is well suited for higher-flow
and slurry applications.
BALL
This rotational-motion valve uses
a ball-shaped disk with a hole
bored through to stop or start fluid
flow. When the valve handle is
turned to the open position, the
ball is rotated so that the hole
lines up with the valve body’s
inlet and outlet. When the ball is
rotated so the hole is perpendicu-
lar to the flow, the valve is closed.
Because the ball moves across
the seats with a wiping motion,
ball valves can handle fluids with
suspended solids.
Globe
valve
Ball
valve
Check
valve
Ball valves are available in
Venturi, reduced and full-port
patterns. The full-port pattern has
a ball with a bore equal to the
inside diameter of pipe. Most ball
valves instead have a reduced
bore with a Venturi shaped flow
passage of about three quarters
the nominal valve size.
PLUG
Plug valves have a cylindrical or
tapered plug with a hole bored
through. As with ball valves, fluid
flows when the hole in the plug is
aligned with the pipe, and a quar-
ter turn of the plug stops the flow.
Plug valves often have fluoro-
carbon seating materials and in
some cases are fully lined with
fluorocarbons, which provides
excellent protection for corrosive
applications that require bubble-
tight shutoff. There are several
different types of plug valves
commonly used in the CPI, includ-
ing lubricated, nonlubricated and
eccentric types.
Valves
Pinch
valve
Plug
valve
Source for figures: Valve Manufacturers
Association of America, Washington, D.C.
BUTTERFLY
Butterfly valves get their name from
the winglike action of the flow-con-
trolling disk that opens and closes
at right angles to the flow path.
Butterfly valves were introduced to
counteract the problems associated
with linear-valve designs (espe-
cially gate valves), such as the
relatively large size and weight,
the high operating force required,
and the tendency to leak. Instead
of a long stroke, the butterfly valve
requires a quarter turn to cycle
from a fully open to fully closed
position. Butterfly valves can be
used for both on/off and throttling
applications.
CHECK
The purpose of a check (or non-
return) valve is to allow fluid flow
in one preferred direction and
to prevent back flow, or flow in
the opposite direction. Ideally, a
check valve will begin to close as
the pressure drops in a pipeline
and the fluid momentum slows.
When the flow direction reverses,
the check valve should close
completely. Check valves can be
of the following types: swing, lift
and tilting disk.
References
1.Sahoo, T., Pick the Right Valve,
Chem. Eng., August 2004, pp.
34–39.
 Vacuum
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Department Editor: Kate Torzewski

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Chem. Eng.
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 Humidity
Control
Department Editor: Kate Torzewski

APPLICATIONS
Compressor
Heater
Dehumidification by cooling or dessication Condenser
Receiver
has a variety of applications, including:
Desiccant
Preventing moisture regain. Nearly all Fan Cooling wheel
coil
materials have some affinity for moisture
based on surface characteristics and Process air Dry air
the amount of surface exposed to humid Heater
air. Moisture regain occurs when moist
Condensate pan
particles stick together. Drive motor
160 160
Preventing condensation. Air holds water 100% 100%
vapor in proportion to its temperature. Cold
Specific humidity, grains/lb

Specific humidity, grains/lb

surfaces of pipes, vessels, valves and heat
exchangers condense moisture unless the
air around them is dried to a dewpoint
below the temperature of the cold surface.
Preventing corrosion. The exposure of metal
surfaces to atmospheric corrosion can be
reduced by surrounding the surfaces with
dry air. Dehumidifiers also keep humidity
low in process control rooms, preventing
the corrosion of electrical contacts and
sensitive electrical components.
Drying heat-sensitive products. Typically,
drying time is reduced by heating a prod-
uct. If the product is susceptible to damage
by heat, drying time can be reduced by
using dehumidified air, which reduces the
vapor pressure of air above the wet surface.
COOLING
A common method for dehumidification is
the use of air conditioning. Figure 1 shows
a typical vapor-compression cooling-based
dehumidification process. Air to be dried
passes through a cooling coil, which lowers
the temperature of the airstream below its
dewpoint. As the air cools, it loses its capac-
ity to hold water vapor. The water condenses
on the cooling coil surface, and falls to the
drain pan as liquid. The air is then drier in
absolute terms, but it also has a relative hu-
midity close to 100%. If low relative humidity
is needed in addition to a lower absolute
amount of moisture, the air can be heated
after it leaves the cooling coil.
For industrial purposes, cooling-based
dehumidification units are optimized for re-
moving moisture rather than removing heat.
These units provide deep cooling of small
amounts of air rather than slight cooling
of large amounts of air, condensing more
moisture. Standard refrigeration equipment
can produce dewpoints of +40°F (4°C) on a
reliable basis.
DESSICATION
In a desiccant system, the process airstream
passes through a desiccant medium. The
desiccant adsorbs moisture directly from
the airstream. Desiccant dehumidifiers can
produce dewpoints below 0°F (–18°C)
relative humidity
75%
50%
Enter 40
Leave
10 20 30 50 60 70
Air temperature, oF
FIGURE 1.

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UISPVHI
B
DPPMJOH


EFIVNJEJGJFS
— a fivefold reduction in the air moisture
beyond what can be achieved with a stan-
dard-grade air conditioning system.
This equipment uses differences in vapor
pressure to remove moisture from air by
chemical attraction. The surface of dry
desiccant has a very low vapor pressure,
compared with the much higher vapor pres-
sure of humid air.
Water vapor moves out of the humid air
onto the desiccant surface to eliminate the
vapor pressure difference, as shown in
Figure 2. Eventually, the desiccant surface
collects enough water vapor to equal the
vapor pressure of the humid air. Then the
desiccant must be dried (reactivated) by ap-
plying heat before it is recycled to remove
more moisture from the air stream.
COOLING VS. DESSICATION
In most chemical process applications, both
technologies work best together. Cooling-
based dehumidification handles the mois-
ture load occurring at high dewpoints, and
desiccant-based dehumidification removes
the moisture load at low dewpoints. The op-
timal mix of the two technologies depends
on the characteristics of the application.
Factors to consider include the following:
Dewpoint control level. When the required
moisture-control level is relatively high
(above a 50°F dewpoint), cooling-based
dehumidification is economical in terms of
relative humidity
120 120
75%
80
50% 80
Enter
25% 40
25% Leave
10 10
80 10 20 30 50 60 70 80
Air temperature, oF
FIGURE 2.

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EFIVNJEJGJFS
both operating cost and initial equipment
cost. Below 50°F, precautions need to be
taken to avoid freezing the condensed
water on the cooling coil. Consequently,
desiccants are more economical than cool-
ing-based systems at lower dewpoints.
Relative humidity sensitivity. When a pro-
cess needs a low moisture level in absolute
terms, but can tolerate a high relative
humidity, cooling-based dehumidification
without desiccants is cost effective. By con-
trast, in processes that demand a low rela-
tive humidity in addition to a low dewpoint,
desiccant systems are used for humidity
control, with supplementary cooling systems
to keep temperature within acceptable lim-
its. When a product is sensitive to relative
humidity but not to temperature, a desiccant
dehumidifier is used without a cooling unit
to maintain a constant relative humidity.
Temperature tolerance. If the application
can tolerate a wide temperature range,
then dehumidification alone may suffice. In
most cases, both temperature and moisture
must be maintained within set limits, so both
cooling and desiccant equipment are used
in a combination to maintain control.
References
1.Harriman, L., Don’t Sweat It, Dehumidify,
Chem. Eng., August 1997, pp. 80–87.
2.Soleyn, K., Humidity Control: Preventing
Moisture Contamination, Chem. Eng., October
2003, pp. 50–51.
 Acid Storage

Department Editor: Kate Torzewski

M
ost common acids can be stored in Standard flanged DImension all nozzle
horizontal or vertical ASME-type and dished heads locations from this line
tanks, as shown in the figures to the Manhole Vent
right, or vertical API-type tanks. Horizontal,
carbon-steel ASME-type tanks of 10,000—
40,000 gal capacity should have a plate
thickness of 3/8 in. with dished heads of
2A* 2A*
the same thickness. The thickness includes
a corrosion allowance of 1/4 in., which Knuckle radius line
provides a tank life of 15—20 years.
Weld lines

4VMGVSJD
BDJE
)40

Storage. This acid is prone to enter into Top plate of saddle

reactions that generate hydrogen, so in welded to shell
addition to keeping the vessel vented
adequately, exclude potential sources of
ignition from the vicinity. A A
6 in. typical
Materials of construction. Carbon
steel is satisfactory for concentrated * Minimum width of the shell course at each saddle. Width may be increased if more economical for shell course layout.

technical grades of sulfuric acid at

Materials of construction. These
normal atmospheric temperature. H2SO4
storage tanks should be fabricated of rub-
solutions that are more dilute corrode
ber-lined carbon steel, glass-lined carbon
carbon steel severely. To avoid inadver-
steel or fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP). Soft
tent dilution of concentrated acid, keep Nominal capacity level
natural-rubber compounds are used as lin-
acid away from contact with moist air.

prox)
ers for concentrated acid storage tanks at
Polyvinyl chloride pipe is recommended OD
temperatures up to 60˚C with a minimum

D (ap
for ordinary sulfuric acid, but for oleum,
lining thickness of 3/16 in. Semi-hard Submerged
Type 316 stainless steel or carbon-steel

R=O
rubber is used for lining equipment and Name fill pipe
lined with a fluorocarbon is best. plate
piping for acid up to 70˚C with FRP tanks
of vinyl-ester resin. Grounding

15 in.
1IPTQIPSJD
BDJE
)10
clip
Storage. The tank bottom should be rolled
to a height of 3 in. (upward). This allows /JUSJD
BDJE
)/0

Storage. Storage tanks for HNO3 of less

welds to freely expand or contract. Corner
welds should be avoided, as undue stresses
can occur and aggravate corrosion [2].
Depending on the acid grade, the freezing
point varies and may necessitate heating to
avoid freeze-up in storage. In any case, to
avoid corrosion, high-pressure steam should
not be used; steam coils located several
inches below the bottom of the tank are
recommended. The space below the tank
bottom should be enclosed to permit heat-
ing of the air to 50˚C, and the tank walls
should be insulated.
Materials of construction. Tanks can
be fabricated of Type 316 extra-low-carbon
stainless steel, rubber--lined carbon steel or
fiberglass-reinforced plastic. Carbon steel
should not be used, as it will corrode.
)ZESPDIMPSJD
BDJE
)$M
rosion allowance in the tank-wall thickness
Storage. HCl of all strengths should be
stored in tanks similar to those men-
tioned above. Containment areas should
be provided around tanks, and storage
facilities should include a pressure- and
required to evaluate blistering.
vacuum-relief service, primary and
redundant level indicators, a high-level
alarm, an overflow line, an emergency
block valve at the tank outlet nozzle and
a vent-fume scrubber.
than 95 wt.% concentration should be
designed for at least a slight pressure and
vacuum, permitting the venting of nitrogen-
oxide fumes to collection and disposal
equipment, such as a scrubber or a flare.
When locating the tank vent and overflow
pipe, consider that escaping vapors and
liquid can corrode exterior welds as the
acid is diluted with atmospheric moisture.
Materials of construction. For concen-
trations up to 95 wt.% at ambient tempera-
ture, storage units should be fabricated of
Type 304L stainless steel. For concentra-
tions of 95 wt.% and above, Type 3003
aluminum alloy should be used. Acid in
the range of 52–55 wt.% should be stored
in tanks of Type 347 stainless steel using
No. 12 gage sheet. Above 90 wt.%, cor-
HF. Acid of concentrations greater than 60
may be necessary. Glass-lined carbon
steel tanks are satisfactory for all acid
grades.
)ZESPáVPSJD
BDJE
)'
Storage. Because of anhydrous HF’s high
vapor pressure, tanks are designed for a
minimum pressure of 60 psig and have
X-rayed and stress-relieved welds. Tanks
holding 70 wt.% HF are also designed per
Bottom
outlet
baffle
Channel
legs
ASME code, or for lower pressure, as its
vapor pressure is much lower than that of an-
hydrous HF. These tanks should be equipped
with a relief device, and discharge piping
should be routed to a scrubber. Aqueous HF
tanks should have a vent, with the vent line
also going to the scrubber.
Materials of construction. Carbon-steel
storage tanks can be used for anhydrous HF
at temperatures up to 66˚C and 70 wt.%
wt.% may be handled in steel up to a tem-
perature of 38˚C. In steel tanks, hydrogen
blistering may be caused by the accumula-
tion of H2, so periodic tank inspections are
References
1.Grossel, S., Safe Efficient Handling of Acids,
Chem. Eng. December 1998, pp. 104–112.
2.Anon., Phosphoric Acid, Rhone-Poulene Basic
Chemicals Co., Shelton, Conn. (1992).

Department Editor: Kate Torzewski
PACKED COLUMNS [1]
A packed column is a vertical,
cylindrical pressure vessel con-
taining one or more sections of a
packing material over whose sur-
face the liquid flows downward
by gravity, as a film or as drop-
lets, between packing elements.
Vapor flows upward through the
wetted packing, contacting the
liquid and facilitating absorption
of the vapor into the liquid.
Packings are offered in either ran-
dom or structured designs. Here,
we will focus on random pack-
ings, which are separate pieces
of packing that have a uniform
geometric shape. Instead of be-
ing arranged in a structured way,
they are dumped or randomly
packed into the column shell.
DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS [2] Source: “Separation Process Principles,” 2nd ed., John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Size. Random packings are typically avail-
able in diameters of 1–3.5 in. Generally,
as packing size increases, mass-transfer
efficiency and pressure drop decrease.
By this correlation, for a given column
diameter, an optimal packing size can be
determined that represents a compromise
between achieving low pressure drop and
high mass-transfer rates. A rule of thumb
that must also be taken into account is to
choose a packing diameter that is less than
one-eighth of the column diameter, which
minimizes liquid channeling.
Material. Metal packings are usually
preferred because of their superior strength
and good wettability. Ceramic packings,
on the other hand, have superior wettability
but inferior strength, and are used only in
situations at elevated temperatures where
corrosion resistance is needed and plastics
would fail. Plastic packings, usually made
of polypropylene, are inexpensive and
have sufficient strength; however, they may
experience poor wettability, especially at
low liquid flowrates.
PACKING OBJECTIVES [1]
1. Maximize the specific surface area. In-
creasing the surface area per unit volume
maximizes the vapor-liquid contact area,
and, therefore, efficiency. Efficiency gener-
ally increases as the random packing size
is decreased.
2. Spread the surface area uniformly. This
improves vapor-liquid contact, and there-
fore, efficiency. For instance, a Raschig
FACTS AT YOUR FINGERTIPS Sponsored by:
ring and a Pall ring of identical size have
identical surface areas per unit volume,
but the Pall ring has a superior spread of
surface area and therefore gives much
better efficiency.
3. Maximize the void space per unit
column volume. This minimizes resistance
to gas upflow, thereby enhancing packing
capacity. Capacity increases with random
packing size. This poses a trade off,
however, in that the ideal size of packing
is a compromise between maximizing ef-
ficiency and maximizing capacity.
4. Minimize friction. An open shape
minimizes friction, providing good aerody-
namic characteristics.
5. Minimize costs. Packing costs, as well
as the requirements for packing supports
and column foundations, generally increase
with the weight per unit volume of packing.
Packings generally become cheaper as the
size of random packing increases.
PACKING STRUCTURES [3,2]
Raschig Rings are hollow cylinders with
a height that is equal to the ring diam-
eter. This structure is the oldest form of
random packing.
1.“Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 8th
The original saddle-shaped packings, Berl
Saddles, have a smaller free-gas design
2.Seader, J. D. and Henley, E. J., “Separation
than Raschig Rings. However, they are of-
ten a more preferable choice, as they offer
a lower pressure drop and higher capacity.
3.Schweitzer, P., “Handbook of Separation
The invention of the Intalox Saddle marked
the start of the second generation of
Random Tower
Packing
random packings. When packed
together, they prevent significant
portions of wetting liquid from
being blocked off, thus avoiding
pools of liquid, trapped gas and
violent directional changes of
gas. They offer higher capacity,
higher efficiency and lower pres-
sure drop than Berl Saddles.
The Intalox Saddle was further
improved into the Super Intalox
Tower Packing, which has scal-
loped edges and holes in the
material. This allows further
liquid drainage, the elimina-
tion of stagnant pockets, and
more open area for vapor rise,
thus providing higher capacity
and efficiency.
Pall rings are modified Raschig
Rings that have windows cut and
bent inward. This lowers friction
while improving packing area
distribution, wetting and liquid
distribution. This design allows
higher capacity and efficiency than all
previously developed packings.
The next generation of packings features
through-flow structures of a lattice-work
design. The Metal Intalox IMTP offers the
best features of packings that preceded it,
combines the high void fraction and the
well-distributed surface area of the Pall
ring with the low aerodynamic drag of the
saddle shape.
Similar in structure to the Pall Ring is the
Cascade Mini-Ring, which has a height
to diameter ratio of 1:3 compared to 1:1
in the Pall Ring. This allows the individual
packing components to be oriented with
their open side facing vapor flow, thus re-
ducing friction and exposing more surface
to mass transfer.
The latest generation of random packings
features a very open, smooth and wave-like
geometry that promotes wetting, but still
promotes recurrent turbulence. This allows
a decreased pressure drop while sustain-
ing mass-transfer efficiency that may be
independent of column diameter, and may
allow a greater depth of packing without a
liquid redistributor.
References
ed. McGraw Hill, New York, 2008.
Process Principles,” 2nd ed., John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., New Jersey, 2006.
Techniques for Chemical Engineers,” 3rd ed.,
McGraw Hill, New York, 1997.

Department Editor: Kate Torzewski
S
eparation by a membrane is achieved by
creating a boundary between different
bulk gas or liquid mixtures. As different
solvents and solutes flow through a membrane
at different rates, separation is achieved.
Here, we will focus on three filtration
techniques: microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration
(UF) and nanofiltration (NF). These processes
are characterized by the size of the particle
that can be separated by the membrane, as
illustrated in the figure. Each membrane type
is best suited for unique applications and is
designed with the module and material that
will allow the best separation.
Flow through a membrane is characterized
as either tangential flow filtration (TFF), where
the feed stream flows at a velocity vector nor-
mal to the membrane surface, or normal flow
filtration (NFF), where the stream flows tangent
to the membrane surface. The flow pattern is
dependent on the type of module utilized. NFF
modules include: cartridges, stacked disks
and flat sheets. TFF modules include: plate-
and-frame (cassettes), hollow fibers, tubes,
monoliths, spirals and vortex flow.
MICROFILTRATION
MF separates particles from true solutions. This
technique is able to separate particles from
about 0.1 to as high as 10 μm. As can be
seen from the figure, large, soluble macromol-
ecules, bacteria and other microorganisms can
be retained by MF membranes.
Membrane materials
MF membranes have the largest pore open-
ings of any other membrane. Typically, they
can be classified as having tortuous or capil-
lary pores.
From solids. When membranes are made
by sintering or agglomeration of micropar-
ticles, pores are formed by the interstices
between solid particles. Common materi-
als include: metal, metal oxide, graphite,
ceramic and polymer.
Ceramic. These membranes are typically
created by the sol-gel process, which is the
successive deposition of smaller ceramic
precursor spheres, followed by firing to form
multitube monoliths.
Track etched. A polymer film is exposed to
a collimated beam of radiation that breaks
chemical bonds in the polymer chains. The
film is then etched in a bath that selectively at-
tacks the damaged polymer, a technique that
produces a film with photogenic pores.
Chemical phase inversion. A solution of a
concentrated polymer in solvent is spread into a
thin film, then precipitated through the slow ad-
dition of a nonsolvent to produce tortuous pores.
Thermal phase inversion. A solution of
polymer in a poor solvent is prepared at an
elevated temperature. After being formed into
its final shaped, the temperature is dropped
and the polymer precipitates, and the solvent
is washed out.
Streched polymers. Semicrystalline polymers,
which are stretched perpendicular to the axis
FACTS AT YOUR FINGERTIPS Sponsored by:
Micrometers, 0.001 0.01
log scale
Scanning electron microscope
Particle size
range Molecular Macromolecular
Albumin protein
Aqueous salts Carbon black
Typical
particles Sugar Virus
Synthetic Tobacco smoke
dye
Pesticide Colloidal silica
Gelatin
Process for Ultrafiltration
filtration
Nanofiltration
of crystallite orientation, fracture in such a way
that reproducible microchannels are made.
Membrane modules
Many conventional designs are used in MF,
including cartridge-filter housing, plate-and-
frame-type devices, capillary bundles, tubular
membranes, spiral-wound modules and belt
filters. Ceramic MF membranes are available
as flat sheet, single tubes, disc, and other forms,
primarily for lab use. Finally, cassettes are two
different cross-flow membrane devices.
ULTRAFILTRATION
UF membranes, with pore sizes ranging from
about 1 to 100 nm in diameter, employ pres-
sure driving forces of 0.2–1.0 MPa. This tech-
nique drives liquid solvents and small solutes
through the membrane, while retaining larger
particles, like large dissolved molecules, col-
loids and suspended solids.
Membrane materials
UF membranes are typically made of polymeric
structures, such as polyethersulfone, regener-
ated cellulose, polysulfone, polyamide, poly-
acrylonitrile or various fluropolymers. They are
formed by immersion casting on a web or as a
composite on an MF membrane. Membrane se-
lection is based on molecular-weight rating for
high yields, chemical and mechanical robust-
ness during product processing and Clean In
Place, and process flux for sizing and costing.
Membrane modules
Modules include cassettes, spirals, hollow
fibers, tubes, flat sheets, and inorganic mono-
liths. These primarily operate in TFF to increase
flux by reducing plugging. For virus removal
and water treatment, however, NFF operation
is run with cartridge and hollow fiber modules.
References
1.“Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 8th ed. McGraw Hill, New York, 2008.
2.Seidel, A., ed. in chief, “Separation Technology,” second edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New
Jersey, 2008.
Membranes
0.1 1.0 10
Optical microscope
Microparticle
Yeast cells
Paint pigment
Bacteria
A.C. fine test dust
Milled flour
Latex emulsion
Blue indigo dye Red
blood
Asbestos fibers cells
Coal dust
Microfiltration
NANOFILTRATION
NF, sometimes referred to as “loose RO
(reverse osmosis),” utilizes a driving force
of 0.3 to 10.5 MPa to drive liquid solvents
through the membrane while retaining small
solutes of about 10 to 100 nm in diameter.
NF membranes are different from the mem-
branes previously discussed, because they are
usually charged, utilizing ion repulsion as a
major method of charged-species rejection.
They have 20–80% NaCl retention and retain
> 200–1,000 Daltons of neutral organics,
with a low retention of dissolved gases.
Neutral or undissociated solutes have a lower
retention than charged or dissociated solutes.
Membrane materials
Cellulose polymers. These are formed by
immersion casting of 30–40% polymer lac-
quers, which can include cellulose acetate,
triacetate and acetate-butyrate, on a web
immersed in water.
Thin film composites. Formed by interfacial
polymerization, TFCs involve coating a
microporous membrane substrate with an
aqueous prepolymer solution, then immers-
ing it in a water-immiscible solvent contain-
ing a reactant.
Crosslinked polyetherurea. Some of these
membranes feature NaCl retention and
water permeability.
Membrane modules
NF membrane modules are available in
spiral, hollow fiber, tubular, and plate-and-
frame formats. Spirals are most common,
as they have low feed-side pressure props,
are less prone to clogging, are easily
cleaned, are mechanically robust, and are
most economical.

Department Editor: Kate Torzewski
T
he failure of a device or of a group of



components can lead to overpressuriza-
tion and subsequent adverse events, such
as fire, explosion, spill or release. The most
common causes of overpressurization are

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According to API RP 520 and 521 standards,

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2,500 and 5,000 ft2, and below a height of
25-ft above the grade. In this scenario, the
exposed vessel is blocked in. Potential vapors
resulting from the fire must be relieved using
a PRV on the vessel, or via a vent path that
remains in a locked-open position between
the vessel and an adjoining vessel.

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Blocked outlets
The closure of a block valve on the outlet of a
pressure vessel can cause the vessel's internal
pressure to exceed its maximum allowable
working pressure if the source pressure
exceeds the vessel design pressure. Blocked
outlets can be caused by control valve failure,
inadvertent valve operation, instrument-air
or power failure, and other factors. A PRV
must have sufficient capacity to pass a fluid
flowrate that is equivalent to the difference
between those of the incoming fluids and the
outgoing fluids.
Utility failures
These failures can include the following: gen-
eral power failure, partial power failure, loss
of instrument air, loss of cooling water, loss of
steam, and loss of fuel gas or fuel oil. For these
cases, a flare header should be designed and
sized based on the maximum relief load that
could result from a potential utility failure.
Loss of cooling duty
Cooling-duty losses can include the following:
loss of quench stream, air-cooled exchanger
failure, loss of cold feed and loss of reflux.
Relieving capacity should be calculated by
performing a heat balance on the system,
based on the loss of the condensing duty.
Thermal expansion
When liquid is blocked in a vessel or
pipeline, external heat input can cause liquid
temperature, and hence volume, to rise. This
can be caused by the following: liquid that
is blocked in a pipeline and is being heated,
the cold side of a heat exchanger being filled
while the hot side is flowing, or a filled vessel
at ambient temperature that is being heated
by direct solar radiation. PRVs used in these
cases can be easily analyzed and sized.
Abnormal heat input
This failure can be caused by: the supply of
heating medium, such as fuel oil or fuel gas to
a fired heater, being increased; heat transfer
occuring in a new and clean heat exchanger
after revamp; control valve for the fuel supply
failing to fully open; or supply pressure of the
heating steam being changed from normal
Causes of
Overpressurization
range to maximum pressure. As a general "
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of the vapor at the relieving conditions.
Entrance of volatile materials
The entrance of a volatile liquid, such as
water or light hydrocarbons into hot oil dur-
ing a process upset, can cause instantaneous
phase expansion. Instead of relying on PRVs,
processes should be properly designed with
the use of double block valves, the avoid- Source:
ance of water-collecting pockets and use of Farris
steam condensate traps and bleeds on water Engineering,
Brecksville,
connections. Ohio
%JTD
Accumulation of non-condensibles
Accumulation can result from blocking of the /P[[MF
normal non-condensible vent or accumulation the downstream vessel should should be
in the pocket of a piping configuration or designed to handle the pressure and volume
equipment. Because this can result in a loss of of the incoming stream without overpressur-
cooling duty, PRV analysis should be handled izing. If the upstream vessel does not have
the same way. adequate relief capacity, the downstream
vessel should have a PRV of its own.
Valve malfunction When two vessels are connected by an
Check-valve malfunction results in backflow, open path and the first has its own PRV and
which can be from 5 to 25% of the normal discharges to a flare header, the second
flowrate. Required relief capacity should be will experience the impact from the relieving
based on this. pressure of the first vessel and should be
Inadvertent valve operation results in a analyzed accordingly.
valve position that is opposite from normal
operating conditions, which is largely caused Upstream relieving
by human error and can be avoided by care- Required relief capacity should be greater
ful operation. than the vapor generated because of heat
Control valve failure to open or close is buildup in the system.
caused by electronic- or mechanical-signal
failure. This typically will affect just one valve Runaway chemical reaction
at a time and should be analyzed on a case- Runaway reactions tend to accelerate with
by-case basis. rising temperature; extremely high volumes
of non-condensibles with high energy can
Process control failure cause the internal pressure of a vessel or
This situation refers to the failure of process pipeline to rise rapidly. PRVs may not provide
controllers, such as programmable logic sufficient relief, so vapor-depressurizing
controllers and distributed control systems. systems, rupture disks and emergency vents
The potential impact of failure of every con- are preferable.
trol loop should be analyzed, as well as the
impact if one loop fails but all others remain References
active. As a general rule, the required relief 1.Wong, W., Protect Plants Against Overpres-
capacity must be greater than the vapor gen- sure, Chem. Eng. June 2001, pp. 66–73.
erated because of heat buildup in the system. 2.Goodner, H., A New Way of Quantifying
Risks: Part 2, Chem. Eng. November 1993, pp.
Exchange tube rupture 140–146.
When an upstream vessel is relieving by 3.Emerson, G., Selecting Pressure Relief Valves,
discharge fluid to a downstream vessel, Chem. Eng. March 18, 1985, pp. 195–200.
 Sedimentation
Centrifuging
Department Editor: Kate Torzewski

C
entrifugation is the method of choice
in the chemical process industries (CPI)
for separating solids from liquids. It
relies on the G-forces generated by high-
speed rotation to recover solids or liquids
from slurries, as well as clarify liquids or
classify solids.
Centrifuges can be categorized as either
sedimentation or filtration units. Sedimenta-
tion centrifugation relies on a difference in
density between the solid and liquid being
separated. Filtering is performed with a
rotating basket fitted with a filter medium,
where the centrifugal force of rotation
expels the liquid through the filter.
BASICS OF SEDIMENTATION
CENTRIFUGING
R L ) d 2 3FGFSFODFT
The mechanics of sedimentation centrifug-
ing make it ideal for two-phase systems
with a high-density differential. As an
incoming slurry spins in a sedimentation
centrifuge, it forms an annulus adjacent to
the bowl wall. The centrifugal force causes
the denser material to move outwardly to-
ward the wall of the centrifuge bowl, while
the liquid overflows from the bowl or is
picked up by a skimmer. Periodically, the
solid must be removed from the centrifuge
manually or with a cutter knife. Alterna-
tively, it can be removed continuously with
a screw conveyor. Sedimentation centrifu-
gation allows material to be separated
hundreds or thousands of times faster than
simple sedimentation by gravity alone.
STOKES' LAW
According to Stokes’ Law, the terminal
velocity of a particle is determined by the
centrifugal gravity (Ω2r) created by the
centrifuge with particle-balancing buoy-
ancy and viscous drag taken into account.
This terminal (settling) velocity is deter-
mined by the equation below:
1
Vs  7 2r ( R s
18 M
where
Vs = Settling velocity, m/s
μ = viscosity, kg/m·s
Ω = angular speed of rotation, rev/min
ρs = density of solid, kg/m3
ρL = density of liquid, kg/m3
d = particle diameter, m
r = centrifuge radius of curvature, m
Stokes’ Law tells us that settling velocity
can be maximized with a high centrifugal
speed, large particle size, large density
difference between solids and liquid, large
separation radius and low liquid viscosity.
APPLICATIONS
Centrifuge selection is heavily dependent
on characteristics of the incoming slurry, in-
cluding particle size, solids concentration,
liquid viscosity and density differential. Oth-
er factors that come into play are the need
to remove solids periodically or continuous-
ly and the degree of purity required of the
separated products. Table 1 summarizes
the mechanics and suitable applications of
common sedimentation centrifuges.
1.Scroder, T. Selecting The Right Centrifuge, Chem.
Eng. September 1998, pp. 82–88.
2.Moir, D. N. Sedimentation Centrifuges: Know What
You Need, Chem. Eng. March 1988, pp. 42–51.
3.Bershad, B. C., Chaffiotte, R. M., Leung, W. F.
Making Centrifugation Work For You, Chem.
Eng. August 1990, pp. 84–89.
4.“Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 8th ed.
New York: McGraw Hill, 2008.

TABLE 1. TYPES OF SEDIMENTATION CENTRIFUGES

Type Mechanics Best suited for
Tubular • A vertical cylinder with the feed • The heavier phase becomes concen- • Purification of lubricating
Bowl slurry introduced in the bottom of trated against the wall, while the lighter and industrial oils
the bowl phase floats on top • Food, biochemical and
• The use of a distributor and baffle • The two phases are separated by a baffle pharmaceutical applications
assembly accelerates the slurry to • Liquid discharges over the top of the bowl, • Solids should be less than 1%
the speed of rotation while solid buildup is removed manually in volume of the slurry

Multi- • Constructed of a series of tubular • Larger solid particles settle in the small • Clarifying fruit juices, wort
chamber sections arranged concentrically tubes, and particles of smaller sizes settle and beer
• The slurry feed enters in the in subsequent tubes
smallest tube and continues • Up to six chambers are typical with a
through the outer tubes as they maximum holding capacity of 0.064 m3
increase in size
Skimmer • Feed enters the hub end and • When a thick solid layer begins to form • Heavy-duty applications,
pipe / is accelerated to speed before on the bowl wall, supernatent liquid is such as coal dewatering
knife entering the separation pool removed with a skimmer, and solids are
discharge • Solids settle on the bowl wall while knifed out with centrifugal filters
liquid overflows the ring weir
Disc • Feed enters through the top axis • Solids settle under the disc and move • Self-cleaning types:
of the bowl and is accelerated by downward to be released at the bottom of purification of beverages,
a radial-vane assembly the bowl wall mineral oils, and edible oils
• The unit is constructed of a stack • Liquids travel up the conical channel, • Disc nozzle: corn wet
of typically 50 to 150 closely and their upward movement in the milling (starch separation,
spaced conical discs arranged at centrifuge is facilitated by holes across gluten thickening), clay
an angle between 40 and 50 deg each disc classification, acid crystal
washing, lube oil dewaxing
Decanter • Constructed of a solid external • Solids are removed from the conical • Applications that require
bowl and an internal screw discharge end (the beach) continuous removal of solids,
conveyor mounted horizontally • Bowl and conveyor rotate in the same where feed solids are high
direction, but at different speeds, creating and volume reduction is
a speed differential that controls the important
speed of solid removal
Screen- • A solid bowl decanter with a cylindrical screen added to the conical end • Improved cake dryness and
bowl highest product purity
 Avoiding
Seal Failure
Department Editor: Kate Torzewski

S
eals are assemblies of elements that prevent
the passage of a solid, liquid, gas or vapor
from one system to another. When a seal
allows leakage of material, failure has occurred.
This guide provides an overview of common seal
types and a discussion of seal failure to aid in
choosing the most effective seal and avoiding
future failure.
SEAL TYPES
Seals types can be classified within two broad
categories: static and dynamic. Static seals have
no relative motion between mating surfaces, while
dynamic seals do have relative motion between
a moving surface and a stationary surface. Seals
do not have to fit into one category or the other;
rather, seal types can fall anywhere on a spectrum
between static and dynamic, and few seals are
strictly one type or the other. Table 1 describes the
applications and requirements of several common
seal types.
SEAL FAILURE
Seal failure is caused by a wide variety of circumstances, including improper in-
stallation and environmental factors such as temperature, pressure, fluid incompat-
ibilities, time and human factors.
Most causes of failure can be described as mechanical difficulties or system
operations problems. Examples of mechanical difficulties include strain on the
seal face caused by improper installation and vibration caused by improper net
positive suction head. Meanwhile, system operating problems can include condi-
tions that are outside of a pump’s best performance envelope, such as upsets, dry
running, and pressure or temperature fluctuations. Changes in the fluid being pro-
cessed can cause problems as well, especially with fluids that flash or carbonize.
Common visual indicators of failure include short cuts, V-shaped notches in the
seal, skinned surface in localized areas, or thin, peeled-away area on the seal.
Table 2 describes causes of some of the most prevalent types of seal failure with
recommended methods of action.
In some cases, the cause of failure may be difficult to determine due to the com-
plexity of the seal construction. These unique failure modes can result in flaking or
peeling of the seal face, corrosion, flaking or pitting of the carbon faces, degrada-
tion of the elastomer energizer seals, and spring or bellows breakage. It is likely
that these rapid degradations are a result of contamination, which can be avoided
with careful installation or using pre-assembled, cartridge-type mechanical seals.

TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF COMMON SEAL TYPES 3FGFSFODFT

Type Applications Periodic Moving Tolerances Gland Space 1. Ashby, D. M. Diagnos-
Adjustment friction required (mov- adapters require- ing Common Causes of
Static Dynamic Required? ing seals) required? ments Sealing Failure, Chem.
O-ring X X No Medium Close No Small Eng. June 2005, pp.
41–45.
T-seal X X No Medium Fairly close No Small
U-packing — X No Low Close No Small 2. Netzel, J., Volden,
V-packing — X Yes Medium Fairly close Yes Small D., Crane, J. Suitable
Cup-type pack- — X No Medium Close Yes Medium Seals Lower the Cost
ing of Ownership, Chem.
Flat gasket X — Yes — — No Large Eng. December 1998,
Compression or X X Yes High Fairly close Yes Large pp. 92–96.
jam packing

TABLE 2. SOLUTIONS TO COMMON CAUSES OF SEAL FAILURE

Failure type Definition
Compression A lost of resiliency caused by the
set failure of a seal to rebound after it has
been deformed for some period of
time. The seal will exhibit a flattened
surface corresponding to the contours
of the mating hardware
Nibbling and A seal starts to appear to be torn
extrusion away in little pieces until it loses its
overall shape and flows into whatever
void area is available
Spiral failure A seal rolls within its gland, resulting Applications where a seal is
in cuts or marks that spiral around the used in a slow, reciprocating
circumference of the seal
Explosive Seal exhibits blisters, fissure, pock
decompres- marks or pits, both externally and
sion internally
Wear Smooth burnishing of a sealing
surface
Causes Solutions
Exposure to excessive tempera- Choose proper deflection for the seal
ture or incompatible fluids Choose appropriate elastomer mate-
Excessive deformation of the rial for the application in terms of
elastomer at installation thermal stability and compression set
An incompletely vulcanized seal resistance
Excessive clearance gaps Increase bulk hardness of the sealing
Improper seal material element
Excessive volume-to-void ratio Decrease clearance gaps
Inconsistent clearance gaps Redesign volume-to-void ratio
Add anti-extrusion devices
Use an elastomer with a higher bulk
hardness
fashion For male-type installation, increase the
Irregular surface over the mating installed stretch on the seal
parts causing the seal to grip to Specify a smoother, more uniform fin-
certain contact points ish on mating hardware
Change the type of seal to a lip-type
configuration
Gas entrapment within the Use an elastomer material that is more
elastomer during high-pres- resilient to explosive decompression
sure cycling, followed by rapid Use polymeric or metal seals if
depressurization 0possible
Relative motion of the seal Use a harder material
against the mating surface Use a polymeric solution
 Pump Selection
and Specification
Department Editor: Kate Torzewski

PUMP SELECTION belong to a greater category of kinetic pumps.

A simple way to narrow down pump styles is to determine the

I
n choosing a pump, it is important to match a pump’s capabili- required capacity that your pump must handle. Based upon a
ties with system requirements and the characteristics of the liquid required capacity in gal/min. and a pressure in lbf/in.2, the pump
being processed. These factors include the inlet conditions, coverage chart below can help engineers focus their selection to a
required flowrate, differential pressure and liquid characteristics. just a few pump styles.
Generally, the quality of the liquid should remain unchanged after    
passage through a pump. Therefore, material compatibility, viscos-

ity, shear sensitivity and the presence of particulate matter in a
liquid are important considerations in pump selection. 
Most engineering applications employ either centrifugal or
positive displacement (PD) pumps for fluid handling. These pumps    
function in very different ways, so pump selection should be based

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The most widely used pump in the chemical process industries for  
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sizes and capacities, these pumps are suitable for a wide range of
applications. Advantages of the centrifugal style include: simplic-

ity, low initial cost, uniform flow, small footprint, low maintenance
expense and quiet operation.  
              
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reducing energy use and operation costs.
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PUMP SPECIFICATIONS
These two main pump styles respond very differently to various
Based on the application in which a pump will be used, the pump
operating conditions, so it is essential to evaluate the requirements
type, and service and operating conditions, the specifications of a
of a process prior to choosing an appropriate pump. Table 1 il-
pump can be determined.
lustrates the mechanical differences between these pumps, as well
as the effects of pressure, viscosity and inlet conditions on flowrate • Casting connection: Volute casing efficiently converts velocity en-
and pump efficiency. ergy impacted to the liquid from the impeller into pressure energy.
A casing with guide vanes reduce loses and improve efficiency
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Pump styles range far beyond simply PD and centrifugal pumps. head pumps
PD pumps encompass many specific styles, including a variety of • Impeller details: Closed-type impellers are most efficient. Open-
reciprocating, rotary and blow-cover pumps. Likewise, centrifugal type impellers are best for viscous liquids, liquids containing solid
pumps encompass radial, mixed, and axial flow styles, which all matter, and general purposes
• Sealings: Rotating shafts must have proper sealing methods to
PUMP COMPARISON CHART prevent leakage without affecting process efficiency negatively.
Centrifugal Positive displacement Seals can be grouped into the categories of noncontacting seals
Pump pump
and mechanical face seals. Noncontacting seals are often used
The pump captures
The pump imparts a
confined amounts of
for gas service in high-speed rotating equipment. Mechanical face
velocity to the liquid, seals provide excellent sealing for high leakage protection
liquid and transfers
resulting in a pressure
Mechanics them from the suction • Bearings: Factors to take into consideration while choosing a
at the outlet.
to discharge port.
Pressure is created bearing type include shaft-speed range, maximum tolerable shaft
Flow is created and
and flow results misalignment, critical-speed analysis, loading of compressor
pressure results
Flow varies with Flow is constant with impellers, and more. Bearing styles include: cylindrical bore; cy-
Performance
changing pressure changing pressure lindrical bore with dammed groove; lemon bore; three lobe; offset
Viscosity
Efficiency decreases Efficiency increases with halves; tilting pad; plain washer; and taper land
with increasing viscosity increasing viscosity
• Materials: Pump material is often stainless steel. Material should
Efficiency peaks at the
be chosen to reduce costs and maintain personnel safety while
best-of-efficiency point.
Efficiency increases avoiding materials that will react with the process liquid to create
Efficiency At higher or
with increasing pressure
lower pressures, corrosion, erosion or liquid contamination
efficiency decreases
Liquid must be in the 3FGFSFODFT
Negative pressure is
pump to create a pres- 1. “Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 7th ed. New York: McGraw
Inlet created at the inlet port.
sure differential. A dry Hill, 1997.
conditions A dry pump will prime
pump will not prime on 2. Petersen, J. and Jacoby, Rodger. Selecting a Positive Displacement Pump,
on its own
its own Chem. Eng. August 2007, pp. 42–46.
 Pristine
Processing
Department Editor: Kate Torzewski Equipment

P
rocesses in the pharmaceutical, biotechnology, food and semiconductor industries must 7BMWFT
meet a high set of standards to ensure high product purity. Equipment criteria specific to Valves should not harbor contaminants and
high-purity processes are established to minimize contamination and maintain prod- must be easy to clean. By these criteria,
uct integrity. In designing a pristine process, material and equipment style are of upmost diaphragm and pinch valves are excellent
importance. Bacteria is the main cause of contamination and is prone to growing in the dead choices for ultrapure processes, as they
cavities of equipment created by sharp corners, crevices, seams and rough surfaces. Another have smooth, gently curved surfaces that
source of contamination is leaking, which allows undesirable chemicals to compromise the will not harbor contaminants. Ball check,
quality of the process ingredients, by causing contamination, rusting and particle generation. full-port plug and full-port ball valves are
good choices as well, while butterfly, spring
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION check, gate and swing check valves are all
unacceptable, since contamination can col-
Many factors must be taken into consideration when selecting materials of construction for lect in the corners that are essential to their
use in pristine process applications where high-purity and sanitation are paramount. All sur- design. Though several valves are appropri-
faces should be constructed of a smooth material that will not corrode, generate particles ate for pristine processes, certain valves
or harbor dead cavities. These criteria can be met with three standard materials: 316L are better suited for particular applications.
stainless steel (SS), polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). The Diaphragm valves are the most widely used
advantages and disadvantages of these materials are summarized below to facilitate the in high-purity systems for their resistance
material selection process for a given application with consideration of chemical compat- to contamination and ability to be used as
ibility, cost, and temperature stability. a control valve. Ball and plug valves, on
the other hand, are less costly and are not
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION limited by temperature and pressure. Also,
Material Advantages Disadvantages in applications using sterile steam and
• Mechanical strength Vulnerability to corrosion by
freeze-drying, ball valves are preferred over
Stainless diaphragm valves because they eliminate
• Functions at 121°C certain chemicals, which
Steel the risk of catastrophic seat failure.
(steam-sterilization temperature) increases with temperature
• Chemically inert
• Resistant to corrosion and leaching Functions only intermittently 4FBMT
PVDF As with all pristine processing equipment,
• Durable and long-lasting at 121°C
• Retains circumferential strength high-purity seals should not have any
• The most chemically inert plastic cavities where contaminants can breed. By
• Resistant to corrosion and leaching Complex shapes are choosing a seal with gland rings that do not
PTFE
• Avoids leaching difficult to form need to be threaded or ported, the areas
• Suitable for coating equipment where bacteria can breed are minimized. In
choosing a seal material, it is important to
EQUIPMENT STYLE SELECTION find a compound that will not swell, crack,
pit or flake, thus reducing seal failure and
Critical factors in high-purity equipment selection include cleanability, cost, flow capabili- contamination. To ensure the success of
ties and product compatibility. With these considerations in mind, criteria useful for choos- seals, fluroelastomers are a top choice in
ing pumps, valves, seals and piping are described in this section. pristine processing applications for their ex-
cellent thermal stability, chemical resistance
1VNQT and mechanical durability.
A fundamental requirement of pristine processing pumps is the ability to clean a pump in
place without disassembly. Pump seals, gaskets and internal surfaces should eliminate the 1JQJOH
buildup of material and should clean out easily during wash cycles. The most common pump The surface of piping, as well as any wet-
styles for high-purity processes are centrifugal, lobe-style and peristaltic pumps, which are ted equipment parts, should have a very
outlined below. smooth surface. When 316 SS is being
PUMPS used, electropolishing is a good method
Pump Applications best for achieving an ultra-smooth finish. Joining
Advantages Disadvantages methods should minimize crevices and dead
style suited for this style
• Handling low- cavities, and all materials should be free of
Efficiency and flow de-
• Low cost viscosity products biological degradable substances, leachable
Centrifugal crease with increasing
• Easy cleanability • Handling high flowrates substances, and glues and solvents that may
pressure and volume
(40–1,500 gal/min) migrate into the product stream.
• Low cost The need for hoses may
• Easy cleanability cause issues in elastomeric • Small, batch-oriented 3FGFSFODFT
• No mechanical compatibility, temperature applications
Peristaltics 1. Smith, B., What Makes a Pump for High-Purity
seals and pressure limitations, • Laboratory or pilot-
Fluids?, Chem. Eng., pp. 87–89, April 2002.
• Non-damaging to and a need to change scale plants
delicate products hose regularly 2. Schmidt, M., Selecting Clean Valves, Chem.
Eng., pp. 107–111, June 2001.
• Higher pressure
• Large, continuous 3. Wulf, B., Pristine Processing: Designing Sanitary
and flow Systems, Chem. Eng., pp. 76–79, Nov. 1996.
Rotary duty applications
capabilities High cost
Lobes • Steaming and high 4. Weeks, D. T. and Bennett, T., Specifying Equip-
• Unaffected by
pressure applications ment for High-Purity Process Flow, Chem. Eng.,
pressure variations pp. 27–30, Aug. 2006.
 Heat Transfer
Fluids and Systems
Department Editor: Rebekkah Marshall

STARTUP FLUID ANALYSIS

1. Verify control and safety systems: It is vitally im- Fluid testing helps detect system malfunction, fluid contamination, moisture, thermal
portant to verify all control and safety systems degradation, as well as other factors that impact system performance (see Table). For
are calibrated and ready for operation and are systems operating near the fluid’s maximum temperature, annual analysis is suggested.
functioning properly
2. Check for leakage Test result Potential effects Possible cause Possible
3. Remove moisture from the system, using dry, actions*
compressed air or other suitable means. Fill the Viscosity Poor heat-transfer rate, de- • Contamination 4, 5
system with heat transfer fluid increase posits, high vapor pressure, • Thermal degradation 4, 5
4. System filling pump cavitation • Fluid oxidation 3, 4
a. Fill the system to desired level avoiding any Total acid System corrosion, • Severe oxidation 3, 4
unnecessary aeration of the fluid number deposits • Acidic contamination 4, 5
b. Open all valves, then start the main circula- increase
tion pump in accordance with the manufac- Moisture Corrosion, excess system • System leaks 2
turer’s recommendations. Allow for thermal increase pressure, pump cavitation, • Residual moisture in 2
expansion of fluid in determining the cold mechanical knocking new or cleaned unit
charge level • Unprotected vent or 2, 3
c. Circulate the heat transfer fluid through the storage
system for about 3 to 4 hours to eliminate air Insoluble Poor heat transfer, wear of • Contamination 1, 4, 5
pockets, and to assure complete system fill solids pump seals, plugging in • Dirt 1, 4
before firing the heater increase narrow passages • Corrosion 1, 3, 5
5. Start the heater • Oxidation 1, 3
a. Bring the system up to temperature slowly to • Thermal stress 1, 4
help prevent thermal shock to heater tubes, Low- and Pump cavitation, poor heat • Low boilers 2
tube/heater joints and refractory materials; high-boiler transfer, excess system • High boilers 4
and allow operators to check the function- increase** pressure, deposits • Contamination 4, 5
ing of instruments and controls. The slow * For detailed guidance on actions, please consult with your fluid engineering specialist.
heat-up will also allow moisture trapped in ** For an excellent discussion on low and high boilers, please consult Ref. [4].
all sections of the system to escape as vapor.
Inert gas should sweep the expansion tank to Possible actions blasting, wire brushing, or high-pressure
remove noncondensables and residual mois- 1. Filtration: Small diameter particles sus- water jetting. For process contamination,
ture to a safe location. Hold the temperature pended in heat transfer fluid can be ef- consult with your fluid supplier for sug-
stable above 100 °C (212 °F) until no signs fectively removed via filtration. Filters with gested cleaning methods
of moisture remain (knocking or rattling of 100-Mm or less nominal-particle-removal
pipes, no moisture from vents, and so on) ratings should be considered for initial
b. Bring the system to operating temperature, SHUTDOWN
system treatment. Continuous filtration
put the “users” online, and place the expan- through 10-Mm rated filters can maintain Prevent overheating of fluid due to residual
sion-tank inerting system into operation system cleanliness heat in the heater.
c. The fluid should generally be analyzed within 2. Venting: If low boiler concentration and/ 1. Shut off burner completely with the circu-
24 h of plant startup and annually thereafter or moisture is allowed to reach excessive lating pump still operating. Continue to
d. Check and clean startup strainers as needed levels in the fluid, problems such as pump run the pump at full capacity to dissipate
The system should be heated and cooled for at cavitation, increased system pressure and residual heat in the heater
least two cycles with the filter in place since the flash-point depression can occur. Intermit- 2. When the heater has cooled to the manu-
resulting expansion and contraction will loosen mill tent, controlled venting to a safe location facturer’s recommended low temperature,
scale. Reinsulate any surfaces left bare for leak- is a common solution to minimize the po- shut off the circulating pump and switch
checking purposes. tential for problems caused by excessive off required heater electrical controls
low boiler or moisture concentration 3. Caution must be exercised during shut-
3. Inerting: An effective method of minimiz- down to ensure that no area in the sys-
OPERATIONS ing fluid oxidation is to blanket the ex- tem piping is totally and completely iso-
Heaters: Proper fluid-heater operation will help pansion tank with a clean, dry, inert gas, lated. This will prevent a vacuum from
ensure long life of the fluid. Common heater prob- such as nitrogen, CO2, or natural gas forming, which could damage (implode)
lems include flame impingement, excessive heat 4. Dilution/replacement: Can be used to re- equipment
flux, control overshoot, low fluid flow, and interlock move some fraction (or all) of the fluid and 4. Operate heat tracing, if needed
malfunctions. replace with virgin fluid to maintain fluid
properties within normal ranges. Caution References and further reading
Piping and pumps: A leak-free system will help to
is advised when using reclaimed fluid, 1. Gamble, C.E., Cost Management in Heat
ensure safe and reliable operation. Some key fea-
Transfer Systems, Chem. Eng. Prog., July 2006
tures of a leak-free design are as follows: which can return degradation products pp. 22–26.
• Maintain valves and pump packing and seals and/or contaminants into the system
2. Gamble, C.E., Cleaning Organic Heat Transfer
• Avoid the use of threaded fittings (welded or 5. Cleaning: If a system flush is necessary, Fluid Systems, Process Heating, Oct. 2002.
flanged connections are preferred) several different methods are available. 3. Beain, others, Properly Clean Out Your Or-
• Realign pumps and retorque flanges once sys- Specialty-engineered, heat-transfer flush ganic Heat Transfer Fluid System, Chem. Eng.
tem achieves operating temperature after initial fluids may be used to remove sludge or Prog., May 2001.
system startup tar from piping/equipment. Hard car- 4. Spurlin, others, Defining Thermal Stability, Pro-
• Confirm with your fluid supplier what the proper bon deposits on heater surfaces (“coke”) cess Heating, Nov. 2000.
elastomers are. Not all elastomers are compat- generally require the use of mechanical 5. “Liquid Phase Design Guide,” Pub #7239128C,
ible with all heat transfer fluids cleaning techniques like sand or bead Solutia, Inc., 1999.

FACTS AT YOUR FINGERTIPS SPONSORED BY

 Materials of
Construction
Department Editor: Rita L. D'Aquino
LOW-TEMPERATURE esters are present in high concentrations. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF VARIOUS
FRP pipe [3]. Composite fiberglass-rein- MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION [4]
APPLICATIONS [1]
forced plastic (FRP) pipe has been replac- Material Thermal conduc-
ing conventional pipe material, such as tivity, W/(m)(K)
One key engineering consideration is the Carbon Steel (CS) 60.59
choice of materials of construction for frigid steel and concrete, in numerous applica-
tions because of its corrosion resistance, SS 304 40.71
applications. Nickel-chromium (Ni-Cr) type SS 316 14.23
stainless steels are notably versatile at low or low design weight (25% of concrete pipe
and 10% of steel pipe), high fatigue en- SS 316 L 14.23
cryogenic temperatures. They offer a combi- Hastelloy B2 9.12
nation of high impact strength (IS) and corro- durance, and adaptability to numerous
sion resistance. In the austenitic phase, with composite blends (Table 5, Ref. 3) and Hastelloy C2 10.21
manufacturing methods. FRP pipe may Tantalum2 57.5
face-centered-cubic crystals, the combination
of Cr and Ni in the material improves IS and be divided into two broad categories: Titanium2 21.67

toughness down to temperatures as low as gravity pipe (dia. from 8 to 144 in.) and Zirconium2 20.77

–250°C. For good IS at temperatures down pressure pipe (dia. from 1 to 16 in.). It is Graphite 121.15

to –45°C, C-Mn-Si steels are recommended. not unusual to see FRP pressure pipe han- Hexoloy 125.65

The most preferred grades are fine-grained dling pressures as high as 2,000–5,000 Glass1 1.00

steels of pressure-vessel quality, such as ASTM psi during chemical processing, with the Lead 35.30

A 516 and ASTM A 537 (in all grades). For higher-pressure pipe at the lower end of Inconel2 12.00

temperatures between –45 and –100°C (for the diameter scale. CPVC 0.14
PTFE (Polytetra- 0.25
example, for liquid-ethylene storage), steels fluoroethylene)1
containing 2.5–9% Ni are useful. Between HEAT TRANSFER PFA (Perfluoro- 0.19
–150 and –250°C, the Ni-Cr austenitic steels alkoxy resin)1
(300 series, of 18/8 varieties), are highly
PROPERTIES [4]
ETFE (Ethylene 0.24
recommended. In the nonferrous category, tetrafluoroethylene)1
Al has excellent properties for temperatures Metals, including specialty materials, are PVDF (Polyvinylidene 0.23
as low as –250°C. Also attractive are Cu and the best choice in terms of good heat trans- fluoride)1
some of its alloys, which can withstand tem- fer. In the lined category, glass is used ex- ECTFE (Ethylene chlo- 0.16
peratures down to –195°C. tensively for process equipment where good rotrifluoroethylene)1
heat transfer is required. Lined materials, 1. Common choice for lining material
however, often have the problem of uneven 2. Exotic metals
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE thermal expansion, which may weaken the
bonding of the lining in due course. While
References
1. Nalli, K., Materials of Construction For Low-Tem-
CPVC [2]. Many nonmetals do not have the fluoropolymers have excellent compatibility perature and Cryogenic Processes, Chem. Eng.
tensile strength to meet the pressure require- with various chemicals and special surface July 2006, pp. 44–47.
ments of various process applications, espe- and physical chemistries, they are gener- 2. Newby, R. and Knight, M., Specifying CPVC In
Chemical Process Environments, Chem. Eng., Oc-
cially at elevated temperatures. But years of ally not used for reaction vessels because tober 2006, pp. 34–38.
testing and actual field performance prove of their poor heat-transfer properties. Ther- 3. Beckwith, S., and Greenwood, M., Don’t Over-
that chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) mal conductivities for various materials are look Composite FRP Pipe, Chem. Eng., May
2006, pp. 42-48.
systems can be pressure rated for operation listed in the Table, and typical applications 4. Robert, J., Selecting Materials of Construction,
as high as 200°F. CPVC’s high heat-distor- are shown in Figure 2. Chem. Eng., September 2005, pp. 60–62.
tion temperature and resistance to corrosion
make it suitable for applications such as 300 Exotic Exotic Exotic Exotic
metal processing, pulp and paper, and in-
dustrial wastewater treatment, where harsh 250 Exotic Exotic Exotic
Temperature, °C

and corrosive chemicals are commonly used

200
(see Figure 1). Another advantage of CPVC
is that it is lighter than metal, and therefore 150
Fluoropolymer, Fluoropolymer, Glass lined,* Glass lined,*
less expensive to install, from both a mate- glass lined, glass lined, exotic exotic
100
rial cost and labor perspective. CPVC is not exotic exotic
recommended where aromatic solvents and 50
0
Weak acids
Weak bases -50 Exotic Exotic
Salts
Strong acids -100 Exotic Exotic Exotic Exotic

Aliphatics
Application: Storage Transport Agitation (Agitation +
Excellent Strong bases heat transfer)
Typical Tanks, Pipelines, Mixers
Strong oxidants
Reactors
equipment: vessels valves,
Good Halogens
flowmeters
Aromatic solvents
Fair Esters and ketones FIGURE 2.

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JT
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UIF
JOUFOEFE
BQQMJDBUJPO
BOE
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SBOHF
&YPUJD
TQFDJBMUZ


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5BCMF

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"OPUIFS
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FIGURE 1.

$17$
PGGFST
SFTJTUBODF
UP
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SJBM

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TVJUFE
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DIPTFO
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DIFNJDBMT DPTUFGGFDUJWF
PQUJPO

Department Editor: Rita L. D'Aquino
T
he selection and application of fuels to various

#UVI
combustors are complex. Most existing units have


limited flexibility in their ability to fire alternative
fuels. New units must be carefully planned to assure
the lowest first costs without jeopardizing the future
capability to switch to a different fuel.
NATURAL GAS
Natural gas has traditionally been the most attrac-
tive fuel type for combustors because of the limited
need for fuel-handling equipment (e.g., pipelines,
metering, a liquid-knockout drum, and appropriate
controls) and the freedom from pollution-control

 "WFSBHF
GVFM
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equipment. Drawbacks include rising fuel costs, in-


ZS
adequate gas supplies and lower boiler efficiencies
that result from firing natural gas, particularly when
compared to the firing efficiencies of oil or coal.
FUEL OIL
Fuel oils are graded as No. 1, No. 2, No. 4, No.
5 (light), No. 5 (heavy), and No. 6. Distillates are
Nos. 1 and 2, and residual oils are Nos. 4, 5, and
6. Oils are classified according to their physical
characteristics by the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM) per Standard D-396. No.
2 oil is suitable for industrial use and for home
heating. The primary advantage of using a distillate
oil rather than a residual oil is that it is easier to
handle, requiring no heating to transport and no
temperature control to lower the viscosity for proper
atomization and combustion. However, consider-
able purchase cost penalties exist between residual
and distillate.
Distillates can be divided into two classes:
straight-run, which is produced from crude oil by
heating it and then condensing the vapors; and
cracked, which involves refining at a high tempera-
ture and pressure, or refining with catalysts to pro-
duce the required oil from heavier crudes. Cracked
oils contain substantially more aromatic and olefinic
hydrocarbons, which are more difficult to burn
than the paraffinic and naphthenic hydrocarbons
obtained from the straight-run process. Sometimes
a cracked distillate, called industrial No. 2, is used
in fuel-burning installations of medium size (small
package boiler or ceramic kilns, for example).
Because of the viscosity range permitted by
ASTM, No. 4 and No. 5 oil can be produced in
a variety of ways: blending of No. 2 and No.
6, mixing refinery by-products, utilization of off-
specification products, and so on. Because of the
potential variations in characteristics, it is important
to monitor combustion performance routinely to
obtain optimum results. Burner modifications may
be required to switch from, say, a No. 4 blend to a
No. 4 distillate.
Light (or cold) and heavy (or hot) No. 5 fuel oil
are distinguished primarily by their viscosity rang-
es: 150 to 300 SUS (Saybolt Universal Seconds) at
100°F and 350 to 750 SUS at 100°F, respectively.
The (No.) classes normally delineate the need for
preheating for proper atomization.
The No. 6 fuel oil is also referred to as residual,
Bunker C, and reduced- or vacuum bottoms. Because
of its high viscosity, 900 to 9,000 SUS at 100°F, it
can only be used in systems designed with heated
storage and a high enough temperature (to achieve
proper viscosity) at the burner for atomization.
Notable fuel oil properties include the following:
1) Viscosity indicates the time required in seconds
for 60 cm3 of oil to flow through a standard-size
orifice at a specific temperature. In the U.S., it is
normally determined with a Saybolt viscosimeter,
which comes in Universal and Furol variants. The
differences between them are the orifice size and
the sample temperature. Thus, when stating an oil’s
This article has been drawn from the work of Wayne Turner and Steve Doty, “Boilers and Fired
Systems,” Energy Management Handbook, 6th Ed., Ch. 5, The Fairmont Press, Lilburn, Ga., 2006.
"DIJFWBCMF
DPNCVTUJCMFT
JO
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TBWJOHT
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GSPN
SFEVDJOH


DPNCVTUJCMF
MPTTFT
EVF
UP
VOCVSOFE
DBSCPO

viscosity, the type of instrument and temperature
must also be stated. The Universal has the small-
est opening and is used for lighter oils. 2) The
flash point is the temperature at which oil vapors
are ignited by an external flame. As heating
continues above this point, sufficient vapors are
driven off to produce continuous combustion. The
flash point is also an indication of the maximum
temperature for safe handling. Distillate oils have
flash points of 145–200°F; heavier oils have
flash points up to 250°F. 3) The pour point is the
lowest temperature at which an oil flows under
standard conditions, and is roughly 5°F above
the solidification temperature. Knowledge of the
pour point helps determine the need for heated
storage, the storage temperature, and the need
for heating and pour-point depressant.
COAL
The selection of coal as fuel involves higher
capital investments because of the need for
handling equipment, coal preparation (crush-
ing, conveying, pulverizing, etc.) and storage;
ash handling and storage; pollution-abatement
equipment; and maintenance. The operating
cost savings at current (2007) fuel prices of coal
over oil or gas justifies a great portion, if not
all, of the significantly higher capital invest-
ments required for coal.
Coal-fired steam generators and vessels
inherently suffer efficiency losses due to a failure
to burn all the available fuel. The unburned fuel
is the remaining carbon in the leftover ash. The
nomograph (Figure 1) may be used to assess
how a reduction in unburned carbon translates
into energy and cost savings. A sample calcula-
tion follows.
Example: The system is a coal-fired steam
generator with a continuous rating of 145,000
lb/h; average (avg.) boiler load = 125,000 lb/h;
existing combustibles in ash = 40% (measured);
obtainable combustibles in ash = 5%; actual oper-
ating time = 8,500 h/yr; design-unit heat output =
150 × 106 Btu/h; avg. heat output = 129 × 106
Btu/h; avg. fuel cost = $1.50/106 Btu.
Analysis: In Figure 1A, the percent of existing
combustibles (measured) are shown on the
horizontal axis. The curves above it represent the
proposed improvement in percent of unburned
carbon in ash. From the coordinates in Figure
1A draw a horizontal line to the curve in Figure
1B that represents the design-unit heat output.
Drop the line to the appropriate fuel-cost curve in
Figure 1C. Extend the line from that point to the
left to obtain the corresponding annual fuel sav-
ings, assuming continuous operation at full boiler
design output. To calculate actual annual fuel
Fuel Selection
Considerations
6OJU
IFBU
PVUQVU
    




B

 




 C
    
savings, a correction factor (CF) is required that
considers actual boiler load and actual run time:
Actual savings, $ = Savings from chart x CF
where CF = operating avg. heat output/design
heat output × [(actual operating h/yr)/(8,760
h/yr)]
Savings for this example =
$210,000/yr × [(129 × 106 Btu/h)/(150 × 106
Btu/h)] × [(8,500 h/yr)/(8,760 h/yr)]
= $175,200/yr.
Note: If the heat output of the unit or the average
fuel cost exceeds the limit of the figures, use half
of the particular value and double the savings
obtained from Figure 1C.
It is probable that pulverized-coal-fired instal-
lations suffer from high UCL whenever any of
the following are experienced: a change in the
raw-fuel quality from the original design basis;
deterioration of the fuel burners, burner throats,
or burner swirl plates or impellers; increased
frequency of soot blowing to maintain heat-transfer
surface cleanliness; a noted increase in stack gas
opacity; uneven flame patterns characterized by a
particularly bright spot in one section of the flame
and a notably dark spot in another; CO formation
as determined from a flue-gas analysis; frequent
smoking observed in the combustion zone;
increases in refuse quantities in collection devices;
neglect of critical pulverizer internals and classifier
assemblies; a high incidence of coal “hang-up” in
the distribution piping to the burners; and frequent
manipulation of the air/coal primary and second-
ary air registers.
Techniques used successfully to reduce high
UCL and/or high-excess-air operation include:
modifying or replacing the pulverizer internals to
increase the coal fineness; installing additional or
new combustion controls to maintain consistent
burner performance; purchasing new coal feeders
that are compatible with and responsive to unit
demand fluctuations; calibrating air flow and
metering devices to ensure correct air/coal mixtures
and velocities at the burner throats; installing
turning vanes or air foils in the secondary air-supply
duct or air plenum to ensure even distribution and
proper air/fuel mixing at each burner; replacing
worn and abraded burner impeller plates; installing
new classifiers to ensure that proper coal fines
reach the burners for combustion; rerouting or
modifying air/coal distribution piping to avoid
coal hang-up; increasing the air/coal mixture
temperature exiting the pulverizers to ensure good
ignition without coking; and cleaning deposits from
burner throats. O
 Solvent Selection
Methodology
Department Editor: Rita L. D'Aquino

A STEPWISE PROCEDURE TABLE 1. Some well-known databases and solvent selection tools
Databases Address and comments
Organic solvents have been used in many industries for centu-
ChemFinder Searchable data and hyperlink index: http://chemfinder.cambridgesoft.com
ries, but the methods and tools to select optimal solvents while
minimizing their adverse environmental, health, safety and op- Solvents Databases Solvent substitution data systems at http://es.epa.gov/ssds/ssds.html;
erational concerns are still evolving. The appropriate selection “Handbook of Solvents” from www.chemtec.org/cd/ct_23.html; and
of solvents depends to a large extent on the application — more SOLVDB at http://solvdb.ncms.org/index.html
specifically on what needs to be dissolved, and under what NIST Webbook Source of physical and chemical data at http://webbook.nist.gov
conditions. This article presents a four-step approach to solvent DIPPR and www.aiche.org/TechnicalSocieties/DIPPR/About/Mission.aspx; and
selection based upon Ref. 1*, where the reader will find a list of TAPP www.chempute.com/tapp.htm
additional resources on this topic. CAPEC Database Pure as well as mixture properties data, including solvent-solute database:
www.capec.kt.dtu.dk/Software/ICAS-and-its-Tools
Identify the challenge and solvent characteristics. Selection Tools Address and comments
The first two steps are: 1) identifying the actual problem and SMSwin A specialized software for property estimation and solvent classification:
technology or unit operation required to solve it; and 2) defining www.capec.kt.dtu.dk/documents/software/SMSWIN.htm
the requirements that must be met by the solvent, using criteria
NRTL-SAC and Activity coefficient method based on segment contributions. Predictive based
related to its physical and chemical properties (e.g., pure-solvent
eNRTL-SAC on a small set of solubility data. Useful for crystallization solvent selection
properties, such as normal boiling point, the Hildebrand solubility and extends to LLE and VLE: www.aspentech.com
parameter at 300 K, the Hansen solubility parameters; solvent-
solute properties, such as the solubility of the solute as a function
of the composition of the mixture; and functional constraints, such TABLE 2. Well-known solvents together with their related properties
as solute loss in solute).
Solvent Name Molecule type Group type Charge NBP NMP Sol. Par.
(K) (K)
Obtain reliable values of solvent properties and
narrow down selection. There are several alternatives for this 1-Methyl-2-pyrrolidinone Amide 1 NE/EPD 475.15 249.15 23.16
third step. For example, one can measure the required properties, Acetonitrile Nitrile 1 E/NPG 354.75 229.35 24.05
use a database of properties of chemicals (or solvents), or, use Dimethyl sulphoxide S-oxide 1 E/NPG 462.15 291.65 26.75
property models to estimate them. For solvent-selection problems Dimethyl formamide Amide 1 NE/NPG 426.15 212.75 23.95
not involving chemical reactions, the pattern of the desired Dimethylacetamide Amide 1 NE/NPG 438.15 253.15 22.35
solvent is established through analysis of the solute, application Diisopropyl ether Ether 2 NE/EPD 341.65 181.35 14.45
type, and other constraints. Dimethyl ether Ether 2 NE/EPD 248.35 131.65 15.12
Once this is established, a database of known solvents can Methyl tertbutyl ether Ether 2 NE/EPD 328.35 164.55 15.07
be used to identify the solvents that match the necessary pattern Tetrahydrofuran Ether 2 NE/EPD 338.15 164.85 18.97
(Table 1). On the other hand, when chemical reactions are Chlorobenzene Chloride 3 NE/P 632.35 404.9 19.35
involved, the approach is based on transition-state theory and m-xylene (also o-; p-) Aromatic HC 3 NE/P 412.27 225.3 18.05
requires consideration of the solvation energies of the reactants,
Toluene Aromatic HC 3 NE/P 383.95 178.25 18.32
products and transition states, and thus, knowledge of the reac-
Acetic acid Acid 4 PG 391.05 289.81 19.01
tion mechanism.
When the crucial values have been found, the solvent search Propionic acid Acid 4 E/PG 414.25 252.45 19.41
could be such that first, solvent-pure properties are used, followed Sulfuric acid Acid 4 E/PG 610 283.46 28.41
ordered
by solvent-EHS, then solvent-solute, and finally solvent-function.
Narrow down the list by removing the compounds that do not Propanol Alcohol 5 E/N 370.35 147.05 24.45
match desired properties. Ethanol Alcohol 5 E/N 351.35 159.05 26.13
A protocol derived by Britest Ltd. (www.britest.co.uk) seeks to Butanol Alcohol 5 E/N 390.81 183.85 23.35
use mechanistic principles to guide solvent selection (Figure). The Ethylene glycol Alcohol 5 E/N 470.45 260.15 33.7
objective is to follow the arrows according to the problem defini- Dichloromethane Chloride 6 NE/EPD 313.15 178.05 20.37
tion and a search criterion until an end-point is reached, thereby Heptane Alkane 7 NE/I 371.65 182.55 15.2
obtaining the characteristics of the candidate solvents. These Hexane Alkane 7 NE/I 341.85 177.85 14.9
characteristics are used to identify the group to which the solvents Pentane Alkane 7 NE/I 309.22 143.42 14.4
belong using solvents database (see Table 2). The corresponding Methanol Alcohol 4, 5 E/N 337.85 175.47 29.59
group-types are evaluated and a final selection is made. Water Aqueous 4, 5 E/N 373.15 273.15 47.81

Verify selection. The fourth step is to verify that the solvent
works as expected by performing a computational validation
by simulation. Experimental validation of a solvent candidate is
required at all stages of process development.
NE = non-electrolytic solvent; E = electrolytic solvent; P = polarizable; EPD = electron-pair
donor; I = inert; PG = protogenic (proton donor); N= neutral (donor & acceptor); NPG =
non-protogenic (proton acceptor); NBP = normal boiling point; NMP = normal melting point;
Sol. Par. = Hildebrand solubility parameter at 300 K (MPa1/2)

Stability, solubility of reactants, products

Single phase or solid-liquid Two-phase or liquid-liquid Water, immiscible solvent

(polar phase is water)

Homogeous catalysis Condensation SN1/E1 SN2/E2

by Pt group complexes
High polarity
Substrate/product hydroxyl sensitive Choose ‘polarity’
Moderate polarity based on substrate
Dipolar Aromatic and reagent
aprotic hydrocarbon Yes Consider
DPA ethers, solvation No solubility. May need
(xylene) phase-transfer catalyst
aromatics
Water, carboxylic Dipolar aprotic
Group 1 Fast, low temp, Slow, high- acids, inorganic ethers Group 3
but recovery temperature, acids, lower Water,
Group 2 difficult easy recovery alcohols Group 1 alcohols Group 6
Group 3 Group 1 Group 3 Group 4 Group 2 Group 5 Group 7

*Reference: 1. Gani, R., et al., A Modern Approach to Solvent Selection, Chem. Eng., Vol. 113, No. 3, pp. 30–43, Mar. 2006. Author E-mail: rag@kt.dtu.dk
 Controlling
Crystal Growth
Department Editor: Rita L. D'Aquino

T
he formation of crystals requires the birth of
new particles, also called nucleation, and
the growth of these particles to the final
product size. The driving force for both rates is
the degree of supersaturation, or the numerical
difference between the concentration of solute in
the supersaturated solution in which nucleation
and growth occurs vs. concentration of solute in
a solution that is theoretically in equilibrium with
the crystals.
In a batch crystallizer, the crystal size
distribution (CSD) is controlled by first seeding
the initially supersaturated batch with a known
number and size distribution of crystals, and
then controlling the rate of evaporation or
cooling (i.e., rate of energy transfer) so as to
achieve a level of supersaturation that supports
adequate crystal growth and an acceptable
rate of nucleation. The relationship between
supersaturation and growth is linear, but that
between nucleation and growth is raised to a
power that is usually greater than one, making
it difficult to grow large crystals when nucleation
is occurring. The following procedure describes
how to achieve the optimal growth rate:
1. Screen the seeds at the beginning of the ex-
periment to determine the cumulative number
of crystals that are greater than a given size
N’. Estimate NLi, the number of crystals of a
given size (Lav) obtained from the screening:
$Wi
N Li  which you can safely assume that the growth
Lav 3 kv R c
The parameters are defined in the table
of nomenclature. To convert from μm to ft,
multiply by 3.28 x 10–6.
2. Continue to measure the number and size
of crystals as the cooling or evaporation
program is in progress. Prepare an inverse
cumulative plot of the number of crystals
greater than a given size vs. size of the
crystal (Figure 1). The crystal growth rate de-
pends on the energy transfer rate, so modify
the rate of energy transfer until a desirable
product is obtained.
3. Repeat the first two steps at intervals
throughout the batch cycle and plot the
results as shown in Figure 1. The family of
curves resulting from data plotted under the
selected conditions indicates that the number
of crystals is not increasing with time. Thus,
no additional nucleation is occurring yet.
4. Proceed to collect crystal samples, an-
ticipating the onset of nucleation. Figure
2 indicates that the number of crystals is
significantly increasing with time. In this
figure, t1 (not to be confused with t1 in Figure
/h OVNCFS
PG
DSZTUBMT

1) represents the start of this new set of batch
dynamics. It is safe to assume that significant
nucleation is now occurring and that the rate
of energy transfer is too high.
5. By taking the slope of the curve represent-
ing the estimated number of nuclei present
at the measured point in time (Nti) vs. time
(ti), one can determine the nucleation rate.
Using your representation of Figure 3, create
a dashed, horizontal line across the lower
portion of the graph depicting the selected,
cumulative number of crystals (Ni’), and their
sizes (L1–L4) over time (t1–t4).
6. For a selected cumulative number of crystals
(Ni’), plot the crystal size (L) vs. time (t), as
demonstrated in Figure 3. The slopes repre-
sent the crystal growth rate (G). If the level of
supersaturation changes during the run, the
growth rate also changes. Non-parallel lines
would indicate that the larger crystals are
growing at a faster rate, due to a reduced
diffusional resistance [layer] at the crystal
surface. With larger particles, the resistance
layer may be smaller, allowing the solute to
more readily reach the crystal surface and
incorporate itself into the lattice. These fac-
tors collectively contribute to the accelerated
growth rate of the larger particles. Parallel
lines indicate that the growth rate is not
dependent on crystal size.
7. Increase the rate of cooling or evaporation
(1) until additional nucleation occurs, upon
rate is too high.
8. Develop a seeding and evaporation profile
that will yield a growth rate that is lower than
the value found in Step 6.
When determining the growth rate, keep in
mind the difference in mixing characteristics
between a laboratory-scale vessel and a com-
mercial configuration. A small tank generally
offers a higher relative pumping capacity,
shorter blend time, and higher average shear
rates within a narrower range.
USEFUL OBSERVATIONS
• Most processors will agree that when it
comes to crystals, the larger, the better. Large
crystals are easier to handle in downstream
operations, such as washing, centrifugation
and drying.
• As previously mentioned, it is desirable for
the seeds’ size distribution to reflect a nar-
row cut of particles. In this cut, the weight
of crystals with sizes finer than Ls should be
minimal because these tiny particles add
enormously to the number of crystals that
NOMENCLATURE
A Crystal surface area, ft2
B° Nucleation rate, (number of nuclei)/
ft3/s
G Crystal growth rate, μm/s
kv Crystal-volume shape factor,
dimensionless
L Crystal size, μm
L’ Smallest-measurable size, μm
Lav Size of crystal fraction, μm
Lf Final size of crystal, μm
Ls Seed size, μm
N Number of seeds
N i’ Constant, cumulative number
of crystals in crystallizer
NLi Number of crystals of a given size,
Lav
Nti Number of crystal nuclei at any time
S Rate of supersaturation
S* Maximum allowable supersatura-
tion, lb/ft3 solvent
t, ti, tf Time, h
ΔWi Weight of crystals on screen
Rc Crystal density, lb/ft3
compete for supersaturation and growth.
• Studies show that milled seeds may not grow
as well as unmilled seeds. Furthermore, not
all crystals of a given size grow at the same
constant rate. This is sometimes attributed to
the differences in the surface characteristics
of particles that have equal dimensions.
• Fines destruction in a batch system can
greatly reduce the effects of secondary nucle-
ation on the CSD, and significantly increase
crystal size while narrowing the CSD.
• In practice, not all additional nucleation can
be suppressed. Crystallizations carried out at
low levels of supersaturation near the meta-
stable zone (i.e., the conditions under which
crystals grow, but do not typically nucleate)
will display some secondary nucleation, due
to crystal-crystal interactions and contact
between the crystals and the impeller. Nev-
ertheless, the mean crystal size, shape and
distribution are dramatically improved when
seeding is followed by a programmed rate of
energy transfer.
Reference: Genck, W., Better Growth in Batch Crystal-
lizers, Chem. Eng., Vol. 106, No. 8, pp. 90–95, Aug.
2000. E-mail: genckintl@aol.com

/U4 /h3
/U3
/h2
/U2
MBSHFS
UIBO -

/h1
/h number of crystals

/U1
4J[F
-

U4
U2 U3
larger than -

U1 U2 U3 U4 U1

/h1 U1 U2 U3 U4
-h -1 -2 -3 -h E-
( = EU
Size, - (Mm) -h = smallest measurable size
-h = smallest measurable size Time, U (min)
FIGURE 1. FIGURE 2. FIGURE 3.
 Hazardous Area
Classification
Department Editor: Rebekkah Marshall

GUIDELINES BY LOCATION Table 1. Hazardous Areas*

North America IEC (Europe)
Over the years, hazardous area clas- Class — Division Zones
sification requirements for the U.S. An area in which an explosive atmosphere is
Division 1: Pres-
have evolved around a single area-clas- Class I — Gas or ent or likely to be Zone 0 (Gas) / continually present or present for long
sification system known as the Class/ vapor present in normal Zone 20 (Dust) periods or frequently
Division system. Today, the system operation
addresses establishment of boundaries Class II — Dust Gas/Vapor Zone 1 (Gas) / An area in which an explosive atmosphere is
of hazardous areas and the equipment Division 2: Not or Dust Zone 21 (Dust) likely to occur in normal operation
and wiring used in them. Meanwhile, Class III — Fiber present in normal
European countries, as well as some or flying (no group operation, could Zone 2 (Gas) / An area in which an explosive atmosphere is
designation) be present in ab- Zone 22 (Dust) not likely to occur in normal operations and,
other countries around the world, have
normal operation if it does occur, will exist for only a short time
developed their own area classification
systems to address hazardous locations * This table represents a corrected version from that in the original printing
safety issues. This independent develop-
Table 2. Relationship Between Divisions and Zones Table 3. Temperature Codes
ment has resulted in systems for these
North America Europe The Temperature class defines the maximum
countries or groups of countries based
Division Zone surface temperature of the device. Ratings are
on the International Electrotechnical
method method IEC standard given with reference to 40°C ambient
Commission (IEC) Zone system, with de-
Ignitable mixture present Zone Zone 0 T1 450°C T3A 180°C
viations to meet each country’s national continuously (long periods) Division 0 (Zone 20-Dust)
codes. While other countries do accept T2 300°C T3B 165°C
Ignitable mixture present 1 Zone Zone 1
and use the Division system (most nota- T2A 280°C T3C 160°C
intermittently 1 (Zone 21-Dust)
bly Canada and Mexico), the majority Zone 2 T2B 260°C T4 135°C
Ignitable mixture is not Division Zone
of the world’s hazardous locations are normally present 2 2 (Zone 22-Dust) T2C 230°C T4A 120°C
classified using the concepts of the IEC
Zone system. The U.S. National Electri- T2D 215°C T5 100°C
Table 4. Gas and Dust Groups
cal Code (NEC; NFPA 70) also recog- Hazardous locations are grouped according to their ignition T3 200°C T6 85°C
nizes the Zone system and allows its properties The additional temperature classifications high-
use in the U.S. under article 505 of the Typical IEC gas North Ameri- Minimum ignition lighted above are for USA and Canada only
NEC. ATEX requires the use of IEC-type gas group can group energy
hazardous area classifications. Acetylene IIC A 20μJ Table 6. Types of Protection for Electri-
Hydrogen IIC + H2 B 20μJ cal Equipment (IEC/ATEX and NEC)
DEFINING HAZARDOUS AREAS Ethylene IIB C 60μJ IEC Permit-
Permitted
Propane IIA D 100μJ Technique Des- ted Di-
Zone
A hazardous area is designated as any cription vision
location in which a combustible material *Methane I — Ex o 1&2 —
Oil immersion
is or may be present in the atmosphere Metal dust — E Pressurization Ex p 1&2 1&2
in sufficient concentration to produce an Coal dust — F Ex q 1&2 —
Powder filling
ignitable mixture. The North American
Grain dust — G Flameproof Ex d 1&2 —
method identifies these areas by Class,
Division and Group or optionally by Fibers — — Explosion Proof — — 1&2
Class, Zone and Group, while the IEC *Mining application under jurisdiction of U.S. Mine Safety and Increased safety — — —
and CENELEC designate these areas by Health Administration (MSHA)
Intrinsic safety Ex ia 0,1 & 2 1&2
Gas/Dust, Zone and Group. The likeli-
Table 5. Information Required For Establishing Intrinsic safety Ex ib 1&2 —
hood that the explosive atmospheres are Extent of Hazardous Area
present when the equipment is operating Gas/Vapors Dust
Encapsulation Ex m 1&2 —
are designated in Tables 1, 2 and 5. Special protection Ex s 0,1 & 2 —
• Flash point • A/B classification
• Flammability limits • Minimum explosible dust Nonincendive — — 2
EQUIPMENT SELECTION • Auto-ignition temperature concentration
• Minimum ignition energy, • Minimum ignition energy Nonsparking Ex nA 2 —
For equipment selection purposes, haz- MIC or MESG – for equipment • Minimum ignition tempera- Enclosed break Ex nC 2 —
ardous area classifications also consider: selection purposes ture (cloud/layer)
• Gas/Vapor group • Electrical resistivity Energy limited Ex nL 2 —
• The maximum surface temperature of • Vapor/Gas density • Dust group Simplified
the equipment under normal operat- • Area ventilation conditions • Area ventilation conditions Ex nP 2 —
pressurization
ing conditions (see the Temperature • Location of gas/vapor release • Location of dust release
points. Frequency and rate of points. Frequency and rate of Restricted
Code designations in Table 3) Ex nR 2 —
release release breathing
• The ignition-related properties of
the explosive atmosphere (see the Table 7. Types of Ignition Protection for Mechanical Equipment (ATEX)
Group designations in Table 4) Method Description
• The protection method(s) used by To ensure that ignition sources cannot arise Construction safety “c”, Inherent safety “g”,
the equipment to prevent ignition of To ensure that ignition sources cannot become active Control of ignition sources “b”
the surrounding atmosphere (see the To prevent the explosive atmosphere from reaching Inert liquid immersion “k”, Inert gas pressuriza-
Protection Method designations in the ignition source tion “p”, Flow restricting enclosure “fr”
Table 6) To contain the explosion and prevent flame propagation Flame proof enclosures “d”, Flame arresters

Acknowledgement and references Classification of Flammable Liquids, Gases, or
Vapors and of Hazardous (Classified) Locations for
We would like to thank Vladimir Stetsovsky of Chilworth Electrical Installations in Chemical Process Areas.
Technology, Inc. for his contributions to this page
3. NFPA 499-2004, Recommended Practice for the
1. National Electrical Code-2005-NFPA 70, National Classification of Combustible Dusts and of Hazard-
Fire Protection Association. ous (Classified) Locations for Electrical Installations
2. NFPA 497-2004, Recommended Practice for the in Chemical Process Areas.
4. IEC 60079-10-2002 Electrical apparatus for explo-
sive gas atmospheres — Part 10: Classification of
hazardous areas.
5. IEC 61241-3-2005 Electrical apparatus for use in
the presence of combustible dust — Part 3: Classifi-
cation of areas where combustible dusts are or may
be present.

Department Editor: Rebekkah Marshall
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS [1]
A process is considered to be thermally
safe only if the reactions can easily be
controlled, and if the raw material, the
products, the intermediates and the re-
action masses are thermally stable under
the considered process conditions. Check
into the process equipment, its design, its
sequence of operation and the control
strategies. In addition to the engineer-
ing aspects, get detailed information on
thermodynamic and kinetic properties
of the substances involved, such as the
reaction rates or heat-release rates as
a function of process conditions. Deter-
mine the physical and chemical proper-
ties, as well.
Understanding of thermal-hazard po-
tential requires knowledge of various
skills and disciplines [3]. These include:
Operating mode: The mode of opera-
tion is an important factor. For instance,
a batch reaction, where all the reactants
are charged initially, is more difficult to
control than a semi-batch operation in
which one of the reactants is charged
progressively as the reaction proceeds
(for more, see Design Options).
Engineering: Design and layout of the
plant and equipment and its built-in con-
trols impact the entire process. The ca-
pacity of the heating or cooling system
is important in this context. Process en-
gineering is used to understand the con-
trol of the chemical processes on a plant
scale. It determines which equipment
should be used and how the chemical
processes should be performed. In ad-
dition, take into account technical failure
of equipment, human errors (deviations
from operating instructions), unclear
operating instructions, interruption of
energy supply, and external influences,
such as frost or rain (for more, see De-
sign Options).
Chemistry: The nature of the process and
the behavior of products must be known,
not only under reaction conditions, but
also in case of unexpected deviations
(for example, side reactions, instability
of intermediates). Chemistry is used to
gain information regarding the reaction
pathways that the materials in question
follow.
Physical chemistry and reaction kinetics:
The thermophysical properties of the reac-
tion masses and the kinetics of the chemi-
cal reaction are of primary importance.
Physical chemistry is used to describe the
reaction pathways quantitatively.
DATA COLLECTION
The following data are especially rel-
evant in avoiding runaway reactions:
• Physical and chemical properties, ig-
nition and burning behavior, electro-
static properties, explosion behavior
and properties, and drying, milling,
and toxicological properties
• Interactions among the chemicals
• Interactions between the chemicals
and the materials of construction
• Thermal data for reactions and de-
composition reactions
• Cooling-failure scenarios
DESIGN OPTIONS [2]
If a reaction is has the potential for
runaway, the following design changes
should be considered:
• Batch to continuous. Batch reactors
require a larger inventory of reac-
tants than continuous reactors do, so
the potential for runaway in continu-
ous systems is less by comparison
• Batch to semi-batch. In a semi-batch
reaction, one or more of the reactants
is added over a period of time. There-
fore, in the event of a temperature or
pressure excursion, the feed can be
switched off, thereby minimizing the
chemical energy stored up for a sub-
sequent exothermic release
• Continuous, well-mixed reactors to
plug flow designs. Plug-flow reactors
require comparatively smaller volumes
and therefore smaller (less dangerous)
inventories for the same conversion
• Reduction of reaction inventory via
increased temperature or pressure,
changing catalyst or better mix-
ing. A very small reactor operating
at a high temperature and pressure
may be inherently safer than one
operating as less extreme conditions
because it contains a much lower in-
ventory [3]. Note that while extreme
conditions often result in improved
reaction rates, they also present their
own safety challenges. Meanwhile, a
compromise solution employing mod-
erate pressure and temperature and
medium inventory may combine the
worst features of the extremes [3].
• Less-hazardous solvent
• Externally heated or cooled to inter-
nally heated or cooled
Preventing
Runaway
Reactions
THERMAL STABILITY
CRITERIA [1, 4]
As a guideline, three levels are sufficient
to characterize the severity and prob-
ability of a runaway reaction, as shown
in the Table.
DEFINING HIGH, MEDIUM
AND LOW RISK [1]
Severity Probability
High %Tad > 200K TMRad < 8 h
Medium 50K < %Tad < 200K 8 h < TMRad <
24 h
Low %Tad < 50K and TMRad > 24 h
the boiling point
cannot be sur-
passed
Adiabatic temperature rise
The adiabatic temperature rise is calculated
by dividing the energy of reaction by
the specific heat capacity as shown in
Equation (1).
%Tad = 1,000Qr/Cp (1)
where:
%Tad = adiabatic temperature rise, K
Qr = energy of reaction, kJ/kg
Cp = heat capacity, J/(kg)(K)
Time to maximum rate (TMR)
TMRad (the time to maximum rate, adiabatic) is
a semiquantitative indicator of the probability
of a runaway reaction. Equation (2), defining
TMRad in hours, is derived for zero-order
reaction kinetics:
TMRad = CpRTo2/3,600qoEa (2)
where:
R = gas constant, 8.314 J/molK
To = absolute initial temperature, K
qo = specific heat output at To, W/kg
Ea = activation energy, J/mol
The TMR value provides operating personnel
with a measure of response time. Knowledge
of the TMR allows decisions to be based on
an understanding of the time-frame available
for corrective measures in case heat transfer
is lost during processing.
References
1. Venugopal, Bob, Avoiding Runaway Reac-
tions, Chem. Eng., June 2002, pp. 54–58.
2. Smith, Robin, ”Chemical Process Design,”
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1995.
3. Kletz, T. A., “Cheaper, Safer Plants,”
IChemE Hazard Workshop, 2d., IChemE,
Rugby, U.K., 1984.
4. Gygax, R., Reaction Engineering Safety,
Chem. Eng. Sci., 43, 8, pp. 1759–71, Au-
gust 1998.