WAVES IN FLUIDS

waves occur all around us, most common perhaps our gravity waves in water and compressibility
waves in air because waves and water are easy to observe we will begin with them later we'll see
that many of the concepts we have developed with these gravity waves apply equally well to
compressibility waves and gases. a surface gravity wave is a region of increased or decreased depth
that moves relative to the fluid.

a large amplitude wave produces a large change in depth as it goes by. when the change in depth
is small compared to both mean depth and wavelength, we call it a small amplitude wave, even
when we cannot see the surface we can detect the passage of a wave by the change in pressure at
a fixed point

we can also detect it by the motion of the fluid particles these solid particles are very nearly the
same density as water and hence move like fluid particles, note that the motion of the fluid is very
limited in comparison with the motion of the wave

here the wavelength is comparable to the depth, in these waves the particles move in circular paths
the diameter of the circles decreases with depth, the particles near the bottom hardly move at all

this is the pattern of fluid movement characteristic of waves on the surface of deep water, that is
where the wavelength is comparable to or less than the depth. shallow water waves are waves with
wavelength long compared to the depth. this is the characteristic pattern of particle motion for
shallow water waves notice that the horizontal amplitude of the particle motions is nearly the same
at all depths. we say that such waves are essentially one-dimensional since the horizontal fluid
motion depends only on time and horizontal distance from a reference point, because they are
simpler and yet display most of the important features of wave motion we will use one-dimensional
waves for further study

not all waves are periodic, we can send a single step wave down the channel, and for our purposes
we may consider either a step wave that increases the depth or a step wave that decreases the
depth. note the movement of the fluid particles as a step wave passes in the undisturbed water
ahead of the wave the fluid is at rest after the way it has passed the fluid is moving in the same
direction as the wave at a constant speed, the passage of the wave accelerated the fluid

watch one particle again, while the wave moves from here to here the particle moves through a
much shorter distance these particle images were recorded at equal time intervals so from the
spacing it is clear that.the wave is a region of acceleration, if we let the wave continue out of frame
we see that the particle is no longer accelerating but moving at a constant speed. fluid acceleration
occurs only during the time the depth is changing. the depth in a given region can only increase if
more fluid is moving into it than is moving out a simple statement of the conservation of matter and
clearly the fluid velocity is higher here than here.

now here's a wave that decreases the depth more fluid must be flowing out of a given length of the
channel and flowing in for the depth to decrease, the particles ahead of the wave are at rest those
behind it are moving at a constant speed the decrease in depth is accompanied by an acceleration
of the fluid. While the wave moved this far the particle move this distance accelerating in the
opposite direction as our multiple exposure shows and as the wave moves on out of the frame we
see the particle continuing to move with constant speed.

what force causes the fluid to accelerate it is a force arising from differences in pressure, note how
the pressure at the bottom of the channel increases as this wave goes by for these shallow water
waves the vertical acceleration of the fluid is small compared to the gravitational acceleration plus
the vertical pressure variation is nearly hydrostatic that is the pressure is atmospheric at the surface
and increases almost linearly with depth. the pressure difference in a horizontal Direction is nearly
the same at all depths which means that the horizontal acceleration is nearly the same at all depths
as this wave passes the pressure on a fluid particle increases for this reason we may call this type of
wave a compression wave. note that the fluid acceleration is in the direction of wave motion, in
this wave the fluid acceleration is in a direction opposite to the wave motion this is so because the
pressure is higher at the leading edge of the wave then at the trailing edge as this way it passes the
pressure on a fluid particle decreases hence we may call this type of wave an expansion wave in
contrast to the compression wave. in both cases the vertical pressure gradient arises because of the
gravitational force acting on the fluid thus it is really gravity that causes these waves whenever the
fluid surface is not horizontal a horizontal pressure gradient is produced by gravity that accelerates
the fluid horizontally.

we have viewed the waves in a reference frame at rest with respect to the fluid ahead of the wave
let us change our frame of reference and move with the advancing wave so that we can watch the
shape of the wave as it advances the compression wave appears to steepen the trailing edge
overtaking the leading edge. the expansion wave on the other hand flattens out the trailing edge
falling behind the leading edge differences in local fluid velocity and depth within the wave itself
alter its configuration as it advances.

where the depth is greater that portion of the wave travels faster we can see this variation in wave
speed quite easily, here is a depth of 1 inch here is a depth of 4 inches and here 1 of 9 inches small
amplitude waves pass this line at the same instant, obviously their velocities are different the wave
in the deepest water traveling fastest, in fact their velocities are in a ratio of 1 to 2 to 3 directly
proportional to the square root of the depth.

the wave speed is given by √𝑔ℎ where ℎ is the depth this fact that the wave speed relative to the
fluid the local wave speed increases with depth is one reason why an expansion wave tends to
spread out as it moves, we can describe the velocity of the leading edge of the expansion wave
relative to the fluid as √𝑔ℎ1 similarly, we can describe the velocity of the trailing edge relative to
the fluid as √𝑔ℎ2 , clearly the local wave speed at the shallower trailing edge is less than the local
wave speed at the deeper leading edge, but there is another factor at work here the local wave
velocity is always stated relative to the local fluid velocity, now we have already seen that the fluid
at the training edge of an expansion wave is moving away from the fluid at the leading edge so
relative to the leading edge the slower speed of the trailing edge is rendered even slower by virtue
of a local fluid velocity there in the opposite direction.

the fact that the local wave velocity increases with depth also explains why the compression wave
tends to steepen the local wave velocity is higher at the deeper training edge of the wave then at
the shallower leading edge furthermore in compression waves the fluid at the trailing edge is moving
toward the leading edge. this local fluid speed adds to the increased local wave speed at the trailing
edge causing the trailing edge to overtake the leading edge even more quickly.

Watch this wave steepen in slow motion as we follow its leading edge. what happens now anyone
who has been to the beach knows the answer the wave topples over note that the toppled wave
moved out of our picture which means the leading edge of the wave is traveling faster than it was
before it toppled I just watch this deepening again with the camera moving at the speed of the
toppled wave

note that the toppled wave continues in its turbulent condition and does not change its shape it also
travels at constant speed. the speed of the toppled wave which is called a positive surge wave in
hydraulics depends on both the depth ahead ℎ1 and the depth behind the wave ℎ2 here you see
three channels with water 4 inches deep in them we are going to send positive surge waves down
these channels with depths behind the waves of 6 inches, 8 inches and 10 inches.

the larger the depth behind the wave the faster the wave travels in fact it can be shown that large
amplitude wave speed that is the speed of a positive surge wave depends upon the depths ahead
(ℎ1 +ℎ2 ) ℎ2
and behind as follows √𝑔 ( ).
2 ℎ1

small amplitude waves ahead of the surge wave move at the speed √𝑔ℎ1 relative to the fluid if you
compare these expressions you will see that this local wave speed is always less than the speed of
the surge wave plus the surge wave catches up to small amplitude waves ahead of it small amplitude
waves behind the surge move relative to the fluid at a speed √𝑔ℎ2 however behind the surge wave
the fluid is moving there is a drift speed of the fluid U and the drift speed thus small amplitude waves
behind the surge wave and moving in the same direction as the surge wave always catch up to it in
reality these surge waves move it a fair clip. as the surge moves down the channel there is zero
velocity ahead of it and a drift velocity behind it by moving the camera we have superimposed on
the motion a velocity equal and opposite to the speed of the surge wave, in this reference frame
the fluid ahead appears to be moving into the wavefront the wave appears stationary and the fluid
behind has a net velocity in the opposite direction to the drift speed we say the flow is steady in this
reference frame we can produce exactly this situation in a flume this is a stationary wave called a
hydraulic jump the structure of this turbulent wave is very complicated and difficult to analyze
however if we consider the fluxes of mass and momentum into and out of a control surface like this
we can determine the velocity and depth behind the hydraulic jump given the velocity and depth
ahead of it the ratio of entering fluid speed to the local wave speed is called the Froude number

the Froude number ahead of the jump 𝑓1 is always greater than unity that is the fluid speed ahead
is greater than the local wave speed we say the flow ahead is supercritical or shooting. the Froude
number behind the jump 𝑓2 is always less than unity that is the fluid speed behind is subcritical or
tranquil. we can easily show this in the flume a disturbance behind the jump catches up with the
jump a disturbance ahead of the jump is washed downstream into the jump, note this is only
another way of describing the steepening effect we talked about earlier in a different reference
frame small amplitude waves behind a positive surge wave catch up to it small amplitude waves
ahead are overtaking.
energy is being dissipated in the turbulence and foaming in this jump the pitot tube measures the
total head the sum of the potential and kinetic energy notice how the total head drops as we move
through the jump mechanical energy is being converted into internal energy. this jump is dissipating
about one third of a horsepower below big dams hydraulic jumps in stilling basins may dissipate
thousands even millions of horsepower the temperature rise is hardly noticeable however since a
total head loss of 778 feet is required to heat water one degree Fahrenheit you can see hydraulic
jumps all around you if you are observant have you ever seen this one in your kitchen sink the water
spreads out at a supercritical speed from under the tap goes through a cylindrical hydraulic jump
moves it subcritical speed to the edge of the dish and spills over the edge although gravity waves
and liquids are easily seen they're not the most common waves we encounter in fluids
compressibility waves and gases are certainly more common since sound waves are compressibility
waves. sound waves are small amplitude compressibility waves a large amplitude compressibility
wave is a sharp wave compressibility waves move at very high speeds and can usually be seen only
with the aid of special optical devices.

on rare occasions if the light is just right shockwaves may be seen with the unaided eye, however
we can easily detect the passage of a compressibility wave by the changes in pressure associated
with it our ears for instance are very sensitive detectors of pressure changes indeed we classify all
small amplitude compressibility waves whether they are audible or not as sound waves as a model
for a gas here you see many particles floating in the surface of water more or less evenly spaced.
the number of particles per unit of surface area represents the density as a compression wave comes
along you can see the particles accelerate in the direction of the wave motion and you see the
density increasing that is the particles moving closer together, much of what we have shown you
concerning one-dimensional gravity waves applies equally well to compressibility waves if we simply
replace the depth of the fluid h by the density of the fluid 𝜌

in fact a compressibility wave may be described as a region of increased or decreased density that
moves relative to the fluid, just as depth is proportional to the amount of fluid per unit length in an
open channel so density is proportional to the amount of fluid per unit length in a closed channel,
the fluid flowing into this length of open channel increases the depth the fluid flowing into a length
of closed channel increases the density in a compressibility wave the pressure depends on the
density just as in a gravity wave it depends on the depth. although surface gravity waves and
compressibility waves behave quite similarly they are propagated by entirely different physical
mechanisms, the fluid acceleration in gas waves is due to elastic forces associated with the
compressibility of the fluid rather than gravitational forces the speed of a small amplitude isentropic
compressibility wave increases with density just as the local wave speed of a surface gravity wave
increases with depth this increase of Sound speed causes compression waves to steepen audience
increase in the wave what happens when these gradients become very high that is when the wave
becomes very thin, the compressibility wave cannot topple over like the surface gravity wave
instead the density and velocity gradients reached limiting high values in a thin region and remain
constant by looking from above at only the inflow and outflow of an hydraulic jump we can gain an
impression of the steep velocity gradient, incompressibility waves these limiting high gradients are
determined by the effects of viscosity and heat conduction which up to this point we have been able
to ignore the reason that viscous forces become significant here is that fluid particles going through
a steep wave experience high rates of deformation viscous forces are proportional to the rate of
strain hence viscous forces become significant in a steep compression wave, this deepening
tendency is opposed by the action of viscosity and heat conduction and a limiting steep wave results
called a shock wave stationary shock waves can be produced in a supersonic wind tunnel here the
gas is moving at supersonic speed ahead of the shock Mach number greater than 1 and that subsonic
speed behind the shock Mach number less than 1

this is analogous to the stationary hydraulic jump we saw in the flume with fluid moving at
supercritical speed ahead of the jump and subcritical speed behind it recall that the total pressure
total head dropped in going through a hydraulic jump in the same way total pressure drops in going
through a shock wave because some of the mechanical energy has changed into internal energy by
the dissipative action of viscosity and heat conduction. unlike the hydraulic jump a shock wave is
extremely thin on the order of a few mean free paths thick about millionth of an inch at room
temperature and pressure a moving shockwave is what you hear when there is an explosion the
Thunder that accompanies lightning it is the sonic boom you hear from a supersonic airplane.

we can produce moving shockwaves in the laboratory in a shock tube like this one you put high-
pressure gas on one side of a frangible diaphragm and low-pressure gas on the other side

the diaphragm is made of celluloid sheet we break it with a knife like this so with high-pressure gas
on this side and low-pressure gas on this side when we break the diaphragm we create a shock wave
which moves at supersonic speed down the tube by pulling a gate in the wave channel we can
produce a positive surge wave this is analogous to the shock wave in this too this end is open then
we have placed streamers here to make the motion of the air visible now it will break the diaphragm
you noticed the wind behind the shock wave just like the drift speed behind a positive surge wave
an atomic blast sends out a spherical shock wave followed by a strong wind which is the air moving
at the drift speed we can produce very strong shock waves in this shot tube the high pressure section
is here the low pressure section is this Pyrex tube.

the temperature behind a very strong shock wave can become so high that the gas molecules are
torn apart dissociation and even electrons stripped off the atoms ionization, ionized gases emit light
and hence this phenomenon is easily seen the diaphragm is located here this is what a diaphragm
looks like before it is broken and this is what it looks like after it is broken you can see that we're
dealing with very strong pressure forces we have argon in the low pressure section of the tube you
will see the shock as the argon ionizes. I'm going to turn down the lights you watch the two, now I
will break the diaphragm so far, we have concentrated on one-dimensional waves two and three
dimensional waves involve the same basic concepts but can become very much more complicated
these remarkable pictures were taken at nearly 4000,000 frames per second this sequence shows a
normal shock wave passing over a Ledge. here a shock wave passes over the sharp edge of a flat
plate notice the vortices produced at the sharp edges and the great number and variety of shock
reflections and interactions. we have shown you some wave phenomena and fluids chosen to
emphasize the basic concepts of wave propagation first the local accumulation of mass which is due
to depth changes in the gravity wave and due to density changes in the compressibility wave and
finally restoring forces pressure forces which are due to depth gradient in the gravity wave and to
density gradient in the compressibility wave.