Experiments in Momentum and Heat and Mass Transfe2 - Final

EXPERIMENTS IN MOMENTUM AND HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Course

Chemical Engineering Laboratory 1 for Chemical Engineering
Submitted by:
Singson, Mariella Remigio, Edrickson
Maquera, Kricel-Mae Pascua, Glydel
Acorda, King Rhomer Maruquin, Elha
Andrada, Filmar Catli, Angelica
Lapuebla, Jeremy Bose, Judy Ann
Necessito, Miko Paul Cardenas, Colleen
Lozano, Harvey Celis, Jasmin
Cusipag, Jonelou Dacpano, Mark
Tuliao, Yoshe Daquioag, Justine
Sia, Patric Donato, Redfield

Leneses, Catherine
Benito, Angelica Joyce
Ole, Charity
Alumit, Razel
Orpilla, Mitzi
Ubina, Kate Hyacinth
Trinidad, Jannica Julienne
Cabaddu, Quennie
Tungcul, Ma. Kimberly
Dulliyao, Van Vesper
Tungcul, Rechelle
MARCH, 2018
Preface
The first experiment aims to apply the process of distillation to a mixture of ethanol and
water to obtain a new mixture with an increased concentration of ethanol. Distillation is a
process used to separate two or more liquid components in a mixture using the principle of
relative volatility or boiling points. Experimental producers will be performed to obtain the
difference in the components of ethanol-water given the three different samples.
For Bernoulli’s theorem experiment apparatus, it consists of a classical venturi. A series

of wall tapping allow the measurement of the static pressure distribution along the converging
duct, while a total head tube is provided to transverse along the center line of the test section.
These tapping are connected to a manometer bank incorporating a manifold with air bleed valve.
This laboratory experiment aims to find the time taken to collect some liters of water, the
volumetric flow rates of water, the pressure difference at all manometer tube (static head),
velocity, dynamic head and also the total head. The combination of venturi meter complete with
manometer tube and hydraulic bench were used.
Rectangular notch and V-shaped notch are overflow structures that let water passing
through it to determine the coefficient of discharge (Cd). The third experiment “Flow Over
Weirs” using rectangular notch and V-shaped notch is used to determine the relationship between
the head H of the weir and the discharge of water over the weir. The results of this experiment
are to obtain the characteristics and parameters of the different flows.
The stability of any vessel to stay afloat on water is governed by Archimedes’ principle
on buoyancy. Using a flat-bottomed pontoon, experiment “Metacentric Height of Floating
Bodies” aims to determine the floatation characteristics for unloaded and for loaded pontoon as
well as the effect on floatation characteristics of altering the center of gravity of the pontoon,
with given total loading. This experiment shall determine the effect of a body’s center of gravity
as well as its weight to its floatation characteristics.
Pressure loss in pipes generally occurs due to friction properties in pipes which results to
loss of energy (head) in the fluid flow. This laboratory report is engaged in the evaluation of
parameters that affect pressure losses by measuring the flow rates in pipes of different types.
Experimental procedures were performed as well as calculations to correspond in this regard.
1
Different parts of the piping systems like pipe dimensions, elbow, bend, and valves are also
considered in the lab report and each analysis for the minor loss friction is also performed. The
results of this paper are bound on whether the energy loss in the lab experiment is more than the
theoretical aspects, or vice versa.
In the last experiment, seeking to understand how pressure gauge work using the dead
weight tester through laboratory experiment is important. Dead weight Testers are the primary
standard for pressure measurement. There are three main components of this device: a fluid (oil)
that transmits the pressure, a weight and piston used to apply the pressure, and a connection port
for the gauge to be calibrated. To carry out tests or calibrate a pressure gauge with the dead
weigh tester, accurately calibrated weight masses (Force) are loaded on the piston (Area), which
rises freely within its cylinder. This weight balance the upward force created by the pressure
within the system. The group must work together to complete the experiment and submit a
report.
2
Table of Contents
1 BATCH DISTILLATION...................................................................................................2
2 BERNOULLI’S EXPERIMENT WITH VENTURIMETER...........................................10
3 FLOW OVER WEIRS......................................................................................................23
4 METACENTRIC HEIGHT OF FLOATING BODIES....................................................34
5 MINOR AND MAJOR LOSSES IN PIPES.....................................................................44
6 DEAD WEIGHT GAGE PRESSURE CALIBRATION..................................................54
3
LIST OF FIGUR
FIGURE 1.1: ETHANOL-WATER EQUILIBRIUM CURVE..............................................................................................3

FIGURE 1.2: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM..........................................................................................................................3
FIGURE 1.3: ACTUAL SET-UP...................................................................................................................................4
FIGURE 1.4: HYDROMETER READING.......................................................................................................................5
FIGURE 2.1: (A) STREAMLINE OR LAMINAR FLOW (B) TURBULENT FLOW.............................................................11
FIGURE 2.2 : FLUID FLOW THROUGH A VARYING DIAMETER..................................................................................11
FIGURE 2.3: FLUID FLOW FOR DERIVATION OF BERNOULLI'S EQUATION...............................................................12
FIGURE 2.4: BERNOULLI'S APPARATUS WITH HYDRAULIC BENCH.........................................................................13
FIGURE 2.5: TEST SECTION OF BERNOULLI'S APPARATUS......................................................................................14
FIGURE 2.6: ESTIMATED DUCT DIMENSIONS..........................................................................................................15
FIGURE 2.7: F15 BERNOULLI'S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION..................................................................................15
FIGURE 2.8: BERNOULLI'S APPARATUS WITH VENTURI METER..............................................................................16
FIGURE 2.9: STOPWATCH........................................................................................................................................16
FIGURE 3.1: RECTANGULAR WEIR..........................................................................................................................23
FIGURE 3.2: TRIANGULAR WEIR.............................................................................................................................23
FIGURE 3.3: RECTANGULAR NOTCH.......................................................................................................................24
FIGURE 3.4: SHAPE OF THE NAPPE.........................................................................................................................25
FIGURE 3.5: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF V-NOTCH WEIR..........................................................................................25
FIGURE 3.6: STOPWATCH........................................................................................................................................26
FIGURE 4.1: ILLUSTRATIVE FIGURE OF FLAT BOTTOMED PONTOON........................................................................34
FIGURE 4.2: CENTERS OF BUOYANCY OF FLOATING AND SUBMERGED OBJECTS....................................................34
FIGURE 4.3: STABILITY OF SUBMERGED OBJECTS...................................................................................................35
FIGURE 4.4: STABILITY OF FLOATING OBJECTS.......................................................................................................36
FIGURE 4.5: FREE BODY DIAGRAM.........................................................................................................................36
FIGURE 4.6: FLAT BOTTOMED PONTOON................................................................................................................37
FIGURE 5.1: ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPES EQUIPMENT...............................................................................................46
FIGURE 5.2: ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPES APPARATUS................................................................................................47
FIGURE 5.3: HYDRAULIC BENCH............................................................................................................................47
FIGURE 6.1: DEAD WEIGHT CALIBRATOR APPARATUS...........................................................................................56
FIGURE 6.2: DEAD WEIGHT CALIBRATOR CURVE..................................................................................................57
FIGURE 6.3: DEADWEIGHT TESTER FOR BOURDON–TUBE PRESSURE GAGE...........................................................58
LIST OF TABLESY
TABLE 2.1: DATA FOR VOLUME, AVERAGE TIME AND FLOW RATE IN EXPERIMENT 1..........................................18
TABLE 2.2: DATA FOR DETERMINING THE VOLUME IN EXPERIMENT 1..................................................................18
TABLE 2.4: DATA FOR DETERMINING THE DIFFERENCE IN VOLUME IN EXPERIMENT 2........................................19
TABLE 2.6: DATA FOR DETERMINING THE DIFFERENCE IN VOLUME IN EXPERIMENT 3........................................19
TABLE 3.1: LIST OF APPARATUS NEEDED IN FLOW OVER WEIRS...........................................................................27
TABLE 3.2:RESULTS USING RECTANGULAR NOTCH...............................................................................................31
TABLE 3.3: RESULTS USING V-NOTCH WEIR..........................................................................................................31
TABLE 4.1: RESULTS IN EXERCISE A......................................................................................................................40
TABLE 4.2: RESULTS IN EXERCISE B......................................................................................................................41
TABLE 5.1: RELEVANT DIMENSIONS AND DISTANCES............................................................................................51
TABLE 5.2: FLOW RATE DATA................................................................................................................................51
TABLE 5.3: EXPERIMENT DATA SHEET...................................................................................................................51
TABLE 6.1: TECHNICAL DETAILS............................................................................................................................56
TABLE 6.2: EXPERIMENTAL DATA..........................................................................................................................61
4
1 BATCH DISTILLATION
Concept
Distillation has been described as the “work-horse” of chemical engineering because of its
widespread use in industry. Distillation separates two or more liquid components in a mixture
using the principle of relative volatility or boiling points. The greater the difference in relative
volatility the greater the nonlinearity and the easier it is to separate the mixture using
distillation.
Objectives
The objective of this experiment is to apply the process of distillation to a mixture of ethanol
and water to obtain a new mixture with an increased concentration of ethanol. In addition, the
results of the experiment will be used to approximate the equilibrium relationship between
ethanol and water. Specifically, it aims to:
1. Calculate the number of moles of ethanol and water in the initial flask, the three
distillate samples and the final mixture.
2. Perform a mole balance for both the ethanol and water. If necessary, propose
explanations for any discrepancies in the balances.
3. Approximate the equilibrium curve using the distillate samples using x/y ethanol-
water calculated values
4. Compare the generated curve with the actual equilibrium curve for ethanol-water
mixture
Theory
Distillation type that is used for this experiment is batch distillation type. In batch distillation,
the more volatile component is evaporated from the still which therefore becomes
progressively richer in the less volatile constituent. Distillation is continued, either until the
residue of the still contains a material with an acceptably low content of the volatile material,
or until the distillate is no longer sufficiently pure in respect of the volatile content.
For example, consider a mixture consisting of two components, A and B, which have boiling
points of 70°C and 100°C, respectively. When the mixture begins to boil, the vapor phase that
is formed will be richer in A than the liquid phase. This is because A has a lower boiling point
and vaporizes more easily than B. Therefore, A has a greater tendency to enter the vapor
phase while B tends to remain in the liquid phase. Of course, if the entire mixture could boil
away, the resulting vapor would have the same concentration of A and B as the original liquid
5
mixture. However, if only a fraction of the liquid can boil, the vapor will contain a higher
concentration of A than the original liquid mixture.
As the mixture continues to boil, the compositions of both the vapor and liquid phases change
with time. Since A enters the vapor phase more quickly than B, the concentration of A in the
liquid phase decreases while that of B increases. Also, as the temperature of the boiling liquid
increases, more B vaporizes as time passes, and the concentration of B in the vapor phase
also increases with time.
If some fraction of the original mixture vaporizes and the vapor is collected and allowed to
cool and condense in a separate container, the new liquid mixture (first distillate) will have a
higher concentration of A than the original did. If the first distillate is distilled by repeating
the process, a second distillate with an even higher concentration of A will be obtained. This
is basically how distillation works. It is just a series of vaporization and condensation
processes that continues until a desired concentration is reached.
In general, an equilibrium stage in any type of unit operation process is defined as an area in
which different phases are brought into close contact so that a component can be redistributed
between the phases to equilibrium concentrations. In the simple batch distillation setup in this
experiment, liquid in the 1000-mL flask is in close contact with the vapor phase that forms as
the mixture boils, and this is the only place where this situation is present in the setup.
Therefore, there is one equilibrium stage in this batch distillation. Assuming everything
works ideally, the vapor phase is in equilibrium with the liquid in the flask at any given time.
The type of equilibrium information that is needed for analyzing this separation process is
that which shows the vapor-liquid equilibrium relationship for an ethanol/water mixture. The
most useful representation of the data is a y versus x graph, where y and x are the vapor and
liquid phase concentrations, respectively, of the more volatile component, ethanol. Points on
the curve depicted in such a graph represent the concentration of ethanol in the vapor and
liquid phases at equilibrium. Along the equilibrium curve, pressure is constant, but
temperature is different at each point. A picture of the ethanol/water y versus x graph follows.
6
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Figure 1.1: Ethanol-Water Equilibrium Curve
Apparatus
This experiment involves small-scale batch distillation. The basic setup (actual and schematic
diagram) is shown below.
THERMOMETER
WATER OUTLET
DISTILLING FLASK CONDENSER
MIXTURE
DISTILLATE
COLD WATER INLET
Figure 1.2: Schematic Diagram
7
Figure 1.3: Actual Set-Up
The apparatus consists of the following:
a) 1000 mL Distilling flask with rubber stopper

b) Thermometer
c) Condenser
d) Copper tubing
e) Latex tubing
f) Hot plate or Bunsen burner with hot plate
g) Iron stand
h) Plastic collection bottles, 40 mL
Procedure
1. Label the three plastic distillate collection bottles and make a mark to indicate the
level equal to 40mL. (Do not trust prior marks if they exist)
2. Pour 40 mL of the initial 10% ethanol in water solution (prepared by instructor) into a
50 mL graduated cylinder.
3. Using the appropriate hydrometer, measure the specific gravity of the solution in the
graduated cylinder. Because specific gravity is dependent upon temperature, you must
also measure the temperature of the solution. Once the specific gravity and
temperature have been determined, this solution may be discarded. You should report
the specific gravity to three significant figures and the temperature to the nearest
degree.
Figure 1.4: Hydrometer Reading

4. Determine the weight of an
empty 1000- ml flask.
5. Add 700 mL to 800 mL of the
initial 10% ethanol in water solution to the 1000 –mL flask you weighed in step 3.
6. Determine the weight of the flask and solution.
7. Be certain that distillation apparatus has been set up correctly and that you understand
how the system operates:
 Place the rubber stopper (with the copper tubing in it) on the flask that contains
the solution. The tubing should stick out past the stopper approximately ½” into
the flask. ***SAFETY NOTE*** Do not force the thermometer or copper tubing
into the rubber stopper. If they do not easily slide into the stopper, add a drop or
two of glycerin to hole and try again.
 Start water flowing through the cooling jacket of the condenser. Make sure that
the flow is from bottom to top. Otherwise, the coils may not be fully bathed in the
cooling water. The flow should be a gentle, but steady stream.
 Be certain that the rubber tubing is not resting on or near the hot plate. The smell
of burning rubber is not pleasant.
8. Turn the hot plate setting to medium-high and leave it at this setting for approximately
10 minutes, or until the solution starts to boil. Then, turn the heat setting to medium.
The solution should begin to boil within 8-10 minutes. Once the solution begins to
boil, it should be about 3-5 minutes until you observe distillate dripping into the
collection bottle. Throughout the experiment, be sure the boil is very gentle.
9. After the first bottle has collected approximately 40 mL of distillate, quickly replace it
with an empty one. This needs to be done as rapidly as possible so that minimal
distillate is lost. Cover and label the bottle containing the first distillate sample.
Record the temperature of the vapor phase above the boiling solution.
10. Determine the mass of the first distillate sample.
11. Measure the specific gravity of the first distillate in the same manner as you did for
the initial solution in steps 2 and 3. The temperature / density / mass fraction
correlation chart only goes up to 40°C. Therefore, if the distillate is warmer than
40°C, you will need to allow it to cool before measuring its specific gravity. If it is
already cool enough, it is a good idea to go ahead and measure its specific gravity
while collecting the second distillate sample. Pour your distillate into a 50-mL
cylinder. (If the cylinder is too full, some of the liquid can be poured out after the
mass is measured since it is not necessary to have the total sample present to measure
specific gravity; specific gravity is not dependent on sample size.) Recall, the
objective is to deduce the number of moles each of water and ethanol in each of your
distillate samples so that you can carry out a final mass balance.
12. Repeat steps 9-11 to collect the second distillate sample.
13. Repeat steps 9-11 to collect the third distillate sample. Once you are close to
collecting 40 mL of the third distillate, turn the hot plate off and carefully remove the
flask from on top the hot plate. **SAFETY NOTE: Please be cautious as the flask
will be very hot. You must use oven mitts for this step. Ask your instructor for
assistance. Do not remove the distillate collection bottle until the mixture in the flask
has stopped boiling for about 5 minutes. This helps to ensure that no vapors remain in
the tubing.
14. After the third distillate collection bottle has been removed, the flask can be removed
from the clamp, and the stopper/tubing apparatus can be detached. However, be sure
to keep the flask covered while it is cooling so that no vapors escape. The flask
mixture will need to cool quite a bit before its specific gravity can be measured. (In
the meantime, finish measuring the specific gravity of the three distillate samples.) A
cool water bath will help expedite the cooling process of the flask mixture. In
addition, gently swirling the liquid in the flask will help release heat more quickly.
15. Once the solution in the flask has cooled to below 40°C, determine the mass of the
solution that remains in the flask.
16. Measure the specific gravity of the solution remaining in the flask using the same
method you used for the initial solution in steps 2 and 3.
17. For each of your samples, use the specific gravity, temperature and Table of the
Densities of ethyl alcohol (ethanol - C2H5OH) in water) (Perry 2008) to determine
the mass percentage of ethanol in each sample. You may need to use bilinear
interpolation to calculate these values.
Calculation
Chemical engineers typically perform mole balance analyses on processes as a means of
checking to see that all material is accounted for. In general, this means checking to see that
Input – Generation – Output – Consumption = Accumulation (1.1)
In this lab the mole balance can be thought of in terms of
Moles in original flask mixture = Moles in Distillate 1 – Moles in Distillate 2 + Moles

in Distillate 3 – Moles in the final flask mixture (1.2)
1. Calculate the number of moles of ethanol and water in the initial flask, the three distillate
samples and the final mixture.
2. Perform a mole balance for both the ethanol and water. If necessary, propose explanations
for any discrepancies in the balances.
Results
Sample Volume Temperature Temperature of the Specific Mass fraction

and/ or of sample vapor space after Gravity ethanol
Mass each distillate is (calculated)
collected
Initial
Flask
Mixture
1st
distillate
sample
2nd
distillate
sample
3rd
distillate
sample
Final
flask
mixture
Post Laboratory Questions

1. Is there a significant difference in the results between the samples?
2. After performing material balance on ethanol and water, are there any discrepancies?
If there were, what caused it?
3. What will happen to the distillate if the concentration of ethanol is increased from
10%? Explain.
Supplementary Readings
For further discussion about batch distillation for some azeotropic mixtures, refer to the
following books:
1. Mutjaba, I. (n.d.). Batch Distillation Design and Operation (Vol. 3). Imperial College
Press.
2. R.H. Perry, Chemical Engineers Handbook, 8th ed., New York, McGraw-Hill
References
[1] Mutjaba, I. (n.d.). Batch Distillation Design and Operation (Vol. 3). Imperial College
Press.
[2] Wankat, P. C. (2007). Separation Process Engineering Includes Mass Transfer
Analysis, Third Edition.
[3] R.H. Perry, C.H Chilton, and S.O. Kirkpatrick (Eds.), Chemical Engineers Handbook,
8th ed., New York, McGraw-Hill, p. 2-117, p. 13, 2008
2 BERNOULLI’S EXPERIMENT WITH VENTURIMETER
Concept
In our daily lives we consume a lot of fluid for various reasons. This fluid is delivered
through a network of pipes and fittings of different sizes from an overhead tank. The
estimation of losses in these networks can be done with the help of this equation which is
essentially the principle of conservation of mechanical energy. Bernoulli’s principle is a
physical principle formulated that states that “as the speed of a moving fluid (liquid or gas)
increases, the pressure within the fluid decreases.
The flow of a fluid has to conform with a number of scientific principles in particular the
conservation of mass and the conservation of energy. The first of these when applied to a
liquid flowing through a conduit requires that for steady flow the velocity will be inversely
proportional to the flow area. The second requires that if the velocity increases then the
pressure must decrease. Bernoulli's apparatus demonstrates both of these principles and can
also be used to examine the onset of turbulence in an accelerating fluid stream. Both
Bernoulli's equation and the continuity equation are essential analytical tools required for the
analysis of most problems in the subject of mechanics of fluids.
Objectives
1. Verifying the Bernoulli's equation by demonstrating the relationship between pressure
head and kinetic head.
2. Getting the definitions of the energy grade line, hydraulic grade line and also
visualized how it changes.
3. Calculation of the flow rate, throat area and velocity.
4. Demonstrating the use of manometer for measuring manometric head in the
Bernoulli’s Apparatus that consists of a horizontal flow in a contracting section, a
constant cross-sectional area throat, and an expanding section.
5. Demonstrating the Bernoulli's equation with decreasing manometric head as the
velocity increases and vice versa in the expanding part at the contracting part of the
Bernoulli apparatus
6. Determining the various losses of flow through conduits of rectangular section.
Theory
The well-known Bernoulli equation is derived under the following assumptions: the liquid is
incompressible, the liquid is non-viscous, the flow is steady and the velocity of the liquid is
less than the critical velocity for the liquid, and there is no loss of energy due to friction.
A fluid is a substance, that is capable of flowing and that changes its shape at steady rate
when acted upon by a force. There are four main types of fluid flow. The flow in which in
each point occupied by fluid its velocity doesn’t change in time is called stationary flow.
Opposite, if velocity vectors components of fluid elements are not the functions of the time,
the flow is called non-stationary. If the flow is smooth, such that neighboring layers of the
fluid slide by each other smoothly, the flow is said to be streamline or laminar flow which is
shown in Figure 1a. In this kind of flow, each “particle” of the fluid follows a smooth path,
called a streamline, and these paths do not cross over one another. Above a certain speed, the
flow becomes turbulent. Turbulent flow is characterized by erratic, small whirlpool-like
circles called eddy currents or eddies which is shown in Figure 1b. The transition from
laminar to turbulent flow occurs when the energy (so also the velocity) of the fluid “particles”
becomes so high, that inner friction of the system (viscosity) can’t no longer damp the eddies.
At this moment we should notice that every turbulent flow is always non-stationary, but
laminar flow could be also stationary or non-stationary. The character of flow is described by
dimensionless Reynolds number. A few tiny drops of ink or food coloring dropped into a
moving liquid can quickly reveal whether the flow is streamline or turbulent. The fluid can be
compressive or non-compressive. Assume in this paper that the fluid is essentially
incompressible (no significant variations in density) and that the flow is steady.
Figure 2.1: (a) Streamline or Laminar flow (b) Turbulent flow

Consider the steady (laminar) flow of fluid through an enclosed tube or pipe as shown
in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2 : Fluid flow through a varying diameter
In such a pipe, the mass must be conserved, e.g. if we put mass m1 into the pipe, then the
same mass m2=m1 must flow out of this pipe (provided, the fluid is incompressible, since
otherwise the pipe can accumulate some mass, with no outgoing flow).
From mass conservation,

dm1 =dm2 (2.1)
Knowing the relation of mass to volume and density, this reveals,
dV 1 ρ=dV 2 ρ
(2.2)
Volume, that falls into the pipe in a time dt is equal V=Adx, where A is the area of cross-
section of the pipe, and dx is the thickness of the mass layer, pumped in time dt. Substituting
this to above equation, keeping in mind the definition of velocity, we have
A 1 v1 = A 2 v 2
(2.3)
Equation (2.3) represents the continuity equation for a fluid. It tells that where the cross-
sectional area is large the velocity is small, and where the area is small the velocity is large.
That is reasonable and can be observed by looking at a river. A river flows slowly through a
meadow where it is broad, but speeds up to torrential speed when passing through a narrow
gorge. In essence, Bernoulli’s principle states that where the velocity of a fluid is high, the
pressure is low.
Figure 2.3: Fluid Flow for Derivation of Bernoulli's Equation
Bernoulli developed an equation that expresses this principle quantitatively. To derive

Bernoulli’s equation, assume the flow is steady and laminar the fluid is incompressible, and
the viscosity is small enough to be ignored. To be general, we assume the fluid is flowing in a
tube of non-uniform cross section that varies in height above some reference level, Figure 3.
Bernoulli’s equation in such system is simply an expression of the work-energy theorem. It is
a sum of kinetic energy, potential gravitational energy, and internal energy, put by external
force.
E=E K + EP + E1 (2.4)
2
dmv
E K=
2
E P=dmgh
Ei =pdV
(2.5)
To put the mass element dm into the pipe, we have to overcome some pressure p, which
exists in that pipe. This pressure generates a force F = pA that resists the motion. Moving by
dx, a work needs to be done on the fluid, W = Fdx = pAdx = pdV. This work changes to the
internal energy of the fluid. Divide the energy equation (4) by dV to obtain the Bernoulli
equation, which states, that the energy of a fluid doesn’t change in the flow. This is
reasonable, since no energy is put to the fluid anywhere else, then in its input. Thus we have,
keeping in mind that dm=dV, that
1
p+ ρv2 + ρ gy =constant
2
(2.6)
or equivalently, taking two points in the pipe and evaluating above equation for both of them,
1 1
p1 + ρv 21 + ρ gy 1= p 2 + ρv 22 + ρ gy 2
2 2 (2.7)
Equation (2.7) represents the Bernoulli’s equation. [if there is no flow (v1=v2=0)], then
equation (2.7) reduces to the hydrostatic equation,
p2 −p 1= ρg( y 2− y 1 )
(2.8)
Apparatus
1. Bernoulli's Apparatus with Hydraulic Bench
Figure 2.4: Bernoulli's Apparatus with Hydraulic Bench

Bernoulli's apparatus consists essentially of a two dimensional rectangular section
convergent-divergent duct designed to fit between constant head inlet tank and variable
head outlet tank. An eight tube static pressure manometer bank is attached to the
convergent divergent duct. The differential head across the test section can be varied from
zero up to a maximum of 450mm. The test section, which is manufactured from acrylic
sheet, is illustrated in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5: Test section of Bernoulli's Apparatus
The convergent divergent duct is symmetrical about the center line with a flat
horizontal upper surface into which the eleven static pressure tapping’s are drilled.
The lower surface is at an angle of 4° 29'. The width of the channel is 6·35 mm. The
height of the channel at entry and exit is 19·525 mm and the height at the throat is
6·35 mm. The static tapping’s are at a pitch of 25 mm distributed about the center
and therefore about the throat. The flow area at each tapping is tabulated below the
dimensions which are shown in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6: Estimated Duct Dimensions
Air bleed screw
Manometer tubes
Unions
Gland nut
Hypodermic probe
Water inlet Test section

Adjustable feet
Hand pump
Water outlet
Flow control valve

Additional tapping
Figure 2.7: F15 Bernoulli's Theorem Demonstration

2. Bernoulli’s Apparatus with Venturi Meter
Figure 2.8: Bernoulli's Apparatus with Venturi Meter
3. Stopwatch
Figure 2.9: Stopwatch

Procedure
A. Equipment Set-up
1. Setup the Bernoulli’s Apparatus horizontally on an appropriate location on top of the
bench.
2. The test section is ensured to have the 14 tapered section converging in the direction
of the flow.
3. The rig outflow tube is positioned above the volumetric tank
4. The rig inlet is connected to the bench flow supply, the bench valve and the apparatus
flow control are closed and then the pump is started.
5. Gradually, the bench valve is opened to fill the test rig with the water.
6. In order to bleed air pressure tapping point and the manometers, both the bench valves
and the rig flow control valves are closed. Then, the air bleed screw is opened and the
cap from the adjacent air valve is removed.
7. A length of small-bore turning from the air valve is connected to the volumetric tank.
8. The bench valve is opened and allowed to flow through the manometer to purge all air
from them.
9. After that, the air bleed screw is tightened and both the bench valve and rig flow
control valve are partly opened.
10. Next, the air bleed is opened slightly to allow the air to enter the top of the
manometers. The screw is re-tightened when the manometer reached a convenient
height.
B. Taking a Set of Results

1. The h1- h5 are set to be 50ml using air bleed screw.
2. After the specific volume of h1- h5 is reached, the ball valve is closed and the time
taken to accumulate 3L of fluid in the tank is measured.
3. Steps 1 and 2 are repeated with the different level of h1- h5.
4. Then, the test section is reversed to get the diverging flow.
5. The test section is removed by unscrewing the two coupling and being reversed.
6. The coupling is tightened.
7. Steps 1 until 3 are repeated for diverging section.
C. After the test
1. Turnoff the fan by pressing the “OFF “switch.

2. Disconnect the manometers.
3. Disconnect the flexible hose.
4. Disassemble the Bernoulli’s Experiment Apparatus and store properly in the benches
lower Storage area.
5. Close the fan outlet duct opening port of add-on equipment.
Results
A. Experiment 1 (flow rate: slow)
Volume (L)
Average Time (min)
Flow Rate (LPM)
Table 2.1: Data for Volume, Average Time and Flow Rate in Experiment 1
Cross Using Bernoulli’s Equation Using Continuity Difference

Section
Equation
No. h*=hH hi (mm) V iB=√[ 2∗g∗(h∗−hi )] ΠD 2i Qav V iB −V iC
Ai= V ic=
4 Ai (m/s)
(mm) (m/s)
(m2) (m/s)
A
B
C
D
E
F
Table 2.2: Data for Determining the Volume in Experiment 1
B. Experiment 2 (flow rate: medium)
Volume (L)
Average Time (min)
Flow Rate (LPM)
Table 2.3: Data for Volume, Average Time and Flow Rate in Experiment 2

Section
Equation
2 Qav
No. h*=hH hi (mm) V iB=√[ 2∗g∗(h∗−hi )] ΠD i V iB −V iC
Ai= V ic=
4 Ai (m/s)
(mm) (m/s)
(m2) (m/s)
A
B
C
D
E
F
Table 2.4: Data for Determining the Difference in Volume in Experiment 2

C. Experiment 3 (flow rate: slow)
Volume (L)
Average Time (min)
Flow Rate (LPM)
Table 5: Data for Volume, Average Time and Flow Rate in Experiment 3

Section
Equation
2 Qav
No. h*=hH hi (mm) V iB=√[ 2∗g∗(h∗−hi )] ΠD i V iB −V iC
Ai= V ic=
4 Ai (m/s)
(mm) (m/s)
(m2) (m/s)
A
B
C
D
E
F
Table 6: Data for Determining the Difference in Volume in Experiment 3
Calculations
Bernoulli Equation:
V iB=√[ 2∗g∗(h∗−hi )]
(2.9)
Continuity Equation:
2
ΠD i
Ai=
4
(2.10)
For calculating the average linear velocity (flow velocity) at each tubing,
4Q
V=
ΠD2
(2.11)
For calculating the kinetic head at each tubing,
v2
Kinetic Head=
2
(2.12)

1. Derive the equation of continuity.
2. The equation of continuity is a special case of some conservation principle.
3. Derive the Bernoulli’s equation.
4. The Bernoulli’s equation is a special case of some conservation principle. Describe
5. this principle.
6. What kind of assumptions you have to make to derive these equations?
7. Explain how a water aspirator works.
8. Explain principle of lifting force in airplane.
9. Explain the experiment with the coin that was presented during the lecture.
10. What is “The Reynolds number”?
11. During measurements performance, rise of flowing water in the glass tube can be
observed. Describe these phenomena.
Suggested Reading Materials

For further discussion on the concept of Bernoulli’s demonstration and continuity equation,
refer to the following books:
1. Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering
2. Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook
References
[1] Armfield Limited. (2013). Bernoulli's Theorem Demonstration. 7.

[2] Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Kadhim Alshara. (2015). Laboratory Manual. University of
Misan, Engineering Collage.
[3] Dr. Khalil M. Alastal, Engr. Mohammed Y. Mousa. (2015). Laboratory Manual.
[4] Dr. Suresh Gupta & Dr. Hare Krishna Mohanta. (2014). A LABORATORY MANUAL
FOR Chemical Engineering. Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani, Pilani
Campus.
[5] Kumar, A. (2015). Debottlenecking of Bernoulli’s apparatus and verification of
Bernoulli’s principle. Journal of Chemical Engineering.
3 FLOW OVER WEIRS
Concept
In several chemical engineering applications, weirs are commonly used to either regulate or
to measure the volumetric flow rate of liquids. They are elevated structures that are used to
control outflow and/or measure flow from basins and drainage channels. They are often used
in open channel hydraulics such as water supply, wastewater and sewage systems.
A weir is an opening in the sidewall of a tank at top. The stream of liquid coming out the weir
is known as a nappe, sheet, or vein. There is no difference between a notch and weir except
that the former is a small structure and has sharp edges. A weir is generally an overflow
structure, with a broad crest, built across an open channel. The top of weir walls over which
the liquid flows is known as the sill or crest. The head under which the weir is discharging is
measured from the crest to the free surface. The classical results for flow over notches are
calculated by application of the Bernoulli equation, from a point well upstream to a point just
above the notch. There are two main types of weirs, the rectangular weirs and triangular weirs
or v-notch weirs. They consist of a sharp-edged plate with a rectangular, triangular or v-notch
profile for the water flow.
In this experiment, the flow characteristics of a rectangular and triangular weirs are observed.
And the discharge coefficients of the fluid flow are determined. This is to establish the
relationship between head over the weir and discharge for a sharp crested weir. In general,
this will enable student to understand the relationship between coefficient of discharge, width
of notch, height and flow rates of a liquid.
Objectives
1. Determine the characteristics of a rectangular notch and a triangular (V) notch,
2. Determine the values of the discharge coefficient, Cd for both notches, and
3. Determine the relationship between the head H of the weir and the discharge of water
over the weir.
Theory
Rectangular notch and V-shaped notch are classified under the term ‘sharp-crested’. They are
overflow structures that let water passing through it to determine the coefficient of discharge
(Cd). In general, sharp-crested weirs will be used where highly accurate discharge
measurement is required.
Figure 3.5: Rectangular Weir
Figure 3.6: Triangular Weir
With different type of notch, the method of calculating the discharge coefficients of the fluid
flow is also different. These are some theories that discuss about the reasoning of two
different notches.
A. Rectangular Notch
A rectangular notch is a thin square edged weir plate installed in a weir channel as shown
in Figure 3.7 below.
Figure 3.7: Rectangular Notch
Based on the figure above, consider that the flow in an element of height H at a depth, h
below the surface. Then, assume that the fluid flow everywhere normal to the plane of the
weir and that the free surface remains horizontal up to the plane of the weir.
When the flow through the notch is not parallel then it will be not normal to the plane of
the weir. If the free surface is not horizontal the result for the viscosity and surface
tension will have an effect. There will be a considerable change in the shape of the nappe
as it passes through the notch with curvature of the stream line in both vertical and
horizontal plane. In particular, the width of the nappe is reduced by the contraction at
each end.
Figure 3.8: Shape of the Nappe
The discharge from the rectangular notch will be considerably less, approximately 60% of
the theoretical analysis due to these curvature effects. However, the coefficient of
discharge is not a true constant tending towards a constant only for large heads and a low
velocity of approach in the weir channel.
B. Triangular Notch
A triangular or V-notch weir has a V-shaped opening instead of a rectangular shaped
opening (Figure 3.9). Triangular weirs are used instead of rectangular weirs where lower
discharges are desired for a given head (H) or where lower flowrates need to be measured
with greater accuracy.
Figure 3.9: Schematic diagram of V-notch Weir

The triangular notch has advantages over the rectangular notch since the shape of the
nappe does not change with head so that the coefficient of discharge does not vary so
much. A triangular notch can also accommodate a wide range of flow rates. The V-notch
functions to control the flow of the water out of the basin. Stream water passes between
the concrete "wings", through the flume and ponds in the concrete basin. Water flows out
through a steel V-shaped notch situated in the basin's downstream wall. The V-notch
controls the flow of water out of the ponding basin and the more water there is coming
down the stream, the higher it will rise in the basin and V-notch as it spills over.
Therefore, the amount of water flowing out of the watershed can be measured by
recording the height of the water in the basin and translating this height to a flow rate in
cubic feet per second or liters per second. Mathematical functions are available in
appendix which relate the height of the water in the basin to the flow rate. Note that Ө is
the angle of the triangular notch. A Cd value of 0.58 is used for a triangular weir with an
angle between 20o and 100o.
Apparatus
The laboratory experimental setup consists of the following apparatus:
1. Stop watch
It is used for measuring the amount of time of a certain activity.
Figure 3.10: Stopwatch

2. Flow Over Weirs
The Flow over Weirs (FM26) apparatus comes with two weirs plates of different shape
(rectangular notch & V-notch). This unit is to be used together with the Hydraulic Bench
(FM110) and accessories below.
NUMBER APPARATUS DESCRIPTION
1 Hydraulics Bench This unit is designed as a portable and self-

(FM 110) contained service module for the range of
accessories. It is used for volumetric measurement
for its ease of use, accuracy and safety in use (no
heavy weights for students to handle).
2 Weir channel It is the channel spillway of the water.
3 F113 (Vee) V-notch The V-notch weir is a notch with a V shape opening.
weir V-notch weir is typically used to measure low flows
within a narrow operating range.
4 Vernier Hook & point They are mounted on an instrument carrier which is
gauge (supplied with located on the side channels of the molded top. The
F113) carrier may be moved along the channels to the
required measurement position.
5 Basket of Glass Used to still the flow and placed into the left end of
Spheres the weir channel.
6 Volumetric measuring The volumetric measuring tank is stepped to
tank accommodate low or high flow rates.
7 F113 Rectangular weir The rectangular weir is able to measure higher flows
than the v-notch weir and over a wider operating
range.
8 Hook Gauge & Scale It is used to measure the depth of water flowing
over the weir crest.
Table 3.7: List of Apparatus needed in Flow Over Weirs

Flow Over Weir Setups:
Figure 3.7: Flow Over Weirs – V-notch Weir
Figure 3.8: Flow Over Weirs – Rectangular Weir

Procedure
A. General Start-up Procedures
1. Make sure the hydraulic bench pump is securely connected.
2. Ensure the collection tank drain valve is left OPEN to allow flow discharge back into
sump tank.
3. Set up the flow over weirs apparatus on the hydraulic bench.
4. Ensure thumb nuts are securing the rectangular notch weir plate is fully secured.
Note: Weirs notch have sharp edges. Take safety precautions while installing and
changing weirs notch.
B. General Shut Down Procedures

1. Shut hydraulic bench flow control valve and close water supply
2. Empty the residue water from channel and sump tank by ensuring the drain tank valve
is left open.
C. Equipment Set-up Procedures

1. Level the weir apparatus on the hydraulic bench and install the rectangular notch weir.
2. Slowly open the hydraulic bench flow control valve to admit water to the channel
until the water discharges over the weir plate. Ensure that the water level is even with
the crest of the weir.
3. Close flow control valve and allow water level to stabilize.
4. Set the Vernier Gauge to a datum reading using the top of the hook. Position the
gauge about half way between the notch plate and stilling baffle.
5. Admit water to the channel. Adjust the water flow by using the hydraulic bench flow
control valve to obtain heads (H).
6. Wait for water flow condition to stabilize, take heads readings in every increasing of
about 1 cm.
7. Repeat step 4 and 5 for different flow rate.
8. Take readings of volume and time using the volumetric tank to determine flow rate.
9. After finish with rectangular notch, replace the notch with v-notch.
10. Record the results in the tables.
Calculations
As the depth of flow above the base of a notch is related to the volume flow rate through it,
the notch forms a useful flow measurement device. The classical results for flow over notches
are obtained by application of the Bernoulli equation, from a point well upstream to a point
just above the notch. This approach requires many very substantial assumptions and it yields
the following results:
1. For the Rectangular Notch

2 2
Q Cd b 2g H 3
3 (3.1)
where:
Cd = unloading coefficient
b = width of the neckline or the width of the weir
H = height of the load or the height of the water on the crest or weir threshold
The coefficient Cd is required to accommodate the effects of the simplified assumptions in
the theory. These can be rearranged to give
3Q
Cd  2
2b 2 g H 3
(3.2)
The Q is solved using
Q = Volume (m3) / time (s) (3.3)
2. For the V-notch Weir

8  5
Q C d 2 g tan   H 2
15 2 (3.4)
The coefficient Cd is rearranged to give
15Q
Cd 
 5
8 2 g tan  H 2
2 (3.5)
Note that the values of given variables are the same with that of the Rectangular Notch.
The Q is solved using

Q = Volume (m3) / time (s) (3.6)
Results
Volume Time Flow Rate Height

Log Q Log H Cd Qtheoretical
m3 s m3/s (Q) (H) m
Table 3.8:Results using Rectangular Notch
Volume Time Flow Rate Height

Log Q Log H Cd Qtheoretical
m3 s m3/s (Q) (H) m
Table 3.9: Results using V-notch Weir

1. Compute the height of water above the weir notch (H)
2. Compute the discharge coefficient (Cd) for each weir notch using the flowrate
evaluated experimentally
a. Plot Q vs Hn for each weir (n=3/2 for rectangular weir and n=5/2 for triangular
weir)
b. Obtain the slope by fitting a trendline. What does the slope of trendline give you?
[check equations (1) and (3)]
c. Use the slope to compute the experimental Cd value
3. Compute the discharge coefficient for each flowrate. Is this same for all flow rates?
4. Discuss why there is a discrepancy between the theoretical and computed Cd values
a. What are the limitations of the experiment?
b. How does the Cd value computed from the slope compare to the individual Cd
values?
Suggested Supplementary Reading

For further discussion of the concept of flow over weirs refer to the following books:
1. Lange’s Handbook of Chemistry
2. Unit Operations, 5 Edition, McCabe and Smith
th
3. Fluid Mechanics Fundamental and Applications 2nd edition, Cengel. & Cimbala.
5. Physical Chemistry by Atkins and Paula
References
[1] UiTM Shah Alam. (2012). Flow of Water by Notch and Weirs. Fluid Mechanics
Laboratory, UiTM Shah Alam: Faculty of Chemical Engineering.
[2] Godmalin, M. G. (2010). Flow of Waters Over Weirs.
[3] Mohamed Radzi, A., & al., e. (2011). Flow over Weir. Universiti Malaysia Pahang:
Faculty of Civil Engineerig and Environmental Hydraulic & Hydrology Laboratory.
[4] Mousa, M. Y. (n.d.). Flow over weirs. Islamic University – Gaza (IUG: Hydraulics
Lab (ECIV 3122) .
[5] Torlapat, J. (2017). Flow Over a Weir. Water Resources Engineering .
[6] Zakaria, M. A. (2011). Flow Over Weirs. Universiti Teknologi Mara: Faculty of
Chemical Engineering.
4 METACENTRIC HEIGHT OF FLOATING BODIES
Concept
The Stability of any vessel which is to float on water, such as a pontoon or ship, is of
paramount importance. The theory behind the ability of this vessel to remain upright must be
clearly understood at the design stage. Archimedes’ principle states that the buoyant force has
a magnitude equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and is directed vertically
upward. Buoyant force is a force that results from a floating or submerged body in a fluid
which results from different pressures on the top and bottom of the object and acts through
the centroid of the displaced volume.
Objectives
1. To determine the floatation characteristics for unloaded and for loaded pontoon.
2. To determine the effect on floatation characteristics of altering the center of gravity of
the pontoon, with given total loading.
Theory
Consider a ship or pontoon floating as shown in figure 1. The center of gravity of the body is
at � and the center of buoyancy is at �. For equilibrium, the weight of the floating body is
equal to the weight of the liquid it displaces and the center of gravity of the body and the
centroid of the displaced liquid are in the same vertical line. The centroid of the displaced
liquid is called the "center of buoyancy". Let the body now be heeled through an angle � as
shown in a subsequent figure, �1 will be the position of the center of buoyancy after heeling.
A vertical line through �1 will intersect the center line of the body at � and this point is
known as the metacenter of the body when an angle � is diminishingly small. The distance
�� is known as the metacentric height. The force due to buoyancy acts vertically up through
�1 and is equal to �. The weight of the body acts downwards through �.
Centerline
Metacenter
Waterline
Center of
Gravity(G)
Center of
Bouyancy(B)
Keel(K)
Figure 4.11: Illustrative figure of flat bottomed pontoon

Centroid
FB
Centroid
of Displaced FN
Volume
Figure 4.12: Centers of buoyancy of floating and submerged objects
A. Stability of submerged objects:
Stable equilibrium: if when displaced, it returns to equilibrium position. If the center

of gravity is below the center of buoyancy, a righting moment will be produced and
the body will tend to return to its equilibrium position (Stable).
Unstable equilibrium: if when displaced it returns to a new equilibrium position.

If the center of gravity is above the center of buoyancy, an overturning moment is
produced and the body is unstable.
Note: As the body is totally submerged, the shape of displaced fluid is not altered
when the body is tilted and so the center of buoyancy unchanged relative to the body.
v v
R W
B R G W
B
G G G
W B B
W
R
R
RESTORING OVERTURNING
COUPLE COUPLE
STABLE UNSTABLE
Figure 4.13: Stability of submerged objects

B. Stability of Floating Objects
Metacenter point �: the point about which the body starts oscillating.
Metacentric height ��: is the distance between the center of gravity of floating body
and the metacenter.
If � lies above � a righting moment is produced, equilibrium is stable and �� is

regarded as positive. If � lies below an overturning moment is produced, equilibrium
is unstable and �� is regarded as negative. If � coincides with �, the body is in
neutral equilibrium.
W W
CG CG
c c'
FW FW RESTORING
COUPLE
c= CENTROID OF ORIGINAL c'= CENTROID OF NEW
DISPLACED VOLUME DISPLACED VOLUME
STABLE
W
W
CG
CG
c c'
FW
FW
OVERTURNING
c= CENTROID OF ORIGINAL c'= CENTROID OF NEW COUPLE
Figure 4.14: Stability of floating objects

?
M
x' B1
W=mg
FB=W
Figure 4.15: Free body diagram
Apparatus
1. Flat bottomed pontoon
Figure 4.16: Flat Bottomed Pontoon

2. Hydraulic bench.
Equipment set up:
The flat bottomed pontoon is constructed from non-ferrous materials and has a
detachable bridge piece and loading system. Provision is made to alter the keel weight
and the mast weight so obtaining a variety of loading conditions. For off balance
loadings, the degree of list can be directly measured using the plumb-bob line
attached to the mast and swinging over a scale mounted on the bridge piece. The
floatation experiments can be carried out using the measuring tank of the hydraulics
bench.
Floatation characteristics of flat bottomed pontoon.

Depth � = 170mm.
Length � = 380mm.
Width � = 250mm.
Distance from pontoon center line to added weight
� = 123mm.
Center of gravity of vessel with mast
𝑂�𝑣� = 125mm approximately from outer surface of vessel base.
Weight of vessel with mast
�𝑣� = 3000g.
Height of mast loading position above water surface of vessel base = 790mm.
Procedure
Exercise A
1. Assemble the pontoon by positioning the bridge piece and mast i.e. locate the mast in
the hole provided in the base of the vessel and clamp the bridge piece fixing screws
into the locating holes in the sides of the vessel.
The 'plumb-bob' is attached to the mounting dowel located on the mast and is allowed
to swing clear of and below the scale provided.
2. Weigh the pontoon and determine the height of its center of gravity up the line of the
mast by balancing the mast on a suitable knife edge support and measuring the
distance from knife edge to outside base of pontoon.
3. Fill the hydraulic bench measuring tank, or other suitable vessel, with water and float
the pontoon in it. Trim the balance of the pontoon by applying one of the small
weights provided to the bridge piece at the required position so that the vessel floats
without any list, this condition being indicated by the plumb-bob resting on the zero
mark.
4. Apply a weight of 50g on the bridge piece loading pin then measure and record the
angle of list and value of applied weight.
5. Take readings of list angle and applied weights (100, 150 & 200g). Repeat the
procedure for lists in the opposite direction i.e. apply the weights to the opposite side
of the bridge piece.
6. Calculate GM practically. Draw a relationship between θ (x-axis) and GM (y-axis),
then obtain GM when θ equals zero.
7. Calculate GM theoretically.
8. Repeat the above procedures for increasing ballast loading conditions i.e. 2000 and
4000g.
Exercise B
1. Replace the large bilge weights by 4×50g weights.
2. Apply a weight of 300gm on a height of 190 mm from the pontoon surface.
3. Using the method of exercise A, determine the metacentric height �� (using applied
weights 40, 80 &120g).
4. Move one 50g bilge weight to the mast head and once again determine ��.
5. Repeat 100, 150 and 200g moved from the bilge weight to the mast head. Measure the
position of the center of gravity from the base of the pontoon for each loading
condition.
6. Determine the theoretical �� for each condition and also a height of a metacenter
above water level.
Note 1: �� & 𝑂� values are constants for all loading conditions, since the dimensions &
the weight of a pontoon do not alter.
Note 2: Once the center of gravity of the unloaded pontoon has been determined, then the
center of gravity for other loaded conditions can be evaluated by taking moments about
the base of the pontoon.
Calculation
Exercise A
Determination of Metacentric height
1. Practically
WGM sin( )  Px
Px
GM 
W sin( )
Where � = distance from pontoon centerline to added weight.

� = weight of the vessel including �
2. Theoretically
GM  BM + OB - OG
I
BM 
V
V
OB  0.5
L �D
VL �D
Where � = volume of displaced liquid

LD 3
I
12
Exercise B
L
3000 ( 125 ) + Wb ( 35 ) + 300 ( 190 ) + Wm (790 + 2)
OG  2
3500
Where: �� +�� = 200�
� = 10 mm when �� = 50�
� = 20 mm when �� = 100�
� = 30 mm when �� = 15z0�
� = 40 mm when �� = 200�
Results
Exercise A
Bilge Off Mean Exp. GM GM at BM OB Theo.
Weight balance Defln. (mm) ɵ = 0 from (mm) (mm) GM
wt. ɵ
Wb (gm) graph (mm)
P(gm) (degree)
0.00
2000.00
X1 =
30mm
4000.00
X1 =
37.5
mm
Table 4.10: Results in exercise A
Exercise B
GM at M above
Off balance Mean Exp. Theo.
ɵ= 0 BM OG water
wt. DEfln. ɵ GM GM
From (mm) (mm) level
P(gm) (degree) (mm) (mm)
graph (mm)
Mass Weight = 0.0
40
80
120
Mass Weight = 50.0
40
80
120
Mass Weight = 100.0
20
40
80
Mast Weight = 150.0
10
20
40
Mast weight = 200.0
Unstable
Table 4.11: Results in exercise B

1. For exercise A, what is the difference between the practically acquired values of the
metacentric height and the theoretically derived results? What does this imply?
2. For exercise B, show the variation of depth of submergence and position of
metacentric height under loading conditions.
3. What will happen if the ballast weights were added at the center of gravity so that the
resultant center of gravity is unchanged at exercise B?
Suggested Supplementary Reading

For further discussion on the concept of solid-liquid extraction refer to the following books:
2. Fluid Mechanics Fundamental and Applications 2nd edition, Cengel. & Cimbala
References
[1] Cengel, Y. (n.d.). Fluid Mechanics Fundamental and Applications, 2nd edition.
[2] Dr. Khalil M. Alastal, E. M. (2015). Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Lab Manual.
[3] Perry, R. H. (2008). Chemical Engineer's Handbook. New York: Mc-Graw Hill
Corporation.
[4] Salih, Y. A. (2016). Notes For the Level 1 Lecture Course in Fluid Mechanics.
5 MINOR AND MAJOR LOSSES IN PIPES
Concept
Fluid flow in circular and noncircular pipes is commonly encountered in practice. The hot
and cold water that we use in our homes is pumped through pipes. Water is distributed by
extensive piping networks. Oil and natural gas are transported hundreds of miles by large
pipelines. Blood is carried throughout our bodies by arteries and veins. The cooling water in
an engine is transported by hoses to the pipes in the radiator where it is cooled as it flows.
Thermal energy in a hydronic space heating system is transferred to the circulating water in
the boiler, and then it is transported to the desired locations through pipes.
The major and minor losses in pipes is due to the friction in the pipes and the fitting type of
each pipe and the connection. These losses effect the volumetric flow rate of the fluid through
the system. The volumetric flow rate is the velocity of the fluid multiplied by the cross
sectional area. Major losses are due to friction while, minor losses are due to the velocity
change in bends, valves and changes in area. Major losses are formed in long length pipes
and are due to the head loss in the straight sections. A head loss is a pressure drop in the
pipes. If there were no friction in the pipe, the head loss would be zero. The smoother the
material of the pipes, the less friction against the walls of the pipe that is formed. In minor
losses, the components such as valves and bends interrupt the flow of fluid and cause
additional losses to the system due to flow separation and mixing.
Objectives
The goal of this laboratory is to study pressure losses due to viscous (frictional) effects in
fluid flows through pipes. These pressure losses are a function of various geometric and flow
parameters including pipe diameter, length, internal surface roughness and type of fitting. In
this experiment, the influence of some these parameters on pressure losses in pipe flows will
be evaluated by measuring flow rates through different types of pipes.
Theory
When a gas or a liquid flows through a pipe, there is a loss of pressure in the fluid, because
energy is required to overcome the viscous or frictional forces exerted by the walls of the
pipe on the moving fluid. In addition to the energy lost due to frictional forces, the flow also
loses energy or pressure as it goes through fittings, such as valves, elbows, contractions and
expansions. This loss in pressure is mainly due to the fact that flow separates locally as it
moves through such fittings. The pressure loss in pipe flows is commonly referred to as head
loss. The frictional losses are referred to as major losses (h l) while losses through fittings,
etc, are called minor losses (hlm). Together they make up the total head losses (hlT) for pipe
flows. Hence:
h1 T =h1 +h1 m
(5.1)
Head losses in pipe flows can be calculated by using a special form of the energy equation
discussed in the next section.
Energy Equation for Pipe Flows

Consider steady, incompressible flow through a piping system. The energy equation between
points 1 and 2 for this flow can be written as:
V 21 V 22
( P1
ρ
+ α1
2 )(
+ gz 1 −
P2
ρ )
+ α 2 + gz 2 =hlT
2 (5.2)
In the above equation, the terms in the parenthesis represent the mechanical energy per unit
mass at a particular cross-section in the pipe. Hence, the difference between the mechanical
energy at two locations, i.e. the total head loss, is a result of the conversion of mechanical
energy to thermal energy due to frictional effects.
The significant parameters in the equation are described below:
 z, is the elevation of the cross section, taken to be positive upwards.
  is called the kinetic energy factor. For laminar flow  = 2, for turbulent flow  =
1.
 Flow in a pipe is considered laminar if Reynolds number, ReD < 2000, where ReD =
V/.
 V is the average velocity at a cross section.
 hlT is the total head loss between cross-sections 1 and 2. Details of calculating the
head loss are discussed in the next section.
The equation reveals that for a fixed amount of mechanical energy available at station 1, a
higher head loss will lead to lower mechanical energy at station 2. The lower mechanical
energy can be manifested as a lower pressure, lower velocity (i.e. lower volumetric flow
rate), a lower elevation or any combination of all three. It should also be noted that for flow
without losses, hlT = 0 and the energy equation reduces to Bernoulli’s Equation.
The major losses of energy as a fluid flows through a pipe are caused by friction. It may be
computed mainly by Darcy-Weisbach equation. The loss of energy due to friction is
classified as a major loss because in case of long pipelines. It is usually much more than the
loss of energy incurred by other causes.
The minor losses of energy are those, which are caused on account of the change in the
velocity of flowing fluid (either in magnitude or direction). In case of long pipes these losses
are usually quite small as compared with the loss of energy due to friction and hence these are
termed ‘minor losses’ which may even be neglected without serious error. However, in short
pipes these losses may sometimes outweigh the friction loss. Some of the losses of energy
that may be caused due to the change of velocity are indicated below.
(a) Loss of energy due to sudden enlargement

2
(V 1 −V 2 )
h L=
2g (5.3)
(b) Loss of energy due to sudden contraction
2
V
h L=0 .375
2g (5.4)
(c) Loss of energy at 900 Elbow
2
V
h L=0 .75
2g
(5.5)
(d) Loss of energy at 900 Bend
V2
h L=0 .45
2g
(5.6)
Apparatus
The following apparatus will be used for this experiment:
1. The pipe flow rig with pipes of different diameters and lengths.
2. A digital flow meter to measure the volumetric flow rate.
3. A digital differential pressure gage to measure the pressure drop between two
locations in a pipe.
4. A digital pressure gage to measure the pressure at the bottom of the water reservoir.
5. A bucket to collect the water flowing out of the pipes.
6. A pump for refilling the water reservoir.
Figure 5.17: Energy Losses in Pipes Equipment
Figure 18: Energy Losses in Pipes Apparatus
Figure 5.19: Hydraulic Bench

Parts of Hydraulic Bench Machine
APPARATUS DESCRIPTION
Centrifugal It draws water from sump tank and supplies it for performing
pump experiments.
Sump Tank It stores water for Hydraulic bench. It is located in the bottom portion of
Hydraulic bench. Water from here is transported to other parts by using a
pump. It has a capacity of 160 liters.
Vertical pipe It supplies water to the upper part of hydraulic bench from sump tank
through a pump.
Control valve It is used to regulate the flow in the pipe i.e. to increase or decrease the
inflow of water in the hydraulic bench.
Connecter With the help of this we can attach accessories with the hydraulic bench.
Special purpose terminations may be connected to the pump supply by
unscrewing connector, no hand tools are required for doing so. It is
located in the channel.
Channel It is used in number of experiments It provides passage for water for
different experiments.
Drain valve It is used for emptying sump tank.
Side channels They are the upper sides of the channel. They are used to attach
accessories on test.
Volumetric It stores water coming from channel. This tank is stepped to
tank accommodate low or high flow rates. It has a capacity of 46 liters.
Stilling baffle It decreases the turbulence of water coming from channel. It is located in
the volumetric tank.
Procedure
1. Measure and record the relevant dimensions and distances listed on the data sheet.
a. These include: the height of the reservoir base, distances between the pressure
ports on the pipes, among others. Also, record any other dimensions you think you
may need even if they are not specified in the data sheet.
b. Record the total length of the pipe with elbows and the number and types of
elbows in this configuration.
2. Start with the reservoir filled approximately to the highest level indicated in the data
sheet for the pipe you are examining.
3. Ensure that all manual valves to all the pipes are closed.
4. Record the initial height of water in the reservoir.
5. Place a bucket or another collection device at the exit of the pipe you are examining.
The bucket will have to be tilted to avoid spillage.
6. Open the manual valve only to the pipe under study.
7. Wait for steady flow to be established. This should only take a few seconds.
8. Once the flow is steady, the following readings should be recorded simultaneously.
a. The pressure drop across the pipe.
b. The volumetric flow rate.
c. The pressure at the base of the reservoir.
d. The water level in the reservoir.
9. Take 8-10 readings at roughly the water levels indicated in the data table (the levels
indicated are only a guideline) as the water drains from the tank.
10. Shut off the valve and keep the bucket under the pipe until all the water flowing
through the piping system has been collected.
11. Measure and record the height to which the water level has dropped in the reservoir.
The major safety hazard in this laboratory is a shock hazard. Attention must be focused to the
possibility of electric shock given that the experiment will be working with water and items
running on standard line voltages. If water gets near an electrical connection, do not clean it
up. Note that when the pump is on the pipe network is under pressure, do not open any ports
while the pump is running. Before turning on the pumps, ensure that all ports are closed.
Always work with a minimum of two people.
Calculations
AR m3
Q= ( )
t s
(5.7)
Where,
A = 0.125 m2
R = rise in water level in collecting tank (m)
t = time in seconds
Q = discharge volumetric flow
Q m
V= ( )
a s (5.8)
Where,
V = velocity of flow
A = cross sectional area of pipe
2
Πd
V= (m 2 )
4 (5.9)
Where,
d = inner diameter of pipe
Results
Height of the Water Tank Base Lower Upper

surface surface
Height of the pressure transducers Differential Gage
Distance between water tank base and center of the outlet

pipes
Table 5.12: Relevant Dimensions and Distances
Pipe Diameter
Distance Between Pressure Port (x)
Height (Center of Pipe)
Table 5.13: Flow Rate Data
Water Height (in) Actual P (differential) Flow P

Height Rate
(from tank base) (pressure at
base)
10
Table 5.14: Experiment Data Sheet

1. Calculate average flow velocities (m/s) at each reservoir height. Plot the average flow
velocities as a function of the difference in heights between the water in the reservoir and
the pipe exit for (z) for all straight pipe configurations.
2. For same configurations as in question 1, calculate the average velocities you would
obtain for z’s used in your measurements, if you assumed that the flow was frictionless,
i.e. without any losses.
3. Compare the actual measured velocities (question 1), with the velocities predicted
assuming frictionless flow (see question 2), on a plot as a function of z for all straight
pipe configurations. Are the actual velocities higher or lower? Discuss the physical
significance of your results.
4. Estimate and plot the friction factors as a function of the Reynolds numbers for all
straight pipes; use a separate plot for each pipe. The plots should be on log-log scale
similar to the Moody plot.
5. Graphically compare the trends in the above plots (question 4) with the Moody plot to
estimate the relative roughness of each pipe. Comment on this comparison, including
reasons for any discrepancies.
6. Calculate the loss coefficient, K for each elbow in the pipe with elbows, as a function of
the average Reynolds number. Discuss the results; does K follow the trends you expect?
7. Using the frictions factor estimated in question 3, determine the equivalent length of a
straight pipe required to produce the same head losses as the pipe with elbows.
8. Compare this length with the actual length of the pipe with elbows (if it were
‘straightened’ out).
Suggested Supplementary Readings
It is suggested to read the journal of Ghadge et. al (2017) for further learning and
understanding of the major losses in pipes. The book of Coulson and Richardson Volume 1 can
also be used for the additional learning of flow of fluids in pipes. Review relevant material from
fluid mechanics courses, including Reynolds number; losses in straight pipes and the Moody
diagram; Bernoulli’s equation and the mechanical energy balance; sudden contraction and
expansion in pipes; and major and minor losses in fittings.
References
[1] Coulson, J. M., Richardson, J. F., Backhurst, J., and Harker, J. H. (1999) Chem Eng.
Volume 1: Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer and Mass Transfer, 6th ed. (Butterworth-
Heinemann). ISBN 0 7506 4444 3.

[2] Foust, A. S., et al. Principles of Unit Operations, 2nded. New York: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 1980
[3] Geankoplis,C. J.,Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles (Includes Unit
Operations), 4th ed., Prentice Hall, 2003.

[4] Ghadge S., Mhaske, A., Barbade, H., Malode, C., & Kudale, P. (2017). Modification of
Setup for Major Losses in Pipes to Determine the Exact Value of Friction Factor, IJSRD
- International Journal for Scientific Research & Development, Vol. 5, Issue 02,
2017. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.17750.24640

[5] Islamic University-Gaza (IUG), Hydraulic Lab (ECIV 3122).
[6] Juniper, M. P., Journal of Fluid Mechanics.
[7] McCabe, W. L., and Smith, J. C. Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 3rd ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1976.
6 DEAD WEIGHT GAGE PRESSURE CALIBRATION
Concept
Instrument calibration is one of the primary processes used to maintain instrument accuracy. It is
the process of configuring an instrument to provide results within an acceptable range. Known
weights have been applied on a Dead Weight Calibrator to apply pressure to a fluid for checking
the accuracy of readings from a pressure gage.
Bourdon-tube pressure gages are most widely used now-a-days because of their reliability,
compactness, low cost and ease of use. When pressure is applied to the tube, it tends to straighten
out, and the deflection of the end of the tube is communicated through a system of levers to a
recording pointer. This gauge is widely used for steam and compressed gases. The pressure
indicated is the difference between the system pressure and to the external (ambient) pressure,
and is usually referred to as the gauge pressure
Objective
The objective of this experiment is to assess the accuracy of a pressure gage with dead weight
tester.
Theory
A dead-weight tester is a device used for balancing a fluid pressure with a known weight.
Typically, it is used for static calibration of pressure gages. The apparatus is set up for calibration
of the pressure gage.
The chamber and cylinder of the tester are filled with clean oil by first moving the plunger to its
most forward position and then slowly withdrawing it while the oil is poured in through the
opening for the piston. The gage to be tested is installed and piston pressure is now transmitted to
the gage when the valve is opened. This pressure may be varied by adding weights to the piston
or by using different piston-cylinder combinations of varying areas. The viscous friction between
the piston and the cylinder in the axial direction may be substantially reduced by rotating the
piston-weight assembly while the measurement is taken. As the pressure is increased, it may be
necessary to advance the plunger to account for the compression of the oil and any entrapped
gasses in the apertures.
The accuracies of dead-weight tester are limited due to:
(1) the friction between the cylinder and the piston
(2) the uncertainty in the area of piston
(3) the buoyancy error
(4) gravity error
The gravity error due to elevation, z[m] and latitude, φ [°] can be corrected by the
dimensionless correction factor as:
e gravity =−( 2. 637x10−3 cos ( 2φ ) +2. 9x10−8 z+5x10−5 )

(6.1)
and the air buoyancy error, ebuoyancy, by:
ρair
e buoyancy =−
ρmasses (6.2)
Then the indicated pressure of gage, pi, can be corrected as:
p= pi ( 1+ egravity +e buoyancy )
(6.3)
Apparatus
1. Dead Weight Calibrator
Figure 6.20: Dead Weight Calibrator Apparatus
Dead Weight Pressure Gauge Calibrator consists of a precision machined piston and
cylinder assembly mounted on levelling screws. A Bourdon gauge is supplied for
calibration. The weights supplied are added to the upper end of the piston rod, which is
rotated to minimise friction effects. The gauge is thus subject to known pressures, which
may be compared with the gauge readings and an error curve drawn.
Technical Details:
Pressure Gauge Bourdon tube

range 0 to 200 kN/m2 (kPa)
Area of piston 244.8 x 10-6 m2
Mass of Piston 0.5kg
Ancillary of masses 2x 0.5kg, 1.0kg and 2.5kg
Table 6.15: Technical Details

Figure 6.21: Dead Weight Calibrator Curve
Dead weight calibrator Guide:

1. Check whether the test device is reading zero, by connecting it to the test port on the
DWT. If it isn’t, correct the error before moving on to the next step.
2. Note the cross-sectional area of the piston and rotate the handle of the adjusting piston
until its rod comes out fully. Fill oil into the reservoir up to its halfway level.
3. Open the oil reservoir’s shutoff valve and let the DWT fill completely with oil by
manually lifting the vertical piston to its maximum position. Do this gently to avoid air
bubbles.
4. Close the shutoff valve and place the first known weight on the platform of the vertical
piston.
5. Turn the handle of the adjusting piston to ensure that both it and the sample weight are
supported by the oil in the chamber.
6. Spin the vertical piston to make sure it is floating freely and allow the system to stabilize
for a few moments.
7. After the system has stabilized, make note of the sample weight, DWT reading and
reading on the pressure gauge being tested, as well as error.
Data Analysis
1. Take the masses density (for Steel) to be 7900 kg/m3. Also measure the room
temperature, and calculate the air density assuming ideal gas law and atmospheric
pressure of 1 atm.
2. Calculate the gravity and buoyancy errors using Equations 1 & 2 above, and then use
equation (3) to calculate the corrected pressure.
3. Use Excel program or similar graphing program to plot the variation of p g,l, and pg,u with
p (the corrected pressure)
4. Calculate the maximum hysteresis error
5. Perform curve fit to find the calibration curve between pavg and p
6. Find the uncertainty for the curve fit
2. Deadweight Tester for Bourdon–tube pressure gage
Figure 6.22: Deadweight Tester for Bourdon–tube pressure gage
Procedure
1. Measure the weight of the calibration masses.
2. Note down the weight of the piston and its cross sectional area.
3. Remove the piston and pour the water into the cylinder until it is full to overflow level.
Any air trapped in the tube may be cleared by tilting and gently tapping the apparatus.
4. Insert the piston carefully and spin it to minimize any friction effects.
5. Note the pressure reading from the gage.
6. Add the weights in convenient increments, and at each increment, observe the pressure
gage reading.
7. Tabulate the following data:
a. Experiment number,
b. The pressure gage readout, pg
c. The total pressure of the dead-weight tester (including the piston pressure), pc,
8. Take the similar sets of readings with decreasing weights.
Note: If due to the slight leakage, piston reaches the cylinder bottom, more water must be added
to the cylinder.
Calculations
The mean value of the observations at each pressure point is used to fit a curve showing the
reading as a function of nominal pressure for those gauges in which hysteresis is not studied. To
examine the hysteresis effect, all the observations are taken into consideration when fitting the
curves, and the deviation of the observations at each particular pressure point in both the
increasing and decreasing pressure cycles is considered as the random scattering of the data. In
case of pressure transducers, the output is recorded as a function of the applied pressure as
determined by the pressure standard. The rest of the calibration process is similar to the one used
for PDGs. After computing the pressure measured by pressure standard for each nominal value,
the characteristics of the pressure gauges are expressed in the form of p = f(r) where p represents
the standard pressure, r the test gauge reading and f is a polynomial function. The calibration
data are then analyzed to study the behavior of pressure gauges and plotted so as to show
calibration factors and percentage residuals of fitted values versus gauge reading. As noted
earlier, the evaluation of uncertainty in the measurement.
The pressure-generating element of a deadweight tester essentially consists of piston-cylinder

arrangement. The combined mass of the loading weights, load table and piston, under the
influence of the acceleration due to gravity g, generate a downward force F on the piston. The
pressure p generated at the base of the piston (of area A) is
F {M a + M aT }g
p= =
A A (6.4)
Where:
Ma = apparent mass of the sum of the loading weights and
maT = is the “tare mass
The expression for area taking into account these two factors is
A= A o (1+α A [t−t o ])(1+λp ) (6.5)
Where:
Ao = effective area at the deadweight tester reference temperature to(usually 20 °C)
αA = thermal expansion coefficient of the area
λ = elastic distortion coefficient

Results
Exp # Gage Calibration Gage Gage Corrected
Pressure Pressure, pc, Pressure Pressure pavg pressure p
(loading), bar (unloading), (bar) (bar)
pg,l, bar pg,u, bar
Table 6.16: Experimental Data
Post-Laboratory Questions
1. Briefly explain the principle involved in the deadweight gage tester. How is the
pressure generated? How is it transmitted to the gage? How is the pressure level
controlled?
2. Based on your calibration results, what is the maximum error to be expected when
this gage is used to measure pressure? Is this error more likely to happen at low or
high pressures? Is there a range of pressures for which the gage gives significantly
more (or less) accurate readings?
3. Is there any difference in the calibration errors between the data taken in order of
increasing pressure, and the data taken in order of decreasing pressure? If so, give a
plausible explanation for this error.
4. Conceptually, could you use this apparatus to calibrate a vacuum gage? Practically?
How?
5. The dead weight tester is just a standard to which the pressure gages are compared?
How do you imagine the dead weight tester was calibrated?
Supplementary Readings
For further learning and understanding it is suggested to read the MSL Technical guide 36
(Calculating deadweight tester pressure). This guide describes how to calculate pressures
generated by a deadweight tester, or pressure balance, use in calibrating pressure-measuring
instruments. It also describes how these are combined with values of local acceleration due to
gravity, temperature and head correction to give pressure. This guide is applicable to
hydraulic and pneumatic deadweight testers that generate gauge pressure, including negative
gauge pressure. The journal by Borovkov et al (2010) can also be used for the additional
learning about evaluation of the feasibility of creating a system correctness of pressure
measurements in gas media, including a state standard.
References
[1] CALIBRATION OF A PRESSURE GAGE USING DEAD-WEIGHT TESTER .

(n.d.). THERMAL ENGINEERING AND DESALINATION TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT.
[2] Calibration of Pressure Gages. (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://web.cecs.pdx.edu/~gerry/class/EAS361/lab/pdf/lab2_pressureGages.pdf
[3] Deadweight Testers and Gauges Instruction Manual . (2006 ). Ametek Chandler
Engineering. Retrieved from Extension Toxicology Network:
http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/carbaryl-dicrotophos/carbaryl-ext.html
[4] Lab Manual of Fluid Mechanics. (n.d.). The Department of Civil and Architectural
Engineering.
[5] PROCEDURE FOR CALIBRATING PRESSURE GAUGES. (n.d.). UNITED

STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. Retrieved from
https://www.usbr.gov/tsc/techreferences/mands/rockmanual/tan_earthmanualUSBR/U
SBR1040.pdf

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EXPERIMENTS IN MOMENTUM AND HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Course

Lozano, Harvey Celis, Jasmin

Cusipag, Jonelou Dacpano, Mark

Tuliao, Yoshe Daquioag, Justine

Sia, Patric Donato, Redfield

For Bernoulli’s theorem experiment apparatus, it consists of a classical venturi. A series

FIGURE 1.1: ETHANOL-WATER EQUILIBRIUM CURVE..............................................................................................3

Figure 1.1: Ethanol-Water Equilibrium Curve

DISTILLING FLASK CONDENSER

COLD WATER INLET

Figure 1.2: Schematic Diagram

The apparatus consists of the following:

a) 1000 mL Distilling flask with rubber stopper

Figure 1.4: Hydrometer Reading

In this lab the mole balance can be thought of in terms of

Moles in original flask mixture = Moles in Distillate 1 – Moles in Distillate 2 + Moles

Sample Volume Temperature Temperature of the Specific Mass fraction

Post Laboratory Questions

2 BERNOULLI’S EXPERIMENT WITH VENTURIMETER

Figure 2.1: (a) Streamline or Laminar flow (b) Turbulent flow

From mass conservation,

Bernoulli developed an equation that expresses this principle quantitatively. To derive

Figure 2.4: Bernoulli's Apparatus with Hydraulic Bench

Figure 2.5: Test section of Bernoulli's Apparatus

Air bleed screw

Water inlet Test section

Flow control valve

Figure 2.7: F15 Bernoulli's Theorem Demonstration

Figure 2.8: Bernoulli's Apparatus with Venturi Meter

Figure 2.9: Stopwatch

B. Taking a Set of Results

C. After the test

1. Turnoff the fan by pressing the “OFF “switch.

A. Experiment 1 (flow rate: slow)

Cross Using Bernoulli’s Equation Using Continuity Difference

Table 2.2: Data for Determining the Volume in Experiment 1

B. Experiment 2 (flow rate: medium)

Cross Using Bernoulli’s Equation Using Continuity Difference

Table 2.4: Data for Determining the Difference in Volume in Experiment 2

Cross Using Bernoulli’s Equation Using Continuity Difference

Table 6: Data for Determining the Difference in Volume in Experiment 3

Post Laboratory Questions

Suggested Reading Materials

[1] Armfield Limited. (2013). Bernoulli's Theorem Demonstration. 7.

Figure 3.5: Rectangular Weir

Figure 3.6: Triangular Weir

Figure 3.9: Schematic diagram of V-notch Weir

Figure 3.10: Stopwatch

NUMBER APPARATUS DESCRIPTION

1 Hydraulics Bench This unit is designed as a portable and self-

Table 3.7: List of Apparatus needed in Flow Over Weirs

Figure 3.7: Flow Over Weirs – V-notch Weir

Figure 3.8: Flow Over Weirs – Rectangular Weir

B. General Shut Down Procedures

C. Equipment Set-up Procedures

1. For the Rectangular Notch

Q = Volume (m3) / time (s) (3.3)

2. For the V-notch Weir

The Q is solved using

Volume Time Flow Rate Height

Volume Time Flow Rate Height

Table 3.9: Results using V-notch Weir