Chapter Two PDF

10/28/2013
TRANSDUCERS
AND SENSORS
Dr. Ibrahim Al-Naimi
CHAPTER TWO
Signal Conditioning
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Signal Conditioning
Signal conditioning refers to operations
performed on signals to convert them to a form
f d i l t t th t f
suitable for interfacing with other elements in
control system
• Analog signal conditioning.
• Digital signal conditioning.
Digital signal conditioning
Analog Signal Conditioning
• Analog signal conditioning provides the
operations necessary to transform a
ti t t f
transducer output into a form necessary to
interface with other elements in control
system.
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Principles of Analog Signal Conditioning
• It is possible to categorize signal conditioning
i t
into several general types:
l lt
‐ Signal level and bias changes
‐ Linearization
‐ Conversion
‐ Filtering
Signal level and bias changes
• Signal conditioning circuits for adjusting the level
( g
(magnitude).)
• Signal conditioning circuits to adjusting the bias
(zero value/zero shift).
• Operational amplifiers in particular arrangements
can be used for these purposes.
• when designing bias and amplifier circuits, we
must be concerned with issues such as the
frequency response, output impedance, and input
impedance
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Signal level and bias changes
• Example: It is required to adjust the sensor output
signal that varies from 0.2 to 0.6 V to other signal that
varies from 0 to 5 V.
varies from 0 to 5 V.
Solution: We perform the required signal conditioning
circuit by
‐ First: Changing the zero to occur when the sensor
output is 0.2 V. This can be done by subtracting 0.2
from the sensor output, which is called a zero shift or
p ,
bias adjustment. Now the voltage varies from 0 to 0.4
‐ Second: Multiply the voltage by 12.5 to get output
voltage varies from 0 to 5 V as required, this is called
amplification.
Linearization
• The purpose of linearization conditioning
circuits is to provide an output that varies
i it i t id t t th t i
linearly with some variable even if the sensor
output does not.
1‐ Special analog circuits
2‐ Modern approaches using computer.
Modern approaches using computer
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Linearization
Conversion
• Often signal conditioning is used to convert one
type of electrical variation into another
type of electrical variation into another.
• Large class of sensors exhibit changes of
resistance with changes in physical variable.
• It is necessary to provide a circuit to convert this
resistance change either to voltage or a current
signal.
• This is generally accomplished by bridges when
the fractional resistance change is small and/or
by amplifiers whose gain varies with resistance.
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Signal Transmission
• An important type of conversion is associated
with the process control standard of
with the process control standard of
transmission signals as 4 to 20 mA current
levels in wire.
• This gives rise to the need for converting
resistance and voltage levels to an appropriate
current level at the transmitting end and for
converting the current back to voltage at the
receiving end.
Signal Transmission
• Current transmission is used because such a
signal is independent of load variations (the
i li i d d t f l d i ti (th
series resistance between the signal
conditioning circuit and the load)
• Voltage‐to‐current and current‐to‐voltage
converters are often required.
q
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Digital Interface
• The use of computers in process control
requires conversion of analog data into a
i i f l d t i t
digital format by integrated circuit devices
called analog‐to‐digital converters (ADCs).
Filtering
• In many cases, it is necessary to use filters to
eliminate unwanted signals (noise) from the
li i t t d i l ( i )f th
loop.
1‐ Passive filters: using only resistors, capacitors,
and inductors.
2‐ Active filters: Using operational amplifier,
Active filters: Using operational amplifier
resistors, and capacitors.
• Low pass, high pass, band pass, and band
reject filters.
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Passive Circuits
• Passive circuits include voltage divider, bridge,
and filters.
d filt
• Although modern active circuits often placed
these technique, there are still many applications
where their particular advantages make them
useful (e.g. Measuring small changes in
( g g g
impedance using bridge circuit).
Voltage Divider
• The elementary voltage divider shown in the
figure often can be used to provide conversion
figure often can be used to provide conversion
of resistance variation into a voltage variation.
• The voltage divider rule:
R2Vs
VD =
R1 + R2
Either R1 or R2 can be the sensor whose

resistance varies linearly with the measured
variable.
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Voltage Divider
• It is important to consider the following issues
when using voltage divider for conversion of
resistance to voltage variation:
1‐ The variation of VD with either R1 or R2 is
nonlinear; that is, even if the resistance varies
linearly with the measured variable, the divider
voltage will not vary linearly.
2 The effective output impedance of the divider is
2‐ Th ff i i d f h di id i
the parallel combination of R1 and R2. This may
not necessarily be low, so loading effect must be
considered.
Voltage Divider
3‐ In divider circuit, the current flows through
b th i t
both resistors; that is, power will be dissipated
th t i ill b di i t d
by both, including the sensor. The power
rating of both the resistor and sensor must be
considered.
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Voltage Divider Circuit Design
To select the proper values of voltage source
and resistance, the following points should be
d it th f ll i i t h ld b
considered:
‐ The resistance variation of the sensor.
‐ The maximum Power dissipation for the
sensor.
sensor
‐ The system sensitivity.
Voltage Divider
e. Find the minimum input impedance for the next conditioning circuit.
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Bridge Circuit
• Bridge circuit are used to convert impedance
variations into voltage variations.
• One of the advantages of the bridge of this task is
O f th d t f th b id f thi t k i
that it can be designed so the voltage produced
varies around zero. This means that amplification
can be used to increase the voltage level for
increased sensitivity to variation of impedance.
• Bridge circuits are used primarily as an accurate
B id i it d i il t
means of measuring changes in impedance.
• Such circuits are particularly useful when the
fraction changes in impedance are very small.
DC Wheatstone Bridge
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Assume the detector impedance is infinity, the potential
difference (ΔV ) between points a and is:
• The difference in potential across the detector
i f ti
is a function of the supply voltage and the
f th l lt d th
values of the resistors.
• When ever a Wheatstone bridge is assembled
and resistors are adjusted for a detector null,
the resistor values must satisfy the indicated
y
equality ( )
• It does not matter if the supply voltage drifts
or changes; the null is maintained.
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Galvanometer Detector
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Bridge Resolution
• The resolution of the bridge circuit is a
function of the resolution of the detector used
to determine the bridge offset.
• From different view point, this can affect the
overall accuracy of the device since the
smallest change in resistance that can be
measured represents the device uncertainty
measured represents the device uncertainty
Bridge Resolution
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Lead Compensation
Lead Compensation
• In many process control applications, a bridge circuit
may be located at a considerable distance from the
sensor whose resistance changes are to be
measured.
• In such cases, the remaining fixed bridge resistors
can be chosen to account for the resistance of leads
required to connect the bridge to the sensor.
• There are many effects that can change the
resistance of the long lead wires on a transient
basis, such as frequency, temperature, stress and
chemical vapour.
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Lead Compensation
• This change will show up as a bridge offset and
be interpreted as changes in sensor output
be interpreted as changes in sensor output.
• This problem is reduced using lead
compensation, where any changes in lead
resistance are introduced equally into both arms
of the bridge circuit, thus causing no effect
change in bridge offset.
• This type of compensation is often employed
where bridge circuits must be used with long
leads to the active element of the bridge.
Current Balance Bridge
• One disadvantage of the simple Wheatstone bridge
is the need to obtain the null by variation of resistors
in a bridge arms
in a bridge arms.
• In the past, many process control applications used a
feedback system in which the bridge offset voltage
was amplified and used to drive a motor whose shaft
altered a variable resistor to renull the bridge.
• Such a system does not suit the modern technology
of electronic processing because it is not fast, is
subject to wear, and generates electronic noise.
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• A technique that provides for an electronic
nulling of the bridge and that uses only fixed
resistors can be used with the bridge This
resistors can be used with the bridge. This
method uses current to null the bridge.
• A closed loop system can even be constructed
that provides the bridge with a self nulling ability.
• The standard Wheatstone bridge is modified by
The standard Wheatstone bridge is modified by
splitting one arm resistor into two, R4 and R5.
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• Equation 2.15 shows that a null is reached by
adjusting the magnitude and the polarity of
adjusting the magnitude and the polarity of
the current I until IR5 equals the voltage
difference of the first two terms.
• If one of the bridge resistors changes, the
bridge can be renulled by changing the
current I In this manner, the bridge is
current I. In this manner the bridge is
electronically nulled from any convenient
current source.
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Potential Measurements Using Bridges
• A bridge circuit is also useful to measure a
small potentials at a very high impedance,
ll t ti l t hi h i d
using either a conventional Wheatstone
bridge or a current balance bridge.
• This type of measurements is performed by
p
placing the potential to be measured in series
g p
with the detector.
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AC Bridge
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Comparison Bridge: Capacitance
Measure an unknown capacitance by comparing it with a
Known capacitance.
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Comparison Bridge: Inductance
Measure an unknown inductance by comparing it with a
Known inductance.
Maxwell Bridge
Measure an unknown inductance in terms of a known
capacitance
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Bridge applications
• Convert variation of resistance to variation in
voltage.
voltage
• The voltage variation is nonlinear with respect to
any with the resistors.
• If the range of resistance variation is small and
centered about the null value, then the
nonlinearity of voltage versus resistance is small.
• Amplifiers can be used to amplify this voltage
variation to a useful range.
Bridge applications
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RC Filters
• Low Pass RC Filters
• High Pass RC Filters
• Band Pass RC Filters
• Band Reject RC Filters
Low Pass RC Filters
• Low pass filters block the high frequencies and
pass low frequencies.
l f i
• It would be most desirable if a low pass filter
had a characteristic such that all signals with
frequency above some critical value are simply
rejected.
j
• Practical filter circuits approach that ideal with
varying degrees of success.
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Low Pass RC Filters
Low Pass RC Filters
• Critical frequency is that frequency for which
th
the ratio of the output to the input voltage is
ti f th t t t th i t lt i
approximately 0.707
• The output to input voltage ratio for any signal
frequency can be determined graphically from
frequency can be determined graphically from
the figure or computed by:
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Low Pass RC Filters
2. Calculate the required resistance value. If it is below 1 KΩ or above 1 MΩ, try a
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Low Pass Filter
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High Pass Filter
• High pass filter passes the high frequencies
(
(no rejections) and blocks (rejects) low
j ti ) d bl k ( j t ) l
frequencies.
• Similar to low pass filter, the rejection is not
sharp in frequency but distributed over a
range around a critical frequency.
g q y
High Pass Filter
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High Pass Filter
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High Pass Filter
High Pass Filter
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High Pass Filter
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High Pass Filter
High Pass Filter
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Band Pass Filter
• Band pass filter blocks frequencies below a low limit
and above a high limit while passing frequencies
between the limits.
• The band pass filter shown in the figure is simply a
low pass filter followed by a high pass filter.
• The lower critical frequency is for the high pass filter,
whereas the high critical frequency for the low pass
filter.
• Care must be taken that the second filter does not
load the first filter.
• If the low and high critical frequencies are too close
together, the pass band region never reaches unity
(i.e. The output is attenuated for all frequencies)
Band Pass Filter
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Band Pass Filter
• To provide a good pass band, it is essential that
the critical frequencies be as far as apart as
possible and that the resistor ratio be kept below
0.01.
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Band Pass Filter
Band Reject Filter
• Filter that block a specific range of frequencies.
• Such filter is used to reject a particular frequency or a
small range of frequencies that are interfering with a
data signal.
• The definitions are much the same as the band pass
filter in that fL is a critical frequency above which the
signal is attenuated by 0.707, whereas fH is a critical
frequency below which signals are attenuated by 0.707.
• It is difficult to realize such filters with passive RC
combination. It is possible to construct band reject
frequencies using inductors and capacitors, but the
most success is obtained using active circuits
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Band Reject Filter
Notch Filter
• One very special band reject filter, which can
b
be realized with RC combinations, is called a
li d ith RC bi ti i ll d
notch filter because it blocks a very narrow
range of frequencies.
• Bridge ‐ T Filter
• Twin ‐T Filter
Twin ‐T Filter
• Much more improved band reject and notch
filters can be realized using active circuits.
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Twin ‐ T Filter
Twin ‐ T Filter
• The characteristics of this filter are determined
strongly by the value of the grounding resistor
and capacitor labeled R1 and C1.
• For particular combination of R1 = πR/10 and
C1 = 10C/ π, the filter response versus frequency
is shown in the following figure
• The critical “notch” frequency occurs at a
frequency given by:
fn = 0.785fc where fc = 1/(2 πRC)
• The frequencies for which the output is down 3
dB from the pass band are given:
fL = 0.187fc and fH = 4.57fc
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Twin ‐ T Filter
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Operational Amplifiers
• Many special circuits and general purpose
amplifiers are now contained integrated
lifi t i di t t d
circuit packages producing a quick solution to
signal conditioning problems together with
small size, low power consumption, and low
cost.
• Op amp typically requires connection to bipolar
power supplies i e Both +Vs and –V
power supplies, i.e. Both +V and Vs with respect
with respect
to ground.
• When considered as a functional element of
some larger circuit, however, all we are
concerned with are its input and output signals.
• For that reason, the power supply connections
are not shown in it its own symbol, only two
input terminals and an output terminal are
shown.
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Where:
(+) : Noninverting terminal
(‐) : Inverting terminal
• Transfer function.
• This devise is always used with feedback of
output to input. Such feedback permits
implementation of many special relationships
between input and output voltage.
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Characteristics for Ideal Op Amp
• Infinite open loop gain Ad .
• Infinite input impedance (No current can flow
through the op amp input terminals).
• Zero output impedance.
• The frequency bandwidth extends from zero
to infinity
to infinity.
• The output voltage is zero when the input
voltage is zero.
Characteristics for practical Op Amp
• Finite open loop gain varies from 104 to 106.
• Input impedance is very high, typically exceeding
I ti d i hi h t i ll di
1MΩ.
• Output impedance is very low, typically less than
100 Ω.
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Rules to Analyze Op Amp operations
• There are two rules that can be applied to analyze
p y p p
the ideal operation of any op amp circuit. In most
cases, such an analysis will provide the circuit
transfer function with little error. The design rules
are:
Rule 1: Assume that no current flows through the
i tt i l i i+ = i- = 0
op amp input terminals, i.e. i
Rule 2: Assume that there is no voltage difference
between the op amp input terminals, i.e. V+ = V-
Ideal Inverting Amplifier
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Op Amp Specifications
• Input offset voltage
In most cases, the op amp output voltage may
not be zero when the voltage across the input is
zero, i.e. When the input terminals are kept
floating without being connected or being
shorted and grounded. The dc voltage that must
g g
be applied across the input terminals to drive
the output to zero is the offset input voltage.
Offset Voltage
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• Input bias and offset currents
each op amp has a small dc bias current flowing
out of both the input terminals to the ground.
The offset current is the difference in theses bias
currents. Bias current produces an effect similar
to that of offset voltage and it will not be zero
g
even if the offset voltage is zero.
• Temperature drift
A d ift i th
A drift in the output voltage per unity change
t t lt it h
o
in the temperature (e.g. μV/ C)
• Slew rate
If the voltage is suddenly applied to the input
of op amp, the output will saturate to the
maximum. The slew rate is the maximum
output voltage change per unit time
expressed in V/μs.
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• Unity gain frequency bandwidth
Although the gain of the op amp is assumed to
be infinity, it is normally between 104 and 108
and it is a function of frequency. The bandwidth
extends from dc to about 5 or 10 Hz and then
falls off at a uniform rate of 20 dB/decade. The
/
frequency at unity gain is about 1 MHz and the
amplifier is said to possess a 1 MHz unity gain
frequency bandwidth product.
Op Amp Practical Issues
• Op amp generally requires connection to bipolar
power supplies, i.e. Both +Vs and –Vs with equal
magnitude. Typically, the value of these supply
voltages is in the range of 9 to 15 volts
voltages is in the range of 9 to 15 volts.
• Approximate input offset current compensation can
be provided by making the resistance feeding both
input terminals approximately the same. As shown
in the following figure for the inverting amplifier,
this has been provided by a resistor on the
this has been provided by a resistor on the
noninverting terminal whose value is the same as
R1 and R2 in parallel, since that is the effective
resistance seen by the inverting terminal. Bias
current is smaller in FET op amp and is normally
ignored.
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• The effect of offset voltage should be eliminated.
Why? Compensation of input offset voltage can be
provided in one of two ways. 1: Many modern IC op
provided in one of two ways. 1: Many modern IC op
amps provide terminals to allow input offset voltage
compensation. This is shown in the previous figure
as a variable resistor connected to two terminals of
the op amp. The wiper of the variable resistor is
connected to the supply voltage, either +Vs or –Vs
according to the specifications of the op amp. This
di t th ifi ti f th Thi
resistor need to be adjusted only one time, unless
the particular op amp is changed or when the
temperature changes.
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• 2‐ Some op amps do not provide terminals for
i
input offset compensation. In this case, a
t ff t ti I thi
small bias voltage must be placed on the input
to provide the required compensation. The
following figure shows one way to do this in
the case of inverting op amp.
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• General purpose IC op amps can source or
sink no more than about 20 mA, which
i k th b t 20 A hi h
includes the current in the feedback circuit.
This leads to a general design criterion to be
applied to design with op amps. Think of mA
and KΩ when designing circuits that use op
amps.
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Op Amp Conditioning Circuits
• Voltage Follower
• Inverting Amplifier
• Inverting Summing Amplifier (Zero and Span)
Inverting Summing Amplifier (Zero and Span)
• Noninverting Amplifier
• Differential Amplifier
• Instrumentation Amplifier
• Charge Amplifier
• Voltage to Current Converter
Voltage to Current Converter
• Current to Voltage Converter
• Linearization
• Active Filters
Voltage Follower
• Op amp circuit with unity gain and very high input
impedance.
• The input impedance is the is essentially the input
Th i ti d i th i ti ll th i t
impedance of the op amp itself, which can be
greater than 10 MΩ.
• The output impedance is less than 100 Ω.
• The voltage output tracks the input over a range
defined by the plus and minus saturation voltage
outputs.
• Current output is limited to the short circuit
current of the op amp.
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Voltage Follower
Voltage Follower
• In many cases, the manufacturer will market the
an op amp voltage follower whose feedback is
p p g
provided internally.
• The unity gain voltage follower is essentially an
impedance transformer (isolating buffer) in the
sense of converting a voltage at high impedance
t th
to the same voltage at low impedance.
lt tl i d
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Inverting Amplifier
• This circuit inverts the input signal and may have
g , p g
either attenuation or gain, depending on the
ratio of input and feedback resistance.
• The input impedance of this circuit is essentially
equal to the input resistance (R1). In general, this
resistance is not large, and hence the input
i
impedance is not large.
d i tl
• The output impedance is low.
Inverting Amplifier
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Inverting Summing Amplifier
(Span and Zero)
• A common modification of the inverting amplifier
is an amplifier that adds two or more applied
is an amplifier that adds two or more applied
voltages as shown in the following figure.
• The transfer function of this amplifier is given by:
R2 R
V out = − [ V1 + 2 V 2 ]
R1 R3
• The sum can be scaled by proper selection of
resistors. For example, if we make R1 = R2 = R3,
then the output is simply the inverted sum of V1
and V2.
(Span and Zero)
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(Span and Zero)
Example:
Wh th t
When the temperature in a process is at its
t i i t it
minimum, the transducer outputs 2.48 V. At
maximum temperature, it outputs 3.9 V. The
A/D converter used to input these data into
computer has the range 0 to 5 V. To provide
maximum resolution design a zero and span
maximum resolution, design a zero and span
circuit that can modify the transducer signal
so that it fills the entire range of the converter.
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Noninverting Amplifier
• A noninverting amplifier can be constructed from one
op amp as shown in the following figure.
• The noninverting amplifier has a gain that depends
Th i ti lifi h i th t d d
on the ratio of the feedback resistor and the ground
resistor, but this gain can never be used for voltage
attenuation because the ratio is added to 1.
• Because the input is taken directly into the
noninverting input of the op amp, the input
impedance is very high, since it is effectively equal to
the op amp input impedance.
• The output impedance is very low.
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Differential Amplifier
• There are many instances in measurement and
control systems in which the difference between two
voltages needs to be conditioned (amplified).
• A good example is the Wheatstone bridge, where the
offset voltage ∆V = Va – Vb is the quantity of
interest.
• Another example is conditioning (amplifying) the
difference between biomedical signals.
• An ideal differential amplifier provides an output
voltage with respect to ground that is some gain
times the difference between two input voltages:
Vout = A(Va – Vb)
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By setting R1 = R2, and R3 = R4, gives:
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• However, this amplifier suffers from two main
disadvantages:
1. It has relatively low input impedance. This
could load the sensor that is feeding this amplifier
and consequent distortion of the signal.
2. In order to achieve a high value of CMRR
(common mode rejection ratio) the values of the
(common mode rejection ratio), the values of the
resistors have to be exactly matched, and this is
very difficult to achieve with discrete components
• Common Mode Input Voltage (Vcm):
Is the average of voltage applied to the two input
terminals
Vcm = (Va + Vb)/2
• Common Mode Gain(Acm):
Is the amplification factor of the common mode input
voltage
• Common Mode Rejection Ratio(CMRR):
Is the ratio of the difference mode gain to the common
mode gain
CMRR A/Acm
CMRR = A/A
• Common Mode Rejection (CMR)
Is the CMRR expressed in dB
CMR = 20log10(CMRR)
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• Ideally, the amplifier used to amplify the weak
signal coming out of the sensor needs to have
signal coming out of the sensor needs to have
the following characteristics:
1‐ Have high input impedance so that it does not
load the sensor (and to provide the conditions
for maximum voltage transfer).
2‐ Have a high common mode rejection ratio
(CMRR).
Instrumentation Amplifier
• Two voltage followers are often used on the
input of the differential amplifier to provide
high input impedance. The result is called
high input impedance. The result is called
instrumentation amplifier.
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• Differential amplifiers with high input impedance and
low output impedance are given the special name of
instrumentation amplifier
instrumentation amplifier.
• Two voltage followers are simply placed on the
inputs of the differential amplifier constructing one
type of instrumentation amplifier commonly used.
• The transfer function is still the same as normal
differential amplifier.
• One disadvantage of this circuit is that changing gain
requires changing two resistors and having them
carefully matched in value.
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• A more common configuration of
instrumentation amplifier is the circuit shown in
the following figure
the following figure.
• This circuit Allows for selection of gain by
adjustment of a single resistor, RG.
• It can be shown that the CMR of this circuit,
although still dependent in careful matching of
g p g
the differential amplifier resistors, does not
depend on matching of the two R1 resistors
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• The only way to ensure that the resistors are
p p
matched is to implement this amplifier as an
integrated circuit.
• Examples of commercially available
instrumentation amplifiers are AD623, and
INA114.
• RG can be externally connected to the IC to set
the required gain.
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• Because signal in process control are most often
transmitted as a current specifically 4 to 20 mA
transmitted as a current, specifically 4 to 20 mA,
it is often necessary to employ a linear voltage to
current converter.
• Such a circuit must be capable of sinking a current
into a number of different loads without changing
the voltage to current transfer characteristics.
• An op amp circuit that provides this function is
shown in the following figure.
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• An analysis of this circuit shows that the
relationship between current and voltage is
l ti hi b t t d lt i
given by:
Provided that the resistances are selected so
Provided that the resistances are selected so
that:
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• The transfer function in the previous equation is
independent of load resistance as long as op amp
independent of load resistance as long as op amp
specifications are not exceeded.
• The maximum load resistance and maximum
current are related and determined by the
condition that the amplifier output saturates in
voltage.
voltage
• Analysis of the circuit shows that when the op
amp output voltage saturates, the maximum load
resistance and maximum current are related by:
• A study of the previous equation shows that the
maximum load resistance is always less than
Vsat/Im. The minimum load resistance is zero
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Current to Voltage Converter
• At the receiving end of the process control signal
transmission system, we often need to convert
the current back into a voltage.
• This can be done most easily with circuit shown in
the following figure.
• This circuit provides an output voltage given by:
Vout = -IR
provided the op amp saturation voltage has not
been reached.
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Current to Voltage Converter
Integrator
• An integrating amplifier employs a capacitor in
the feedback path as shown in the following
the feedback path as shown in the following
figure.
• The input voltage develops across resistor R, and
thus a current proportional to the input voltage.
This current charges the capacitor, and thus the
voltage developing across the capacitor (which is
equal to the voltage at the output) is proportional
to the integral of the input voltage.
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Integrator
Differentiator
• By interchanging the positions of the capacitor
and the resistor in the integrator circuit, a
differentiator is obtained.
differentiator is obtained.
• The input voltage develops across the capacitor,
and thus the current flowing though the
capacitor is proportional to the derivative of the
input voltage. This current flows into the
feedback resistor and thus develops an output
feedback resistor, and thus develops an output
voltage proportional to the differential of the
input voltage. The set‐up is shown in following
figure
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Differentiator
Linearization
• The op amp can implement linearization.
Generally this is achieved by placing nonlinear
element in the feedback loop of the op amp,
as shown in the figure.
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Linearization
• The summation of currents provides:
Linearization
• Such a component is the semiconductor diode,
which can be used as a feedback element.
• The semiconductor diode has the property that
Th i d t di d h th t th t
the current through it increases exponentially as
the applied voltage increases linearly. This means
that the voltage will increase logarithmically if we
control the applied current rather than the
voltage. This is the normal behavior of the
operational amplifier, so this is a highly practical
method of generating a logarithm.
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Linearization
Charge Amplifier
• The basic theory behind piezoelectricity is based on
the electrical dipole At the molecular level the
the electrical dipole. At the molecular level, the
structure of a piezoelectric material is typically an
ionic bonded crystal. At rest, the dipoles formed by
the positive and negative ions cancel each other due
to the symmetry of the crystal structure, and an
electric field is not observed When stressed the
electric field is not observed. When stressed, the
crystal deforms, symmetry is lost, and a net dipole
moment is created. This dipole moment forms an
electric field across the crystal.
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Charge Amplifier
• In this manner, the materials generate an electrical
charge that is proportional to the pressure
applied. If a reciprocating force is applied, an ac
applied. If a reciprocating force is applied, an ac
voltage is seen across the terminals of the device.
Piezoelectric sensors are not suited for static or dc
applications because the electrical charge
produced decays with time due to the internal
i
impedance of the sensor and the input impedance
d f th d th i ti d
of the signal conditioning circuits. However, they
are well suited for dynamic or ac applications.
Charge Amplifier
• As a conclusion, Piezoelectric transducers are
composed of high impedance material that
generates electric charge in response to varying
l d
load.
• A piezoelectric sensor is modelled as a charge source
with a shunt capacitor and resistor, or as a voltage
source with a series capacitor and resistor. These
models are shown in the following Figure along with
a typical schematic symbol. The charge produced
d
depends on the piezoelectric constant of the device.
d th i l ti t t f th d i
The capacitance is determined by the area, the
width, and the dielectric constant of the material. As
previously mentioned, the resistance accounts for
the dissipation of static charge.
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Charge Amplifier
Charge Amplifier
• Piezoelectric signals cannot be read using
low‐impedance devices. The two primary
reasons for this are:
– High output impedance in the sensor results in
small output signal levels and large loading
errors.
errors
– The charge can quickly leak out through the
load and connecting leads.
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Charge Amplifier
Charge Amplifier
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Charge Amplifier
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Charge Amplifier
Charge Amplifier
• The charge amplifier just transfers the input
charge to another reference capacitor and
h t th f it d
produces an output voltage equal to the
voltage across the reference capacitor. Thus
the output voltage is proportional to the
charge of the reference capacitor and,
respectively, to the input charge; hence the
circuit acts as a charge‐to‐voltage converter
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Charge Amplifier
Charge Amplifier
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Charge Amplifier
Charge Amplifier
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Active Filters
n filter stages can be connected in series as shown
in Figure to have steeper response To avoid
in Figure to have steeper response. To avoid
loading effects, op amps, operating as impedance
converters, separate the individual filter stages
Fourth‐Order Passive RC Low‐Pass with Decoupling Amplifiers
filter stages.
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Active Filters
• In comparison to the ideal low‐pass, the RC low‐
pass lacks in the following characteristics
pass lacks in the following characteristics:
1‐ The passband gain varies long before the corner
frequency, fc, thus amplifying the upper passband
frequencies less than the lower passband.
2‐ The transition from the passband into the stopband
is not sharp, but happens gradually.
2‐ The phase response is not linear, thus increasing
the amount of signal distortion significantly.
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Active Filters
• The gain and phase response of a low‐pass filter
can be optimized to satisfy one of the following
b ti i d t ti f f th f ll i
three criteria:
1) A maximum passband flatness,
2) An immediate passband‐to‐stopband transition,
3) A linear phase response
3) A linear phase response.
Active Filters
• For that purpose, the transfer function must
allow for complex poles and needs to be of
ll f l l d d t b f
the following type:
where A0 is the passband gain at dc, ai and bi

are the filter coefficients.
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Active Filters
• Th
The transfer function represents a series of
t f f ti t i f
cascaded second‐order low‐pass stages, with ai and
bi being positive real coefficients.
• These coefficients define the complex pole locations
for each second‐order filter stage, thus determining
g , g
the behaviour of its transfer function.
Active Filters
• The following three types of predetermined filter
coefficients are available listed in table format
coefficients are available listed in table format:
1‐ The Butterworth coefficients, optimizing the
passband for maximum flatness
2‐ The Tschebyscheff coefficients, sharpening the
transition from passband into the stopband
3‐ The Bessel coefficients, linearizing the phase
response up to fc
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Active Filters
• The transfer function of a passive RC filter does not
allow further optimization, due to the lack of
complex poles
complex poles.
• The only possibility to produce conjugate complex
poles using passive components is the application of
LRC filters. However, these filters are mainly used at
high frequencies. In the lower frequency range (< 10
MHz) the inductor values become very large and the
) y g
filter becomes uneconomical to manufacture.
• In these cases active filters are used. Active filters are
RC networks that include an active device, such as an
operational amplifier (op amp).
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Active Filters
There are many advantages of active filters,
compared with traditional passive filters:
d ith t diti l i filt
1‐ Isolation (high input impedance)
2‐ Cascadeability
3‐ Gain
4‐ Small size and weight
First Order Low Pass Filter
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First Order High Pass Filter
Band Pass/Reject
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Second Order Low Pass Filter
• Sallen‐Key Filter
Second Order Low Pass Filter
• Multiple Feedback
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High Order Active Filter
Digital Signal Conditioning
• Represent analogue process information in
di it l f
digital format and vice versa.
t d i
1‐ Comparators.
2‐ Digital to analogue converters.
3‐ Analogue to digital converters.
4‐ Frequency based converters.
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Design Guidelines
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10/28/2013

Dr. Ibrahim Al-Naimi

Either R1 or R2 can be the sensor whose

2. Calculate the required resistance value. If it is below 1 KΩ or above 1 MΩ, try a

where A0 is the passband gain at dc, ai and bi

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