International Conference on Global Trends in Engineering, Technology and Management (ICGTETM-2016)

Thermal Design and Development of Intercooler

Nilesh Pawar#,
#
DPES Dhole Patil College of Engineering, Wagholi, Pune, India
Address
Abstract— Air delivered to the induction- manifold provided the boost-pressure ratio is 1.6:1 or more, as
from the turbocharger is subjected to reserve-flow a lower operating pressure will not raise the charge
pressure pulsation and turbulence, and results in temperature to such high values.
considerable amount of heat. Now engine power is The function of the intercooler, is to
dependent principally upon the mass of air drawn transfer heat from the compressed charge to another
into the cylinder per cycle, and increasing the source which is at a lower temperature, such as the
charge pressure ratio alone will not permit the engine’s cooling system, or directly to surrounding
maximum quantity of charge to enter the cylinder. In atmosphere.
fact, the true measure of power potential is the
density of the charge in the cylinder and this relates
directly to the temperature of the air charge about to
enter the cylinder. The lower the charge temperature
at given constant pressure the smaller will be its
volume and hence more air charge is able to enter
the cylinder. Heat –exchangers of this kind are
capable of reducing a charge temperature of 120oC
to something like 60oC. Air to air heat exchangers
are not attached to the engine and are most
effectively positioned in front of the radiator if space
permits. The air-to-air intercooler is more popular
than the air-to-liquid intercooler because it is able
to bring down the air-charge temperature to much Fig. 1 Operation of turbocharger and location of
o o
lower values of around 60 C as opposed to 85 C. Charge Air Cooler
Detail design process of charge air cooler is
illustrated. It is the rating design where we have There are two types of heat exchangers in common
determined the thermal performance of charge air use. These are:
cooler. These analytical results are then compared 1. Air to liquid and
with test results. 2. Air to air
Key Words—Intercooler, Charge air
cooling,Thermodynamic, Thermal design II. THERMODYNAMICS OF CHARGE AIR
I. INTRODUCTION COOLING
CHARGE AIR COOLER
Air delivered to the induction- manifold The thermodynamic relationships between
from the turbocharger is subjected to reserve-flow the density, pressure and temperature ratios for
pressure pulsation and turbulence, and results in different compressor efficiencies are
considerable amount of heat. Now engine power is straightforward. Intake charge air densities shown in
dependent principally upon the mass of air drawn the fig are hard to obtain without charge air-cooling.
into the cylinder per cycle, and increasing the charge The effect of charge air-cooling on density ratio is a
pressure ratio alone will not permit the maximum function of the effectiveness of the charge air cooler
quantity of charge to enter the cylinder. In fact, the and the pressure loss from compressor discharge to
true measure of power potential is the density of the intake manifold.
charge in the cylinder and this relates directly to the The effectiveness is defined as the ratio of
temperature of the air charge about to enter the temperature drop of charge air across the cooler to
cylinder. The lower the charge temperature at given maximum temperature potential available for
constant pressure the smaller will be its volume and cooling.
hence more air charge is able to enter the cylinder.
It is essential that where the output T2 T3
o
temperature from a supercharger may reach 120 C T2 T1
and this remains uncooled when delivered to the E =
engine, then the power lost could be as high as 38 %. Where
Intercooler, which reduces the delivered air charge T3: Intake manifold temperature
o T2: Compressor discharge temperature
temperature to around 60 C can raise the engine
T1: Ambient temperature , which is assumed to be
power by as much as 20 %. However, the the same as compressor inlet temperature
incorporation of an intercooler is only justified

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air-cooling in trucks, farm equipment, marine units

In case of an air-to-air charge air cooler, and other applications.
where ambient air is the cooling medium, above b. Reduced thermal loading:
equation directly applies. In cases where water is Experiments and calculations of piston
used as intermediate cooling medium, the overall temperature have shown in fig.4 the reduced
effectiveness is composed of the charge air cooling temperature level in piston could put it in the
effectiveness and the corresponding radiator favorable portion of the strength vs. temperature
effectiveness. In either case, since the ultimate heat curve. Thus, conventional aluminum pistons could
sink is the ambient air, equation is the reasonable be used in high output, charge air-cooled. Where as
measure of the system effectiveness. The pressure in non- charge air-cooled engine iron or gallery
loss from compressor discharge to intake manifold cooled pistons may be necessary.
could be expressed as a percentage of compressor It has been observed by some authors that when a
discharge pressure. charge air cooler is used, the decrease in thermal
loading and heat rejection to the coolant offsets the
heat rejection to coolant in the charge air cooler. The
Simplified performance curves of a net result is reduced thermal loading of the
turbochargercompressor
components at essentially the same total heat
rejection to the coolant.
2.1 c. Reduced exhaust emissions:
80
It has been well established that the peak
2
cycle temperature is a primary independent variable
70 in NOx formation. Figure demonstrates the effect of
1.9
intake manifold temperature on NOx at constant
Abs Temp. T2/T1 and density ratio

1.8 60 injection timing. Depending on the compression

Density ratio of the engine, 100 ºF reductions in intake
1.7 manifold temperature. For temperature near 3300 ºF,
60 where the rate of NOx formation is believed to very
1.6
high, this magnitude of temperature reduction is very
1.5 70 significant. Therefore, charge air-cooling is
considered to be an essential part of diesel engine
80
1.4 configurations to control NOx emissions. The other
important aspect of exhaust emissions is unburned
1.3 hydrocarbons.
Temp
1.2
650
1.1 TOP
RING
1 600
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
COMBUSTION
Perssure Ratio P2/P1 550 BOWL
Piston Temp. oF

500

Fig.2: Simplified performance curves of a

turbocharger compressor. 450

PIN
Thus, the basic thermodynamic advantage 400 BOSS
of charge air-cooling is that it provides cooler air at
higher density to the engine. The lower charge air 350
temperature results in lower peak cycle temperature
and lower turbine inlet temperature. 300
III. ADVANTAGES OF CHARGE AIR-COOLING
50 100 150 200 250 300 350
a. Increased Output: Intake manifold Temp. oF
This is often the main reason for charge air-
cooling. Since the more air at lower temperature is Fig.3: Effect of intake temperature on piston
available for combustion, more fuel can be burnt Temperature
resulting in more BHP. Since this is the most cost
effective way of increasing the power of given HC emissions are known to be the most sever at idle
engine, many engine designers have utilized charge and light load conditions. In these modes, the
turbocharger is operating at very low operating

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 International Conference on Global Trends in Engineering, Technology and Management (ICGTETM-2016)

pressure ratios. Therefore, the compressor discharge 1.2

temperature is close to the ambient temperature. It is
advantageous to warm the charge air to above 140 BSFC RATIO =
BSFC / (BSFC OF NON-CHARGEAIR
oF in these modes for HC control. In this context,
COOLEDENGINE)
the water-cooled charge air cooler will help to heat 1.1
the air going to cylinder. This charge air warm up
feature is expected to play an imported role in the

BSNOx RATIO
proposed transient emissions conformance. This
cycle places greater importance on part load 1 BSNO2 = GMS/(BHP-HR)
operation compared to the present 13-mode cycle. In
order to meet the anticipated emissions levels on the
transient cycle, a fine tuned advanced charge air
cooling system is considered necessary. Another 0.9
consideration in deciding the level for a warm-up
feature is white smoke. White smoke control is
highly dependent on the type of engine combustion
system. In general, warm air clears white smoke 0.8
o
quickly. Intake manifold temperature of 140 F at 32 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
o INTAKE MANIFOLD TEMP. ºF
F ambient will help considerably in white smoke
control. Fig.5: Effect of intake manifold on Engine fuel
consumption.
20
INJECTION TIMING e.
Increased altitude capability:
31º BTDC One of the major limiting factors that the
15
engine designer is faced with is the exhaust
BSNOx GSM (HP-HR)

temperature at high altitude operation of the engine.

26 oBTDC This is especially true at peak torque conditions
10 where the air /fuel ratio is low ant the turbine inlet
temperature could reach or exceed the material used
in the turbine casing or exhaust manifold. State of the
19 o BTDC
5 art materials limit the maximum turbine inlet
temperatures to 1350 ºF with few excursions past
1400 ºF. When the intake charge air temperature is
0 reduced by 100 ºF, the exhaust temperature will be
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 reduced by 100 ºF.
INTAKE MANIFOLD TEMP . oF
1110
Fig.4: Effect of Charged Air intake temperature on
Exhaust emission
1090
0.09
TURBINE INLET TEMP, ºF

d. Reduced engine fuel consumption: 0.11 0.07

Charge air-cooling has a measurably 1070
favorable effect on engine brake specific fuel
consumption (BSFC). Fig shows the temperature on 1050
the BSFC ratio (Which is the BSFC/BSFC of a non-
Charge air-cooled engine) at various BSNOx levels. 1030
This fact reinforces the need for a well-refined Charge
air cooling system. 1010

990
110 130 150 170 190 210
INTAKE MANIFOLD TEMP ºF

Fig.6: Turbine Inlet temperature Vs Intake manifold

temperature

Depending on the engine parameters such

as compression ratio and valve events, the exhaust
temperature reduction could be greater than 100 ºF. Fig

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 International Conference on Global Trends in Engineering, Technology and Management (ICGTETM-2016)

shows that for typically heavy-duty engine. Thus, IV. THERMAL DESIGN OF CHARGE AIR
Charge air-cooling provides a much needed safety COOLER
margin in exhaust temperature during altitude THEORY
operation.
The design of a heat exchange involves a
f. Charge Air Cooling as an aid in reducing consideration of both the heat transfer rates between
turbocharger requirements: the fluids and the mechanical pumping power
expended to overcome fluid friction and move the
For a given intake manifold air density, use fluids through the heat exchanger. For a heat
of a charge air cooler results in a lower turbocharger exchanger, operating with high-density fluids the
pressure ratio. When the charge air cooler friction power expenditure is generally small relative
effectiveness is high, the compressor efficiency to heat transfer rate, with result that the friction power
becomes less critical to achieve a given intake air expenditure is seldom of controlling influence.
density. This could result in significant practical gains. However, for low-density fluids such as gas it is very
The state-of –the-art compressor could be produced easy to expend as much mechanical energy in
economically when the efficiency is about 70%. When overcoming friction power as is transferred as heat.
a higher efficiency (~80%) is needed, the problem And it should be remembered that in most thermal
becomes very complicated. power systems mechanical energy is worth four to ten
times as much as its equivalent in heat.
Another area where the charge air cooler could be
advantageously used is to aid the compressor Increasing fluid-flow velocity can increase
requirements in altitude operation. Fig shows a typical the heat transfer rate per unit of surface area, and this
compressor map with the engine ―operating diamond‖ rate varies as something less than first power of the
superimposed upon it. It is clear from a fig that when a velocity. The friction power expenditure is also
charge air cooler is used the compressor pressure ratio increased with flow velocity, but in this behavior that
needed to meet altitude requirements is significantly allows the designer to match both heat transfer rate and
reduced. In addition, the ―surge margin‖, which is an friction (pressure-drop) specification, and it is this
indication of how close to the surge line the behavior that dictates many of characteristics of
compressor would operate, is improved with the use of different classes of heat exchangers.
a charge air cooler. It is clear that the addition of
charge air cooler would enable the designer to move If the friction power expenditure is high, we
the operating diamond to left of compressor map, can reduce flow velocities by increasing the number of
which is in the direction of higher efficiency. It should flow passages in the heat exchanger. This will also
be emphasized that the addition of charge air cooler decrease the heat transfer rate per unit of surface area,
should be accompanied by rematching the but according to the above relations, the reduction in
turbocharger to the engine in order to realize maximum heat transfer rate will be considerably less than the
benefits. friction-power reduction.

Increasing the surface area, which in turn also

3.6 increases the friction-power expenditure, then makes
69 up the loss of heat transfer rate but only in the same
3.2
proportion as the heat transfer area is increased.
NO CHRGE AIR
In gas –flow heat exchangers the friction-
COMPRESSOR PRESSURE RATIO.

COOLER 63 K

2.8 1200 FT ALTITUDE power limitations generally force the designer to

WITH CHARGE AIR arrange for moderately low mass velocities, and low
57 K mass velocities together with the low thermal
2.4 2100 conductivities of gases (low relative to most liquids),
K
results in low heat transfer rate per unit of surface area.
1500
2
Thus, large amount of surface area becomes the typical
45
1000 FT characteristic of gas flow heat exchangers. Gas-to-gas
K
heat exchangers may require up to ten times the
39
1.6 surface area of condenser or evaporator or liquid –to-
33 liquid heat exchanger in which the total heat transfer
rates and pumping power consumption is comparable.
1.2
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
These considerations have led to the
AIR FLOW ,CFM ºR,29.38'' HG development of many ways to construct heat transfer
surfaces for gas-flow applications in which the surface
area density is large such surfaces will be referred as
Fig.7: Effect of Charge air cooler on compressor the compact heat transfer surfaces.
―Operating Diamond

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 International Conference on Global Trends in Engineering, Technology and Management (ICGTETM-2016)

The effective way to increase surface area density is to curves on the heat transfer- friction power plot, despite
make use of secondary surfaces, or fins, on one or both the influence of small hydraulic diameter on the
sides of surfaces. The low friction power requirement friction power.
characteristic of high density fluids, together with the
relatively high thermal conductivity of fluids, results in ASSUMPTIONS:
high convection heat transfer rates in any optimum To analyse the thermal performance of
design (high convection conductance). If fins are CAC the following assumptions are made.
employed the high heat transfer rate must be conducted
along the fins, and the conduction resistance may a. No heat loss to surrounding, i.e.,
destroy all or most of the advantage of extra surface heat transfer takes place fluid to
area gained. fluid only.
b. No phase change of fluids.
In compact gas-to-gas heat exchangers, large area c. Fluid properties are evaluated at
density is desirable on both fluids side, and method for their mean operating temperature.
accomplishing this objective with fins is illustrated by d. Airflow distribution is uniform
the plate-fin arrangement. The heat exchanger is built across CAC core.
up as a sandwich of flat plates bonded to e. The amount of coolant flow in
interconnecting fins. The two fluids are carried each tube is constant.
between alternate pairs of plates and can be arranged in f. Flow rates and fluid properties are
either counter flow or cross flow, which provides an constant throughout the pass.
added degree of flexibility in this arrangement.A g. Fouling factor are as per standards.
compact surface has small flow passages and
convection conductance h always varies as a negative
power of hydraulic diameter of the passage. Thus
compact surfaces tend, by their very nature, to have DESIGN PROCEDURE OF CAC:
high conductance. This leads to high performance
COREGEOMETRY THEORETICALLY CALCULATED:
Input

Geometry 1. Core width B = 0.272 m

2. Height H = 0.456 m
Fluid Properties 3. Th = 0.05 m
Core thickness
4. Number of tubes Nt = 13
5. Minor diameter of tube
Iterate D min or =0.005 m
as
Necess 6. Major diameter of tube
ary
Compute
Dmajor =0.08 m
Є – NTU G & Re
7. Tube thickness Tt =0.0005 m
Surface
Iterate as 8. Header thickness HPT =0.02 m
Necessary
Rating
Basic Data 9. Thermal conductivity (Aluminum)
Problem
Kmaterial =206 W/m-k
Fin Sizing
Efficiency problem 10. Outside fin height Fh =0.012m
11. No fin length of tube= 0.005 m
Pressure Optimizatio 12. Outside Fins pre decimetre FDMo=40
Drop n
(Outside Fins per meterFPMo= 400)
13. Outside fin thickness Fto =0.00012 m
Output 14. Outside louver pitch
Lpo =0.00108 m
15. Outside louver length Llo =0.011 m
16. Outside louver height Lho =0.0002 m
Fig.8: Design procedure of CAC.
17. Inside Fins per Decimeter FDMi =28.6
( Inside Fins per meter FPMi=286)
18. Inside Fin Thickness Fti 0.00015m

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19. Inside Fin Depth Fdi =0.05 m louvered fins it is not possible to model the air side of a
heat exchanger in detail. Therefore porous media is
20. Efficiency of fan =80 % used for the core of the heat exchangers to simulate the
21. 21. Efficiency of pump =80 % pressure drop. The porous media provides resistance to
air flow which is dependent on the local flow velocity.
Two permeability coefficients, which have to be
V. CFD RESULTS defined, are obtained by pressure drop measurements
Apart from routine experimental of the individual components on a component test
development, recent years have seen a rapid growth of setup.
computer simulation of heat transfer phenomenon .
One of the major concerns of CAC designer is air is SIMULATION STEPS OF CAC
heat transfer medium on both sides which has low heat While simulating the radiator model
carrying capacity which enables the use of secondary following steps are involved.
heat transfer surface on both sides. The key to
1. Preparation of CAC core (Tube +
improving both performance measure which generally
louvered fin package) model using
lie in making changes in CAC geometry. The CFD
GAMBIT 2.2.30 2. Grid generation.
analysis that is a numerically solution provides a new
tool for design and optimization. Computational Fluid 3. Meshing the model with
Dynamics (CFD) can be a great help in analyzing the accompanied by defining
geometry changes and analyze the design and to do the different zones.
optimization. In this case of CAC, prediction of Charge
air flow patterns is very important. With this approach 4. Import mesh file into Fluent.
of CFD, it is possible to simulate the real CAC
behavior (internal flow and external heat exchange) 5. Selection of type of Solver.
and to get information for the designer to improve both
the CAC performance and also its efficiency. 6. Insertion of energy options.

Here a CAC core (tubes and louvered fin 7. Selection of materials and setting
arrangement) is considered to find out its thermal their various properties values.
performance and temperature profile in tubes, in
surrounding air and velocity profile of air.In this 8. Setting the operating conditions.
analysis of CAC, we have to do the analysis in two
different regions as 9. Fixing the boundary conditions.

Air Side analysis. 10. Interfacing.

Charge air Side analysis. 11. Monitoring for solution

convergence.
This airside analysis is generally done into
the fin area. The air is flowing across the radiator 12 Initialize the solution.
between the free flow area of the tubes and fins. We
can consider the one zone of the radiator core as the 13. Iterations.
complete core is of bigger size, assuming the
symmetry and air drawn by the fan is uniform. There 14. Post-Processing.
will be some deviation of results, but as considering
the time, it is not so big deviation. Also we can do the
analysis in 2-D or 3-D models as naturally there is 15. Modification of Model.
more accuracy in 3-D models. And Charge air side
analysis is generally done between tube regions. This
charge air is flowing through the tubes. The heat is
transferred from charge air to inner tube wall and fins
by the convection. The respective material properties
of charge air are specified. And the respective
boundary conditions are given and finally solution is
obtained. Here we consider the incompressible steady
state analysis for the simulation.

Heat exchangers typically have a complex

geometry; it is not feasible to represent all geometrical
details of a heat exchanger, e.g. the fin geometry, in a
CFD analysis. Due to the complex geometry of

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Contour of Total pressure on Charge air side VI. TEST RESULTS

Parameters Specification

Core dimensions (mm2) 272 X 456

Finned height (mm) 446

No. of tubes / Type (+/-) 13+

System depth (mm) 50

Tube dimensions (mm3) 50 X 8 X 0.5

Type of fin on air side louvered

Spacing (mm) 20

Contour of density on Charge air side

Fin density on air side (fi/dm) 30/40

Fin thickness on air side (mm) 0.12

Type of fin on CA-side. lance offset

Fin density on CA-side (Ri/dm) 0.286

Fin thickness on CA-side (mm) 0.15

No of fins / tube 14

Results

Net weight (Kg) 1.69

Contour of Z-Velocity on Charge air side
Q (KW) 9.54

Air side pressure drop (Pa) 229

Charge Air side Pressure drop (Pa) 800

Note

Charge air temperature. 130 ºC

Pressure 2 bar

Mass flow rate 510 Kg/h

Cooling Air temperature. 46 ºC

Mass flow rate 7 kg/m2s

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 International Conference on Global Trends in Engineering, Technology and Management (ICGTETM-2016)

18 Heat Rejection
16Rejection (Kw)
Heat Cooling Air Side pressure drop
14
12 800
10 Pressure Drop (Pa)
700Side
Cooling Air
8 600
6 500
4 400
2 300
0 200
100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Ram Air Speed (m/s) 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Similar manufg. 65.3 mm Deep core
Design 50 mm Deep core Ram Air Speed (m/s)
Design CAC 50 mm deep core Similar manufg. 65.3 mm deep core

Graph: 1 Heat rejection in core Vs Cooling

(Ram) air speed.
The graph shows the variation of heat
rejection of charge air in core against the velocity of
cooling air i.e. the speed of vehicle at constant mass
flow rate of charge air (540 Kg/h). The hyperbolic
nature of graph shows that initially heat rejection
increases rapidly with cooling air velocity, and
becomes steady at higher velocity.
Graph: 3 cooling airside pressure drop Vs
Cooling air velocity
VII. CONCLUSION
With the advances in Automobile
technology the power requirement from the vehicle are
increasing. The power output of vehicle can be
increased by two ways

We have compared the results of designed (1) By increasing the size of combustion
CAC with other manufacturer of similar CAC.To cylinders and burning the more fuel.
obtain the comparable heat rejection in core the similar
(2) By supplying more air in existing
design requires Almost 30% more surface area.
cylinders so that we can burn more fuel to obtain more
Graph 2 shows the variation of Charge air power.
pressure drop against cooling air velocity at constant
By second way, we can use CAC to
mass flow rate of charge air (540 Kg/h). It shows that
increase the density of charge air supplied to cylinder.
pressure drop is more at low velocity of cooling air.
And it is evident from the graph that it is constant at We have Designed CAC, which has fins on
higher speed of cooling air. both sides since cooled and cooling medium is air. Our
design has almost 30% less heat transfer area
Charge Air Side pressure Drop compared to other suppliers of CAC for comparable
6000 heat duty. The theoretical-model Computer-code (VB
Charge
5000Air Side Pressure Program) has been developed for simulation of
4000 pressure drop and temperature distribution. The
Drop (Pa) Computer model has been developed in VISUAL
3000
BASICS, because it is user-friendly tool.
2000
1000 The test model is developed with
0 aluminium fins and aluminium tubes, which gives
somewhat lower performance than copper fin and brass
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Ram Air Seed (m/s) fin assembly, but this copper brass assembly requires
more cost than aluminium fin and tube assembly. Also
Design50 mm Deep Core
Similar manufg. 65.3 mm Deep Core there are some good qualities of aluminium as it is
light weighted, strong, reliable, and corrosion resistant.
Also this test model is developed with Nocoloc brazing
Graph: 2 Charge airside pressure drop Vs
process.
Cooling air velocity.
Then wind tunnel test results of that
The graph 3 shows the variation of cooling
radiator are compared with theoretical results. These
air pressure drop Vs velocity. The parabolic nature of
results are having good agreement.
graph shows the pressure drop is less at low velocities
of cooling air.

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 International Conference on Global Trends in Engineering, Technology and Management (ICGTETM-2016)

Also CFD modelling provides analysis of

airflow and temperature distribution for different
velocities. A significant advantage of using CFD
modelling for practical heat transfer problem derives
from the case with which a wide range of operating
conditions can be simulated effectively.

REFERENCES

A: BOOKS
[1] HeinzHeisler, ―Vehicle and Engine Technology‖, 2nd
Edition.Society of Automotive Engineers Inc,1998

[2] Robert N. Brady, ―Modern Diesel Engine‖, Prentice Hall

Publications,1996

[3] W.M. Kays and A.L. Landon, ―Compact Heat

Exchangers‖, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company.

[4]Sadik S. Kakac, ―Heat exchanger Selection, Rating and

Thermal Design‖

[5]Dr. T. kuppan, ―Heat exchanger design handbook‖.

[6]Holman J. P., 1981, Heat Transfer, Fifth Edition,

McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.

B: PAPERS
[1] In KwangYoo, Kenneth Simpson, Myron Bell and
Stephen Majkowski―An Engine Coolant Temperature Model
and Application for Cooling System diagnosis‖, SAE Paper
no. 2000-01-0939.

[2] Matthew Brusstar, Mark Stuhldreher, David Swain and

William Pidgeon―High Efficiency and Low Emissions from
a Port-Injected Engine with Neat Alcohol Fuels‖, SAE
Paper no. 2002-01-2743.

[3] ―Engine Charge Air Cooler Nomenclature‖, SAE

Standard J 1148 MAY2004.

[4]R.R. Sekar, ―Trends in diesel engine charge air cooler‖,

SAE Paper no.820503.

[5] Eric R. Dillen and Ralph L. Webb, ―Rationally based

heat transfer and friction correlations for the louver fin
geometry‖, SAE Paper no. 940504.

[6] Ramesh K. Shah, ―Advances in automotive heat

exchanger technology‖, SAE Paper no. 2003-01-0533.

[7] N. S. Ap, A. Maire, P. Jouanny, and J. C.

LePrigent,―Economical EngineCooling System‖, SAE Paper
No. 2001-01-1708.

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