THE RITUAL-THEATRICALITY OF

IGBO MASKS AND MASQUERADES

by

EMMANUEL CHIDI ONWUZOLUM

B.Sc. ( H o n s . ) , U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka, 1973

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE

OF MASTER OF ARTS
in

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

(Department o f A n t h r o p o l o g y and S o c i o l o g y )

We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g

to the required standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

A u g u s t , 1977.
c") Emmanuel Chidi Onwuzolum, 1977
In presenting this thesis in p a r t i a l fulfilment of the requirements for

an a d v a n c e d degree at the U n i v e r s i t y of British Columbia, I agree that

the Library shall make it freely available for r e f e r e n c e and study.

I f u r t h e r agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis

for scholarly purposes may be g r a n t e d by t h e Head o f my D e p a r t m e n t or

by h i s representatives. It is understood that copying or publication

of this thesis for financial gain shall not be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my

written permission.

E.C. ONWUZOLUM

Department of ANTHROPOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY

The University of British Columbia

2075 Wesbrook Place
Vancouver, Canada
V6T 1W5

Date A u g u s t , 1977,
 ii

DEDICATED

TO

Ugo, C h i z o r , M a r g a r e t Onwuzolum

and t o

a l l t h e o t h e r members o f my f a m i l y
 " P e o p l e w i l l not l o o k f o r w a r d t o p r o s p e r i t y who n e v e r
l o o k backwards t o t h e i r a n c e s t o r s .
To be a t t r a c t e d t o the s u b d i v i s i o n , t o l o v e t h e l i t t l e
p l a t o o n we belong t o i n s o c i e t y , i s the f i r s t p r i n c i p l e , t h e
germ as i t were, o f p u b l i c a f f e c t i o n " .

Edmund B u r k e , 1790.

"Masks may be d e s c r i b e d as symbols o r f o c i f o r the

s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s t h a t l o a n e d t h e i r a u t h o r i t y t o the e d i c t s
and a r t s t h a t emanated f r o m the masks.
F u r t h e r , t h e masks were r e c o g n i z e d as symbols by the
i n i t i a t e d , t h a t i s , by t h o s e p o s s e s s e d o f the s e c r e t o r s e m i -
s e c r e t knowledge t h a t t h e s e were a f t e r a l l , o b j e c t s o f wood,
c a r v e d f o r a p r i c e by known a r t i s a n s and w h i c h , between
a p p e a r a n c e s , had t o be s t o r e d and p r o t e c t e d f r o m the e f f e c t s
o f c l i m a t e and i n s e c t s . Y e t , even t h e i n i t i a t e d b e l i e v e d t h a t
t h e s e o b j e c t s c a r r i e d w i t h them, o r w i t h i n them, a v e r y r e a l
s p i r i t u a l power, which i n a s e n s e , i n v e s t e d t h e w e a r e r and
t h e costume, as w e l l as t h e mask, d u r i n g i t s r i t u a l
appearance.
I s h o u l d l i k e t o add, p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y , t h a t so much i s
t h i s the c a s e , t h a t t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f an i s o l a t e d mask i n
a museum c o n s t i t u t e s a g r o s s m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , not o n l y o f
the s o c i a l v a l u e s i n h e r e n t i n the complex c o m p r i s e d o f mask,
costume, and dance, music and o t h e r r e l a t e d t r a i t s , but o f
the a e s t h e t i c component o f the mask i n i t s o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t

Roy S i e b e r , 1962.
 iv

ABSTRACT

T h i s t h e s i s i s p a r t o f a l a r g e r p r o j e c t t h a t i n c l u d e d an e x h i b i t i o n
a t t h e Museum o f A n t h r o p o l o g y e n t i t l e d "The World o f S p i r i t s " ( J u l y 5 -
August 31, 1977), w h i c h s e r v e d as an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o Igbo masks and mas-
q u e r a d e s as embodying some o f t h e most p r o f o u n d and r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s o f
the Igbo p e o p l e o f S o u t h e a s t e r n Nigeria. The e x h i b i t d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t
u n d e r l y i n g t h e v i s u a l d i v e r s i t y o f Igbo a r t i s a u n i t y o f Igbo conceptions
of the supernatural. Accompanying t h e e x h i b i t i o n were s l i d e presentations
and a l i v e p e r f o r m a n c e , A l l o f t h e components o f t h e p r o j e c t , i n c l u d i n g
t h i s t h e s i s , a r e r e l a t e d attempts t o present Igbo masks, i . e . m a t e r i a l
objects normally f o u n d i n museums, w i t h i n an anthropological
c o n t e x t which t a k e s t h e museum v i s i t o r o r t h e r e a d e r beyond t h e o b j e c t s
t h e m s e l v e s i n t o t h e i r meaning i n terms o f Igbo c u l t u r e . The p r o j e c t i s
thus a demonstration o f the necessary r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e p r a c t i c e
o f museology and t h e d i s c i p l i n e o f a n t h r o p o l o g y . Such a r e l a t i o n s h i p i s
a b i l a t e r a l one, i n which n o t o n l y do e t h n o g r a p h i c d a t a and t h e t h e o r -
e t i c a l frameworks o f e t h n o l o g y e x t e n d a museum's p r e s e n t a t i o n and i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n o f objects, but the a t t e n t i o n o f anthropologists i s directed
towards o b j e c t s as s i g n i f i c a n t f o c i f o r s t u d y .

More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e t h e s i s p r o v i d e s t h e i n d i s p e n s a b l e ethnological
background upon w h i c h t h e e x h i b i t was based. I t includes o r i g i n a l ethno-
g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l s on i n i t i a t i o n , masks, and masquerades a t O z u b u l u ,
d e r i v e d from t h e a u t h o r ' s p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n o f both i n i t i a t i o n and
the Ozoebunna masquerade. T h i s m a t e r i a l i s augmented w i t h published
r e c o r d s from t h e A f i k p o and Awka a r e a s o f Igboland to highlight the
necessary connection between i n i t i a t i o n and masquerade, Then, u s i n g
conceptual f o r m u l a t i o n s o f E.R. Leach on r i t u a . l , M i r c e a E l i a d e on sacred
t i m e , and Elmer R i c e on t h e a t r e , Igbo masquerade i s examined i n terms
o f the c o n c e p t o f r i t u a l t h e a t r e . W h i l e r i t u a l g i v e s power and meaning
t o the mask, t h e masquerade p e r f o r m a n c e i s a t h e a t r i c a l experience
w h i c h i n v o l v e s t h e i n i t i a t e s o f t h e mmuo s o c i e t y as a c t o r s and the
o t h e r members o f the Igbo community as a u d i e n c e , The entertainment
f e a t u r e o f masquerades has not p r e v i o u s l y r e c e i v e d due a t t e n t i o n i n t h e
a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , probably because a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s are not
n o r m a l l y p a r t i c i p a n t s i n them.

T h i s p r o j e c t on Igbo masquerade i s a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f A f r i c a n
a e s t h e t i c s and c u l t u r e by an A f r i c a n . The number o f such s t u d i e s a r e
g r o w i n g as i t becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y e v i d e n t t h a t A f r i c a n s c h o l a r s must
pay g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n t o s t u d y i n g t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r a l institutions
so as t o u t i l i z e p e r t i n e n t a s p e c t s o f such s t u d i e s f o r d e v e l o p m e n t and
p l a n n i n g , not o n l y i n museology but i n o t h e r a r e a s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y
1 i f e as w e l l .
 vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT 1 V

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i x

A NOTE ON ORTHOGRAPHY x

CHAPTERS
I INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM OF THE MASK 1
R a t i o n a l e f o r R e s e a r c h and Data 10
Organization o f the Thesis 15
Notes and R e f e r e n c e s 17
II THE WORLD OF SPIRITS 18
D e t a i l s o f t h e Masks Used i n t h e E x h i b i t 29
III THE IGBOS 40
The Geography o f I g b o l a n d 40
The H i s t o r y o f t h e Igbos 42
A S u r v e y o f T r a d i t i o n a l Igbo S o c i e t y 46
Occupation 47
Igbo P o l i t i c a l System 48
Igbo K i n s h i p Network 53
Religion 56
Notes and R e f e r e n c e s 69

IV ETHNOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF IGBO MASKS AND MASQUERADE.

PERFORMANCE 70
The S e t t i n g 70
The C o n c e p t o f t h e Mask 73
The Making o f Masks 82
I n i t i a t i o n i n t o t h e Mmuo 87
Commentary 99
Social Implication of Initiation 101
Notes and R e f e r e n c e s 107
 vii

Chapters Page

V MASKS AS RITUAL THEATRE—THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS 109

Igbo Masquerade as T h e a t r e 111
Igbo Masquerade as R i t u a l 121
Igbo Masquerade as R i t u a l - T h e a t r e 128
VI, CONCLUSION 130
Notes and R e f e r e n c e s 136
BIBLIOGRAPHY 137
 viii

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

FIGURES
I Map o f I g b o l a n d 4 0 A

II S e m a n t i c S t r u c t u r e o f Chi 59
III S e m a n t i c S t r u c t u r e o f NSO 64
IV R e l i g i o u s Symbol o f S e l f , R o l e and C o l l e c t i v i t y 67

V P l a c e o f the Masquerade i n Igbo Cosmology 68

VI Ritual Separation 123

PLATES
I An o v e r v i e w o f g a l l e r y s p a c e showing t h e masks as t h e y
were d i s p l a y e d i n t h e c a s e s 19
II Two o f t h e theme s t a t e m e n t s used i n t h e e x h i b i t 20
III T h e . t h i r d e x h i b i t s t a t e m e n t . The p h o t o g r a p h shows new
i n i t i a t e s into the secret s o c i e t y at A f i k p o 21
IV Two o f t h e p r i n c i p a l e x h i b i t p h o t o g r a p h s d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e
r i t u a l t h e a t r i c a l i t y o f Igbo masquerades. A i s t h e r i t u a l
preparation. B i s p e r f o r m a n c e b e f o r e an a u d i e n c e 22

V D e t a i l s o f Case 63. 23

VI D e t a i l s o f Case 64 24

VII D e t a i l s o f Case 65 24

VIII Ozoebunnu from Ozubulu 26

IX L i v e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e Igbo agbogho masquerade a t t h e

G r e a t H a l l o f t h e Museum on J u l y 17, 1977, 75
X The i j e l e masquerade 118
 ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My M a s t e r ' s p r o j e c t , t o a l a r g e d e g r e e , i s a c o l l a b o r a t i v e e f f o r t ,

and b e l o n g s n o t t o me a l o n e , but t o v a r i o u s o t h e r s . To t h e s e , I owe

much.

I w i s h t o e x p r e s s my g r a t i t u d e t o Dr. Simon O t t e n b e r g , Dr. A l l a n

Sawyer, and Mr, Frank S t a r k w e a t h e r f o r l e n d i n g t h e masks used i n t h i s

s t u d y and which were used t o i n s t a l l t h e e x h i b i t "The World o f S p i r i t s ,

Igbo Masks from N i g e r i a " . In t h e same l i g h t , I thank Dr. M i c h a e l Ames

and a l l t h e s t a f f o f t h e U.B.C. Museum o f A n t h r o p o l o g y f o r p r o v i d i n g t h e

f a c i l i t i e s n e c e s s a r y f o r the e x h i b i t , w h i c h , i n a way, made t h i s t h e s i s

possible,

I a l s o w i s h t o thank t h e members o f my g r a d u a t e committee, Dr. M.

H a l p i n , Dr. C S , Belshaw and Dr. A.R. Sawyer, f o r t h e i r h e l p , e n c o u r a g e -

ment and g u i d a n c e t h r o u g h o u t t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y .

Thanks a r e a l s o due t o a l l t h o s e , my f r i e n d s , who have t a k e n i n t e r e s t

i n my work, p a r t i c u l a r l y Dr. C o l i n S m i t h , D i r e c t o r o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l House,

f o r providing f o r the typing of t h i s t h e s i s .

F i n a l l y , I w i s h t o p l a c e on r e c o r d my g r e a t e s t i n d e b t e d n e s s and

d e e p e s t a p p r e c i a t i o n , which go t o P r o f e s s o r M a r j o r i e H a l p i n , w i t h o u t

whose d i r e c t i o n and mature c r i t i c i s m t h i s s t u d y c o u l d h a r d l y have been

done.

Emmanuel C. Onwuzolum

V a n c o u v e r , B.C.
A u g u s t , 1977.
 X

A NOTE ON ORTHOGRAPHY

One o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s w h i c h had b e s e t Igbo s t u d i e s i s t h e e x i s -

t e n c e o f two a l t e r n a t i v e s p e l l i n g s o f " I b o " and " I g b o " — a p r o b l e m w h i c h

t h e i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s o f even Igbo s c h o l a r s t h e m s e l v e s had done n o t h i n g

to help. P r i o r t o t h e l a t e 1960's, " I b o " was a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l l y used

both a t home and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . A l t h o u g h a h a n d f u l o f l i n g u i s t s and

a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d used t h e t e c h n i c a l l y more c o r r e c t

"Igbo", o t h e r s o p t e d f o r Ibo on t h e grounds t h a t academic usage o f t h e

word s h o u l d d i f f e r as T i t t l e as p o s s i b l e . And, h a v i n g once o p t e d f o r

Ibo, t h e y n a t u r a l l y r e t a i n e d i t on t h e grounds o f c o n s i s t e n c y .

We a r e now i n t h e 1970's and i t i s v e r y c l e a r t h a t t h i n g s h a v e ,

changed. The o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y o f t h e Igbos have always p r e f e r r e d

t h e form "Igbo", which t h e y r e g a r d as i n d i g e n o u s , i n c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n

t o t h e i n a c c u r a t e " I b o " o f c o l o n i a l d a y s , w h i c h was a c o r r u p t i o n o f Igbo

so t h a t t h e " w h i t e man" c o u l d pronounce i t e a s i l y . T h e r e f o r e , Ibo i s

A n g l i c i z e d Igbo. In t h i s w r i t i n g (and even i n my d i s c u s s i o n s ) , I have

always m a i n t a i n e d and used t h e c o r r e c t t e r m , Igbo. This i s l o g i c a l l y

on t h e grounds t h a t p e o p l e s h o u l d always be r e f e r r e d t o by t h e name

with which they p r e f e r t o d e s c r i b e themselves.

In t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f Igbo words and p h r a s e s i n t h e t e x t , I have

always f o l l o w e d t h i s p r i n c i p l e . Where f o l l o w i n g a w r i t t e n sound, I have

c o p i e d t h e o r t h o g r a p h y o f my s o u r c e e x a c t l y ; hence some r e f e r e n c e t o Ibo

i n s t e a d o f Igbo. But t h e two s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d t o mean t h e same and

r e f e r t o t h e same p e o p l e .
 1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM OF THE MASK

Except i n very i s o l a t e d cases o r a r e a s , e.g. t h e i s l a n d s o f

P o l y n e s i a and t h e c o n t i n e n t o f A u s t r a l i a ^ , t h e r e i s h a r d l y a m a j o r

p a r t o f t h e w o r l d i n w h i c h masks a r e a b s e n t o r i m p o r t a n t . I am u s i n g
t h e word "mask" a t t h i s p o i n t i n t h e g e n e r a l sense o f a c o v e r i n g f o r

the f a c e . P r e h i s t o r i c e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t i v e o f m a s k i n g goes back t o t h e

p a i n t i n g s o f t h e P a l e o l i t h i c , and a l o n g t r a i n o f l a t e r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l

and h i s t o r i c forms l e a d up t o t h e l a t e s t models a v a i l a b l e from costume

s u p p l i e r s and n o v e l t y s h o p s . In a good s i z e d mask c o l l e c t i o n from

a l m o s t any c u l t u r e a r e a , one may r e c o g n i z e a h o s t o f s p i r i t s and o t h e r

s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g s , a n i m a l s and b i r d s , m o n s t r o u s c r e a t u r e s o f i m a g i n e r y

f o r m s , and even i n a n i m a t e o b j e c t s , as w e l l as many more o r l e s s human

faces. Not a l l masks, however, a r e d e s i g n e d w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l i n t e n t .

T h e r e a r e forms which a r e p u r e l y a b s t r a c t and d e c o r a t i v e i n d e s i g n .

Examples o f many o f such c o u l d be found among t h e Igbos o f N i g e r i a and

some o f t h e s e w i l l be d e s c r i b e d l a t e r on a t a p p r o p r i a t e p o r t i o n s o f

the t h e s i s .

The m a t e r i a l s w h i c h have gone i n t o t h e making o f masks i n v a r i o u s

p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d have i n c l u d e d a l m o s t e v e r y s u b s t a n c e conceivably

u s a b l e f o r such a p u r p o s e , i n c l u d i n g even human s k u l l s . A common b a s i c

m a t e r i a l has been wood, o f t e n augmented by bark c l o t h o r some o t h e r

local fibre or textile. When d a r k o r b r i g h t p a i n t s , v a r i e g a t e d f e a t h e r s ,

ornamental l e a v e s , c o w r i e s h e l l s , and many o t h e r items a r e added, an

 2

a s t o n i s h i n g v a r i e t y o f e f f e c t s i s produced. The Northwest C o a s t mask

c o l l e c t i o n i n t h e Museum o f A n t h r o p o l o g y a t t h i s U n i v e r s i t y b e a r s
eloquent testimony to t h i s .

W h i l e masks have a v a r i e t y o f uses and f u n c t i o n s as w e l l , i n many

p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d t h e masked f i g u r e i s a f r e q u e n t p a r t i c i p a n t i n t h e
r i t u a l l i f e o f t h e s e many p e o p l e s . He has h i s p l a c e i n many c u r i n g
ceremonies, r i t u a l s o f d i v i n a t i o n , s a c r i f i c i a l r i t e s , r e l i g i o u s pro-
c e s s i o n s and s a c r e d d a n c e s . Among t h e most common s e t t i n g s f o r s u c h
d i s g u i s e s a r e e x c l u s i v e " s e c r e t " a s s o c i a t i o n s and c u l t g r o u p s . With
numerous f u n c t i o n s , such groups range f r o m t h e N o r t h American Ku Klux
K l a n and I r o q u o i s f a l s e f a c e companies t o t h e poro s o c i e t i e s o f L i b e r i a ,
the egungun o f t h e Y o r u b a s , e k i n e s o c i e t i e s o f t h e Ijaws and t h e mmuo
s e c r e t s o c i e t y o f t h e Igbos ( t h e l a s t t h r e e o f t h e above a r e from
Nigeria). These i n c l u d e a l s o t h e men's s e c r e t s o c i e t y groups common i n
Melanesia. In s u c h c o n t e x t s , masks u s u a l l y a r e n o t o n l y c o n c e a l e r s o f
i d e n t i t y b u t a l s o symbols o f s t a t u s o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e s u p e r -
natural beings o r both. Boas (1931:181) wrote c o n c e r n i n g t h i s :

"The use o f t h e mask i s f o u n d among a g r e a t number o f p e o p l e s .

The o r i g i n o f t h e custom i s by no means c l e a r i n a l l c a s e s ,
but a few t y p i c a l forms o f t h e i r uses may e a s i l y be d i s -
t i n g u i s h e d . They a r e i n t e n d e d t o d e c e i v e s p i r i t s as t o t h e
i d e n t i t y o f t h e w e a r e r , and may thus p r o t e c t him a g a i n s t
a t t a c k , o r t h e mask may r e p r e s e n t a s p i r i t which i s p e r s o n a l i z e d
by t h e w e a r e r , who i n t h i s way f r i g h t e n s away s u p e r n a t u r a l
enemies. S t i l l o t h e r s a r e commemorative, t h e w e a r e r p e r s o n i -
f y i n g a d e c e a s e d f r i e n d . Masks a r e a l s o f o u n d i n t h e a t r i c a l
p e r f o r m a n c e s i l l u s t r a t i n g m y t h i c a l i n c i d e n t s . Such v a r i a t i o n s
o f uses s u g g e s t t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f a s i n g l e o r i g i n o f t h e
custom".

Wherever t h e y come from i n t i m e and s p a c e , and whatever t h e i r shape

or component m a t e r i a l s , masks have l o n g been r e c o g n i z e d a s c a s t i n g a

s p e l l which i s p e c u l i a r l y t h e i r own. Even i n museum d i s p l a y o r i n

 3

i l l u s t r a t i o n s i n books which p r e s e n t them as s t a t i c o r l i f e l e s s works

of a r t , masks have a s p e c i a l a p p e a l which i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e s c r i b e .
The f e e l i n g i s o f t e n e x p r e s s e d t h a t t h e s e o b j e c t s a r e endowed w i t h a
s i n g u l a r l y supernatural or p r e t e r n a t u r a l q u a l i t y . The b e h o l d e r o f t h e
mask i s moved t o a t t r i b u t e a l i f e o f i t s own t o t h e o b j e c t . The f e e l i n g
i n e v i t a b l y a r i s e s t h a t a masked p e r f o r m e r has somehow undergone a meta-
m o r p h o s i s and assumed, i n l i v i n g f o r m , t h e q u a l i t i e s o f h i s d i s g u i s e .
The w a t c h i n g a u d i e n c e , perhaps knowing t h a t what i t sees i s a p e r s o n
w e a r i n g something t h a t he can t a k e o f f a g a i n , n e v e r t h e l e s s i s c a p t u r e d
by t h e i l l u s i o n , o r i s u n a b l e t o e s c a p e from t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e mask
somehow b e l o n g s t o t h e p e r f o r m i n g f i g u r e and e x p r e s s e s i t s n a t u r e , r a t h e r
than t h a t o f t h e human i n s i d e . Benda ( 1 9 4 5 : 1 ) , a modern mask-maker,
has d e s c r i b e d t h e p e c u l i a r q u a l i t i e s o f t h e p r o d u c t o f h i s a r t i n t h e
following way:

"A mask i s a w e i r d , p e r f i d i o u s and s i n g u l a r l y p e r p l e x i n g

o b j e c t . I t has a p l a c e q u i t e a p a r t among t h i n g s made by
human hands. L o o k i n g a t i t , even we who p r i d e o u r s e l v e s on
o u r r e a l i s m and s o p h i s t i c a t i o n , a r e s e i z e d by a s t r a n g e
f e e l i n g o f u n c e r t a i n t y whether p e r a d v e n t u r e i t i s n o t a l i v e ,
When t h e mask i s put on and e n a c t e d by someone, t h i s uncanny
q u a l i t y and m y s t i f i c a t i o n i t c r e a t e s a r e i n t e n s i f i e d " .

S i m i l a r b e l i e f s a r e found i n many p l a c e s and a r e e x p r e s s e d i n

t h e r e l i g i o n s o f many p e o p l e s . F o r examples, t h i s b e l i e f i s v e r y

s t r o n g among t h e seven m i l l i o n Igbos o f S o u t h e a s t e r n N i g e r i a . The

Igbos as a p e o p l e p o s s e s s an a n c i e n t and d i s t i n c t i v e c u l t u r a l tradition

and speak a common l a n g u a g e . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , f a r m e r s , t r a d e r s , and

f i s h e r m e n , numerous Igbo a r e now moving i n t o l a r g e modern c i t i e s and

p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n "the d e v e l o p i n g " g l o b a l c u l t u r e and economy. Still,

many v i t a l e l e m e n t s o f t h e Igbo way o f l i f e p e r s i s t , most n o t a b l y t h e i r

 4

r e l i g i o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n i n i t i a t i o n and mask and masquerades, w h i c h

o v e r a hundred y e a r s o f B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l r u l e and C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s

c o u l d n o t d e s t r o y . The Igbos b e l i e v e and p a r t i c i p a t e i n masks and

masquerades--a r i t u a l t h e a t r e which embodies some o f t h e most p r o f o u n d

and d e e p l y - f e l t r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s o f t h e p e o p l e . I have s t u d i e d masks

f r o m many Igbo communities and i n t h e e x h i b i t "The World o f S p i r i t s " a t

the Museum o f A n t h r o p o l o g y ( J u l y 4 - A u g u s t 31, 1977), w h i c h i s t h e

f i r s t element o f my M a s t e r ' s p r o j e c t , I t r i e d t o show t h e v i s u a l d i v e r s i t y

o f Igbo a r t , w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e u n d e r l y i n g u n i t y

o f t h e i r r e l i g i o u s c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e unseen w o r l d t h r o u g h t h e i n s t i t u t i o n

o f t h e mmuo--"masquerades". T h i s unseen w o r l d i s one o f a n c e s t o r s ,

the u n b o r n , t h e dead, and t h e s p i r i t s which t h e r i t u a l s o f masquerade

b r i n g t o e x i s t e n t i a l r e a l i t y t h r o u g h masks, costume, m u s i c , s o n g , and

dance.

Whenever I had t h e p r i v i l e g e o f i n t e r v i e w i n g a masked d a n c e r a f t e r

h i s p e r f o r m a n c e d u r i n g my r e s e a r c h on Igbo masks, I was t o l d t h a t t h e

d a n c e r f e l t h i m s e l f undergo some s o r t o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . He u s u a l l y f e l t

and a c t e d as i f he were a n o t h e r b e i n g and n o t h i s u s u a l s e l f . I

o b s e r v e d i t n o t o n l y among I g b o s , b u t a l s o among some Yorubas o f

Nigeria. The b e l i e f i s t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n e n a b l e s t h e d a n c e r t o

move and a c t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s s o c i a t e d by t r a d i t i o n

t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r mask. T h u s , i n t h e Yoruba Adamuorisa masquerade play,

Esu E l i g b a would p e r f o r m s a c r i f i c e s i n t h e p u b l i c i n h i s r o l e as t h e

r i t u a l c l e a n s e r , o f t h e community. In t h e Ijaw e k i n e p l a y , Nimiaa Poku

("know n o t h i n g " ) a c t e d a m o r o n i c c h a r a c t e r . S i m i l a r l y , i n t h e Awuka

p l a y o f t h e I g b o s , Onukwu ( " f o o l " o r " f u n n y " ) a c t e d i n a f u n n y , f o o l i s h

 5

way t o make p e o p l e laugh" . 3

This i s also noticeable i n the Afikpo

okumkpa p l a y .

Such b e l i e f s l i e a t t h e c o r e o f t h e m y s t e r y which i s g e n e r a l l y
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h masks. They a r e due p r o b a b l y i n p a r t t o t h e f a c t t h a t
men e v e r y w h e r e .know each o t h e r by t h e f a c e s and o t h e r p e r s o n a l traits.
In a p e r s o n ' s f a c e , one r e a d s t h e s i g n s o f h i s i d e n t i t y , h i s moods, h i s
a t t i t u d e towards o t h e r s , and something o f h i s p e r s o n a l i t y ; o r so we would
l i k e t o t h i n k a t any r a t e . P e o p l e e v e r y w h e r e a r e d e e p l y d e p e n d e n t on
t h e s e s i g n s i n most o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r men. I t i s perhaps
n o t s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t a mask s h o u l d go a l o n g way toward
l e n d i n g a new i d e n t i t y and c h a r a c t e r even t o a f a m i l i a r f a c e . The
i l l u s i o n i s i n c r e a s e d , o f c o u r s e , i f t h e masker i s a p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r f o r m e r
or someone e l s e n o t w e l l known t o t h o s e who watch him, o r i f , as among
the Igbos, he i s c o m p l e t e l y d i s g u i s e d from h i s a u d i e n c e i n some c o m b i n a t i o n
o f mask and b o d i l y costumes.

T h e s e fundamental b e l i e f s a r e u s u a l l y h e i g h t e n e d s t i l l f u r t h e r by

v a r i o u s ways i n . w h i c h t r a d i t i o n o f m y s t i f i c a t i o n s u r r o u n d i n g m a s k i n g

and mummery i s p e r p e t u a t e d . Among t h e I g b o s , t h e a u d i e n c e i s n e v e r

a l l o w e d t o s e e t h e masked p e r f o r m e r t a k e o f f h i s mask; n o r do even

modern masked a c t o r s o f t h e Western t h e a t r e , f o r t h a t m a t t e r , u s u a l l y

remove t h e i r d i s g u i s e s i n p u b l i c . However, i t s h o u l d be noted t h a t , i n

some c u l t u r e s , e . g . New B r i t a i n , t h e masked d a n c e r s t o p s f o r a w h i l e

and removes h i s mask i n f r o n t o f h i s a u d i e n c e , p u t s i t on a g a i n , and

continues h i s performance . 4
More commonly i n A f r i c a , a s i n New G u i n e a ,

t h e u n i n i t i a t e d a r e t o l d t h a t t h e f i g u r e s a r e s p i r i t s ; and t h o s e n o t

a d m i t t e d t o t h e m y s t e r i e s (Igbo women, f o r i n s t a n c e ) , a r e n e v e r a l l o w e d
 6

t o s e e t h e mask b e i n g put on o r b e i n g t a k e n o f f . Therefore, i n one

way o r another, the transformation o f the masked f i g u r e t o the ordinary

men i s u s u a l l y h i d d e n f r o m t h e p u b l i c g a z e , and t h u s the m y s t e r i o u s

d i s t i n c t i o n between the two i s p r e s e r v e d . A l s o , the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f

the mask i t s e l f and the way i n w h i c h i t i s f a s t e n e d o r worn on t h e head

i s u s u a l l y more o r l e s s p r i v a t e knowledge, r e s t r i c t e d t o t h o s e who make

and wear masks.

The i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s e p r o p s o f m y s t e r y can a l s o be: seen i n t h e

f a c t t h a t the r e v e l a t i o n o f t h e i r t r u e n a t u r e t o members o f p r i v i l e g e d

groups u s u a l l y i n v o l v e s some d e g r e e o f r i t u a l i z a t i o n . Puberty r i t e s

among many p e o p l e s i n v o l v e the a c q u i s i t i o n o f such knowledge. Revelation

o f t h i s k i n d i s a p p r o p r i a t e l y d e s c r i b e d a s i n i t i a t i o n , i . e . "customary

unmasking", w h i c h i n Igbo i s known a s Ima mmuo o r i b a na mmuo ("knowing

the s p i r i t o r e n t e r i n g the s p i r i t " ) . Masks r e t a i n t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s

even a f t e r s u c h r e v e l a t i o n , b e c a u s e i n i t i a t i o n i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y a l l o w e d

t o happen o n l y i n s p e c i a l l y p r e s c r i b e d s o c i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s such as

g r o w i n g out o f c h i l d h o o d and becoming a member o f a s p e c i a l e s o t e r i c

group. Further explanations w i l l be g i v e n l a t e r i n t h e t h e s i s .

I t i s commonly s t a t e d o r i m p l i e d t h a t t h e c o n t r a s t i n g r e s p o n s e s t o

masks d i f f e r e n t i a t e the " p r i m i t i v e " f r o m the " c i v i l i z e d " w o r l d . The

r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t the mask i s o n l y a mask and t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t a

masked f i g u r e i s but a human b e i n g i n d i s g u i s e a r e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e

s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f a s e c u l a r o r t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y advanced s o c i e t y . It i s

s a i d t h a t n o n - l i t e r a t e p e o p l e s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e i r masked f i g u r e s a c t u a l l y

a r e non-human b e i n g s , and t h a t t h e p r i m i t i v e masker i s c o n v i n c e d t h a t he

l i t e r a l l y becomes w h a t e v e r h i s d i s g u i s e s s i g n i f y . This interpretation

o f masking has been p a r t i c u l a r l y emphasized and d e v e l o p e d by s c h o l a r s

 7

i n t e r e s t e d i n demonstrating that the m e n t a l i t y of n o n - l i t e r a t e peoples

5

s e t s them s h a r p l y a p a r t f r o m l i t e r a t e s o c i e t y . S i m i l a r views have

been e x p r e s s e d by some a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s in discussions of various
c u l t u r a l phenomena a s s o c i a t e d w i t h masks, such as s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s
and " p r i m i t i v e drama". Some o f such a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a r e Webster (1932:
7 6 ) , L i p s (1949:269), R o e d r i g e r (1961:158-9), e t c . Writers primarily
c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t s o f masks a l s o o f t e n a s c r i b e t o
both a n c i e n t and n o n - l i t e r a t e p e o p l e s , the same d i s t i n c t i v e r e s p o n s e s
t o t h e mask. One c o u l d r e f e r , f o r i n s t a n c e , t o t h e works o f R i l e y
(1955:18) and B r e t o n (1960).

W h i l e t h i s has g e n e r a l l y been t h e dominant v i e w i n d i s c u s s i o n s of

masks, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o p o i n t out t h a t t h i s i s wrong. In f a c t , the

a s c r i p t i o n o f such l i t e r a l and u n i f o r m b e l i e f s t o a l l maskers and

t h e i r a u d i e n c e o u t s i d e Western s o c i e t y can be c h a l l e n g e d as ethnocentrism

o r even r a c i s m . F u r t h e r , as was n o t e d e a r l i e r , masks have d i f f e r e n t

o r i g i n s and f u n c t i o n s i n d i f f e r e n t s o c i e t i e s .

Even a r e c e n t attempt..by a h i s t o r i a n t o i n t e r p r e t masks as m a n i -

f e s t a t i o n s o f u n i v e r s a l p l a y e l e m e n t i n human n a t u r e c o n c e d e s much t o

t h e dominant view by a s s o c i a t i n g t h i s e l e m e n t " p r i m a r i l y w i t h c h i l d r e n

and p r i m i t i v e p e o p l e s " . ( H u i z i n g a , 1949:26). S i m i l a r l y , a contemporary

s t u d e n t o f m y t h o l o g y i n t e r p r e t s masks as a prime e x p r e s s i o n o f the

s p i r i t o f "as i f . " o r " m a k e - b e l i e v e " , but he a l s o s t r e s s e s literal

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and f i n d s i t s c l e a r e s t e x p r e s s i o n i n "childhood and

p r i m i t i v e l i f e " . ( C a m p b e l l , 1959:21). To c h a l l e n g e t h e s e v e r y wrong

a s s u m p t i o n s i s one o f the s t r o n g e s t and most p r e s s i n g r e a s o n s f o r u n d e r -

t a k i n g t h i s s t u d y o f masks.
 8

T h e r e i s , o f c o u r s e , ample e v i d e n c e t h a t among numerous p e o p l e s

the u n i n i t i a t e d a r e encouraged t o b e l i e v e t h a t masked f i g u r e s a r e more

t h a n mere humans i n d i s g u i s e . I t seems p r o b a b l e , e s p e c i a l l y where

masking i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h b e l i e f s i n t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l , as among t h e

I g b o s , t h a t such l i t e r a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s a r e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d . Y e t by

no means do a l l m a s k i n g t r a d i t i o n s i n v o l v e a b e l i e f i n p o s s e s s i o n by

supernatural beings. I t c a n n o t be assumed t h a t i n e v e r y s o c i e t y which

makes masks, t h e u n i n i t i a t e d a r e t a u g h t o r f o r c e d t o a c c e p t impersonation

l i t e r a l l y , n o r i s i t c e r t a i n t h a t such t e a c h i n g s a r e always a c c e p t e d w i t h

f u l l seriousness or without q u a l i f i c a t i o n . T h u s , i t i s known among

t h e Igbos t h a t women may know, b u t p r e t e n d i g n o r a n c e , o f t h e f a c t t h a t

t h e mask i s a man i n d i s g u i s e . I s t a n d t o be quoted on t h i s . It i s

p o s s i b l e t h a t v a r i o u s more o r l e s s s u b t l e and complex c o m b i n a t i o n s o f

b e l i e f s and s k e p t i c i s m s c h a r a c t e r i z e d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e s o r even d i f f e r e n t

groups w i t h i n p a r t i c u l a r s o c i e t i e s .

Moreover, among t h e Igbos t h e r e a r e masks w i t h no r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l

i n t e n t o r v a l u e and some such masks appear a t p e r f o r m a n c e s t h a t cannot

be r e g a r d e d as s e r i o u s . T h e r e i s , f o r example, t h e Igbo u l a g a mask

performed by y o u t h s between t h e ages o f t e n and f i f t e e n w i t h . n o s e r i o u s

overtones^. T h e r e a r e c e l e b r a t i o n s o f t h e Ngwa o f S o u t h e r n o r Owerri

Igbo i n which both men and women c o l o u r f u l l y a t t i r e d , dance t o g e t h e r

8

w i t h t h e i r masks w i t h o u t any f e a r . F u r t h e r , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e s c r i b e

w i t h c e r t a i n t y and c l a r i t y , t h e p r e c i s e q u a l i t y o f p e r c e p t i o n s and

b e l i e f s s h a r e d by p e o p l e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s e m a t t e r s . However, I

d i d n o t f i n d anyone among t h e Igbos who d i d n o t somehow i m p l y t h a t t h e y

knew t h a t t h e mask i s a man i n d i s g u i s e .

 9

T r u e , s e c r e c y and m y s t e r y s u r r o u n d s masks, as has been shown and

w i l l c o n t i n u e t o be shown, but s i m p l e d e l u s i o n s as t o t h e i r n a t u r e

c o u l d not be d i s c o v e r e d . D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t m a s k i n g has many s a c r e d

a s s o c i a t i o n s f o r t h e Igbos (as w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e s ) , and i s o r g a n i z e d

i n the f o r m o f a men's s e c r e t s o c i e t y , mmuoy i t i s my c o n t e n t i o n that

i t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a r i t u a l , f e s t i v e , and t h e a t r i c a l a c t i v i t y o r d e v i c e

whose p r i m a r y aim i s t o c r e a t e r e l i g i o u s p a g e a n t r y and e n t e r t a i n m e n t for

Igbo v i l l a g e r s .

In h i s s t u d y o f masks among the M e l a n e s i a n s , V a l e n t i n e (1961:6)

a r r i v e d at a c o n c l u s i o n which I consider appropriate t o the present

discussion. He n o t e d :
"Thus i t seems p r o b a b l e t h a t c o n t r a s t i n g ways o f v i e w i n g
o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e mask and t h e masker do n o t n e a t l y
d i v i d e the n o n - l i t e r a t e w o r l d and modern s o c i e t y . Perhaps
t h e a t t i t u d e o f men i n e x o t i c s o c i e t i e s a r e not always so
d i f f e r e n t f r o m our r e s p o n s e s t o our own forms o f maskery and
mummery. U n q u a l i f i e d r e a l i s m h a r d l y d e s c r i b e s a d e q u a t e l y a l l
o f our own r e a c t i o n t o masked p e r f o r m a n c e s . Indeed, i t i s
our v e r y a c c e p t a n c e o f i l l u s i o n and s u r r e n d e r t o a s e n s e o f
m y s t e r y t h a t g i v e masks the p e c u l i a r appeal and e f f e c t i v e n e s s
w h i c h few among us would deny t h e y have. T h i s r e m a i n s t r u e
i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t we a l s o have r e a l i s t i c responses
t o maskery as w e l l . I t may w e l l be t h a t some s u c h s p e c i a l
a t t i t u d e , compounded o f p a r t i a l l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y r e a c t i o n s
i s a l s o a key t o the p l a c e o f masks i n c u l t u r e s v e r y d i f f e r e n t
f r o m our own".

I t i s i n d e e d b e c a u s e o f t h i s , t h a t one must i n s i s t t h a t t h e impor-

t a n c e o f t h e mask (seen f r o m t h e p o i n t o f view o f t h e Igbos but p e r h a p s

a p p l i c a b l e t o o t h e r c u l t u r e s ) , s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be examined and understood,

not o n l y b e c a u s e i t t r a n s c e n d s mere mundane n o t i o n s (thereby conjuring

up the p r e s e n c e and hence awe o f t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l ) , but a l s o because i t

was and s t i l l i s a f o r m o f t h e a t r e w h i c h I w i l l c a l l r i t u a l theatre.

I t i s a drama i n w h i c h t h o s e t h a t have been i n i t i a t e d i n t o the mmuo

 10

s o c i e t y p e r f o r m as a c t o r s w h i l e the o t h e r members o f t h e community

watch as a c t i v e and p a r t i c i p a t i n g a u d i e n c e and s p e c t a t o r s . I t must

a l s o be s t r e s s e d , f u r t h e r , t h a t w i t h o u t t h i s a u d i e n c e , a masked p e r f o r -

mance o r p l a y would be meaningless.

A g r e a t d e a l has been s a i d and w r i t t e n about t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a n

a e s t h e t i c forms. F o r t h e g r a p h i c and p l a s t i c a r t s a l o n e , ahbibliography

p u b l i s h e d o v e r t e n y e a r s ago by G a s k i n (1965) l i s t s more t h a n f i v e

thousand items. Somewhat s m a l l e r q u a n t i t i e s o f m a t e r i a l s have been

p u b l i s h e d on A f r i c a n f o l k w a y s , and much l e s s i n t h e f i e l d o f m u s i c .

According to Ottenberg (1971) " d e s p i t e t h i s v a s t l i t e r a t u r e , t h e r e i s

very l i t t l e t h a t gives the A f r i c a n ' s conception o f h i s a r t , using the

word b r o a d l y t o i n c l u d e a l l a f t f o r m s " . T h i s i s t r u e b e c a u s e most o f

t h e work on A f r i c a (and Igbos a r e no e x c e p t i o n ) has been from t h e o u t -

s i d e r ' s p o i n t o f v i e w , b a s i c a l l y t h a t o f t h e Western i n v e s t i g a t o r s and

scholars. We owe a d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e t o t h e s e b o l d s c h o l a r s who in their

own way c o n t r i b u t e d t o knowledge a b o u t t h e a r t and p e o p l e s o f t h e "dark

continent". However, such s t u d i e s have n o t been e n t i r e l y w i t h o u t

b i a s e s from which a l l k i n d s o f m i s l e a d i n g i n f e r e n c e s have been made.

The t i m e i s now r i p e f o r A f r i c a n s t o w r i t e a b o u t t h e i r own art;,

especially in c u l t u r a l contexts. T h i s i s what I am a t t e m p t i n g t o a c h i e v e

i n t h i s s t u d y o f Igbo masks and masquerades.

RATIONALE FOR RESEARCH AND DATA

The o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s s t u d y i s t o c o n t r i b u t e a n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n to
 11

t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e w i d e s p r e a d c u l t u r a l phenomenon o f m a s k i n g .
The t h e s i s w i l l a d d r e s s i t s e l f t o t h e c e n t r a l p r o b l e m o f p r o v i d i n g an
a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s f o r the i n s t i t u t i o n o f masquerading, which,
as was p o i n t e d o u t , Western a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s have f o u n d e x t r e m e l y
d i f f i c u l t to explain, Western s c h o l a r s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h i s f i e l d c o n s i d e r
t h e mask as a p i e c e o f wood, b u t m a s k e r s c o n s i d e r i t as a l i v i n g
force—a reality. The paradox i s t h a t t h e p i e c e o f wood has become
real. I s h a l l t h e r e f o r e be d e v o t i n g t h i s s t u d y t o e x p l o r i n g t h e p r o b l e m
o f i l l u s i o n and r e a l i t y i n t h e s p e c i f i c e t h n o g r a p h i c c o n t e x t o f t h e
Igbos. I s h a l l t r y t o p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e e x p l a n a t i o n s and answers t o
t h e i s s u e o f what t r a n s p i r e s when t h e Igbos engage i n masked r i t u a l
p l a y s o r as T u r n e r (1975) would l i k e t o i n t e r p r e t i t , t h e s y m b o l i c
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t h a t o c c u r s i n t h e s o c i a l drama t h a t i s masquerade per-
formance.

Data w i t h which I w i l l a t t e m p t t o p r o v i d e some answers t o t h e

questions r a i s e d e a r l i e r are d e r i v e d from the f o l l o w i n g s o u r c e s .

(1) A c o l l e c t i o n o f Igbo masks w h i c h I have assembled and e x h i b i t e d

a t t h e Museum o f A n t h r o p o l o g y . D o c u m e n t a t i o n o f t h e s e masks w i l l be

found i n Chapter II of this thesis. Indeed, t h i s t h e s i s i s p r i m a r i l y

an a d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h i s m a j o r e x h i b i t e n t i t l e d "The

World o f S p i r i t s " . The c o l l e c t i o n o f masks c o v e r as many Igbo v a r i e t i e s

as were p o s s i b l e t o c o l l e c t w i t h i n t h e P a c i f i c Northwest i n t h e t i m e

a v a i l a b l e t o me, and w i l l be suppl emented by p h o t o g r a p h s t a k e n as p a r t

o f my r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e f a c t s and f u n c t i o n o f masquerades among t h e

Igbos.
(2) I w i l l a l s o r e l y v e r y h e a v i l y on my p e r s o n a l e t h n o g r a p h i c
 12

e x p e r i e n c e a s a p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r i n Igbo c u l t u r e g e n e r a l l y , and t h e

mmuo ("masquerade") s o c i e t y i n p a r t i c u l a r , I was born a n d r a i s e d i n

Igbo c o u n t r y ( O z u b u l u , t o be p r e c i s e ) , and t h r o u g h t h e i n f l u e n c e o f my

f a m i l y ( i . e , p a r e n t s and a g n a t e s ) , I d i d p a r t i c i p a t e a c t i v e l y i n Igbo

culture, I n my c h i l d h o o d , h i s t o r y a n d m o r a l s were t a u g h t t h r o u g h

t a l e s and p r o v e r b s . C h i l d r e n o f t h e same age g r a d e and t h o s e o f h i g h e r

o r l o w e r age s e t s i n f l u e n c e d each o t h e r t h r o u g h a c t i v i t i e s like

w r e s t l i n g , games, e t e . T h e mores o f t h e s o c i e t y were t a u g h t t o c h i l d r e n

t h r o u g h examples and d i r e c t a p p r o a c h by p a r e n t s and e l d e r s . I was

e s p e c i a l l y w e l l - t r a i n e d b e c a u s e I s p e n t a l o t o f my t i m e w i t h my l a t e

g r a n d f a t h e r who h e l d a h i g h c i v i c and l e a d e r s h i p p o s i t i o n i n t h e v i l l a g e

as d i - O k p a l a ("the f i r s t b o r n " ) . I was i n i t i a t e d i n t o t h e Ozubulu mmuo

("masquerade") s o c i e t y i n December 1963 and I have e v e r s i n c e p a r -

t i c i p a t e d a s a f u l l - f l e d g e d member i n t h e i r r i t u a l p l a y s .

I s t u d i e d a n t h r o p o l o g y and g r a d u a t e d i n 1973 from t h e U n i v e r s i t y

o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka. A t t h a t i n s t i t u t i o n , I s t u d i e d and a c q u i r e d

r e s e a r c h t e c h n i q u e s which became h e l p f u l t o me i n l a t e r y e a r s a s a

c u r a t o r i n t h e N a t i o n a l Museum, L a g o s , N i g e r i a . I c a r r i e d o u t r e s e a r c h
as p a r t o f my f u n c t i o n s and I p u b l i s h e d "The Museum and t h e P u b l i c "

( 1 9 7 5 ) , a n d " R e o r g a n i z i n g t h e Museum S e r v i c e i n N i g e r i a " ( 1 9 7 4 ) . The

f o r m e r o f t h e s e two a r t i c l e s i s a v a i l a b l e on r e q u e s t from t h e D i r e c t o r

o f t h e N i g e r i a n Museum i n L a g o s , I t h e n began t o s t u d y masks b e c a u s e

my p r o f e s s i o n a l i n t e r e s t was a r o u s e d a s a r e s u l t o f t h e many mask p i e c e s

a v a i l a b l e i n t h e Lagos Museum. I was a l l o w e d t o engage i n t h e s e s t u d i e s

from September 1975 t o August 1976, I s p e n t t h i s one y e a r p e r i o d i n

Igbo c o u n t r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n O z u b u l u , where I t o o k p a r t i n and o b s e r v e d

 13

i n d e t a i l i n i t i a t i o n , and t h e Ozoebunu masquerade p e r f o r m a n c e . I also

s p e n t t i m e i n Awka where I s t u d i e d and o b s e r v e d t h e I j e l e masquerade,
I have not y e t p u b l i s h e d on t h i s s u b j e c t , However, I c o n s i d e r my
s t u d y u n i q u e i n t h e s e n s e t h a t I am not aware o f a n o t h e r Igbo i n i t i a t e
who has had the r a r e o p p o r t u n i t y o f g o i n g back as a p r o f e s s i o n a l anthro-
p o l o g i s t t o s t u d y t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f masquerades and w r i t e a b o u t i t .

(3) A l t h o u g h l i t e r a t u r e d e a l i n g w i t h t h e Igbo c u l t u r e and s o c i a l

l i f e has been s u r p r i s i n g l y meager, y e t t h e r e a r e a few Western authors
who have done some p i o n e e r i n g work i n t h e a r e a o f A f r i c a n a r t s and
have i n c l u d e d t h e s u b j e c t o f masks, Some o f them a r e Segy (1953 and
1 9 7 5 ) , Jones (1971), W i l l e t (1971), W i n g e r t (1974), Underwood (1952),
S i e b e r (1962), and F r a z e r (1966). S t a r k w e a t h e r (1966) and C o l e (1970)
w r o t e d o c u m e n t a r i e s t o accompany t h e i r e x h i b i t s o f Igbo a r t . I must
say t h a t t h e i r e f f o r t s have been p r a i s e w o r t h y , a l t h o u g h most o f t h e i r
c o n t r i b u t i o n , as i n d e e d t h o s e o f t h e o t h e r s a b o v e , have been p u r e l y
descriptive.

R e c e n t l y , and f o r t u n a t e l y , O t t e n b e r g (1975) has w r i t t e n a c l a s s i c

on Igbo masks, His emphasis was on t h e A f i k p o I g b o s , but what he

d e s c r i b e d c o u l d be a p p l i e d t o - t h e o t h e r Igbos, He d i d b e g i n t o examine

masks i n terms o f t h e a t r e , f o c u s s i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y on the r e l a t i o n s h i p

between t h e a c t o r s (masks) and t h e a u d i e n c e ( t h e community). Ottenberg

(1973:32) w r o t e o f t h i s as f o l l o w s :
"Yet t h e a u d i e n c e a t masquerades a t A f i k p o and i n o t h e r
p a r t s o f A f r i c a i s o f t e n q u i t e a c t i v e and e x p r e s s i v e . . .
A f u l l understanding of the performance r e q u i r e s very c l o s e
o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e a u d i e n c e as w e l l as
p l a y e r s , f o r i n a s e n s e t h e y a r e a c t i n g , and a r e i n v o l v e d ,
i n s e n s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h one a n o t h e r " .
 14

The t h e s i s w i l l t h e o r e t i c a l l y answer and extend f u r t h e r t h e f r a m e -

work used by O t t e n b e r g — n a m e l y , l o o k i n g a t t h e mask as t h e a t r e .

F u r t h e r , I i n t e n d t o use L e a c h ' s (1963) f o r m u l a t i o n o f s y m b o l i c rep-

r e s e n t a t i o n o f t i m e and r i t u a l s e p a r a t i o n , a D u r k h e i m i a n i d e a , t o

d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h i s t h e a t r e , t h a t i s masquerade, h e l p s t o e l e v a t e o r

remove t h e r u r a l Igbos f r o m t h e s e c u l a r o r e v e r y d a y l i f e on the farms

to another plane of consciousness i n w h i c h an a t t e m p t i s made t o r e s o l v e

the question of r e a l i t y .

By c o m b i n i n g (1) and (3) a b o v e , i t i s my hope t h a t I w i l l be a b l e

t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e mask i s a n e c e s s i t y f o r the Igbos as a medium

o f r e l a x a t i o n and, most i m p o r t a n t , f o r re-enacting those s o c i a l forces

t h a t a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r s o c i e t y ' s c o n t i n u i t y and s o l i d a r i t y . T h i s i s a

f i r s t s t e p towards c o n t r i b u t i n g t h e o r e t i c a l l y towards an acceptable

understanding o f t h e w i d e s p r e a d c u l t u r a l phenomenon o f mask. It i s

a l s o a c o n t r i b u t i o n towards t h e r e b i r t h o f t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a n drama

and t h e a t r e . I t i s not g e n e r a l l y r e a l i z e d by o u t s i d e r s t h a t t h e forms

o f drama i n A f r i c a most commonly r e c o g n i z e d today a r e a two e x t r e m e s

of a continuum: the t r a d i t i o n a l l y indigenous and t h e b l a t a n t l y c o l o n i a l .

The f i r s t i s found i n e l a b o r a t e and complex r i t u a l , both liturgical

and t h e a t r i c a l , S i n c e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s have been t h e r e p o r t e r s o f t h e s e

e v e n t s , they have s t r e s s e d the s o c i a l p u r p o s e s o f such a c t i v i t i e s ,

being p r o f e s s i o n a l l y i n d i f f e r e n t to the dramatic elements of p u b l i c

performance. In f a c t , t h e s e o c c a s i o n s o f f e r a f o r m o f communal t h e a t r e -

i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h a p a r t i c i p a t i n g a u d i e n c e , and much more r e m a i n s t o be

s a i d about t h e i r d e l i b e r a t e dramatic e f f e c t s .

The o t h e r well-known t h e a t r e e x i s t s i n U n i v e r s i t i e s . In Anglophone

/
 15

A f r i c a , t h e s e were f o r m e r l y t h e p r o d u c t i o n s o f t h e c l a s s i c B r i t i s h
r e p e r t o i r e from S h a k e s p e a r e t o Shaw. In t h e c o l o n i a l d a y s , t h i s p l a y e d
down t h e t r a d i t i o n a l t h e a t r e w h i c h was seen as e v i l and p r i m i t i v e .
Today t h e a d m i r a t i o n f o r t h e s e Western p r o d u c t i o n s i s b e g i n n i n g t o
d i m i n i s h b e c a u s e some i n d e p e n d e n t A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s a r e b e g i n n i n g t o
r e j e c t t h e i n h e r i t e d c o l o n i a l a r r o g a n c e t h a t had a f f i r m e d t h e i m p o r t e d
a r t t o be more e l e g a n t and c i v i l i z e d t h a n t h e d e n i g r a t e d r e s i d u e o f
native culture. I t i s s t u d i e s , such as t h i s o n e , t h a t w i l l help
a c h i e v e t h i s i m p o r t a n t g o a l , and p r e s e r v e o u r h e r i t a g e .

ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS

The t h e s i s i t s e l f i s o r g a n i z e d i n s i x c h a p t e r s . C h a p t e r I i s an

i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e problem o f t h e mask. I t sets f o r t h the c e n t r a l

problem' o f s t u d y and d a t a a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e t h e s i s .

C h a p t e r I I d e s c r i b e s t h e e x h i b i t "The World o f S p i r i t s " and p r o v i d e s

d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e d i s p l a y e d masks.

C h a p t e r I I I g i v e s t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l , h i s t o r i c a l and s o c i o - c u l t u r a l

background o f t h e Igbos, as a p e o p l e . I t i s my c o n v i c t i o n t h a t an

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e Igbos t h e m s e l v e s , w i l l h e l p us g a i n a b e t t e r i n s i g h t

i n t o t h e i r masquerade c e r e m o n i e s . P a r t i c u l a r l y , I intend t o focus great

a t t e n t i o n on t h e p h i l o s o p h y and r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s o f t h e Igbos s i n c e t h e s e

w i l l answer so many q u e s t i o n s t h a t m i g h t a r i s e i n l a t e r p a r t s o f t h e t h e s i s .

C h a p t e r IV g i v e s an e t h n o g r a p h i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e masks, i n i t i a t i o n
 16

i n t o t h e mmuo ("masquerade") s o c i e t y , and a u d i e n c e r e a c t i o n i n g e n e r a l .

I w i l l t r y t o e s t a b l i s h t h e f a c t and f u n c t i o n o f t h e mask, b a s i n g my

i d e a s on t h e d a t a a v a i l a b l e t o me, I hope a l s o t o r e l y on my e x p e r i -

ences as a p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r .
C h a p t e r V w i l l f o c u s on masks and a u d i e n c e i n a t h e o r e t i c a l
framework s u g g e s t e d by O t t e n b e r g ' s work, namely, d e v e l o p i n g " t h e r i t u a l
t h e a t r e c o n c e p t " o f Igbo masks and masquerades. This chapter will
examine n o t o n l y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e masked p e r f o r m e r s ( i . e .
a c t o r s ) and t h e a u d i e n c e ( i . e . t h e community), but w i l l a l s o use Leach's
a n d E l i a d e ' s framework t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n i t i a t e s ' and e n t i r e community's
e x p e r i e n c e b e f o r e , d u r i n g and a f t e r t h e r i t u a l t h e a t r e .

T h e r e w i l l t h e n come a b r i e f C h a p t e r VI i n w h i c h I s t a t e my c o n -

clusions.
*
 17

CHAPTER I

Notes and References

1. I c r e d i t t h i s s t a t e m e n t t o V a l e n t i n e who t h i n k s t h a t what o b t a i n s
i n t h o s e p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d i s not m a s k i n g but body p a i n t i n g ,
c f V a l e n t i n e ; 1961:1.
2. I b i d . For f u r t h e r d e s c r i p t i v e l i t e r a t u r e one c o u l d c o n s u l t Adam,
1949; Benda, 1945; Boas, 1927; B r e t o n , 1960; Douglas and d'Harnon-
c o u r t , 1941; G i r t h , 1936; G r e g o r , 1937; L e w i s , 1922; L i n t o n and
W i n g e r t , 1946; Meyer, 1889; Meyer and P a r k i n s o n , 1895; Nevermann,
1933; R i l e y , 1955; R o e d r i g e r , 1961; Underwood, 1952; and W i s s l e r ,
1938.
3. Because t h e masquerade i s t h e a t r i c a l d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f c u l t u r a l
myths, t h e masked d a n c e r o r p e r f o r m e r must a c t i n the manner
p r e s c r i b e d by custom as b e l o n g i n g t o t h e c h a r a c t e r o f h i s d i s g u i s e .
4. c f Masks and Men Among the K i l e n g e , Western New B r i t a i n . 16 mm
c o l o u r sound f i l m by A d r i a n A, G e r b r a n d s . 1970.
5. One i m m e d i a t e l y r e c a l l s s t a t e m e n t s such as t h i s one made by L e v y -
B r u h l : "To put on a mask, w i t h t h e s e p e o p l e , i s n o t , as i t i s
w i t h u s , a mere d i s g u i s e " . B r u h l , 1935:123-4. A l s o B r u h l , 1923.

6. c f Lowie (1940:434), where he notes t h a t masks used by o t h e r

B r a z i l i a n t r i b e s t o i m p e r s o n a t e s p i r i t s and t e r r i f y the u n i n i t i a t e d
a r e used by the C a n e l l a p u r e l y f o r amusement.

7. U l a g a masks o b t a i n among t h e C e n t r a l and N o r t h e r n Igbos. For a n o t h e r

example o f such masks, see O t t e n b e r g (1975), where he d e s c r i b e s
A f i k p o c h i l d r e n ' s mba mask.
8. c f Amankulor, "The F i r s t A l l - N g w a C u l t u r a l F e s t i v a l " i n A f r i c a n A r t s .
J a n u a r y 1977, V o l . X, No. 2.
 18

CHAPTER II

THE WORLD OF SPIRITS

T h i s i s t h e t i t l e I gave t o t h e e x h i b i t o f Igbo masks which I

o r g a n i z e d and p r e s e n t e d a t t h e U.B.C. Museum o f A n t h r o p o l o g y . I t was

a major p a r t o f my M a s t e r ' s p r o j e c t i n a n t h r o p o l o g y (museology) and

s e r v e d as an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e s t u d y o f masks. I t l a s t e d from J u l y 5

t o A u g u s t 29, 1977. In t h i s e x h i b i t as w e l l as t h e t h e s i s , I p r e s e n t e d

Igbo mask as r i t u a l t h e a t r e . T h i s c o n c e p t was a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h t h e use

o f a p p r o p r i a t e theme s t a t e m e n t s and p h o t o g r a p h s ( s e e p l a t e s I , I I , and

III).

The theme s t a t e m e n t s speak f o r t h e m s e l v e s . The two photographs

w h i c h accompanied t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s were i n t e n d e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e

r i t u a l t h e a t r i c a l i t y o f Igbo masquerades. A i s the r i t u a l preparation

f o r masquerade, w h i l e B d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e a t r i c a l i t y by showing masked

p e r f o r m e r s ( a c t o r s ) and t h e i r a u d i e n c e (community). See p l a t e IV.

The d i s p l a y was c o n t a i n e d i n t h r e e c a s e s - - 6 3 , 64 and 65. Case 63

( p l a t e V) which i s t h e l o n g e s t , c o n t a i n e d t h e Okpa costume from Amaseri

near A f i k p o , t w e l v e A f i k p o f a c e masks, and f i v e i k e n g a f i g u r i n e s .

A f i k p o i s S o u t h e a s t e r n Igbo. I used t e x t i l e s and r a f f i a from t h e

Museum as a p p r o p r i a t e backgrounds f o r both t h e A f i k p o masks and t h e

ikenga f i g u r i n e s .

Case 64 ( p l a t e VI) c o n t a i n e d one Okpolumpi o r Nwampi mask and

f o u r Odogu o r Okpoka masks. These masks a r e from O z u b u l u . In c a s e 65

( p l a t e V I I ) were d i s p l a y e d f i v e agbogho masks from Enugu, N o r t h e r n Igbo.

 19

P l a t e I . An o v e r v i e w o f g a l l e r y space showing t h e masks as t h e y were

d i s p l a y e d i n t h e c a s e s . Photographs o f t h e e x h i b i t were t a k e n by

Jean H a m i l t o n , U.B.C. Museum o f A n t h r o p o l o g y .

 T H E W O R L D O F SPIRITS

Igbo Masquerade

The seven million Igbo people of southeastern Nigeria possess an ancient and
distinctive cultural tradition and speak a common language. Traditionally,
farmers, traders, and fishermen, numerous Igbo are now moving into large
modern cities and participating in the developing global culture and economy.
Still, many vital elements of the Igbo way persist, most notably their
religious participation in initiation and masquerade, which over a hundred years
of British rule and Christian missionaries could not destroy. This exhibition
is an introduction to Igbo masks and masquerade — a ritual theatre which
embodies some of the most profound and deeply felt religious beliefs of the
people. The exhibition features masks from the Northern, Central and South-
eastern Igbo and shows the visual diversity of Igbo art, while demonstrating as well
the underlying unity of their religious conceptions of the unseen world. This
is a world of ancestors, the unborn, and the spirits, which the rituals of
masquerade bring to experiential reality through mask, costume, music, song
and dance.

' Igbo M a s k s >

W h i l e m a s k s are t h e a s p e c t o f m a s q u e r a d e m o s t c o m m o n l y f o u n d i n m u s e u m s , t h e y
are m e r e l y c a r v e d pieces o f w o o d w h i c h have been separated f r o m t h e sounds,
costumes, a n d ritual setting w h i c h c o m p l e t e their meaning and existence in
Igboland. A m a s k i n an e x h i b i t is a p i e c e o f art; a m a s k i n its t r a d i t i o n a l
s e t t i n g is a b e i n g . W h i l e i t is h u m a n m e n w h o a c t u a l l y carve a n d w e a r t h e
masks, t h e y are o n l y t h e agents t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e beings r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e
mask c o m e t e m p o r a r i l y f r o m t h e w o r l d b e y o n d i n t o t h e w o r l d o f here a n d n o w . T h u s ,
the m a s k s y o u see here o n e x h i b i t are m e r e l y lifeless o b j e c t s , b u t t h e y are
c l u e s t o t h e m o r e p o w e r f u l a n d e n d u r i n g beings t h e y b o t h r e p r e s e n t a n d
r e i n c a r n a t e in t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l p h y s i c a l f o r m .

In o r d e r t o use y o u r i m a g i n a t i o n t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f m a s k i n g ,
y o u are asked to c o n s i d e r how the mask transforms t h e man who wears it:

— it h i d e s his o w n face a n d i d e n t i t y
— i t frees h i m f r o m t h e rules o f c o n d u c t w h i c h g o v e r n e v e r y d a y l i f e
— it a l l o w s h i m t o b e c o m e t h e o t h e r b e i n g t h a t i t represents.
Perhaps t h e best w a y t o l o o k ^ t a m a s k is t o i m a g i n e y o u r s e l f o n t h e i n s i d e
.looking out.

P l a t e I I . Two o f t h e theme s t a t e m e n t s used i n t h e e x h i b i t .

 21

Initiation Into t h e M m u o

Knowledge of the mask and its deeper meanings, and the right to experience
personal transformation while wearing one, is carefully restricted to men who
have been initiated into the mmuo ("secret society"). Every male in the
community must undergo initiation or experience shame and ridicule. It is a
test of courage and endurance and a prerequisite to becoming a man with adult
responsibilities. These include maintaining for the community as a whole the
vital links between the living and the dead which keeps the visible world in
harmony with the powerful unseen world beyond. By gaining the approval of the
ancestors through initiation, adult men also take on the responsibility for
maintaining social, political, and judicial control in the affairs of normal
Igbo life.

Initiation transforms boys into men; masquerade transforms men into spirits
and ancestors. Through these methods the spiritual and moral continuity of the
Igbo way is maintained.

P l a t e I I I . The t h i r d e x h i b i t s t a t e m e n t . The p h o t o g r a p h shows new

initiates into the secret society a t Afikpo. Photograph c o u r t e s y

o f Simon O t t e n b e r g , U n i v e r s i t y o f Washington, S e a t t l e .
 22

P l a t e IV. Two o f t h e p r i n c i p a l e x h i b i t p h o t o g r a p h s d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e

r i t u a l t h e a t r i c a l i t y o f Igbo masquerades. A i s the r i t u a l p r e p a r a t i o n .

B i s p e r f o r m a n c e b e f o r e an a u d i e n c e .
P h o t o g r a p h c o u r t e s y o f Simon O t t e n b e r g , U n i v e r s i t y o f Washington, Seattle,
P l a t e V. D e t a i l s o f Case 63.
Plate VII. D e t a i l s o f Case 65.
 25

I d e s i g n e d and made costumes f o r t h e Nwampi and one Odogu mask showing

how t h e s e a r e worn i n O z u b u l u . The costume f o r t h e s e masks c o n s i s t e d

o f a sewn brown t e x t i l e and woven r a f f i a which i s worn a r o u n d t h e neck

and w a i s t . Costumes were a l s o made f o r two agbogho masks. One costume

was made f r o m a y e l l o w t e x t i l e on which I p a i n t e d r e d and b l a c k c o l o u r s .

The o t h e r costume was made f r o m a r e d t e x t i l e on w h i c h were sewn b l u e ,

y e l l o w and b l a c k m a t e r i a l s .

D e s c r i p t i v e s t a t e m e n t s were used i n a l l t h e c a s e s t o e x p l a i n t h e

names and uses o f a l l i t e m s i n t h e e x h i b i t . A p p r o p r i a t e photographs

w e r e . a l s o used i n a l l c a s e s t o show t h e masks i n t h e i r s o c i a l c o n t e x t ,

T h e r e were o t h e r p h o t o g r a p h s i l l u s t r a t i n g a t y p i c a l Igbo v i l l a g e and

showing some o t h e r Igbo masquerades s u c h as t h e Ozoebunnu and I j e l l e

(see p l a t e s V I I I and X). T h e r e was a l s o a map o f Igbo t e r r i t o r y .

The masks and i k e n g a s were s e l e c t e d t o show a v a r i e t y o f Igbo a r t .

The okpa was i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e e x h i b i t t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t masks a r e

n o t made f r o m wood o n l y . The okpa i s a f i b r e - n e t costume w i t h r a f f i a

a t t a c h m e n t s and i s used by an e n e r g e t i c v i l l a g e r u n n e r o r messenger.

The t w e l v e A f i k p o masks show t h e a r t s t y l e s o f S o u t h e a s t e r n I g b o s .

These masks g e n e r a l l y have s m a l l f r o n t l e t s o r f a c e s . Their design i s

g e o m e t r i c , s t y l i s t i c and a t t i m e s n a t u r a l i s t i c . Except f o r the Isi j i ,

a l l o f them were c a r v e d f r o m wood and have woven r a f f i a a t t a c h m e n t s

w h i c h a c t both as f a s t e n i n g medium and c u s h i o n a g a i n s t t h e f a c e o f t h e

wearer. The i s i j i was made f r o m c a l a b a s h and i s the o n l y mask worn

j u s t once d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f t h e f i r s t s o n . A l l t h e masks were

p a i n t e d w i t h w h i t e , r e d and b l a c k . One n o t i c e s I b i b i o i n f l u e n c e i n

this art style.

 26

(Drawing by E.C. Onwuzolum).

 27

The i k e n g a ("God o f F o r t u n e " ) has an i n d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h

the mask b e c a u s e i t i s g i v e n t o one a f t e r i n i t i a t i o n . It symbolizes

t h e . a c h i e v e m e n t o f a boy who has now become a man. I t was introduced

i n t o t h e e x h i b i t as an example o f Igbo s t a t u e s , A l l the f i v e ikengas

a r e from C e n t r a l Igbo. T h r e e a r e o f r e c e n t make w h i l e t h e o t h e r two

have been used i n r i t u a l . None o f them was painted.

The O z u b u l u masks show t h e a r t s t y l e o f t h e C e n t r a l Igbos. This

s t y l e a l s o o c c u r s among t h e Western Igbo a c r o s s t h e N i g e r R i v e r . These

masks a r e l a r g e r than A f i k p o masks, Their design i s abstract since

they symbolize death, a non-concrete phenomena. The f a c i a l features

a r e i n t e n d e d to f r i g h t e n and keep away t h e u n i n v i t e d from t h e i r r i t u a l s .

The f a c e o f t h e nwampi i s p a i n t e d w h i t e w h i l e the horn i s - b l a c k . Two

odogu have b l a c k p a i n t s . Two have b l a c k and r e d c o l o u r s . The r e d

c o l o u r i n t h e nose and mouth o f t h i s mask s y m b o l i z e s danger.

The Enugu masks a r e c a l l e d agbogho and d e m o n s t r a t e t h e Northern

Igbo a r t s t y l e s . These masks a r e meant t o be b e a u t i f u l and g r a c e f u l .

T h e i r head-gear i s t h a t o f a t y p i c a l Igbo l a d y who has j u s t come o u t o f

the s e c l u s i o n necessary before marriage. They a r e a l l p a i n t e d white

and b l a c k and show n a t u r a l i s t i c f e a t u r e s . They a r e meant e i t h e r t o be

c a r r i e d on t h e head o r t o c o v e r t h e f a c e o n l y .

D e t a i l e d d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f a l l the m a t e r i a l s used i n t h e e x h i b i t

has been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r . A show o f a b o u t 7 5 . g l i d e s was

o r g a n i z e d t o f u r t h e r b u t t r e s s t h e r i t u a l - t h e a t r i c a l i t y o f the masks.

The s l i d e s were shown f o u r t i m e s i n t h e o r i e n t a t i o n t h e a t r e o f t h e

Museum and t w i c e t o a c l a s s o f s e n i o r c i t i z e n s . T h e r e was a l i v e p r e -

s e n t a t i o n o f Igbo masquerade on J u l y 17 a t t h e G r e a t H a l l o f t h e Museum.

 28

I am o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e e x h i b i t and p r e s e n t a t i o n s were s u c c e s s f u l .
However, I am a l s o o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t a d d i t i o n a l background
i n f o r m a t i o n i s s t i l l v i t a l t o c o m p l e t e t h e s u c c e s s o f any e x h i b i t . This
i s necessary t o make f o r a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e o b j e c t s and
p h o t o g r a p h s used i n a d i s p l a y . The understanding c o u l d be a c h i e v e d by
preparing a s c h o l a r l y catalogue o r w r i t i n g a t h e s i s s u c h as I am d o i n g .
A l t h o u g h a t h e s i s i s more t e c h n i c a l t h a n a c a t a l o g u e f o r the public,
i t i s u n a v o i d a b l e i n my c a s e s i n c e I must s a t i s f y t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f
s c h o l a r s h i p demanded by t h e U n i v e r s i t y . Therefore, I substitute a
t h e s i s as an a d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n t o "The World o f S p i r i t s "
in place o f a catalogue t h a t would have been p r e p a r e d i n u s u a l museum
practice.
 29

DETAILS OF THE MASKS THAT WERE DISPLAYED IN THE EXHIBIT

. "THE WORLD OF SPIRITS"

From Amaseri i s a masquerade o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e

and i s meant t o be worn by an e n e r g e t i c young man

because i t r u n s t h r o u g h t h e v i l l a g e and may p u n i s h

t h o s e who b l o c k i t s p a t h . I t i s a f u l l head and

body n e t costume w i t h no s p e c i a l d e s i g n i n t h e

f a c i a l area. No p a r t o f i t i s d e t a c h a b l e . It i s

c o l o u r e d d a r k brown w i t h a t t a c h e d w h i t e bands o f

r a f f i a a t t h e c h e s t and l i m b s . T h i s costume was

made from n a t i v e f i b r e ( c o u l d a l s o be made from

European c o r d ) , i s heavy and i s e n t e r e d t h r o u g h t h e

chest. T h i s mask i s f o r e i g n t o Igbo c u l t u r e

a l t h o u g h some Igbos make i t t o d a y . It i s of Ibibio

or E f i k o r i g i n ( s e e M c F a r l a n , 1964:26). Because i t

i s used by t h e s e c r e t s o c i e t y f o r communication, i t

i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o p u r c h a s e t h i s mask p u b l i c l y .

Measurements
Length - 78"
Arm span - 75"

From t h e O t t e n b e r g C o l l e c t i o n , S e a t t l e .

Mba ( M a t e r i a l s ; wood and r a f f i a ) . Mba i s a common

A f i k p o mask. I t i s a s m a l l w h i t e - f a c e d mask w i t h

a d e c o r a t i v e board p r o t r u d i n g from t h e t o p o f t h e
 30

head. The board i s p a i n t e d i n d e t a i l s o f b l a c k ,

y e l l o w , w h i t e and r e d . A woven r a f f i a i s a t t a c h e d

to t h e edge t o a c t as f a s t e n i n g s and c u s h i o n against

the wearer's f a c e .

Measurements

Length - 19"
Width - 5V
Depth - 4"
Blade - 10" x 4"
From the O t t e n b e r g Collection, Seattle.

Acali ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and r a f f i a ) . An o l d A f i k p o mask

used i n i n i t i a t i o n and o t h e r mask c e r e m o n i e s . It

i s a v e r y s m a l l mask w i t h r e c t a n g u l a r c u t - o u t

f e a t u r e s i n brown and p a r t l y v a r n i s h e d wood.

6 Measurements

Length - 9"
Width - 4"
Depth - I V
From t h e O t t e n b e r g C o l l e c t i o n , S e a t t l e .

(a) and ( b ) . I g r i . ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and r a f f i a ) . This i s also c a l l e d

Okumpka. I t i s one o f t h e most b e a u t i f u l masks i n
Afikpo. Two o f t h e s e were d i s p l a y e d t o show s t y l e s .

(a) Measurements

Length - 1 9 V
Width - 5 V
Depth - 5"

T h i s i s l o n g - f a c e d , i n w h i t e , b l a c k , r e d and yellow

colours, with geometrically s t y l i z e d features

i n c l u d i n g d i a g o n a l t e a r marks. T h i s has a s o r t o f

rounded edge a t t h e c h i n .
 31

(b) Measurements

Length - 16"
Width - 4 V
Depth - 4"

I t i s a l s o l o n g - f a c e d , i n w h i t e and b l a c k c o l o u r s ,

w i t h g e o m e t r i c a l l y s t y l i z e d f e a t u r e s and a p o i n t e d

edge a t t h e c h i n . Has t e a r marks.

Both o f t h e s e masks a r e used i n t h e Okumkpa p l a y

( O t t e n b e r g , 1975:87) o f t h e A f i k p o .

Both a r e from t h e O t t e n b e r g Collection, Seattle.

K p i r i k p i r i o r Otogho ("Woodpecker"). ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and r a f f i a ) .

T h i s i s a s m a l l b i r d mask i n w h i t e , r e d and b l a c k

c o l o u r s , w i t h rounded f e a t u r e s and b e a k - l i k e p r o -

j e c t i o n s c u r v i n g downward from t h e f o r e h e a d and

upward from t h e c h i n . Used i n i n i t i a t i o n p l a y s .

Measurements

Length - 9"
Width - 6"
Depth - 6"
Beak e x t e n s i o n - 3"

From t h e O t t e n b e r g Collection, Seattle.

Okumkpa ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and r a f f i a ) . T h i s i s t h e Okumkpa-

p l a y l e a d e r ' s mask. T h i s mask i s worn by t h e o r g a n i z e r

and d i r e c t o r o f t h i s f o u r a c t p l a y ( s e e O t t e n b e r g ,

1975:104). I t i s a s i m p l e , l o n g , o v a l mask, w i t h t h e

f a c e q u a r t e r e d i n d a r k brown and w h i t e d e t a i l s rendered

in opposite colours. Broken egg s h e l l s were a p p l i e d

t o g i v e t e x t u r e and e f f e c t t o t h e mask.

Measurements
 32

Length - 13"
Width - 5 V
Depth - 3"

From t h e O t t e n b e r g C o l l e c t i o n , S e a t t l e .

Bekee ("White p e r s o n o r f o r e i g n e r " ) . ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and r a f f i a ) .

An A f i k p o s m a l l , w h i t e - f a c e d mask w i t h b r o w n - b l a c k

s u r r o u n d i n g and d e t a i l .

Measurements
H e i g h t - 10"
Width - 5h"
Depth - 6"

From t h e O t t e n b e r g C o l l e c t i o n , S e a t t l e .

Ibibio ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and r a f f i a ) . Carving o f a

b e a u t i f u l womanj t h i s s t y l e was c o p i e d by t h e

A f i k p o f r o m I b i b i o s who a r e t h e i r n e i g h b o u r s

further south.

Measurements

Length - 11"
Width - 6"
Depth - 5"
From t h e O t t e n b e r g C o l l e c t i o n , S e a t t l e .

Mmaji ("Yam k n i f e " ) . ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and r a f f i a ) . Afikpo; small-faced

mask w i t h a b s t r a c t f e a t u r e s : p e g - l i k e knobs and a

1
c u r v i n g c r e s t i n w h i t e , r e d , b l a c k and y e l l o w pro-

t r u d i n g from the mudline o f the f a c e . T h i s i s used

W sitnr esnegctrhe t ( ss yomcbioeltiyz e ddances

by t ht eo kthank
n i f e ) tghiev eann c etsot omembers
rs f o r

to c u l t i v a t e i n the farm, u b i .

Measurements

L e n g t h - 17"
 33

Width - 6"
Depth - 5"
K n i f e - 9"

From the O t t e n b e r g Collection, Seattle.

I s i j i ("The f i r s t o r b i g g e s t yam"). (Material: calabash). Used o n l y

i n t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f the f i r s t son. I t i s a gourd

mask, e l o n g a t e d t o r e s e m b l e a yam. The neck o f t h e

gourd, c u r v i n g upward, i s p a i n t e d w h i t e and o r a n g e .

T h i s i s an a b s t r a c t symmetrical design i n white,

y e l l o w and o r a n g e on b r o w n - b l a c k r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e

face.

Measurements

Length - 18"
Width - 7"
Depth - 55s"
Neck - 6"

From the O t t e n b e r g Collection, Seattle.

Okpesu ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and r a f f i a ) . T h i s u g l y mask i s

used to f r i g h t e n c h i l d r e n d u r i n g t h e Okumkpa p l a y .

I t has an o v a l b l a c k f a c e w i t h p r o t r u d i n g eyes and

t e e t h and a glued-on beard. D e t a i l s i n brown, r e d

and white.

Measurements
Length - 10"
Width - 6"
Depth - 4"
Beard - 8"

From t h e O t t e n b e r g Collection, Seattle.

Mkpi ("He goat") ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and r a f f i a ) . T h i s i s a g o a t mask

in brown-black with very simple f e a t u r e s . The mouth

 34

and t e a r marks a r e d e t a i l e d i n o r a n g e . Two horns

1
p r o t r u d e f r o m t h e head.

Measurements

Length - 15"
Width - 5"
Depth - 6"
Horns - 6"

From t h e O t t e n b e r g C o l l e c t i o n , Seattle.

Opanwa ("Mother c a r r y i n g a c h i l d on t h e h e a d " ) . ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and

raffia). Opanwa i s a w h i t e - f a c e d mask w i t h elabor-

a t e l y c a r v e d and p a i n t e d d e t a i l i n g o f f a c e marks and

coiffure. From t h e t o p p r o t r u d e s t h e p o l e - f i g u r e o f

a child.

Measurements

Length - 22"
Width - 5 V
Depth - 6"
Child - 13V

From t h e O t t e n b e r g C o l l e c t i o n , S e a t t l e .

The Ikengas

1. A d a r k brown c a r v i n g o f a naked man s e a t e d on a

small s t o o l , w i t h a k n i f e i n h i s r i g h t hand and a

head i n h i s l e f t . Loops commence and t e r m i n a t e a t

both ears.

Measurements

Length - 20"
Width - 7"
Loops - 3"

From t h e O t t e n b e r g C o l l e c t i o n , S e a t t l e ,
 35

2. S m a l l , l i g h t brown f i g u r e w i t h two h o r n s .

Measurements
Length - 8"
Width - 3"
Horns - 2"

From t h e S t a r k w e a t h e r C o l l e c t i o n , M i c h i g a n .

3. S m a l l , l i g h t brown f i g u r e , w i t h r e c o g n i z a b l e

human f a c e .
Measurements

L e n g t h - 5"
Width - 3"

From t h e S t a r k w e a t h e r C o l l e c t i o n , M i c h i g a n .

4. S m a l l , l i g h t brown f i g u r e , a l m o s t a t w i n t o No.

w i t h two h o r n s .

Measurements
Length - 8"
Width - 2 V
Horns - 3"

From t h e S t a r k w e a t h e r C o l l e c t i o n , M i c h i g a n .

5. A s m a l l , dark brown f i g u r e , w i t h two h o r n s . This

i k e n g a has been used i n r i t u a l and t h e dark brown

ii
c o l o u r i s t h e r e s u l t o f age and o l d b l o o d o f a n i m a l s ,
Measurements

Length - 7"
Width - 3 V
Horns - 2"

U.B.C. Museum o f A n t h r o p o l o g y C o l l e c t i o n , V a n c o u v e r .

CASE 64 Ozubulu Masks

1. Odogu ( M a t e r i a l : wood). A l a r g e , b l a c k - f a c e d mask w i t h
 36

twisted features. There i s a red o u t l i n e . Also

on the head i s a s i n g l e c o i l e d , b l a c k and white

python, an animal v e n e r a t e d i n Ozubulu. This i s

a s e r i o u s mask used i n b u r i a l . The b l a c k p a i n t

symbolizes d e a t h w h i l e r e d warns p e o p l e o f d a n g e r .

The t w i s t e d f e a t u r e i s t o c r e a t e awe. The glued

eye l a s h e s s y m b o l i z e d i t s wisdom o r cunning.

Measurements

Length - 11"
Width - 9"
Depth - 5"

From t h e S t a r k w e a t h e r C o l l e c t i o n , Michigan.

2. Odogu ( M a t e r i a l : wood). T h i s i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y dangerous

mask. I t i s a l a r g e , b l a c k - f a c e d mask w i t h split

n o s e , p r o t r u d i n g e y e l i d s and tongue i n r e d . The r e d

shows t h a t i t s s i g h t , b r e a t h and words a r e dangerous

and c o u l d cause i n j u r y . P e o p l e a r e warned t o keep a t

•
a distance. I t , f u r t h e r , has two backward-curving
s p i n a l horns and s m a l l round e a r s . Used i n b u r i a l

ceremonies.

Measurements

Length - 15"
Width - 10"
Depth - 6"
Horn - 6"

From the S t a r k w e a t h e r C o l l e c t i o n , Michigan.

3. Okpolumpi o r Nwampi. ( M a t e r i a l : wood). This i s a large, white-faced

mask w i t h wide mouth and bared t e e t h . I t s small

 37

e y e s , e a r s and mouth a r e o u t l i n e d i n b r o w n - b l a c k .

I t has a c a r v e d h e a d - c o v e r i n g supporting two

m a s s i v e c u r v e d horns p a i n t e d b l a c k . This i s a

mask o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e used t o d e m o n s t r a t e anger

when a member o f the mmuo s o c i e t y i s dead.

Measurements
Length - 21 "
Width - &V
Depth - 3"
Horns - 11V'

From t h e O t t e n b e r g Collection, Seattle.

4. Okpoka ( M a t e r i a l : wood). T h i s i s a d a r k - f a c e d mask w i t h

h i g h - s e t e a r s , narrow f o r e h e a d , and protruding

features.

Measurements

Length - 10"
Width - 6"
Depth - 3"

From the L o c k e t t C o l l e c t i o n , Ann A r b o r , Michigan.

5. Okpoka ( M a t e r i a l : wood). A dark brown mask w i t h high-set

e a r s , narrow f o r e h e a d and sharp p r o t r u d i n g f e a t u r e s .
The mouth i s t w i s t e d .
Measurements

Length - 10 "
Width - 6V
Depth - 2"

From t h e L o c k e t t C o l l e c t i o n , Ann A r b o r , Michigan.

CASE 65 EnuQU Masks

The m a t e r i a l used i n p r e p a r i n g t h e s e masks i s wood.

These a r e a l l c a l l e d agbogho and r e p r e s e n t female

 38

spirits. They d e p i c t t h e b e a u t i f u l f e a t u r e s which

Igbo's a t t r i b u t e t o t h e e a r t h - g o d d e s s a l a . The

h a i r d o i s t y p i c a l o f Igbo women, e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r

t h e i r period of seclusion i n preparation f o r marriage.

A w h i t e - f a c e d c o n i c a l mask w i t h a l o n g , p o i n t e d

f a c e and f e a t u r e s . The e l a b o r a t e l y c u r v e d c o i f f u r e

w i t h i t s c e n t r a l c r e s t and o t h e r d e t a i l i n g i s i n

b l a c k and w h i t e . The mask i s meant t o be c a r r i e d

on t h e head.

Measurements

Length - 15"
Width - 8"
Depth - 6"
Hairdo - 4 V

From t h e Sawyer C o l l e c t i o n , Vancouver.

A w h i t e - f a c e d mask w i t h t h e w h i t e worn brown w i t h

age. I t has a s m a l l , p o i n t e d f a c e and f e a t u r e s

and c a r v e d c o i f f u r e . The mask i s meant t o c o v e r

the face only.

Measurements
Length - 12"
Width - 7"
Depth - 5 V
From t h e O t t e n b e r g C o l l e c t i o n , S e a t t l e .

A w h i t e - f a c e d mask w i t h l o n g , p o i n t e d f a c e and

f e a t u r e s and an e l a b o r a t e c o i f f u r e o f h o r n - l i k e

shapes. The d e t a i l s and c o i f f u r e a r e i n l i g h t brown.

Measurements

Length - 13"
Width - 7"
 39

Depth - 4"
H a i r d o - 3"

From t h e O t t e n b e r g C o l l e c t i o n , S e a t t l e .

A w h i t e - f a c e d c o n i c a l mask w i t h a h i g h , e l a b o r a t e

c e n t r a l c r e s t on t h e c o i f f u r e and a sharp d e t a i l i n g

i n b l a c k on w h i t e . I t i s meant t o be c a r r i e d on

the head.

Measurements

Length - 1 7 V
Width - 8"
Depth - 7"
C o i f f u r e - 7"

From t h e U.B.C. Museum o f A n t h r o p o l o g y Collection,

Vancouver.

A w h i t e - f a c e d c o n i c a l mask w i t h a l o n g , p o i n t e d f a c e

and s m a l l f e a t u r e s d e t a i l e d i n brown-black. The

coiffure consists of five parallel free-standing

c r e s t s i n brown-black w i t h w h i t e , b l u e and y e l l o w i s h

d e t a i l i n g and i s meant t o be c a r r i e d on t h e head.

Measurements
L e n g t h - 19"
Width - 9"
Depth - 7"
C o i f f u r e - 9V

From t h e Sawyer C o l l e c t i o n , Vancouver.

 40

CHAPTER I I I

THE IGBOS

The Geography o f I g b o l a n d

Below t h e c o n f l u e n c e o f t h e g r e a t N i g e r and Benue l i e s t h e f o r e s t

b e l t which c o v e r s most o f S o u t h e r n N i g e r i a ; and e a s t o f t h i s s t r a t e g i c
p o i n t i s t h e home o f t h e Igbo p e o p l e s o f N i g e r i a (Crowder, 1966:22).
Numbering o v e r seven m i l l i o n , t h e Igbos o f S o u t h e a s t e r n N i g e r i a , a r e
a p e o p l e who speak a common language which forms p a r t o f t h e Kwa group
of West A f r i c a n languages ( N z i m i r o , 1972:3). L o c a t e d between l a t i t u d e
5 t o 7 d e g r e e s n o r t h o f t h e e q u a t o r and l o n g i t u d e 6 t o 8 degrees e a s t
of Greenwich, t h e i r t e r r i t o r i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o v e r an a r e a o f some
15,800 s q u a r e m i l e s , c o v e r s t h e N i g e r - C r o s s R i v e r a r e a , w i t h t h e
I b i b i o s and C r o s s R i v e r p e o p l e t o t h e e a s t , Ijaw t o t h e s o u t h , Edo
s p e a k i n g p e o p l e s t o t h e west, and I g a l a and Idoma s p e a k i n g p e o p l e s t o
the n o r t h . N u m e r i c a l l y , t h e Igbos a r e one o f t h e p r i n c i p a l p e o p l e s o f
A f r i c a ; and a l o n g w i t h t h e Hausas, F u l a n i s , Yorubas, a r e an i m p o r t a n t
group i n p r e s e n t day N i g e r i a .

B e f o r e i t e n t e r s t h e A t l a n t i c Ocean t h r o u g h a n e t w o r k . o f dis-
t r i b u t a r i e s which c h a r a c t e r i z e i t s d e l t a , t h e N i g e r R i v e r d i v i d e s t h e
Igbo c o u n t r y i n t o two unequal p a r t s . The g r e a t e r p o r t i o n l i e s i n what
i s now c a l l e d t h e Anambra and Imo S t a t e s , w h i l e a s m a l l e r t r i a n g u l a r
p o r t i o n , west o f t h e N i g e r , i s p a r t o f Bendel S t a t e s . Though s e p a r a t e d
by t h e N i g e r and thus f a l l i n g i n t o o t h e r p o l i t i c a l u n i t s , " t h e w e s t e r n
and e a s t e r n Igbo have r e t a i n e d t h e i r c u l t u r a l as w e l l as t h e f r p s y c h i c
F i g . I. Map o f Igbo T e r r i t o r y , Nigeria.
(Drawn by E.C. Onwuzolum).
 41

unity. In modern t i m e s t h e i r a t t i t u d e towards p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s

and t h e i r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h what t h e y r e g a r d as t h e i r own ' l e a d e r '
r e v e a l t h e s o l i d a r i t y between t h e Igbo p e o p l e s on both s i d e s o f
the Niger" (Uchendu,.1965:1).

Igboland's physical environment i s mainly t r o p i c a l r a i n f o r e s t

w i t h m a r g i n a l savannah i n t h e extreme n o r t h . The a v e r a g e annual tem-
p e r a t u r e i s between 80 t o 90 d e g r e e s F w i t h an annual range o f between
5 and 10 d e g r e e s F. The r a i n y and d r y seasons a r e w e l l marked; t h e
f o r m e r b e g i n s i n A p r i l and l a s t s t o O c t o b e r , when t h e d r y season
commences. R a i n f a l l i s h e a v i e r i n t h e s o u t h t h a n i n the n o r t h , many
a r e a s h a v i n g more t h a n 70 i n c h e s a y e a r . During the r a i n y season, a
"break" o c c u r s i n August and i s l o c a l l y c a l l e d o k o c h i j i oko ( t h e
d r o u g h t f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e growth o f yams). Important i n t h e s e a s o n a l
c y c l e a r e the southwest monsoon winds t h a t b r i n g r a i n and t h e n o r t h e a s t
winds t h a t a r e d r y , d u s t y , as w e l l as c o l d . These winds a r e l o c a l l y
r e f e r r e d t o as uguru ("harmattan") and a r e the f a r m e r ' s f r i e n d because
t h e y a r e known to open t h e bush, d r y . t h e c l e a r i n g s , k i l l some o f t h e
i n s e c t s t h a t d e s t r o y c r o p s and make t h e b u r n i n g o f r u b b i s h e a s y .
However, i t t u r n s t h e n a t i v e s n e a r l y c h a l k w h i t e and c r a c k s t h e l i p s .

The d r y . s e a s o n i s a p e r i o d o f l e s s farm work and i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d

by r i t u a l s and f e s t i v i t i e s such as t h e masquerades. In t h i s season
the community o f f e r s s a c r i f i c e s t o t h e a n c e s t o r s s e e k i n g r a i n f o r n e x t
p l a n t i n g s e a s o n , abundant y i e l d i n the f a r m s , w e a l t h , good h e a l t h , and
children. Then t h e y g i v e form t o t h e a n c e s t o r s t h r o u g h masks, and
t h e s e come t e m p o r a r i l y from beyond t o j u d g e t h e l i v i n g .
 42

The H i s t o r y o f the Igbos

When and from where the Igbo came i n t o t h e i r p r e s e n t t e r r i t o r y

has u n t i l v e r y r e c e n t l y been a s u b j e c t o f much s p e c u l a t i o n , because
the Igbos have no w r i t t e n r e c o r d e x c e p t a few N s i b i d i s c r i p t s which
are a r e c e n t d i s c o v e r y and which a r e s t i l l c o n t r o v e r s i a l . This lack
of w r i t t e n r e c o r d s makes i t d i f f i c u l t to a s c e r t a i n their origin,
u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r p h i l o s o p h y , a s s e s s t h e i r v a l u e s , m a s t e r the w e a l t h o f
t h e i r c u l t u r e , fathom t h e i r r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s , e x p l o r e t h e i r history,
i n t e r p r e t t h e i r customs,.and comprehend t h e i r p o l i t i c a l system.
T h e r e f o r e , r e s e a r c h on the Igbo must depend p r i m a r i l y on o r a l history,
f o l k t a l e s and l e g e n d s , p a r a b l e s and p r o v e r b s , o b s e r v a t i o n s and
e x p e r i e n c e s , what o t h e r p e o p l e have to say a b o u t them, and what
archaeological f i n d s o f r e c e n t t i m e s have r e c o r d e d .

Oral h i s t o r y o r f o l k t a l e s and l e g e n d s may not l e a d one f a r i n t o

Igbo h i s t o r y because the Igbos use a n i m a l s t o d e p i c t a c t u a l events.
The r e a s o n f o r t h i s use o f a n i m a l s i n s t o r i e s i s t w o - f o l d , v i z : a) to
a v o i d o p p r o b r i u m o r sometimes v i o l e n t r e p r i s a l s ' f r o m p e r s o n s (or t h e i r
relatives) involved, and b) t o a v o i d (as i s the custom) s p e a k i n g i l l of
the dead o r d e i f y i n g i n d i v i d u a l s beyond c e r t a i n l i m i t s . T h i s use of
animals therefore p l a c e s l i m i t a t i o n s on the d e p t h o f s t o r i e s and so
hampers r e s e a r c h . For example, Igbos have a l e g e n d or f o l k t a l e about
their origin. The s t o r y t e l l s o f t o r t o i s e , Mbe or Mbekwu, who became
so p o w e r f u l and i n t e l l i g e n t t h a t he was b a n i s h e d from the animal kingdom
by the r e s t o f the a n i m a l s on a c c o u n t o f h i s prowess. He l e f t w i t h
h i s f a m i l y and r e l a t i v e s and s e t t l e d i n an o s t e n s i b l y empty v i l l a g e
he d i s c o v e r e d . However, as days p a s s e d , Mbe r e a l i z e d that this
 43

no-man's-land a c t u a l l y b e l o n g e d t o s p i r i t s who had begun t o r e t u r n

one a f t e r a n o t h e r . When c o n f r o n t e d b y t h e s p i r i t s , Mbe c l a i m e d

t h a t he was the f i r s t son o f the f o u n d e r o f the v i l l a g e but t h a t

the s p i r i t s were t o o young to remember t h a t he had been s o l d away

because o f a t r o u b l e t h a t had e r u p t e d i n the v i l l a g e . T o t e s t h i s

knowledge, Mbe was s u b j e c t e d t o so many t e s t s which he a c c o m p l i s h e d

and was a l l o w e d n o t o n l y t o r e m a i n but t o r u l e the v i l l a g e . ,

T h i s s t o r y i s i n t e r p r e t e d b y . t h e Igbos a s e v i d e n c e that they

migrated t o t h e i r p r e s e n t homes and had a g l o r i o u s p a s t . In f a c t , l i v i n g

as an Igbo, one c a n n o t but f e e l t h i s s e n s e o f a g l o r i o u s p a s t and t h i s

b u t t r e s s e s t h e p r i d e o f t h e a v e r a g e Igbo and g i v e s him c o n f i d e n c e . M r s .

Leith-Ross (1939:55) summed t h i s up a d m i r a b l y when i n 1930 she w r o t e :

" N e v e r t h e l e s s , e v e r y now and a g a i n j one has a s e n s e of an

o l d e r c u l t u r e l y i n g b e h i n d what one now s e e s , l o n g forgotten
by t h e p e o p l e t h e m s e l v e s , grown so f a i n t t h a t i t i s only in
c e r t a i n l i g h t s t h a t one c a t c h e s i t , but the g l i m p s e is of
s o m e t h i n g s o r i c h , so v i t a l , t h a t the p r e s e n t s i n k s into
i n s i g n i f i c a n c e besides i t " .

What was s p e c u l a t i o n i n 1930 has now been c o n f i r m e d as f a c t u a l

by r e c e n t h i s t o r i c a l and a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d i s c o v e r i e s . We know now f o r

s u r e t h a t by 3000 B.C. p e o p l e had s e t t l e d i n the p r e s e n t Igbo homeland

and were a l r e a d y making s t o n e t o o l s i n c l u d i n g ground s t o n e axes and

pottery^. The work o f Shaw a t Igbo-Ukwu shows a f l o u r i s h i n g i r o n - a g e

c i v i l i z a t i o n i n the n i n t h c e n t u r y A.D. . From a l l t h e s e , F l i n t (1966:

63) put f o r t h a h y p o t h e s i s which l e g e n d c o n f i r m s i n t h e Mbe s t o r y ,

" t h a t t h e Igbos m i g r a t e d i n t o the a r e a en masse".

I s i c h e i (1976:3) m a i n t a i n s t h a t "the f i r s t human i n h a b i t a n t s o f

Igboland must have come from a r e a s f u r t h e r s o u t h — p o s s i b l y from the

 44

Niger confluence. But men have been l i v i n g i n I g b o l a n d f o r a t

l e a s t f i v e thousand y e a r s s i n c e the dawn o f human h i s t o r y " . This

f i r s t s e t t l e m e n t was on the n o r t h e r n edge o f the r a i n f o r e s t and

savanna t o i t s n o r t h . T h i s a r e a would have been e a s i e r t o c u l t i v a t e

w i t h wooden and s t o n e t o o l s . E x c a v a t i o n s a t A f i k p o and Nsukka have
c o n f i r m e d n o t o n l y t h i s s e t t l e m e n t but a l s o the f a c t t h a t r a i n f o r e s t
3

c o u l d be p e n e t r a t e d w i t h s t o n e t o o l s . A l s o , the c u l t i v a t i o n o f yam,
a c r o p t h a t i s o f r i t u a l and s y m b o l i c i m p o r t a n c e , and which was the
economic b a s i s o f Igbo c i v i l i z a t i o n , . c o n f i r m s t h i s e a r l y Igbo
s e t t l e m e n t i n the n o r t h e r n a r e a , around t h e C r o s s R i v e r and t h e Anamba
4 / %
v a l l e y - N s u k k a e s c a r p m e n t . J o n e s (1964:30), w r i t e s t h a t : r~
an ee'.'Ope can assume an e a r l y d i s p e r s i o n from t h i s c e n t r e t o
t h e Nsukka-Udi h i g h l a n d s i n t h e e a s t and an e a r l y d r i f t
southwards towards t h e c o a s t . . .
One can more p o s i t i v e l y d i s t i n g u i s h a l a t e r and more
m a s s i v e d i s p e r s a l . . . which was m a i n l y southeastwards...
i n t o what i s now E a s t e r n Isuama a r e a . From t h i s s u b s i d i a r y
d i s p e r s a l a r e a , t h e r e was one m o v e m e n t — s o u t h - s o u t h - e a s t
i n t o t h e Aba d i v i s i o n to form t h e Ngwa group o f t r i b e s ,
and a n o t h e r movement e a s t i n t o Umuahia a r e a and hence t o
O h a f i a - A r o c h u k w u r i d g e , . w i t h an o f f s h o o t t h a t s t r u c k n o r t h . . .
to d e v e l o p i n t o the N o r t h - E a s t e r n Ibo".

These m i g r a t i o n s became e x t r e m e l y n e c e s s a r y because o f p o p u l a t i o n

p r e s s u r e ; Igbo c o u n t r y h a v i n g up u n t i l t o d a y one o f t h e h i g h e s t popu-

5

l a t i o n d e n s i t y f i g u r e s i n A f r i c a i f not the world . The many c e n t u r i e s

o f h i g h d e n s i t y c u l t i v a t i o n e x p l a i n s why the e n t i r e v e g e t a t i o n i n Igbo

country i s of secondary growth .

European c o n t a c t w i t h t h e I g b o - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e s d a t e s back t o the

a r r i v a l of the Portuguese i n the m i d d l e o f the f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y . For

n e a r l y f o u r c e n t u r i e s (1434-1807), the N i g e r C o a s t formed a " c o n t a c t

c o m m u n i t y " — t h e c o n t a c t p o i n t between European and A f r i c a n t r a d e r s : t h e

 45

P o r t u g u e s e from t h e f i f t e e n t h and s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , the Dutch

from t h e s e v e n t e e n t h , and the B r i t i s h from t h e e i g h t e e n t h century.
I t was a p e r i o d o f t r a d e on the c o a s t r a t h e r than one o f c o n q u e s t
and empire b u i l d i n g i n the h i n t e r l a n d . The c h i e f i t e m p r o v i d e d by
t h e Igbo was s l a v e s , many o f whom came to t h e New W o r l d . The monopoly
h e l d by t h e c o a s t a l s l a v e r s ( t r a d e r s from t h e N i g e r S t a t e s ) reduced
Igbo s l a v e r s t o t h e r o l e o f middlemen who r a r e l y d e a l t d i r e c t l y with
European s l a v e r s . The l o c a l t r a d e c u r r e n c i e s o f t h e p e r i o d i n c l u d e d
m a n i l l a s , c o p p e r r o d s , i r o n b a r s , w h i s k y , guns and l a t e r c o w r i e s h e l l s .

With t h e a b o l i t i o n o f the s l a v e t r a d e i n 1807, a new trading

ep.och opened. T h e r e was a s h i f t from t h e t r a f f i c i n men to t h e t r a f f i c
i n raw m a t e r i a l s f o r European i n d u s t r i e s , and t h e r e f o r e palm p r o d u c e ,
t i m b e r , e l e p h a n t t u s k s , and s p i c e s became the m e r c h a n d i z e o f t h e
"legitimate" trade. With t h i s s h i f t , t h e European t r a d e r s c o u l d no
l o n g e r be c o n f i n e d t o t h e c o a s t , but saw t h e i r r e a l i n t e r e s t , "the
t r a d e r s f r o n t i e r " , i n the h i n t e r l a n d , w h i c h was s t i l l the source of
goods ( i . e . palm p r o d u c e ) . In the s t r u g g l e t o e s t a b l i s h a " f r e e - t r a d e "
h i n t e r l a n d between 1807-1885, B r i t i s h companies p l a y e d a d e c i s i v e r o l e
f o r B r i t a i n by c o m b i n i n g a g g r e s s i v e t r a d i n g w i t h a g g r e s s i v e imperialism.

When the P r o t e c t o r a t e o f S o u t h e r n N i g e r i a was c r e a t e d out o f t h e

f o r m e r Royal N i g e r Company and t h e N i g e r C o a s t P r o t e c t o r a t e i n 1910,
t h e c o n t r o l o f the a r e a passed from t h e B r i t i s h F o r e i g n O f f i c e t o t h e
Colonial Office. H i t h e r t o , Igboland had been t e c h n i c a l l y t r e a t e d as a
B r i t i s h C o l o n y even b e f o r e i t was f o r m a l l y c o n q u e r e d and p a c i f i e d .
Between 1902, when the Aro "Long J u j u " was d e s t r o y e d , and 1914 when
Northern a n d . S o u t h e r n N i g e r i a were amalgamated, t h e r e were t w e n t y - o n e
 46

B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y expeditions i n t o Igboland. In f a c t , i t was n o t u n t i l

1928, when Igbo men were made t o pay tax f o r the f i r s t time i n t h e i r
h i s t o r y , t h a t i t became c l e a r to them t h a t t h e y were a s u b j e c t people.

No s k e t c h o f t h e B r i t i s h p e n e t r a t i o n o f I g b o l a n d c o u l d be c o m p l e t e
without mentioning the m i s s i o n a r i e s . I t was i n 1857 t h a t Bishop
Crowther s u c c e s s f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e d a Church M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y M i s s i o n
at Onitsha. The Roman C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n f o l l o w e d i n 1885. Onitsha
thus b e c a m e t h e r e l i g i o u s and e d u c a t i o n a l c e n t r e o f . t h e s e two great
p r o s e l y t i z i n g m i s s i o n s as w e l l as t h e base f o r B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y pene-
t r a t i o n i n t o o t h e r a r e a s o f Igbo c o u n t r y .
A l t h o u g h t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s . e n j o y e d t h e p r o t e c t i v e power and the
m i l i t a r y p r e s t i g e of the advancing c o l o n i a l power, i t was t h e m y s t e r y
o f t h e w r i t t e n word, i n the p s y c h o l o g y o f the "bush s c h o o l s " f o u n d e d
by them, r a t h e r than the m i l i t a r y m i g h t o r t h e c o n t e n t o f the h o l y
book which a s s u r e d t h e i r s u c c e s s among t h e Igbos.

Today we f i n d both t h e c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t i e s and t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s

a l m o s t d e s t r o y e d Igbo c u l t u r e and made some w h i t e men o u t o f b l a c k s
in the p r o c e s s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n . T o d a y , / h ~ a l s o w e s t i l l - f i n d other
Igbos who, though f o r m a l l y e d u c a t e d , t r y t o r e - d i s c o v e r * t h e ways o f
t h e i r f a t h e r s b e c a u s e t h e f a t h e r s , the a n c e s t o r s a r e n e v e r wrong. After
a l l t h e r e i s an Igbo p r o v e r b t h a t one does n o t beget an h e i r b e f o r e
his f a t h e r .

A Survey o f T r a d i t i o n a l Igbo S o c i e t y

I w i l l now d e v o t e some c o n s i d e r a b l e space to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of

 47

the Igbo S o c i e t y . T h i s i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e t o know how a

;

p e o p l e view, i n t e r p r e t and o r g a n i z e t h e w o r l d a r o u n d them i s t o u n d e r -

s t a n d how t h e y e v a l u a t e l i f e ; and a p e o p l e s ' e v a l u a t i o n o f l i f e , both
temporal and n o n - t e m p o r a l , p r o v i d e s them w i t h a c h a r t e r o f a c t i o n
and a g u i d e t o b e h a v i o u r .

Occupation

The Igbo n a t i o n i s made up o f a h e t e r o g e n e o u s group o f p e o p l e

u n i f i e d by a dominant Igbo c u l t u r e ; t h i s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a common

l a n g u a g e ( w i t h d i f f e r e n t d i a l e c t s ) , common r e l i g i o u s s y m b o l s — t h e o f o

or o t o s i (a r i t u a l s t a f f made from a t r e e b r a n c h ) , o c c u p a t i o n o f a

common t e r r i t o r y , p o s s e s s i o n o f b a s i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l p o l i t i c a l organization

and i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h i s s t u d y , a l l Igbos p o s s e s s some t y p e o f r e l a t e d

masquerade. I n i t i a t i o n i n t o t h i s masquerade s o c i e t y c a l l e d mmuo o r mma

i s a l s o u n i v e r s a l among t h e r u r a l I g b o s . .

A g r i c u l t u r e has been t h e m a i n s t a y o f Igbo s o c i e t y i n what i s

termed " r o o t c r o p " economy. Yam, c a s s a v a (manioc) and many v a r i e t i e s

of cocoyam ( t a r o ) a r e t h e c h i e f s t a p l e s and p r o v i d e t h e b u l k o f t h e

p o p u l a t i o n w i t h most s u b s i s t e n c e needs. No meal i s c o n s i d e r e d c o m p l e t e

w i t h o u t one o r two o f them. Other products are peanuts, plantains,

bananas, m a i z e , pumpkin, egwusi ( m e l o n ) , o k r o ( " o k r a " ) , r i c e , beans*,

palm o i l , palm wine o f v a r i o u s k i n d s , p e a r s , papaya, o r a n g e s , e t c .

T h e s e s t a p l e s have a h i g h y i e l d which i s . o f f s e t t o some e x t e n t by t h e i r

l o n g growth p e r i o d . T h e i r p r o f i t a b l e c u l t i v a t i o n r e q u i r e s abundant

l a n d and cheap l a b o u r . Land means many t h i n g s t o t h e Igbo; i t i s t h e

 48

domain o f t h e e a r t h - g o d d e s s , a l a ; a b u r i a l p l a c e f o r t h e a n c e s t o r s ;
a p l a c e t o l i v e on, and a p l a c e t o make a l i v i n g . Land i s t h e r e f o r e
t h e most i m p o r t a n t a s s e t t o , t h e p e o p l e ; i t i s a s o u r c e o f s e c u r i t y
and i s e m o t i o n a l l y p r o t e c t e d from a l i e n a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e t e n u r e system
which p r e s c r i b e s the r i g h t s o f i n d i v i d u a l s or groups o v e r l a n d . The
p r i n c i p l e i s t h a t a l l l a n d i s owned and t h r o u g h t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f
the l i n e a g e . h e a d (minimal l i n e a g e ) , e v e r y member i s p r o v i d e d l a n d on
which t o b u i l d h i s house and on which t o r a i s e c r o p s . T h i s i s main-
t a i n e d through r e l i g i o u s s a n c t i o n s .

Igbos a l s o hunt and f i s h ; t h e y r a i s e d o m e s t i c c a t t l e , sheep, g o a t s

and p o u l t r y . Igbos d e v e l o p e d i r o n t e c h n o l o g y o v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s and
so t h e r e a r e s m i t h s i n I g b o l a n d who produce s p e a r s , hoes, k n i v e s ,
t r a p s , guns, g a t e s , n e e d l e s and o t h e r i r o n implements. These a r e used
f o r f a r m i n g , h u n t i n g , f i s h i n g and i n o c c a s i o n a l w a r f a r e . The a r t s o f
woodworking and c a r v i n g were a l s o d e v e l o p e d , hence t h e unique n a t u r e
o f Igbo masks as can be seen i n museum e x h i b i t s . P o t t e r y , t o o , . i s an
a n c i e n t Igbo c r a f t and t h i s h e r e d i t a r y a r t i s p r a c t i c e d by women. Also
weaving i s p r a c t i c e d by women and Akwuete Igbos a r e famous f o r t h e i r
fabrics. Thus, w i t h i n t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f Igbo, a g r i c u l t u r e , h u n t i n g ,
f i s h i n g , metalwork, woodwork, p o t t e r y and weaving were and s t i l l are
the main o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e p e o p l e .

Igbo P o l i t i c a l System

Henderson (1972:23), was w o r r i e d t h a t :

"The s o c i e t i e s o f t h e I b o - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e s have f o r some

t i m e p r e s e n t e d a quandry t o t h e s t u d e n t o f c o m p a r a t i v e
h i s t o r y . The Ibo l i v e i n some'of t h e h e a v i e s t p o p u l a t i o n
 49

c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n a l l o f A f r i c a and t h e y occupy a r e g i o n
l o n g i n communication w i t h s o c i e t i e s p o s s e s s i n g
s t r a t i f i e d , even h i e r a r c h i a l s o c i a l s y s t e m s . Moreover,
the Ibo t h e m s e l v e s p a r t i c i p a t e d e x t e n s i v e l y and a c t i v e l y
in>the European s l a v e t r a d e , a p o w e r f u l and p o l i t i c a l
s t i m u l u s t h a t i n many a r e a s a l o n g t h e Guinea C o a s t promoted
c o n f e d e r a t i o n , c e n t r a l i z a t i o n , and s t a t e f o r m a t i o n i n
d i v e r s e i n d i g e n o u s s o c i e t i e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e Ibo
m o s t l y c o n t i n u e d t o l i v e i n s m a l l - s c a l e segmentary
s o c i e t i e s , each s t r u c t u r a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d b u t based
s t r o n g l y on u n i l i n e a l d e s c e n t " .

T h i s i s t h e c a s e because t h e Igbo w o r l d i s based on t h e p r i n c i p l e o f

equalitarianism. E q u a l i t y o r n e a r e q u a l i t y e n s u r e s t h a t no one p e r s o n
or group o f - p e r s o n s a c q u i r e s t o o much c o n t r o l o v e r t h e l i f e o f o t h e r s .
T h i s i s an e f f e c t i v e i d e o l o g i c a l o b s t a c l e t o t h e development of a strong
c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y . However,,no human s o c i e t y c a n o r has a c h i e v e d
a b s o l u t e e q u a l i t y among i t s c i t i z e n s , and t h e Igbos a r e no e x c e p t i o n .
There a r e d i s t i n c t i o n s i n age, s e x and w e a l t h ; i n f a c t , Igbos emphasize
or p u t s t r e s s on a c h i e v e m e n t and s u c c e s s . They r e c o g n i z e t h a t "a c h i l d
who washes h i s hands c l e a n d e s e r v e s t o e a t w i t h h i s e l d e r s " . However,,
t h e r e a r e i n s t i t u t i o n a l checks and b a l a n c e s which p r e v e n t t h e emergences
of demagogues and t h i s has i t s r o o t i n Igbo m o r a l s and r e l i g i o u s
philosophy. F o r example, a r i c h man i s made " h o l y " t o keep him i n
check; i n r e t u r n , t h e s o c i e t y r e l i e s on t h e " h o l y w e a l t h y man", t h e Nze,
to m a i n t a i n an o r d e r e d s o c i e t y . The Nze ("holy w e a l t h y man"), i s a
t i t l e which r e q u i r e s n o t o n l y . s p e n d i n g o f w e a l t h b u t r e l i g i o u s
s a n c t i o n s and p u r i t y . These holy.men a d j u d i c a t e and a d m i n i s t e r t h e
town and t h e i r e x e c u t i v e arm i s e i t h e r t h e age-grade a s s o c i a t i o n s o r
t h e mmuo ("masquerade") s o c i e t i e s .

The p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s i n I g b o l a n d d i f f e r i n t h e i r s t r u c t u r e .
Some o f t h e s e , l i k e t h e k i n g s h i p i n s t i t u t i o n i n O n i t s h a , N r i and
 50

A g u l e r i , are i n t r u s i v e t r a i t s . Although age-grade a s s o c i a t i o n s , t i t l e

t a k i n g s o c i e t i e s , d i b i a f r a t e r n i t i e s (a p r i e s t l y a s s o c i a t i o n ) , s e c r e t
s o c i e t i e s , and o r a c l e s are among the t r a d i t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s of
government, the r o l e o f each i n the p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s e s of a given
village-group d i f f e r s . Nevertheless, t h e r e emerges a g e n e r a l pattern
o f p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s which i s s h a r e d by a l l Igbo.

We may d i s t i n g u i s h two l a y e r s o f t h e . p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e - 1) the

v i l l a g e , and 2) the v i l l a g e - g r o u p . A t . t h e v i l l a g e l e v e l o f government
( t h i s v a r i e s i n s i z e and p o p u l a t i o n ) , the a c c e p t e d practice is direct
democracy o r what N j a k a . ( 1 9 7 4 : 1 0 ) c a l l s " O h a c r a c y " — a government by a l l
male a d u l t s i n the v i l l a g e (the Oha) i n which d e c i s i o n s are a r r i v e d at
by common-consensus. At.the village-group l e v e l , a representative
s y s t e m i s a d o p t e d ; e q u a l i t y among the a s s o c i a t i n g v i l l a g e s i s m a i n t a i n e d
t h r o u g h the p r i n c i p l e o f equal " s h a r i n g o f K o l a " and equal contribution
of material resources needed f o r the s u r v i v a l o f the g r o u p . This
e q u a l i t y i s necessary s i n c e Igbos a r e a v e r s e and s e n s i t i v e to o u t s i d e
a u t h o r i t y . - T h i s means t h a t e a c h . v i l l a g e i s autonomous and sovereign
in a l l i n t e r n a l matters, but may c o o p e r a t e w i t h o t h e r v i l l a g e s a t the
v i l l a g e - g r o u p l e v e l . T h i s s o l i d a r i t y i s b u t t r e s s e d by myths o f common
origin.

The v i l l a g e i s segmented i n t o a number o f l i n e a g e s and each o f

t h e s e i n t o m a j o r , m i n o r , and minimal s u b l i n e a g e s . Each l i n e a g e com-

p r i s e s of t e r r i t o r i a l l y kin-based u n i t s c a l l e d umunna ( " c h i l d r e n of

same f a t h e r " ) ; t h i s i s a f l u i d term whose n a r r o w e s t r e f e r e n t i s the

c h i l d r e n o f the same f a t h e r but o f d i f f e r e n t m o t h e r s ; i t s w i d e s t

r e f e r e n t . i s the p a t r i l i n e a l members, r e a l o r p u t a t i v e whom one cannot

marry. Umunna i s made o f compounds, each c o n s i s t i n g o f a number o f

 51

economically i n d e p e n d e n t h o u s e h o l d s w i t h a man and h i s w i f e . It is

i n these compounds t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y m a i n l y l i e s because
a l l the h o u s e h o l d e r s i n the compounds r e c o g n i z e the head o f t h e umunna
as the p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y o f t h e l i n e a g e . No d e c i s i o n would be made
w i t h o u t f i r s t c o n s u l t i n g t h i s man who i s c a l l e d okpara. As head o f .
the compound,,he has numerous r i t u a l , moral and l e g a l r i g h t s and
obligations. He i s the e y e s o f t h e members o f h i s l i n e a g e w h i l e the
o t h e r members a r e h i s e a r s . , He s e t t l e s problems a n d . o f f e r s sacrifices.
In r e t u r n he r e c e i v e s r e s p e c t , o b e d i e n c e and m a t e r i a l token o f good-
will. He r e p r e s e n t s the l i n e a g e i n d i s p u t e s w i t h o u t s i d e r s and i s
t h e c u s t o d i a n o f the l a n d . : T h i s i s s y m b o l i z e d by h i s p o s s e s s i o n of
the o f o (a s t a f f made from t h e t r e e D e t a r i u m e l a s t i c a ) . He maintains
a u t h o r i t y i n the e x t e n d e d f a m i l y w h i c h i s the compound. He i s t h e
l i n k between the l i v i n g and t h e dead a n c e s t o r s .

L e g i s l a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e e n t i r e v i l l a g e a r e the c o n c e r n of
a l l a d u l t -males and t h i s t a k e s p l a c e i n ad hoc g e n e r a l a s s e m b l y c a l l e d
Oha. Once d e c i s i o n s a r e a r r i v e d a t i n the v i l l a g e s q u a r e , t h i s i s
g i v e n r i t u a l s a n c t i o n by the o l d e s t o f o h o l d e r who would say " t h i s i s
iwu ("law") i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h our custom and may i t be r e s p e c t e d and
obeyed. A n c e s t o r s , you a r e w i t n e s s " . The o f o i s s t r u c k f o u r times on
t h e ground and each t i m e i t i s so s t r u c k , t h e a s s e m b l y w i l l a s s e n t " i h a "
( " l e t i t be s o " ) .

In c o m p l i c a t e d c a s e s , e s p e c i a l l y where the a s s e m b l y i s a c t i n g i n
a j u d i c i a l c a p a c i t y and where t h e f a c t s a r e not t o o c l e a r , the Igbo
take recourse to o r a c l e s or to d i v i n e r s . The o r a c l e s depended on "sons
a b r o a d " f o r c l i e n t s and t o a s c e r t a i n the t r u t h . One must concede t h a t
 52

the d e c i s i o n s o r judgements o f the o r a c l e s were f a i r l y accurate.

Common s e n s e shows t h a t t h e r e p u t a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e o f t h e o r a c l e s
depended on t h e i r a b i l i t y t o b e , h o n e s t and j u s t . The d e c i s i o n s o f
t h e o r a c l e s were s u b j e c t t o no f u r t h e r a p p e a l . '

The e x e c u t i v e f u n c t i o n o f t h e v i l l a g e i s v e s t e d i n the y o u t h s
through t h e i r age-grade a s s o c i a t i o n s a n d / o r the mmuo s o c i e t i e s . Beside
s e r v i n g a s a s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r w h i c h s e p a r a t e s t h e s e n i o r s from t h e i r
j u n i o r s , the age-grade a s s o c i a t i o n i s a means o f a l l o c a t i n g p u b l i c
d u t i e s t o v a r i o u s segments o f the p o p u l a t i o n , g u a r d i n g p u b l i c m o r a l i t y
through the c e n s o r s h i p o f members' b e h a v i o u r , and p r o v i d i n g companion-
s h i p and mutual i n s u r a n c e f o r members. Members r u n e r r a n d s , keep t h e
v i l l a g e c l e a n and keep s u r v e i l l a n c e o v e r v i l l a g e p r o p e r t y . The mmuo
("masquerade") s o c i e t y a c t e d as p o l i c e — m o r e w i l l be s a i d on t h i s
later.

S c h o l a r s have sometimes i m p l i e d i n t h e i r w r i t i n g t h a t l a r g e p o l i t i c a l
u n i t s a r e "more advanced" than s m a l l ones, a n d t h a t a change from s m a l l
to l a r g e marked p r o g r e s s . A p p l i e d t o t h e Igbos, t h i s i m p l i c a t i o n i s
very deceptive. Even though t h e Igbos remained o r g a n i z e d i n s m a l l a g e -
g r a d e d v i l l a g e u n i t s , t o them t h i s made t r u e d e m o c r a c y — t h e government
o f the p e o p l e , by the p e o p l e * f o r t h e p e o p l e , the oha, v e r y p o s s i b l e .
E n l a r g e m e n t o f s c a l e o f f e r e d no o b v i o u s p o l i t i c a l a d v a n t a g e t o Igbo
communities. Democracy, a s i t i s p r a c t i c e d today i n t h e W e s t , . i s f u l l
o f l i m i t a t i o n s . A Frenchman who v i s i t e d Igbo c o u n t r y i n 1906 s a i d t h a t
true l i b e r t y e x i s t e d t h e r e , through i t s name was n o t i n s c r i b e d on
any monument.
 53

Igbo K i n s h i p Network

N o r m a l l y t h e Igbo c h i l d i s brought up i n h i s f a t h e r ' s l i n e a g e .

L a t e r i n h i s c h i l d h o o d , he i s c o n s t a n t l y b r o u g h t i n t o c o n t a c t with
h i s mother's l i n e a g e . . As he grows up he becomes increasingly.aware
o f t h e w i d e r s o c i a l network, t h e m o s t , i m p o r t a n t o f w h i c h a r e t h e
e x t e n d e d f a t h e r ' s mother's l i n e a g e and t h e e x t e n d e d mother's mother's
lineage. When he m a r r i e s he a l s o a c q u i r e s a f f i n a l l i n k s , w i t h h i s
wife's 1ineage,,playing very important r o l e s i n the l i f e o f h i s c h i l d r e n .
T h e s e f i v e l i n e a g e s c o n s t i t u t e f o r t h e Igbo t h e i r most i m p o r t a n t kin-
s h i p network.
Igbo s o c i e t y i s one w i t h pronounced p a t r i l i n e a l e m p h a s i s . Since
a g n a t i o n d e t e r m i n e s t h e membership o f a f a m i l y g r o u p , t h e l i n e o f i n -
h e r i t a n c e , and s u c c e s s i o n t o name and o f f i c e , a p e r s o n t a k e s most o f
h i s j u r a l r i g h t s i n l a n d and i n s o c i a l , e c o n o m i c , and p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n
from the l i n e a g e o f h i s f a t h e r . The members o f t h i s l i n e a g e a r e
c a l l e d t h e urnunna ( " c h i l d r e n o f t h e f a t h e r " ) . •

tlmunna bu i k e ("the f a t h e r s a g n a t e s a r e t h e s o u r c e o f one's

s t r e n g t h " ) , i s a p o p u l a r Igbo s a y i n g , because one depends on h i s a g n a t e s
f o r c o m f o r t and s o c i a l and economic s e c u r i t y . A g n a t e s h e l p one " t o
g e t up" by p r o v i d i n g t h e needed l a d d e r f o r s o c i a l c l i m b i n g . I t i sto
one's p a t r i l i n e a l l i n e a g e t h a t one b r i n g s home h i s w i f e a f t e r marriage;
and t h e s e members a r e e x p e c t e d t o make t h e m a r r i a g e s u c c e e d by h e l p i n g
p r o v i d e p a r t o f what i s r e q u i r e d i n t h e m a r r i a g e ceremony and s e t t l i n g
any d i s p u t e s t h a t m i g h t t h r e a t e n t o d e s t r o y t h e m a r r i a g e . Title-taking
c e r e m o n i e s , m a r r i a g e f e a s t s , b u r i a l r i t e s , i n i t i a t i o n and masquerade
c e r e m o n i e s , and o t h e r s o c i a l e v e n t s t h r o u g h which a w i d e r s o c i a l group
 54

i s a c t i v a t e d , succeed or f a i l because.of the type of i n t e r p e r s o n a l

r e l a t i o n s between a p e r s o n and h i s a g n a t e s . The i d e a l b e h a v i o u r
e x p e c t e d among agnates may be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as " b r o t h e r ! i n e s " , i . e .
r e l a t i o n s h i p d e f i n e d by mutual r e s p e c t , t r u s t , h e l p , l o y a l t y and
affection.

I f a g n a t e s a r e t h e g r e a t e s t prop o f s u c c e s s , t h e y a l s o a r e t h e
greatest sources of h o s t i l i t y . Igbos say t h a t i t i s t h e home n o t t h e
bush r a t t h a t knows where t h e mother keeps her c o n d i m e n t s . In o t h e r
words, a g n a t e s know one's s t r e n g t h s and weaknesses and might e x p l o i t
same, e s p e c i a l l y i n m a t t e r s o f p r o p e r t y i n h e r i t a n c e . Hence, p e o p l e a r e
g e n e r a l l y c a r e f u l w i t h p a t r i k i n s but m i g h t be more r e l a x e d among t h e i r
mother's a g n a t e s , where, t o borrow on Ozubulu p h r a s e , he i s r e f e r r e d
t o as nwadiana ("the son o f t h e owner o f the s o i l " ) .

A p e r s o n i s most welcome among h i s ununne ("the mother's l i n e a g e " )

where l i t e r a l l y he i s f r e e t o do a n y t h i n g . S i n c e he does n o t compete
f o r i n h e r i t a n c e i n t h i s g r o u p , t h e r e i s no f e a r o f p o i s o n i n g o r
h o s t i l i t y and one may e a t w h a t e v e r one p l e a s e s i n t h i s group. The
k i n s h i p bond i n t h i s c a s e i s u n a f f e c t e d by m a t e r i a l s t a t u s and p e o p l e
never a l l o w i t to s t r a i n . I t i s one's l a s t l i n e o f d e f e n c e . .

The f a t h e r ' s mother's and t h e mother's mother's l i n e a g e s c o n -

s t i t u t e t h e e x t e n d o r "remote" kinsmen. They a r e a l s o i m p o r t a n t i n
t h e l i v e s o f the Igbos, a l t h o u g h one does n o t command any d e f i n e d
privileges. Members a s s u r e him o f . s u p p o r t and a t t e n d h i s c e r e m o n i e s
such as d u r i n g i n i t i a t i o n and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n masquerade, . t i t l e -
taking, marriage, etc. Members o f t h i s e x t e n d e d k i n g r o u p a r e n e v e r
a l l o w e d t o marry because o f c o n s a n g u i n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p .
 55

The c l a s s i f i c a t o r y terms employed by t h e Igbo f o r naming these

agnatic groups vary. A l t h o u g h " t h i s s i t u a t i o n may be c o n f u s i n g to
the i n v e s t i g a t o r , . i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y so t o t h e Ibo. E v e r y Ibo i s
conversant w i t h k i n s h i p terms w i t h i n and o f t e n f a r beyond the radius
i n which he may seek a w i f e , j u s t as he i s aware o f d i a l e c t i c a l v a r i -
a t i o n s i n any o t h e r f i e l d o f t e r m i n o l o g y " (Ardener, 1954:85).

I t has been s t r e s s e d t h a t e v e r y Igbo b e l o n g s t o an a g n a t i c g r o u p ,

a l i n e a g e w i t h an unbroken c o n t i n u i t y o f - d e s c e n t i n the male l i n e .
T h i s a g n a t i c group ( p a t r i l i n e a g e ) , as w e l l as i t s members o r a g n a t e s ,
i s c a l l e d by t h e same term "umunna" and t h i s i s an exogamous u n i t i n
o n e f r a m e of reference. A l l i t s f e m a l e members who must l e a v e the lineage
a t m a r r i a g e a r e c a l l e d umu-okpu o r umu-ada. In a n o t h e r frame o f reference
i t i s a term f o r a g n a t e s meaning c h i l d r e n o f f a t h e r , i t s s i n g u l a r being
nwanna ( " c h i l d o f f a t h e r " ) .

By r u l e o f exogany and v i r i l o c a l r e s i d e n c e , . w e e x p e c t t o meet

n o n - a g n a t e s as r e s i d e n t members o f a l i n e a g e s e t t l e m e n t , ego's mother
i s one.. Ego's f a t h e r i s nna w h i l e the mother i s nne. A l l father's
b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r ' s s e n i o r t o ego a r e c l a s s i f i e d as dede and dada
r e s p e c t i v e l y ; terms which d i s t i n g u i s h between g e n e r a t i o n and sex but
which can be a p p l i e d to ego's s e n i o r f u l l s i b l i n g s and s e n i o r h a l f
s i b l i n g s . , Ego's f a t h e r ' s f a t h e r i s c a l l e d nnanna and f a t h e r ' s mother
i s c a l l e d nnenne, the l a t t e r i s a l s o a p p l i e d t o ego's a c t u a l mother's
mother. Ego's f a t h e r ' s w i v e s o t h e r t h a n h i s mother a r e c a l 1 e d nwunyenna.
Ego c a l l s h i s w i v e s hwanyi and t h e y c a l l him di_. H i s c h i l d r e n a r e
c a l l e d umu and t h i s i n c l u d e s c h i l d r e n o f h i s b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s .
The i n - l a w r e l a t i o n s h i p c r e a t e s a w i d e r range o f a f f i n a l l i n k s w h i c h
 56

a r e termed ogo--a r e c i p r o c a l term w h i c h subsumes a l l g e n e r a t i o n s

and both sexes.

Igbo k i n s h i p terms a r e c l a s s i f i c a t o r y c o v e r i n g t h e w i d e s t

p o s s i b l e range o f k i n s h i p . Terms o f a d d r e s s a r e g o v e r n e d by r u l e s
which guide and r e g u l a t e s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n . Among o t h e r f e a t u r e s ,
Igbo k i n s h i p t e r m i n o l o g y embodies the " p r i n c i p l e o f r e s p e c t " r e l a t i o n - .
call
ship. T h i s r e q u i r e s a j u n i o r t o / a l l h i s s e n i o r s dee--a term o f
r e s p e c t , based on s e n i o r i t y and always a d d r e s s e d t o a s e n i o r by a
j u n i o r and n e v e r used among age e q u a l s . R e i n f o r c i n g the p r i n c i p l e of
r e s p e c t - , i s what m i g h t be termed the p r i n c i p l e o f " s u p e r i o r i t y o f
p r a i s e names". T h i s r e c o g n i z e s the s u p e r i o r i t y o f one's p r a i s e name
o r s t a t u s name o v e r a l l o t h e r a p p r o p r i a t e k i n s h i p terms o f address.
A t i t l e d man's p r a i s e name t a k e s p r e c e d e n c e o v e r a l l o t h e r terms o f
address. Ogbuehi ( " k i l l e r o f cows"), EzeazUka ( t h i s r e c o g n i z e s the
need to have c h i l d r e n t o r e p l a c e o n e ) , e t c . , a r e p r a i s e names.

Religion

A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s commonly make the a n a l y t i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n , but t o

the Igbos, the s e c u l a r and the s a c r e d , . t h e n a t u r a l and the s u p e r n a t u r a l ,

are a continuum. Supernatural f o r c e s c o n t i n u a l l y impinge on l i f e , and

must be p r o p i t i a t e d by a p p r o p r i a t e p r a y e r s and s a c r i f i c e s . The Igbos

were and s t i l l a r e p r o f o u n d l y r e l i g i o u s , and a l l a c c o u n t s o f t h e i r

life reflect this fact. Nearly a l l adherents of t r a d i t i o n a l religion

r e g a r d i t as a medium o f o b t a i n i n g s u p e r n a t u r a l power. This does.not

p r e v e n t i t from f u n c t i o n i n g as a s y s t e m o f e x p l a n a t i o n , a s o u r c e o f
 57

moral i n j u n c t i o n , a symbol o f s o c i a l o r d e r , o r a r o u t e t o i m m o r t a l i t y ;
"but i t does mean t h a t i t a l s o o f f e r s t h e p r o s p e c t o f a s u p e r n a t u r a l
means o f c o n t r o l o v e r man's e a r t h l y e n v i r o n m e n t " (Thomas, 1973:27).

The major v a l u e s o f s o c i a l l i f e among t h e Igbos a r e r o o t e d

f i r m l y i n n o t i o n s o f f i l i a t i o n and d e s c e n t . When p e o p l e a s s e s s t h e
c a r e e r o f one a n o t h e r , t h e p r i m a r y c o n c e r n o r c r i t e r i o n i s t h e number
o f - c h i l d r e n he has r a i s e d t o s u p p o r t and s u r v i v e him. C h i l d r e n are
e x t o l l e d i n p r o v e r b s above any o t h e r good,.even above the a c c u m u l a t i o n
of w e a l t h ( a k u ) ; " c h i l d r e n f i r s t , w e a l t h f o l l o w s " i s a p r o v e r b
o

a f f i r m i n g the route to success . People c o n s i d e r t h a t a wealthy

p e r s o n who has no c h i l d r e n w i l l r e a p r o t t e n d e s t i n y , because h i s

r e l a t i v e s o r kinsmen may c o n s p i r e t o s e i z e h i s f o r t u n e . He may very

l i k e l y d i e a bad d e a t h - - a j o onwu. Igbo s a y i n g s make i t q u i t e c l e a r

t h a t m a i n t a i n i n g l i f e i s a j u s t i f i a b l e end i n i t s e l f o n l y to t h e e x t e n t

t h a t i t i s p r o d u c t i v e o r n u r t u r a n t o f more l i f e . This overwhelming

c o n c e r n w i t h the p r o d u c t i o n and t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f l i f e i s b a s i c t o t h e

fundamental c o n c e p t o f Igbo p h i l o s o p h y and r e l i g i o u s t h o u g h t : t h e

i d e a o f c h i . Chi i s l i f e ( n d u ) , o r l i f e c o n c e i v e d as an a n i m a t e self

t h a t g u i d e s the c o u r s e o f e x i s t e n c e . The most d i r e c t l y i m p o r t a n t -

m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h i s f o r any p e r s o n i s t h e c h i i n t h a t p e r s o n , which

i s t h o u g h t o f as a s p i r i t u a l e s s e n c e o f t h e l i v i n g s e l f t h a t g u i d e s

and d e t e r m i n e s t h e c o u r s e o f t h a t p e r s o n ' s l i f e from b i r t h t o d e a t h .

I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t when an i n d i v i d u a l chooses " t o e n t e r t h e w o r l d " , ,

he makes a p a c t w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r e s s e n t i a l b e i n g ( c h i ) s e l e c t i n g h i s

l e n g t h o f l i f e and h i s f u t u r e a c t i v i t i e s ; t h e c h o i c e s so made a r e

marked b y . t h e c h i on h i s hand as h i s a k a l a k a ("marks o f t h e hand") o r

 58

destiny .

S i n c e c h i i n one a s p e c t r e f e r s to a s i n g l e l i f e a c t e d out by
each p e r s o n , t h e r e a r e as many c h i as t h e r e a r e l i v i n g i n d i v i d u a l s .
However,.not o n l y does c h i have a more g e n e r a l and i n c l u s i v e meaning
as the essence o f l i f e , i t i s a l s o p r o j e c t e d as a l i f e essence
a t t r i b u t e d t o . t h e e n t i r e u n i v e r s e ; a u n i v e r s a l s e l f , c a l l e d chukwu o r
c h i n e k e meaning l i t e r a l l y " g r e a t c h i " . The term "chukwu" d e s i g n a t e s
an u l t i m a t e s e l f , o r d e r i n g t h e c o u r s e and c h a r a c t e r o f t h e u n i v e r s e as
a whole, w h i c h i n t u r n i s c o n c e i v e d as a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f " w o r l d s " (uwa).
The u n i v e r s a l s e l f i s a d d r e s s e d i n p r a y e r s as "chuwku - o k i k e , chineke",
etc. meaning " g r e a t c h i the c r e a t o r " . This great chi i s said to
have c r e a t e d a l l p h y s i c a l phenomena and endowed them w i t h f o r c e and
direction. The sky ( i g w e ) , the h e a v e n l y b o d i e s as h i s "messenger"
and e y e s , the e a r t h (ani o r a l a ) , and the s t r e a m s . a n d r i v e r s (mmi1i
o r mmini ). C h i n e k e s e n t t r e e s t o grow on l a n d , a n i m a l s t o roam i t ,
men to o c c u p y i t , yams and o t h e r f o o d s to f e e d p e o p l e , and various
o b j e c t s as " m e d i c i n e s " (ogwu) t o h e l p men i n the c o u r s e o f t h e i r l i v e s .
When a person d i e s , h i s c h i c e a s e s to e x i s t as an i n d e p e n d e n t entity,
r e t u r n i n g t o t h e g r e a t ground o f b e i n g i n the sun o r i n t h e sky.
Chukwu e x i s t s as l o n g as the u n i v e r s e w h i c h i t p e r s o n i f i e s .

Henderson argues t h a t i t i s i m p l i c i t i n the l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f

t h e s e terms t h a t chukwu i s a s u b c a t e g o r y o f c h i r a t h e r than the more

g e n e r a l c l a s s w i t h i n w h i c h c h i may be c a t e g o r i z e d ^ . We may v i e w t h e

meaning o f t h e s e c o n c e p t s as a s e m a t i c s t r u c t u r e , whose marked terms

are a subcategory. I t i s r e a s o n a b l e to t r a n s l a t e c h i as "god" and

chukwu as " g r e a t god". However, Igbos a l s o say t h a t t h e g r e a t god i s

 59

the s o u r c e from w h i c h a l l p a r t i c u l a r gods o f p e r s o n s o r i g i n a t e ;

i t m i g h t t h e r e f o r e be e q u a l l y v a l i d t o t r a n s l a t e "chukwu" as god and
"chi" as p e r s o n a l god. We c o u l d t h e r e f o r e c o n c e i v e o f t h e s e terms
i n the f o l l o w i n g d i m e n s i o n s ; c h i g as " p e r s o n a l god", chukwu as "great
g o d " , c c f i i i "god w i t h o u t q u a l i f i c a t i o n " - - a n d i n t h i s l a t t e r . s e n s e the
term a l s o r e f e r s to d a y l i g h t . (See f i g u r e b e l o w ) .

(Unmarked narrow meaning: u n d e r l y i n g (Marked narrow meaning:

the e s s e n c e o f the i n d i v i d u a l s e l f ) u n d e r l y i n g e s s e n c e o f the
universe).

Fig. II. The S e m a n t i c S t r u c t u r e o f Chi (taken f r o m Henderson, 1972,

p. 109).

I f the d e s c r i p t i o n o f Igbo b e l i e f system t h u s f a r makes a c o n c e r n

w i t h l i f e and l i f e f o r c e s a p p e a r c e n t r a l , i n d i v i d u a l l i f e i t s e l f i s

conceived not s o l e l y i n o p p o s i t i o n t o the n o t i o n o f d e a t h "onwu", but

as an i m p e r f e c t a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f i t . Indeed, a c t s o f a t t a i n i n g t h e

h e i g h t s o f p r e s t i g e by i n d i v i d u a l s among t h e Igbos (e.g. t i t l e - t a k i n g ,

i n i t i a t i o n i n t o s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s ) , a r e marked by identity-changing

r i t u a l s t h a t b r i n g them c l o s e r and c l o s e r t o d e a t h . The u l t i m a t e goal

f o r e v e r y p e r s o n i s to l o s e h i s c h i and t h e r e b y become a dead p e r s o n o r

 60

a ghost.(mmuo o r mma). The c o n c e p t s o f "god" and " g h o s t " form t h e

major c o n t r a s t p a i r i n Igbo r e l i g i o n , two f o r c e s i n o p p o s i t i o n
w h i c h , however, i n t e r p e n e t r a t e t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s o f r e i n c a r n a t i o n .

T h i s b e l i e f a l s o p o s t u l a t e s a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f w o r l d s (uwa) i n
which e x i s t e n c e o c c u r s . The number o f t h e s e w o r l d s i s i n d e f i n i t e ,
b u t from t h e p o i n t o f view o f men i n h a b i t i n g t h i s one, t h e o t h e r
w o r l d s a r e a l l " l a n d s o f t h e dead" ( a n j nmuo), i n t o which a l l p e r s o n s
who d i e s h o u l d s u b s e q u e n t l y be i n c a r n a t e d . . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e s e
l a n d s o f t h e dead a r e a l s o t h e s o l e . s o u r c e o f a l l new human b e i n g s i n
the e m p i r i c a l w o r l d ; Men, wherever t h e y a r e , a r e b e l i e v e d t o be
l o o k i n g i n t o t h e o t h e r w o r l d s , communicating w i t h p e o p l e t h e r e , and
c o n s i d e r i n g b e i n g i n c a r n a t e d t h e r e anew.. A l l t h e dead a r e b e l i e v e d t o
take a continuous i n t e r e s t i n t h i s world. Indeed, some n e v e r l e a v e
i t , b u t wander about i n i t m o s t l y i n a s t a t e o f p e r p e t u a l , i n c o r p o r e a l
u n r e s t ; t h e s e a r e t h e "bad d e a t h s " ( a j o onwu), f o r t h e s e v i o l a t e d t h e
world order. They b e l o n g nowhere and do l i t t l e b u t make t r o u b l e f o r
the l i v i n g .

The dead who a r e viewed h o p e f u l l y as s o u r c e s of-human b e i n g s a r e

t h o s e whose l i v e s were exemplary, f u l f i l l e d and who were s e n t o u t o f
t h i s w o r l d w i t h g l o r i o u s f u n e r a l s which f a c i l i t a t e d t h e i r subsequent
e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n o t h e r w o r l d s , and t h e r e f o r e l o o k back here w i t h
p l e a s a n t memories and t h o u g h t s o f r e t u r n i n g . These dead a r e e x h o r t e d
by t h e l i v i n g i n r i t u a l s and c e r e m o n i e s t o r e t u r n as i n f a n t s , and
p e r i o d i c a l l y , i n o t h e r f o r m s , c h i e f o f which i s t h e mask.

The w o r l d s o f t h e dead a r e c o n c e i v e d as l o c a t e d n e a r b y , i n t h e
v i c i n i t y o f t h e e a r t h i n which t h e y were b u r i e d . It i s believed that
 61

the c l o s e r a person was b u r i e d t o a house, the more l i k e l y he o r she

w i l l choose to r e i n c a r n a t e t h e r e as an o f f s p r i n g o f i t s occupants.
Hence, h i g h l y v a l u e d p e r s o n s a r e b u r i e d w i t h i n t h e i r own house o r
compound t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e i r r e t u r n , w h i l e t h o s e whose l i f e courses
have been condemned, a r e c a s t away i n t o d i s t a n t bush so t h a t t h e y w i l l
not r e t u r n . Those b u r i e d n e a r b y . a l s o c o n t i n u e to o b s e r v e and protect
t h e i r l i v i n g c h i l d r e n ; may be p e r i o d i c a l l y f e d r i t u a l l y , and invoked
to r e t u r n p h y s i c a l l y to the w o r l d i n the form o f r e i n c a r n a t e d dead
(nmanwu, i . e . masquerade o r mask), to i n s p e c t and j u d g e t h e community:,
t o e x p r e s s t h e i r p l e a s u r e a t the c e l e b r a t i o n s o f t h e i r kinsmen or t o
demand t h a t laws they have h e l p e d t o s u p p o r t be u p h e l d . They may also
be i n v o k e d t o . e n t e r i n c o r p o r e a l l y i n t o o b j e c t s c o n s t r u c t e d i n t h e i r
name to be f e d , v e n e r a t e d , prayed t o , and t h a n k e d f o r t h e i r s p i r i t u a l
a s s i s t a n c e i n m a i n t a i n i n g l o n g . l i v e s f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n and i n
b r i n g i n g some c h i l d r e n i n t o t h i s w o r l d .

The m a j o r c a t e g o r i e s o f Igbo r e l i g i o n have n o t been e x h a u s t e d i n

t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f the p e r s o n a l g o d , . i t s r e l a t e d but " u n i v e r s a l i z e d "
c o n c e p t o f g r e a t god and g h o s t , and a n c e s t o r s ; f o r the o b j e c t s o f the
p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e (which may r e p r e s e n t t h e s e components) a r e appropriate
symbols because t h e y a r e b e l i e v e d t o be imbued w i t h i n t r i n s i c forces
and i n t e n t i o n a l powers t h a t a r e a l s o r e l e v a n t to the needs o f the
living. T h e s e f o r c e s and powers a r e subsumed under the terms o f s p i r i t s
( a l u s i ) and m e d i c i n e (ogwu). T h e s e two terms i n t r o d u c e numerous com-,
p l e x i t i e s i n Igbo b e l i e f s y s t e m . . T h e i r meanings i n t e r p e n e t r a t e not
o n l y one a n o t h e r but w i t h t h e i d e a s o f gods and g h o s t s . Medicines
r e t a i n e d o v e r t i m e can become s p i r i t s ; s p i r i t s , under c e r t a i n circumstances
 62

can make p a c t s w i t h p e r s o n a l gods and t h e r e b y become a t t a c h e d t o

i n d i v i d u a l s ; and s p i r i t s a r e r e g a r d e d as such p a r t l y because t h e i r ,
power a t t r a c t s t h e g h o s t s o f t h e d e a d . To make t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e i n
the b e l i e f system c l e a r , . s o m e e x t e n d e d d i s c u s s i o n o f s p i r i t s and
medicines i s necessary.

Igbos b e l i e v e t h a t when t h e g r e a t god c r e a t e d t h e u n i v e r s e , he

endowed some o f . i t s o b j e c t s w i t h s p i r i t u a l power. These s p i r i t s a r e
abstract but purposeful forces that reside i n natural objects, possess
moral commitments, a n d may be h e l p f u l o r harmful t o man. Like personal
gods, t h e y a r e l i m i t l e s s i n t h e i r d u r a t i o n . U n l i k e t h e g r e a t god,
they a r e s p a t i a l l y l o c a l i z e d f o r c e s t h a t a c t d i r e c t l y a n d . i n t e n t i o n a l l y
upon men, and n e g o t i a t i o n s c a n be made w i t h them. F o r example, t h e
sun (anyahwu) and t h e moon (dnwa) a r e messengers o f t h e g r e a t god;
t h e y t r a v e r s e t h e s k y (igwe) o v e r t h e l a n d ( a n i o f a l a ) i n i n t e r s e c t i n g
paths which d i v i d e the earth i n t o quadrants a s s o c i a t e d with t h e f o u r
days ( e k e , oye o r o r i e , a f o and nkwo) o f t h e Igbo week and w i t h
markets^; Thus a c o n c e p t u a l l i n k a g e i s made between t i m e a n d s p a c e ,
f o r each Igbo day i s a s s o c i a t e d and i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r
m a r k e t p l a c e h e l d i n a p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n communicated and l i n k e d
with a p a r t i c u l a r s e c t o r o f the earth. A l l t h e s e phenomena-days o f
the week ( o f t e n r e p r e s e n t e d as f o u r women c a r r y i n g m a r k e t b a s k e t s o r
as a f o u r - f a c e d p e r s o n ) , s u n , moon, t h e l a n d , e t c . , a r e t h o u g h t o f a s
imbued w i t h s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s . The r i v e r o r s t r e a m i s o f t e n t h e k i n g
o f t h e s p i r i t f o r i t was t h e r e o r r a t h e r was c r e a t e d a t t h e same t i m e
t h a t t h e ( f e m a l e ) l a n d was c r e a t e d . The o g i 1 i s i o r egbo t r e e i s
regarded as t h e f i r s t t o grow on t h e l a n d and i s a l s o s p i r i t u a l l y
 63

potent. T h i s i s why i t a l o n e i s s u i t a b l e f o r an o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n
o f a p e r s o n a l god and as t h e t r e e - s h r i n e o f l a n d .

Although t h e meaning o f a l u s i v a r i e s among d i f f e r e n t Igbo

c o m m u n i t i e s , and t h e r e a r e many v a r i e t i e s i n a s i n g l e community, t h e
meaning o f t h e term becomes c l e a r when one c o n s i d e r s t h e most r e v e r e d
and most a n c i e n t and a l s o t h e most common among t h e Igbos.- T h i s i s
the oath o r i y i . When a m a j o r d i s p u t e a r i s e s i n t h e community and
each p a r t y r e f u s e s t o admit t h a t t h e o t h e r i s r i g h t , an o b j e c t may be
b r o u g h t from a r e v e r e d s h r i n e and p r e s e n t e d t o a member o f each o f t h e
p a r t i e s t o swear t h e t r u t h o f t h e i r c o u r s e . I f t h a t member o f one o f
the p a r t i e s d i e s w i t h i n a s p e c i f i e d time a f t e r s w e a r i n g to the oath,
i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e s p i r i t has k i l l e d him f o r d e n y i n g a c r i m e o f
w h i c h he was g u i l t y ; i f he l i v e s t h e s p i r i t has e x o n e r a t e d him and
his cohorts. ( I f both l i v e then an o r a c l e i s r e s o r t e d t o ) . . In b r i e f ,
t h e s e s p i r i t s b r i n g i l l n e s s and death t o whoever has v i o l a t e d moral
s t a n d a r d s , and t h i s power t o harm i s t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r v e n e r a t i o n ,
f o r they a r e c r i t i c a l s a n c t i o n s . o f m o r a l i t y throughout Igboland.

The most u b i q u i t o u s s p i r i t u a l a g e n t among t h e Igbos i s t h e l a n d ,

for i t s sanction i s inescapable. A l l s t r o n g l y v a l u e d s o c i a l norms
are t h i n g s o f t h e l a n d ( o d i n a n i o r b m e n a n i) , i . e . custom. T h i s term
c o v e r s ai;wide range o f t h i n g s . ' W i t h i n t h i s c a t e g o r y , two k i n d s o f
sacred v i o l a t i o n s are distinguished:

1, A c t s n o t s t r i c t l y f o r b i d d e n by t h e l a n d (Nso o r a l u ) ;

2. A c t s t h a t a r e - f o r b i d d e n by t h e l a n d (Nso a n i ) , a b o m i n a t i o n .
The a c t s 1 above a r e r e s t i t u t i v e s a n c t i o n : . o n e must p e r f o r m a

r i t u a l a c t t h a t n e g a t e s t h e i r v i o l a t i o n , e . g . i f a son s h o u l d push down

 64

h i s f a t h e r i n an argument o r f i g h t , he has committed an nso and has

t o p e r f o r m a r i t u a l t o l i f t h i s f a t h e r up a g a i n . He has to s a c r i f i c e
a c h i c k e n to the f a m i l y a n c e s t r a l shrine.

However, a c t s o f the t y p e i n 2 above a r e v e r y s e r i o u s . These

a r e a b o m i n a t i o n s and the o f f e n d e r must " c o v e r " the a b o m i n a t i o n . For
example, i n c e s t c a n n o t be undone, i t i s a permanent damage. Also,
s h o u l d a member v i o l a t e the r u l e s o f a s e c r e t s o c i e t y by unmasking a
masquerade, i . e . d i s c l o s i n g the i d e n t i t y o f the a c t o r to a n o n - i n i t i a t e
( o u t s i d e r ) , he has committed an a b o m i n a t i o n ( t h i s depends on t y p e o f
d i s c l o s u r e and the s e r i o u s n e s s a t t a c h e d to such i n f o r m a t i o n ) , for
w h i c h a permanent damage has been done; The l a n d i s t h u s a n g r y and
w i l l cease'to be i n h a b i t a b l e . A r i t u a l to cover t h i s abomination i s
s e r i o u s and i n o l d e n t i m e s the c u l p r i t was e i t h e r k i l l e d o r e x i l e d
or s o l d i n t o s l a v e r y .

Nso has a n o t h e r r e l a t e d meaning Aso which i s " h o l i n e s s " , e.g.

the g r e a t god i s h o l y . We a r e t h e r e f o r e d e a l i n g w i t h a t h r e e - l e v e l
s e m a n t i c s t r u c t u r e i n t h i s c l a s s o f r e i i g i o u s norms (see F i g . I I I ) .

NS0-, (the g e n e r a l meaning: s a c r e d

—V t h i n g s and a c t s t h a t a r e
\ holy and/or forbidden)

F i g . I I I . Semantic S t r u c t u r e o f NSO. (Taken from H e n d e r s o n, 1972.

p. 116).
 65

R e g a r d l e s s o f the k i n d o f m o r a l i t y t h e y s u p p o r t , two d i s t i n c t
k i n d s o f s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s may be d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n any Igbo community:
t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the p e r s o n a l gods o f p a r t i c u l a r human b e i n g s ,
and t h o s e w i t h power o v e r a c o l l e c t i v i t y , e.g. a v i l l a g e group. The
same d i s t i n c t i o n a p p l i e s t o most o t h e r s p i r i t s . T h e r e i s an i m p o r t a n t
dynamic r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s e two c a t e g o r i e s ; s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e r e
i s a t e n d e n c y , o v e r t i m e , f o r p e r s o n a l s p i r i t s t o become c o l l e c t i v e .
Men know t h a t t h e r e a r e , g o d s , s p i r i t s and g h o s t s , know t h e i r p u t a t i v e
l o c a t i o n s , . a n d know t h a t t h e s e may-act on them. However, w h i l e t h e
c o u r s e o f human l i v e s and communities a r e presumed t o be s e t by t h e
w i l l o f t h e s e s p i r i t s , t h e y a r e l a r g e l y unknown t o men. Consequently,
men c o n t i n u a l l y seek t o b r i n g them i n t o p e r s o n a l o r p u b l i c awareness
through a c t s of communication.

Messenger s p i r i t s such as masks [and a l s o udene, " v u l t u r e " ) a r e

b e l i e v e d t o s e r v e t h i s p u r p o s e , but communication t h r o u g h them i n t u r n
requires physicalmedia. These p h y s i c a l media a r e m e d i c i n e (ogwu)
which a r e p u t a t i v e i n t r i n s i c p r o p e r t i e s o f p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s — b o n e s ,
p l a n t s , l i q u i d s , s t o n e s , m e t a l s , b o d y . p a r t s and e f f l u v i a l o f a n i m a l s
and m e n — w h i c h a r e b e l i e v e d t o produce c e r t a i n e f f e c t s a u t o m a t i c a l l y
by v i r t u e o f . t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s , e.g. (dmu), young green s h o o t s o f t h e
o i l palm ( E l a i s a g u i n e e s i s ) i s c o n s i d e r e d p r o t e c t i v e . . The f u n n e l e d
c l a y of a termite h i l l (nkpu) i s r e g a r d e d as a channel o f communication
w i t h s p i r i t s and t h e dead l o c a t e d i n the e a r t h , and i s t h e r e f o r e used
i n making p o w e r f u l m e d i c i n e s . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t masks
';" come up from and r e t i r e and r e s t i n t e r m i t e h i l l s . The most i m p o r t a n t
m e d i c i n a l medium i n I g b o l a n d i s c a l 1 e d o f o CDetafium s e n e g a l e s e ) , and
 66

i t i s owned by i n d i v i d u a l s and g r o u p s . Important and s e r i o u s

masquerades a l s o have t h i s s t a f f o f Igbo manhood, t h e o f o , e.g. the
Ozoebunu o f Ozubulu i s b e l i e v e d t o use the o l d e s t o f o o f the v i l l a g e .
And i n t h i s r e g a r d t h i s mask i s a s t o r e o f knowledge.

Important m e d i c i n a l media such as the o f o and v a r i o u s combinations

of medicines, cannot s i m p l y be o b t a i n e d and u t i l i z e d ad hoc, f o r
s p e c i a l i z e d knowledge i s r e q u i r e d t o make them work. H e r e - i n comes
the importance o f the s e r v i c e s o f the d i b i a ( " d i v i n e r , medicine-man
o r d o c t o r " ) who c o n t r o l s m e d i c i n e , g i v i n g them r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the
messenger s p i r i t s . Some d i b i a a r e t r a i n e d by o t h e r s , w h i l e others
i n h e r i t the traits.

The d i b i a s u p e r v i s e s the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
m e d i c i n a l o b j e c t s such as goods, s h r i n e s , and o b j e c t s d e d i c a t e d t o
the g h o s t s o f the dead ( a t t i m e s t h i s i n c l u d e s the c a r v i n g o f m a s k s ) .
They a l s o d e d i c a t e s h r i n e s , and must be p r e s e n t b e f o r e the mask i s
worn and would be r e q u i r e d t o watch i n c a s e e v i l s p i r i t s i n t e r v e n e i n
a masquerade p e r f o r m a n c e . More w i l l be s a i d about t h i s i n the next
chapter. In c o n c l u d i n g t h i s d i s c u s s i o n i t may be i n s t r u c t i v e t o
r e p r e s e n t t h e dynamic a s p e c t s o f Igbo r e l i g i o n s c h e m a t i c a l l y . This
s u g g e s t s a developmental p r o c e s s t h a t r e l a t e s persons to r o l e s , c o l l e c -
t i v i t i e s , and t o the c o n c e i v e d moral o r d e r o f the u n i v e r s e .

The d i s c u s s i o n i n t h i s c h a p t e r i s l e n g t h y and v e r y important

because i t i s b a s i c to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the mask and masquerade p e r -
formance o f the Igbos. I t o f f e r s a c o s m o l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n f o r the
c o n c e p t o f t h e mask. The mask f i t s i n t o t h i s cosmology through t h e wood
(because o f t h e s a n c t i t y o f the t r e e ) used i n making i t , t h e p a i n t s
 67

Chukwu
The G r e a t God or
Chineke

CREATES AND DETERMINES

7

"1

Symbol o f The P e r s o n a l Ills a s s o c i a t e d :ession Collectively

Self god m e d i c i n e s and to c o n t r o l worshipped
spirits by — 1
-H s p i r i t s and
descendants i medicines
I
I

r
Its ghostly A t t a c h e d bad |
elements s ghosts I

Life birth ATH

I
Good d e a t h
^Bad death-

LAND OF THE DEAD

Reversible Time Irreversible Time

F i g . IV. R e l i g i o u s Symbol o f S e l f , R o l e and C o l l e c t i v i t y . (Taken

from Henderson, 1972. p. 1 2 3 ) ,

which p u t s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s i n t o i t and because i t i s an i n v o c a t i o n o f

t h e dead. In the-inex¥" d i a g r a m , I have m o d i f i e d Henderson's c h a r t t o

l o c a t e t h e p l a c e o f masks i n Igbo cosmology.

 68

Ritual theatre

of

The D e a d f >The L i v i n g

R e t u r n o f t h e dead as masquerades

f 1 The Living
I n i t i a t i o n (ikenga) Death

Making o f masks] ( R i t u a l s & M e d i c i n e )

Land o f t h e Dead

REVERSIBLE TIME IRREVERSIBLE TIME

V. P l a c e o f t h e M a s q u e r a d e * i n Igbo Cosmology.
 69

CHAPTER I I I

Notes and References

1. H a r t l e " A r c h a e o l o g y i n E a s t e r n N i g e r i a " i n the West A f r i c a n

A r c h a e o l o g i c a l N e w s l e t t e r . (1966: No. 5, p . 1 3 ) , f f a l s o (1969:
No. 11, p. 3 5 ) .
2. c f Shaw's e x c a v a t i o n s a t Igbo-Ukwo. Published i n 2 volumes.
London, 1970.
3. ' c c f Wi11 e t : " N i g e r i a " i n P.L. S h i n n i e ( e d . ) . The A f r i c a n I r o n Age.,
O x f o r d (1971:19); a l s o H a r t l e (1966:13) and (1969:35).
4. c f A l e x a n d e r and Coursey,."The o r i g i n s o f yam c u l t i v a t i o n " i n P.J. -
Ucko and G.W. Dimbleby ( e d s . ) . The D o m e s t i c a t i o n and E x p l o i t a t i o n
o f P l a n t s and A n i m a l s . London, 1969.
5. c f Buchanan and Paugh (1964:60).

6. I s i c h o i (1973:7) n o t e d t h a t Thompson, a c o n s e r v a t o r o f f o r e s t s i n
N i g e r i a , r e p o r t e d t h i s a s t o n i s h i n g f a c t o v e r s e v e n t y y e a r s ago.
7. V i r i l o c a l r e s i d e n c e r e s u l t s when a c o u p l e e s t a b l i s h e s a h o u s e h o l d
w i t h the husband's p a r e n t s .
8. P r o v e r b i a l l y , Igbos l i k e n c h i l d r e n t o the t i e - c l o t h which s u p p o r t s
a p e r s o n ' s b e l l y , h e l p i n g him t o walk the r o a d o f l i f e . I t i s
s a i d t h a t b e f o r e one d i e s , h i s o f f s p r i n g s s h o u l d be as numerous
as the g r a i n s o f sand t h a t bury a yam. The v a l u e o f c h i l d r e n i s
o f t e n a f f i r m e d i n the p e r s o n a l names g i v e n t o them, e.g. Nwa-Ka-ego
( " c h i l d s u r p a s s e s money"), Nwa-bu-nda ( " c h i l d i s s h e l t e r " 7 7

9. For a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n , , a n a l y s i s and u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h i s
c o n c e p t o f " c h i " , p l e a s e r e f e r t o T a l b o t (1926), Horton (1956,
1961, 1967), and.Bradbury ( I 9 6 0 ) . '

10. T a l b o t (1926:2:40-41) c l e a r l y p e r c e i v e d the c e n t r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e

o f the n o t i o n o f " c h i " and i t s r e l a t i o n t o the c o n c e p t i o n s o f
s e l f and u n i v e r s e .

11. F o r and b e t t e r and deeper e x p l a n a t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e f o u r

days o f the Igbo week, see H o r t o n , 1956:17-28.
 70

CHAPTER IV

ETHNOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF IGBO MASKS AND MASQUERADE PERFORMANCE

In t h i s c h a p t e r , I w i l l b r i e f l y i n t r o d u c e t h e r e a d e r t o an
example o f t h e appearance o f t h e mask. The c o n c e p t and meaning o f
the mask w i l l then be d i s c u s s e d . T h i s w i l l be f o l l o w e d by a d e s c r i p -
t i o n o f t h e c a r v i n g o f t h e mask, and making o f costumes. The r e m a i n i n g
p a r t o f t h e c h a p t e r w i l l be d e v o t e d t o i n i t i a t i o n i n t o t h e mmuo.

The S e t t i n g

I t i s v e r y a p p r o p r i a t e t o commence w i t h an i n t r o d u c t o r y i l l u s -

t r a t i o n o f t h e appearance o f t h e masks. In t h e d r y s e a s o n , i . e . between

the months o f O c t o b e r and March b u t p a r t i c u l a r l y i n December, i t has

become.customary f o r Igbos t o e x h i b i t o r d i s p l a y t h e i r masked r i t u a l

p l a y s on eke d a y s ^ . These p l a y s a r e p e r f o r m e d e i t h e r i n t h e market

s q u a r e , t h e v i l l a g e s q u a r e , o r on r i t u a l p l a y - g r o u n d p r e s c r i b e d and

t h e r e f o r e r e s e r v e d f o r such an o c c a s i o n . - In one Igbo community, O z u b u l u ,

such a p l a y - g r o u n d has a l i t t l e hut b u i l t n e a r b y . Both t h e h u t and t h e

s q u a r e a r e c o l l e c t i v e l y c a l l e d dbimmuo, meaning l i t e r a l l y " t h e abode

of s p i r i t s " . I t i s on such obimmuo, a b b r e v i a t e d t o dbom, t h a t

masquerades p e r f o r m on eke days t o e n t e r t a i n t h e community.

S i n c e eke i s t h e h o l y day o f t h e Igbo week, and l i t t l e o r no work

i s done, a d u l t s p e r f o r m r i t u a l s a c r i f i c e s t o t h a n k . t h e gods and

 71

ancestors. I n d i v i d u a l s may s a c r i f i c e c h i c k e n t o t h e i r ikenga ( t h e

p e r s o n a l god o f f o r t u n e ) a n d a s k f o r l i f e and f u r t h e r a c h i e v e m e n t s .

L i n e a g e heads, d i - o k p a l a , may a l s o s a c r i f i c e t o t h e l i n e a g e a n c e s t r a l

s h r i n e t o a s k f o r p r o t e c t i o n a n d b l e s s i n g s f o r t h e kinsmen., A l s o ,
the e n t i r e community w i l l o f f e r s a c r i f i c e s t h r o u g h the v i l l a g e p r i e s t
to t h e v i l l a g e gods, a n c e s t o r s and o t h e r s p i r i t s a s k i n g f o r f o r g i v e n e s s
o f t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n s o f t h e p e o p l e and p r a y i n g f o r b l e s s i n g s i n t h e
form o f l i f e , h e a l t h , c h i l d r e n , f o o d , and g e n e r a l l y p e a c e , harmony
and p r o s p e r i t y . This i s a corporate r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

In a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , members o f t h e mmuo s e c r e t s o c i e t y perform

s a c r i f i c e s t o t h e gods and a n c e s t o r s through t h e i r masks. T h e mmuo

s o c i e t y i s c o m p r i s e d o f o n l y a d u l t males who have been i n i t i a t e d i n t o
3

the masquerade s o c i e t y . Women and c h i l d r e n a r e n e v e r members . The

mmuo s o c i e t y , m a y s a c r i f i c e some palm w i n e , k o l a nuts a n d c h i c k e n .

L a t e r , t h e meat o f t h e fowl i s cooked and e a t e n by members present.

In t h e e v e n i n g s o f - s u c h e k e d a y s , members p u t on masquerade p e r f o r m a n c e s

to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e gods a n d s p i r i t s h a v e . h e a r d t h e p r a y e r s o f t h e
community; t h a t t h e a n c e s t o r s a r e h a p p y and have a c c e p t e d
1
the s a c r i f i c e s

and s u p p l i c a t i o n s . o f t h e community. I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t when e v o k e d ,

the a n c e s t o r s ( t h e dead members o f t h e community), would a p p e a r a s

masked a n d costumed f i g u r e s - - m a s q u e r a d e s - - t h u s g i v i n g the impression

t h a t t h e dead have t e m p o r a r i l y r e t u r n e d t o t h e w o r l d o f t h e l i v i n g i n

happy moods. In a r e l i g i o u s sense, t h i s r e - e n a c t e d return gives

c r e d e n c e t o a b e l i e f i n t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e s p i r i t s i n human a f f a i r s .

One i m p o r t a n t p o i n t needs t o be made here. The reason f o r t h e

masked r i t u a l p l a y s o f t h e Igbos i n t h e d r y season (when t h e r e i s l i t t l e

 72

o r no work on the f a r m s ) , on f u n e r a l o c c a s i o n s a n d on such i m p o r t a n t

t r i b a l c e r e m o n i e s l i k e the New Yam f e s t i v a l , i s n o t o n l y t o demon-
s t r a t e t h a t the e n t i r e community i s a t t h e mercy o f the s u p e r n a t u r a l
f o r c e s , b u t a l s o t o e n t e r t a i n t h e community who a r e a t t h e same t i m e
t h e a u d i e n c e a t such p e r f o r m a n c e s . P e o p l e have t o l d me t h a t o r i g i n a l l y
t h e s e p e r f o r m a n c e s were a r r a n g e d by a g u i l d o f masked a c t o r s , b u t
l a t e r on the g u i l d expanded i n t o t h e mmuo s e c r e t s o c i e t y , which

o p e r a t e s even t o d a y , . a n d r e q u i r e d t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f a l l a b l e - b o d i e d ,
4

c o u r a g e o u s Igbo males . T h i s e v o c a t i o n o f t h e a n c e s t o r s and s p i r i t s

t o p e r f o r m f o r t h e community a s masquerades i s a n e x p l i c i t a s p e c t a n d

f u n c t i o n o f Igbo r e l i g i o n a n d what A d e d e j i (1972:255) c a l l s "ritual

f e s t i v a l drama" when d e s c r i b i n g the egungun o f t h e Y o r u b a s . Donald

Baker (1976:58) c a l l s i t t h e f e s t i v a l drama phase o f t h e a t r e . In t h i s

t h e s i s I would l i k e t o d e s c r i b e Igbo•masquerades as r i t u a l theatres..

The r i t u a l s a n d p r a y e r s o f t h e s e c r e t s o c i e t y members a r e p r e l i m i n -

a r y t o t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f the mask; and a f t e r t h o s e , t h e masks a n d

costumes a r e p u t on and t h e s t a g e i s s e t . F i r s t l y , t h r o u g h t h e wooden

gong, the a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e mmuo i s announced t o t h e community, who

q u i c k l y assemble a t t h e obom o r h o l y s q u a r e . Then, w i t h the mask i n

f r o n t , members dance t o the rhythm o f music a n d songs t o t h e s q u a r e a n d

t o t h e welcome c h e e r o f t h e i r a u d i e n c e . I f the performance i s g o o d , t h e

a u d i e n c e c h e e r s a n d sometimes p a r t i c i p a t e s i n some o f the s o n g s . Later,

t h e y p r e s e n t g i f t s t o t h e masks; t h i s i s g i v i n g g i f t s t o t h e s p i r i t s .

The mask i s admired w i t h a w e a n d r e v e r e n c e . The u n i n i t i a t e d a r e

not supposed t o l o o k a t t h e mask i n the f a c e w h i l e women and c h i l d r e n

watch a t a s a f e d i s t a n c e . We have a l r e a d y n o t e d t h a t , among t h e Igbo,

 73

masks and masquerades a r e male a f f a i r s and though women may o r g a n i z e

t h e i r own dance p e r f o r m a n c e , t h e y n e v e r put on masks. After i t s
p e r f o r m a n c e , t h e mask r e t i r e s i n t o t h e hut i n t h e obom where t h e
costumes and o t h e r masquerade paraphernalia are stored u n t i l required
again f o r performance. I t i s u s u a l l y t h e d u t y o f t h e most s e n i o r member
o f t h e mmuo s o c i e t y to c a t e r t o the need o f t h e mask and a v o i d i t s
d e s e c r a t i o n o r p o l l u t i o n by u n a u t h o r i z e d p e r s o n s . I f t h i s i s not
done, the a n c e s t o r s w i l l wreak vengeance on the.community i n t h e form
of i l l n e s s or famine.

The C o n c e p t o f t h e Mask

The above i l l u s t r a t e s t h e Igbo b e l i e f t h a t masks g i v e v i s i b l e

i d e n t i t y and form t o the unseen s u p e r n a t u r a l . T h e m a s k i s s p i r i t and
a l s o a means o f communicating w i t h s p i r i t s . It stood in i t s o r i g i n a l
r i g h t as an i n d i v i d u a l and group e x p r e s s i o n o f the l i k e n e s s o f t h e
spirits.

A g r e a t many p e o p l e , e s p e c i a l l y t h e Western v i s i t o r s t o museums

o r a r t - g a l l e r i e s , . t h i n k o f t h e mask as a s e p a r a t e e n t i t y and as l a r g e l y

d i s t i n c t from i t s costumes. T h i s must have l e d J o n e s (1973:58) t o

d e f i n e a mask as "a term which i s p o p u l a r l y u s e d t o r e f e r t o any k i n d

o f c o n c e a l i n g h e a d p i e c e worn by an a c t o r i n a p e r f o r m a n c e g i v e n by an

a s s o c i a t i o n , w h i c h i n West A f r i c a i s c a l l e d a s e c r e t s o c i e t y " . To most

Westerners, the mask u s u a l l y has one m e a n i n g — i t i s , s a y , a b e a u t i f u l

w h i t e mask t h a t l o o k s f e m i n i n e and t h e y t h i n k o f i t t h a t way.

The m i s t a k e i n t h i s t y p e o f a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t t h e Igbos do n o t
 74

j u s t l o o k a t t h e mask as a h e a d p i e c e . I t i s not a separate e n t i t y ,

d i s t i n c t f r o m i t s costume.. As one who has p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e s e

r i t u a l p l a y s a n d a l s o as o b s e r v e r ; my r e s e a r c h p o i n t s u n m i s t a k a b l y to

the f a c t t h a t when an Igbo t h i n k s o f a mask, he g e n e r a l l y c o n c e i v e s o f

i t a s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a costume r a t h e r than i n i s o l a t i o n , and as

b e l o n g i n g w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r d r e s s s t y l e and forms o f p l a y and dance.

The name o f t h e mask may a l s o be t h e name o f t h e costume worn w i t h i t

or t h e p l a y o r t h e dance i n w h i c h i t i s u s e d . The Igbo agbogho mmuo

("female s p i r i t mask") ( s e e p l a t e I X ) , r e f e r s n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h e

headpiece but a l s o to the b e a u t i f u l dress ( s i g n i f y i n g feminine

q u a l i t i e s ) a s w e l l as t h e m u s i c and dance t h a t accompany i t . The

mask i s an e l e m e n t i n a l a r g e r whole. The symbolism o f t h e mask v a r i e s

a c c o r d i n g t o , i t s p a r t i c u l a r use i n a p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t . The f a c e o f

agbogho can be used i n . a n o t h e r c o n t e x t t o r e p r e s e n t Onukwu ( " f o o l " ) .

T h u s , t h e meaning o f t h e " f a c e " depends upon t h e whole.

The form o f t h e mask i s o r d e r e d by r e l i g i o u s c o n c e p t s which permits

the a r t i s t o r t h e c a r v e r a l a t i t u d e o f i n d i v i d u a l e x p r e s s i o n i n h i s

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s p i r i t , d e i t y o r a n c e s t o r , but u s u a l l y w i t h i n

traditional limits. T h i s c o u l d be seen i n c a r v i n g s o f I g r i masks w i t h

the t r a d i t i o n a l A f i k p o g e o m e t r i c p a t t e r n s , r e c o g n i z a b l e as d i s t i n c t l y

A f i k p o b u t showing i n d i v i d u a l a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e c a r v e r . Also,

c a r v i n g s o f t h e agbogho masks o f t h e N o r t h e r n Igbo show t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l

a r t s t y l e s i n c o r p o r a t i n g i n d i v i d u a l c r e a t i v i t y . In t h e e x h i b i t "The

World o f S p i r i t s " , one n o t i c e s i n d i v i d u a l e x p r e s s i o n w i t h i n t r a d i t i o n a l

styles. See d e t a i l s i n t h e p h o t o g r a p h s accompanying t h e d o c u m e n t a t i o n

of e x h i b i t i n Chapter I I .
 75

P l a t e IX. L i v e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e Igbo agbogho masquerade a t t h e

G r e a t H a l l o f t h e Museum on J u l y 17, 1977.

(Photograph was t a k e n by W i l l i a m McLennan, U.B.C. Museum o f

Anthropology).
 76

In one r e s p e c t , the mask has, f o r the W e s t e r n e r , the same c l a i m

t o e x i s t e n c e as a work o f a r t such as the c a r v e d o r p a i n t e d Madonna
o f F l o r e n c e and V e n i c e . However, t h e mask i n i t s Igbo frame o f t h e
c a r v e d h e a d p i e c e , costume, dance, r i t u a l and ceremony, has not the
same s e p a r a t e e x i s t e n c e as the I t a l i a n Madonna s u r r o u n d e d by a g i l d e d
moulding. The Igbo mask i s not so d e t a c h a b l e from i t s f r a m e w o r k — s u c h
as the c h u r c h i n the c a s e o f t h e Madonna. The mask i s not an i d o l ;
i t may be t h o u g h t o f as an i d e n t i t y o f t h e d e i t y o r a n c e s t o r , but
m o s t l y i t i s r e c o g n i z e d as a c a r v e d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o r countenance.
I t i s f u r t h e r a f o c u s on the b r o a d e r e f f e c t i n i t s e l a b o r a t e framework
o f r i t u a l , , i n which myth and b e l i e f a r e c e r e m o n i a l l y e x p r e s s e d i n
music, dance, pageant, drama and s c u l p t u r e .

The d a n c e r who wears the mask i s c a l l e d mmuo o r mma, meaning t h e

s p i r i t or ghost. He i s supposed by i t s a i d and h i s s k i l l t o evoke the
p r e s e n c e o f the s u p e r n a t u r a l . His body.is mostly completely covered
by costume, a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e l o c a l v a r i e t i e s . In A f i k p o , the hands
and l e g s may be l e f t u n c o v e r e d , but i n O n i t s h a the e n t i r e body and
l i m b s a r e c o v e r e d . . The r e a s o n f o r the complete c o v e r i n g o f the body
i s to make the d i s g u i s e c o m p l e t e . The d a n c e r even t a l k s i n s t r a n g e
tongue t o d i s g u i s e h i s n a t u r a l v o i c e . Another reason f o r the complete
d i s g u i s e i s t h a t o f t e n men v e r s e d i n " m e d i c i n e " may d e c i d e t o " t r y o u t "
the d a n c e r by c a u s i n g him b o d i l y harm i n an e f f o r t t o t e s t h i s manhood
o r t o d i s g r a c e him i f he i s n o t p o w e r f u l . To s a f e g u a r d a g a i n s t such an
o c c u r e n c e , the d a n c e r i n the costume i s f o r t i f i e d w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l
protectives.

Even t o the c a s u a l t r a v e l l e r i n Igbo c o u n t r y ( o r i n A f r i c a g e n e r a l l y ) ,

 77

u n v e r s e d in'Jthe b e l i e f s and customs o f ' t h e p e o p l e , music and d a n c i n g

s t a n d out as the r u l i n g p a s s i o n s . I t i s t h e form i n which both

v i s u a l and a u r a l e x p r e s s i o n has p l a c e and o r i g i n o r i s i n some way

connected. Head w o r s h i p o r t h e c u l t o f t h e head which i s p r e s e n t i n

v a r i o u s forms a l l o v e r A f r i c a , g i v e s t h e mask a p r e d o m i n a t i n g importance.

The head, r e g a r d e d by t h e Igbos as the s e a t o f a l l human wisdom, i s

symbolic. Igbos say t h a t one's head ".isnrioteeorEect^^ -

the p e r s o n has been a t t a c k e d by e v i l s p i r i t s o r i s p o s s e s s e d , i . e . t h e

p e r s o n i s mad.- In t h i s way,,the mask r e p r e s e n t s t h e c o u n t e n a n c e of

wisdom and i n the c a s e o f e v i l masks, i n v e r t e d o r d i a b o l i c a l wisdom.

T h i s i s l o g i c a l because t h e mask i s s p i r i t , and a c c o r d i n g t o Igbo

b e l i e f , t h e s p i r i t s a r e o m n i p r e s e n t and o m n i s c i e n t i n w o r l d a f f a i r s .

On a c c o u n t o f t h i s i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e head, t h e mask, as t h e p i e c e de

r e s i s t a n c e o f dance and ceremony, i s o f t e n t i m e s g i v e n g r o t e s q u e p r o p o r -

t i o n s d e p e n d i n g , o f c o u r s e , on c i r c u m s t a n c e s .

Underwood (1951:1), i n comparing Greek a n d . A f r i c a n s c u l p t u r e ,

n o t e d t h a t both have a s t r o n g a l l i a n c e i n myths and b e l i e f . However,

i n Greek s c u l p t u r e t h e body dominated t h e head because, w i t h t h e i r g r e a t

a d m i r a t i o n f o r p h y s i q u e , t h e Greeks c e n t e r e d t h e i r e x p r e s s i o n i n the

m u s c u l a r f e a t u r e s o f t h e body.. The c o u n t e n a n c e o f t h e d e i t y became

s u p p r e s s e d and h i s f a c e o r mask g a i n e d more'and more an e x p r e s s i o n o f

immobility. But t h e masks o f A f r i c a g e n e r a l l y , and t h o s e o f t h e Igbos

in p a r t i c u l a r , . m a i n t a i n e d l i v e l i e r expressions. This v i t a l i t y of the

A f r i c a n ' s d i r e c t e x p r e s s i o n i n h i s a r t c o n t i n u e d t o d e v e l o p u n t i l i t met

t h e c a t a c l y s m from the West,

The p o i n t has a l r e a d y been made t h a t masks a n d m a s q u e r a d e s a r e

 78

f a c t s o f l i f e among t h e Igbos; what needs t o be emphasized further i s

t h a t t o t h e Igbos, t h e y a l s o r e p r e s e n t a symbol o r f o c i f o r t h e
s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s t h a t l o a n e d t h e i r a u t h o r i t y t o t h e e d i c t s and a c t s
t h a t emanated t h e r e f r o m . T h i s f a c t had and t o some e x t e n t s t i l l h a s ,
v a r i o u s s o c i a l consequences f o r which t h e mask i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o
Igbo s o c i e t y .

To u n d e r s t a n d t h i s , and i n o r d e r t o use y o u r i m a g i n a t i o n t o p a r -
t i c i p a t e i n t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f m a s k i n g , one i s asked t o c o n s i d e r how
the mask t r a n s f o r m s t h e man who wears i t :

(a) I t h i d e s h i s f a c e and i d e n t i t y from t h e p u b l i c ;

(b) I t f r e e s him from t h e r u l e s o f c o n d u c t which govern everyday
life;
(c) I t a l l o w s him t o become t h e o t h e r b e i n g t h a t i t r e p r e s e n t s . In
t h i s c a s e , i t r e p r e s e n t s t h e s p i r i t s and a n c e s t o r s who keep
watch as g u a r d i a n s and c u s t o d i a n s o f m o r a l i t y i n Igbo s o c i e t y .
T h e i r d e c i s i o n i s s u b j e c t t o no a p p e a l . :

T h i s i s where t h e mask d e r i v e d i t s power i n Igbo s o c i e t y and t h i s

a u t h o r i t y took r o o t i n Igbo p h i l o s o p h y and r e l i g i o n . A p a r t from t h e
r i t u a l s n e c e s s a r y f o r masking,,the mask a l s o a c t e d d i r e c t l y t o make
s u r e t h a t s o c i e t y does n o t t r a n s g r e s s . Because a man c o v e r s h i m s e l f
w i t h a mask which t h e r e f o r e i n v e s t s him w i t h powers o u t s i d e t h e o r d i n a r y ,
he t a k e s l i b e r t i e s which he o t h e r w i s e c o u l d n o t , and may c r i t i c i z e t h a t
which i s c o n s i d e r e d o b n o x i o u s i n and t o t h e s o c i e t y . In t h i s way, t h e
e x c e s s e s o f t h e e l d e r s , y o u t h s , women and c h i l d r e n , a r e c h e c k e d . By
c h e c k i n g p o s s i b l e t r a n s g r e s s i o n s , t h e Igbos hope t o a v o i d t h e anger
and hence h a r n e s s t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l .
 79

In t h e A f i k p o Okumkpa p l a y , p e r f o r m e r s r i d i c u l e d members o f
the p u b l i c . In t h i s way, t h e masks a c t as check on p u b l i c m o r a l i t y .
A boy o f twenty w e a r i n g a mask c o u l d t a l k d i r e c t l y t o a drunken and
l a z y g r a n d f a t h e r o f f i f t y who does n o t c a r e f o r h i s w i f e , c h i l d r e n
and r e l a t i v e s . P e o p l e would l a u g h a t t h e man i n p u b l i c and because
the mask i s s p i r i t , t h e young p e r f o r m e r who had t a k e n such a l i b e r t y
would n o t be p e n a l i z e d as would have been t h e c a s e had he done so i n
normal l i f e . T h i s i s an example o f t h e mask a c t i n g i n r o l e r e v e r s a l .

In t h e o l d e n days and t o some e x t e n t t o d a y , t h e mask a c t e d as t h e

e x e c u t i v e arm o f t h e Oha (Igbo l e g i s l a t i v e a s s e m b l y ) . I t was t h e mask
t h a t p u n i s h e d o f f e n d e r s by c o l l e c t i n g f i n e s f r o m t c u l p r i t s , c h a s i n g o u t
from t h e community t h o s e who committed i n c e s t and hanging murderers.
In t h i s r e g a r d t h e mask a c t e d a s t h e p o l i c e o f t h e community. It did
a r r e s t rogues and p r o t e c t community p r o p e r t y . I t undertook to consult
d i v i n e r s t o f i n d o u t what s i n t h e community had committed and t o o f f e r
appropriate propitiatory sacrifices.- I t was t h e g u a r d i a n and p r o t e c t o r
o f t h e weak. H a r l e y (1950:VIII) d i d r e p o r t , s u c h p o l i c e f u n c t i o n o f
masks o f t h e go ge ("god s p i r i t " ) masks o f t h e Poro t r i b e s o f N o r t h e a s t e r n
Liberia. A l s o , W i s s l e r (1966:238) noted s i m i l a r p o l i c e f u n c t i o n o f t h e
Kachina s p i r i t s o f t h e P u e b l o , i n d i a n s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I t does
a p p e a r , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e p o l i c e f u n c t i o n o f masks i s w i d e s p r e a d .
I t was t h e s p i r i t s and a n c e s t o r s t h a t performed the police function
t h r o u g h t h e mask and so t h e i r a c t i o n was n e v e r challenged.

A l t h o u g h t h i s has changed w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f modern c o u r t s

o f l a w , t h e p o l i c e f o r c e and t h e p r i s o n s y s t e m , . y e t i n some Igbo com-
m u n i t i e s t h e mask i s r e q u i r e d t o c o l l e c t f i n e s from r e c a l c i t r a n t o f f e n d e r s .
 80

T h i s happens when an o f f e n d e r has been found g u i l t y by t h e a s s e m b l y

and has r e f u s e d t o pay.- The mask goes t o c o l l e c t t h e f i n e by con-
f i s c a t i n g some o f h i s p r o p e r t y w h i c h t h e o f f e n d e r would come t o redeem
by p a y i n g y e t an a d d i t i o n a l f i n e . I f this f a i l s , the offender i s
subjected to social ostracism. He i s t o l d " t o go and buy some m a t c h e s "
which means t h a t he s h o u l d n e v e r e n t e r anybody's compound f o r fi"re o r
any o t h e r form o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n and v i c e v e r s a .

In t h e o l d e n days, t h e mask a l s o performed a direct judicial

f u n c t i o n n o t o n l y w i t h i n and among members o f t h e mmuo s o c i e t y b u t t o
the e n t i r e community. T h i s t y p e o f judgement i s b e t t e r r e f e r r e d t o as
a r b i t r a t i o n because t h e mask was brought i n when a c a s e was a t an
impasse. I t s d e c i s i o n was u s u a l l y s u b j e c t t o no appeal because t h e
s p i r i t s are omniscient. H o w e v e r , . s e c r e t s o c i e t y members made e v e r y
e f f o r t t o a s c e r t a i n t h e t r u t h o f t h e m a t t e r so t h a t t h e d e c i s i o n o f
t h e mask would be j u s t .

A l t h o u g h more w i l l be w r i t t e n on t h i s l a t e r , i t i s o n l y necessary

here t o p o i n t o u t / t h a t i n i t i a t i o n i n t o t h e mmuo s o c i e t y i s both a

r e l i g i o u s and f e s t i v e occasion which the e n t i r e v i l l a g e looks forward

to w i t h g r e a t a n t i c i p a t i o n . . I t i s a way i n w h i c h boys g r a d u a t e
1
into

men and take up r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s . . I n i t i a t i o n i s a

c l e a r example o f t h e o v e r l a p o f t h e r e l i g i o u s a n d s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s o f

masquerades. In f a c t , t h e v e r y n o t i o n o f community u n d e r l i n e s t h e
4

i n s e p e r a b l e n a t u r e o f t h e two , because t h e r e i s no c l e a r demarcation

between t h e s a c r e d and s e c u l a r f u n c t i o n s o f masks i n t r a d i t i o n a l Igbo

communities.

Some masks p e r f o r m f o r b u r i a l o r f u n e r a l c e r e m o n i e s t o e x p r e s s
 81

anger and sorrow a t t h e d e a t h o f a member o f t h e community. They

a l s o p e r f o r m r i t u a l s t o a s s u r e t h e d e c e a s e d s a f e passage i n t o t h e
u n d e r w o r l d and a c c e p t a n c e by the s p i r i t s . By g i v i n g ' a f i t t i n g f a r e -
w e l l t o t h e d e a d , . t h e y c r e a t e peace and harmony f o r t h e l i v i n g . Since
t h e s e masks p e r f o r m on such sad and solemn o c c a s i o n s , t h e y a t t i m e s
a r e g i v e n t h e b o l d f e a t u r e s t h e Igbo a t t r i b u t e t o d e a t h , who i s a l s o
known as the Rogue. F o r example, some o f such masks a r e the odogu
o r okpoka, and w h i l e t h e y a r e p e r f o r m i n g , t h e a u d i e n c e s t a y s a t a s a f e
d i s t a n c e away,.for t h e r e i s no p r e d i c t i n g what dangerous a c t i o n s t h e y
may do.•

Masks a l s o p e r f o r m on f e s t i v e o c c a s i o n s such as the New Yam

f e s t i v a l and i n t h i s c a s e t h e y g l o r i f y t h e e a r t h - g o d d e s s a l a f o r
g i v i n g f r u i t to the l i v i n g . Such masks a r e u s u a l l y g e n t l e and b e a u t i f u l ;
t h e i r d a n c i n g i s g r a c e f u l and accompanied by m e l o d i o u s m u s i c . One o f
such masks i s the agbogho which r e p r e s e n t female a n c e s t r a l s p i r i t s .

What i s b e i n g h i g h l i g h t e d here i s the s o c i a l f u n c t i o n o f e n t e r -

t a i n m e n t and a e s t h e t i c s s u r r o u n d i n g masquerade c e r e m o n i e s . When masks
p e r f o r m i n the v i l l a g e square on eke d a y s , t h e y e n t e r t a i n t h e v i l l a g e r s
and make them happy. Thompson (1974) w r i t e s t h a t " a r t and goodness
a r e combined". The mask i s an a t t e m p t o f man t o come t o g r i p s w i t h
t h e p o w e r f u l f o r c e s which he c a n n o t command, w h i l e a t t h e same time
g i v i n g e x p r e s s i o n t o man's i n n a t e d e s i r e t o c r e a t e p l e a s u r e and goodness.
One c a n n o t h e l p but admire the r a p t a t t e n t i o n w i t h which the community,
t h e a u d i e n c e , watches masquerade p e r f o r m a n c e s . . The a e s t h e t i c s o f
masquerades i s i n p a r t i c i p a t i o n . . When t h e drum b e a t s i n t o a c r e s c e n d o ,
a l o n g w i t h the gong and sound o f f l u t e s r e a c h i n g t h e h i g h heavens,
 82

e v e r y o n e around the obimmuo f i n d s h i m s e l f f o l l o w i n g the i n v i t i n g

rhythm. Igbos have a s a y i n g t h a t "when the gong o f the mask s o u n d s ,

eyen the c r i p p l e walks to the obimmuo--the v i l l a g e ' s p i r i t s q u a r e ' " .

And so may i t be f o r a l l t i m e s .

The Making o f Masks

The p o i n t has b e e n . s u f f i c i e n t l y made t h a t Igbos c o n s i d e r the

mask v e r y s e r i o u s l y . In the same l i g h t , the making o f the mask i s

taken e q u a l l y s e r i o u s l y . The t r a d i t i o n a l a r t i s t i s u s u a l l y a t r a i n e d

craftsman, not o n l y i n h i s t r a d e ' p r o p e r , but a l s o may undertake

p r i e s t l y or r e l i g i o u s f u n c t i o n s i n the c o u r s e o f h i s j o b . . T h i s i s so

because the v e r y wood he c u t s from a t r e e f o r - h i s work i s considered

to c o n t a i n . s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s . T h e r e i s b e l i e f i n the s a c r e d n e s s o f the

t r e e among the Igbos and t h i s i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the a n c e s t o r c u l t .

The r i t u a l p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r sculpture in t r a d i t i o n a l circum-

s t a n c e s r e f l e c t e d t h i s m y s t i c a l a t t i t u d e toward t h e t r e e . . The Igbo

a r t i s t would f i r s t l y s e l e c t what p a r t o f a t r e e he i n t e n d s to use f o r

h i s work. T h i s i s u s u a l l y d e t e r m i n e d by h i s a n t i c i p a t e d outcome.

When he c u t s down the t r e e , . a r i t u a l i s p e r f o r m e d t o p a c i f y the spirit

o f the t r e e . This i s achieved by a s a c r i f i c e o f k o l a , g i n and chalk;

sometimes t h i s i n c l u d e s c h i c k e n . He m i g h t i n v o k e a more p o w e r f u l

s p i r i t t o p r o v i d e p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e s p i r i t o f the t r e e but t h i s

r e q u i r e s the s e r v i c e s o f a p r o f e s s i o n a l , the d i b i a - - m e d i c i n e man.' The

l o g m i g h t be l e f t l y i n g i n the bush f o r a w h i l e , t o g i v e the s p i r i t t i m e

to l e a v e i t ; but m o s t l y the c u t p i e c e i s i m m e d i a t e l y h a u l e d t o a
 83

s e c l u d e d p l a c e , where t h e s c u l p t o r g i v e s i t a crude preliminary

shaping. T h i s f e e l i n g t h a t the wood t o be c a r v e d c o n t a i n e d a
s p i r i t u a l o r l i f e f o r c e , c o n t r i b u t e s to the c a r v e r ' s deep f e e l i n g f o r
his m a t e r i a l s . F o r him i t was a l r e a d y endowed w i t h power b e f o r e he
even shaped i t i n t o a mask.

The I g b o . s c u l p t o r w o r k i n g on a mask, a d d r e s s e s h i m s e l f t o h i s
task d i r e c t l y without p r e l i m i n a r y sketches. He has a r e m a r k a b l e vision
o f the e n d - p r o d u c t from t h e time o f making t h e f i r s t c u t . I t i s an
amazing e x p e r i e n c e to watch a c a r v e r c u t an e l a b o r a t e i n t e r l a c e
d e s i g n c o v e r i n g a l a r g e panel o r c u t t i n g o u t t h e f i n e s t y l i z e d designs
i n a mask w i t h o u t e v e r h a v i n g t o change l i n e , o r m o d i f y the s i z e o f
the d e s i g n to make the whole t o f i t . T h i s must have t o do w i t h the
long period of a p p r e n t i c e s h i p r e q u i r e d f o r t h i s trade. An acknowledged
c r a f t s m a n o f t h e community t r a i n s young a p p r e n t i c e s who may be h i s
c h i l d r e n o r r e l a t i v e s o r o t h e r v i l l a g e y o u t h s who, a t an e a r l y age,
d e m o n s t r a t e p o t e n t i a l a p t i t u d e and s k i l l and a s e r i o u s n e s s o f p u r p o s e
i n such a v o c a t i o n . The p e r i o d o f t r a i n i n g ranged from f i v e t o t e n
y e a r s , d u r i n g which time t r a i n e e s l i v e d w i t h t h e i r m a s t e r . A t the
end o f t h i s p e r i o d the t r a i n e e a r t i s t has a c h i e v e d t h e motor s k i l l s
n e c e s s a r y to match h i s v i s i o n .

F a t h e r C a r o l l (1967:94) w r i t e s : "No m a t t e r how c o m p l i c a t e d a work

may be and though he has no d r a w i n g t o a i d him, B a n d e l e n e v e r cuts
away by a c c i d e n t any wood he may need l a t e r ; he would be ashamed t o
have to add a n o t h e r p i e c e " . Though r e f e r r i n g t o B a n d e l e , a Y o r u b a , h i s
remarks a r e e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o Igbo c a r v e r s as w e l l , f o r the o n l y
Igbo s c u l p t u r e I know o f i n w h i c h an e r r o r was made i n c u t t i n g was the
 84

work o f a young a p p r e n t i c e . The m a s t e r d e s t r o y e d i t even b e f o r e i t

was f i n i s h e d as v e r y shameful .

T r a d i t i o n a l l y , t h e s c u l p t o r o r c a r v e r w o r k i n g on a mask must do
h i s work i n s e c r e t e i t h e r i n the bush o r i n an e n c l o s e d h u t . This i s
so because the knowledge o f the mask i s the e x c l u s i v e p r e s e r v e o f t h e
mmuo s o c i e t y members. H a l p i n (1975) n o t e d a s i m i l a r s e r i o u s n e s s i n
the c a r v i n g o f m a s k s among the N o r t h West C o a s t I n d i a n s . She wrote:
"Barbeau (1930:789) r e c o r d e d "... the g i t s o n t k ( p e o p l e s e c l u d e d )
c a r v e d masks and o t h e r naxnox p a r a p h e r n a l i a . I f an o u t s i d e r u n e x p e c t e d l y
came upon them w h i l e t h e y were a t work, the o n l y outcome was death...
No m i s t a k e s were t o l e r a t e d and the p e n a l t y f o r any l a p s e was death"^.
T h i s s e r i o u s n e s s a t t a c h e d t o t h e c a r v i n g o f masks a l s o appears t o be
widespread.

The Igbo mask i s c a r v e d o r hewn o u t o f a s i n g l e b l o c k o f wood,

i.e. i t i s monoxylous. The s c u l p t u r e emerges out o f a mass o f m a t e r i a l
by s u b t r a c t i v e t e c h n i q u e . The f o r c e o r l i f e o r s p i r i t which the wood
was supposed t o have, seems t o show i n the m a s s i v e n e s s o f the wood and
i t s b e a u t i f u l g r a i n . The c a r v e r t a k e s p a i n s t o keep t h i s i n t a c t w h i l e
c u t t i n g out the shape o f the mask. The c o n t o u r s f o l l o w the c y l i n d r i c a l
form o f the l o g , t o which a l l p a r t s a r e ' k e p t s u b o r d i n a t e . This
emphasis on v e r t i c a l l i n e s g i v e s most masks a v e r t i c a l a x i s to which
the d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f the s c u l p t u r e have an o r g a n i c c o n n e c t i o n . Segy
(1975:81) n o t e s t h a t " i f d i v i d e d a l o n g t h i s v e r t i c a l axis,.many A f r i c a n
o

s t a t u e s (and masks) would s e p a r a t e i n t o two s y m m e t r i c a l halves".

When the a r t i s t has f i n i s h e d h i s work on the wood, b r i n g i n g f o r t h

as i t were, a "new l i f e " , he.colours his product. The most o u t s t a n d i n g

 85

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a l l Igbo masks, as c o u l d be seen from t h e e x h i b i t ,

i s t h a t they a r e a l l p a i n t e d e i t h e r c h a l k w h i t e (which i s the t r a d -
i t i o n a l c o l o u r f o r p u r i t y , beauty and peace),ccamwood r e d ( s i g n i f y i n g
d a n g e r ) , orange o r y e l l o w ( p o r t r a y i n g l i f e ) and b l a c k made from u n y i
("pot b l a c k " ) and w h i c h was meant t o d e p i c t u g l i n e s s o r e v i l . Masked
d a n c e r s wore e l a b o r a t e costumes and t h i s i s i n agreement w i t h our
d e f i n i t i o n o f masks. Sometimes t h e costumes a r e ornamented w i t h
m i r r o r s t o c r e a t e e f f e c t and awe.

P a i n t i n g i s not o n l y t o b e a u t i f y the mask. Horton (1966:21)

has p o i n t e d out t h a t p a i n t i n g i s not s i m p l y an e n r i c h m e n t o f the
s c u l p t u r e ( i n t h i s case the mask), but i s a means whereby the a p p r o p r i a t e
s p i r i t i s brought to occupy i t . Thus a f t e r c a r v i n g an agbogho mask,
i t i s p a i n t e d w h i t e to b r i n g i n t o i t the f e m a l e a n c e s t r a l s p i r i t s o r
t h a t o f the e a r t h g o d d e s s . The costume i s t h e n a t t a c h e d t o t h e new
c r e a t i o n and i t i s ready f o r p e r f o r m a n c e a f t e r the n e c e s s a r y rituals.

U n t i l r e c e n t l y , the a e s t h e t i c judgement o f t r a d i t i o n a l people

has u s u a l l y been i g n o r e d i n l i t e r a t u r e . Achebe (1965:250-1), an Igbo :

w r i t e r , shows v e r y c l e a r l y i n h i s n o v e l t h a t Igbos j u d g e works o f a r t .

One o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s , E d o g o , , i s a c a r v e r . "When he had f i n i s h e d
c a r v i n g t h e f a c e and head he had been a l i t t l e d i s a p p o i n t e d . . . b u t the
owners o f the work had not c o m p l a i n e d ; i n f a c t t h e y had p r a i s e d i t
very h i g h l y . Edogo knew, ..however,. t h a t he must see the mask i n a c t i o n
t o know whether i t was good o r bad". To a p p r e c i a t e the mask.as i t was
c o n c e i v e d and c a r v e d by the a r t i s t , one needs t o see i t w i t h a l l the
n e c e s s a r y a t t a c h m e n t s and i n movement. I emphasize a g a i n t h a t masks
a r e i n t e n d e d to be seen i n movement, p e r h a p s above the eye l e v e l , and
i n a dance, b e f o r e the q u a l i t y c o u l d be j u d g e d . T h i s i s what t h e Igbos
 86

do.

The a r t i s t i s as we have s e e n , a p r o f e s s i o n a l - - h i r e d on com-.

m i s s i o n t o c r e a t e a mask e i t h e r o u t o f w o o d , . f i b r e , cloth, raffia
o r any o t h e r t y p e s o f costume f o r masked drama. His c l i e n t o r patron
i s u s u a l l y an Igbo e l d e r , a l e a d e r o r a spokesmen f o r t h e community
o r group t h a t needs h i s s e r v i c e s . Although the a r t i s t i s held i n .
h i g h esteem, he has no e x t r a p r i v i l e g e s . He i s supposed t o c r e a t e
w i t h i n t r a d i t i o n a l s t y l e s . T h i s e x e r c i s e o f , r e s t r a i n t and c o n t r o l o f
the a r t i s t by h i s s o c i e t y o r h i s c l i e n t s , means t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
a r t s t y l e s i n every area a r e perpetuated and h e l d f a s t by t h e c o n s e r -
v a t i s m o f t h e group t h a t m a i n t a i n e d the apprenticeship t r a d i t i o n .
T h i s i s v e r y academic and i s v e r y c l e a r l y seen i n A f i k p o masks.

I t must h o t be c o n s t r u e d , . h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Igbo
a r t i s t was so c o m p l e t e l y r e s t r i c t e d by t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i s m o f h i s
t r a i n i n g t h a t he becomes t r e d u c e d ilbjp*•Sbr^fceadtpy.iiisllisifiMbtigb-..shape'si "
forms and p a t t e r n s a r e f i x e d by c u s t o m , . i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t most o f t h e
p r e s s u r e s f o r t h e i n v e n t i o n and d e v e l o p m e n t o f new forms a r e s e l f -
i n d u c e d , coming from an i n n a t e a e s t h e t i c d e s i r e r a t h e r than by group
o r - s o c i e t a l demand. The m a s t e r c a r v e r c o u l d endow t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Igbo
forms w i t h h i s own i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and i n s i g h t ; and t h e s e s p r i n g from
h i s p e r s o n a l g e n i u s a s a p e r c e p t i v e and c r e a t i v e a r t i s t .

T h i s f a c t i s b e t t e r a p p r e c i a t e d when i t i s remembered t h a t t h e
a r t i s t a l s o p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h e s o c i a l and c e r e m o n i a l functions of his
mask. H i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n has s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e because h i s forms
a r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y d e r i v e d from human and animal forms. By o b s e r v i n g
h i s f e l l o w m e n d u r i n g moments o f p h y s i c a l and e m o t i o n a l stress at rituals
 87

and c e r e m o n i e s , he i s b e t t e r a b l e t o endow the t r a d i t i o n a l a r t - f o r m s

w i t h h i s p e r c e p t i o n and s e n s i t i v i t y . In O z u b u l u , one e a s i l y r e c o g -
n i z e s the work o f such g i f t e d c a r v e r s such as Obi (two o f h i s Odogu
masks a r e d i s p l a y e d i n the e x h i b i t ) .

L i k e a r t i s t s e v e r y w h e r e , Igbo c a r v e r s o f masks g i v e form and

r e a l i t y to a b s t r a c t i o n w i t h i n t h e i r s o c i a l m i l i e u . The famous d a n c e r
I s a d o r a Duncan was once a s k e d to e x p l a i n what her d a n c i n g meant. She
r e p l i e d t h a t " i f I c o u l d say i t , I would not have t o dance i t " . Also
the famous a r t i s t P i c a s s o s a i d t h a t i f he knew, i f he were conscious

o f what he i n t e n d e d t o e x p r e s s i n h i s work, he would not have t o

g
create i t . So i t i s w i t h the Igbo mask-maker. He c a n n o t e x p l a i n i t ,
i t i s the t e n s i o n o f e x p r e s s i n g what i s as y e t unknown to him, but
a s t i r w i t h i n h i s i n n e r - s e l f , t h a t d r i v e s him, as c r e a t o r t o a c t i o n . '
F o r t h i s he may p e r h a p s be exempted from some o t h e r h a z a r d o u s communal
a c t i v i t y ( a l t h o u g h t h i s i s an e x c e p t i o n r a t h e r than the r u l e ) . He
would then have as much time as he needs f o r t h e l o n g and patient
c a r v i n g o r f a s h i o n i n g o f the masks and o t h e r r i t u a l o b j e c t s needed f o r
the w e l l - b e i n g o f h i s community.

I n i t i a t i o n i n t o the Mmuo

The "mask b u s i n e s s " i s a g u a r d e d s e c r e t o f o n l y those.men who have

been sworn i n t o i t . T h i s i s what i n i t i a t i o n i s a l l a b o u t , and t h i s i s

a c u l t u r a l t r a i t o f a l l the Igbos. There are l o c a l v a r i a t i o n s in i t s

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n but s t i l l i t s c o n c e p t and c o n t e n t a r e l a r g e l y t h e same.

Oath i s a d m i n i s t e r e d to new i n i t i a t e s t o p r o t e c t t h e r u l e s and secret

 88

o f the mmuo. No one d a r e s c o n t r a v e n e t h i s r u l e o f s e c r e c y because

o f the p u n i s h m e n t s a t t a c h e d t h e r e t o . In the o l d e n . d a y s , anyone who
l e a k e d out the s e c r e t s o f the mmuo was e i t h e r k i l l e d , e x i l e d o r s o l d
into slavery. Today such a p e r s o n i s n e v e r e n t r u s t e d w i t h serious
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a n d i s a l a u g h i n g s t o c k o f the community.

Information within the s o c i e t y i s diseminated only through i n t e r -

personal communication. Messages are p a s s e d from the e l d e r s o r l e a d e r s
9

o f the s o c i e t y t h r o u g h a p p o i n t e d messengers t o members d i r e c t l y .

Members c o u l d a l s o g i v e such i n f o r m a t i o n t o o t h e r members'only.

A l l male y o u t h s i n I g b o l a n d must be i n i t i a t e d i n t o the v i l l a g e

secret society. T h i s e v e n t marks the t r a n s i t i o n from the t i m e when t h e

boys use c h i l d r e n ' s masks and i m i t a t e a d u l t c e r e m o n i e s , t o the p e r i o d

when they p a r t i c i p a t e i n a d u l t s o c i e t y and i t s masquerades. After the

i n i t i a t i o n , ; t h e y cease being emulators and observers o f the a c t i v i t i e s

o f the s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s a n d become a c t i v e members not o n l y o f t h e

mmuo s o c i e t y but o f the e n t i r e v i l l a g e community.

It i s not s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , that i n t h e i n i t i a t i o n ceremonies

the boys a r e i n d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h some o f the a d u l t masks a n d costumes

and wear them f o r the f i r s t t i m e .

Boys a r e i n i t i a t e d u s u a l l y between the ages o f t h i r t e e n and t h e i r

early twenties. The age o f e n t r a n c e depends upon:

a) Whether the f a t h e r o f the n o v i c e i s a l i v e ; i f not h i s i n i t i a t i o n

might be d e l a y e d ;

b) The w e a l t h o f the f a t h e r o f the novice;

c) Whether the boy i s the e l d e s t son, and

d) How many b r o t h e r s he has.

 89

Most Igbo communities have one, though c o s t l y , i n i t i a t i o n ceremony;

o t h e r s have more than one. t y p e o f i n i t i a t i o n . One f e a t u r e seems t o
be u n i v e r s a l however--the i n i t i a t i o n o f t h e f i r s t son o f a man appears
to be a c o s t l y a f f a i r t h r o u g h o u t I g b o l a n d . This i s simply a p r e s t i g e
a f f a i r because a man i s supposed t o s i g n i f y h i s p l a c e - i n s o c i e t y n o t
o n l y by the number o f wives and t i t l e s he has p e r s o n a l l y t a k e n , but
a l s o the s u c c e s s w i t h which he e s t a b l i s h e s h i s s o n s , most e s p e c i a l l y
h i s f i r s t s o n , okpa!a o f Qkpara, who i s t o t a k e o v e r and c a r e f o r him
i n h i s o l d age and g i v e him a b e f i t t i n g b u r i a l a t h i s d e a t h .

Masks a r e used i n most t y p e s o f i n i t i a t i o n among the Igbos.

There i s s t r e s s on p h y s i c a l h a r d s h i p and c o m p e t i t i o n and t h e o b s e r v a t i o n
of numerous t a b o o s , such as a v o i d i n g c e r t a i n f o o d s , n o t t o u c h i n g the
ground w i t h y o u r back, not showing one's t e e t h , e t c . . A l l forms o f
i n i t i a t i o n i n v o l v e t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e n o v i c e from h i s home, p a r e n t a l
c a r e and normal l i f e a c t i v i t i e s f o r a p e r i o d o f t i m e . There i s a
p e r i o d o f i n s t r u c t i o n and t e s t .

Simon O t t e n b e r g (1975) has w r i t t e n e x t e n s i v e l y on i n i t i a t i o n i n t o

the masquerade s o c i e t y o f A f i k p o Igbo. What I am a b o u t t o d e s c r i b e i s
the i n i t i a t i o n i n t o t h e mmuo s o c i e t y i n O z u b u l u .

O z u b u l u , which I use as c a s e - s t u d y , . i s about t e n m i l e s s o u t h o f

O n i t s h a and has a r i c h masquerade t r a d i t i o n . Here, t h e i n i t i a t i o n t a k e s
p l a c e between O c t o b e r and March, i . e . t h e d r y s e a s o n . A f t e r the
u f e j i o k u . o r i i i j i . c e r e m o n y , (meaning " e a t i n g o f t h e new yam"), p e o p l e
get t h e i r yams from t h e farms.. I t i s time now f o r h u n t i n g , f i s h i n g
and o t h e r s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s aimed a t e n t e r t a i n i n g t h e v i l l a g e r s .
I n i t i a t i o n and masquerades p r o v i d e one o f such e n t e r t a i n m e n t s . - Every
 90

e f f o r t i s made t o p r o v i d e masquerade e n t e r t a i n m e n t . B u r i a l ceremonies

a r e o f t e n p o s t p o n e d t o t h i s t i m e so t h a t t h e r a i n would n o t d i s t u r b
the a p p e a r a n c e o f masquerades.

In O z u b u l u t h e r e a r e two main types o f i n i t i a t i o n — a u n i q u e

c h i l d i n i t i a t i o n and t h e r e g u l a r Igbo a d u l t i n i t i a t i o n . The c h i l d
i n i t i a t i o n i s t h a t i n which a c h i l d o f about f i v e t o t h i r t e e n y e a r s i s
i n i t i a t e d i n t o t h e mmuo s o c i e t y and t h e burden o f t h i s i s e n t i r e l y . b o r n e
by. h i s f a t h e r . Only airiich f a t h e r undertakes t h i s i n i t i a t i o n f o r h i s
sons, m o s t l y h i s f i r s t son ( d i - o k p a l a ) . The u n c e r t a i n t i e s o f l i f e
compel f a t h e r s t o do t h i s i n case o f d e a t h . He would then have
a c h i e v e d t h e a m b i t i o n o f most p a r e n t s , and would t h e r e f o r e r e s t i n peace
in t h e l a n d o f t h e dead.. I t i s then l e f t t o t h i s d i - o k p a l a t o take
o v e r f r o m h i s f a t h e r , and make s u r e t h a t h i s b r o t h e r s a r e i n i t i a t e d .

T h i s type i s a token one and t h e i n i t i a t e i s n o t supposed t o

p a r t i c i p a t e i n s e n i o r s masquerades u n t i l he i s an a d o l e s c e n t . He may
r e c e i v e t r a d i t i o n a l r e t u r n s from t h e p r o c e e d s o f f u r t h e r i n i t i a t i o n s
a f t e r h i s , b u t u n t i l he p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h e o r d e a l s o f i n i t i a t i o n
which e n t i t l e him t o l o o k a t ' t h e mask i n t h e f a c e , h e . i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d
adult.

The o t h e r type w h i c h I have c a l l e d a d u l t i n i t i a t i o n i s t h e most

s e r i o u s one. Every man-in O z u b u l u must go through t h i s i n i t i a t i o n
because i t i s a means o f t r a n s i t i o n f r o m c h i l d h o o d t o m a t u r i t y ^ It i s
not by chance t h a t one goes through t h i s between t h e ages o f t h i r t e e n
and twenty, t h e a d o l e s c e n t , p u b e r t a l p e r i o d . G i r l s o f t h i s same age
group a r e c a l l e d t h e Umueleke ( " v i r g i n s " ) and t h e y have t h e i r own
i n i t i a t i o n which p r e p a r e s them f o r t h e l i f e o f w i f e and mother. Any
 91

a d u l t male who r e f u s e s t o be i n i t i a t e d i n t o the mmuo i s s u b j e c t e d

to r i d i c u l e or s o c i a l ostracism.

The e l d e r s o f the community d e c i d e on a d a t e f o r i n i t i a t i o n and

preparations begin. T h i s i s a y e a r l y a f f a i r aimed a t u p - g r a d i n g
y o u t h s , i . e . i n i t i a t e s , i n t o c i v i c p o s i t i o n s i n the community, t o
r e p l a c e the dead o r a g e i n g members o f the community. The p e r i o d o f
p r e p a r a t i o n i s u s u a l l y about two weeks. To q u a l i f y f o r a d m i s s i o n i n t o
t h i s " s c h o o l o f wisdom", one must f i r s t l y be o f age; n a t u r e must approve
of his admission. S e c o n d l y , he must be known t o be r e s p e c t f u l , h o n e s t
and h a r d - w o r k i n g . T h i s i s a s e l e c t i v e p r o c e s s because t h e s o c i e t y
demands i t s f u t u r e l e a d e r s t o be men o f proven i n t e g r i t y . This also
a c c o u n t s p a r t l y f o r t h e d i s p a r i t y i n t h e ages o f i n i t i a t e s . I have
seen boys o f t h i r t e e n and o t h e r s o f : e i g h t e e n b e i n g i n i t i a t e d a t the
same t i m e . Wealth i s the o t h e r p a r t o f t h i s s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s . The
f a t h e r o f the n o v i c e ( i n i t i a t e - t o - b e ) has t o pay a s t i p u l a t e d amount
o f money. I f the f a t h e r i s dead, then a g u a r d i a n , b r o t h e r o r t h e
i n i t i a t e h i m s e l f has t o pay. . The mother a l s o c o u l d pay t h i s sum through
a p a t e r n a l u n c l e o f the boy i f she i s r i c h enough. However, the d e c i s i o n
on who i s t o be i n i t i a t e d r e s t s w i t h the e l d e r s .

In a d d i t i o n t o t h i s s t i p u l a t e d sum o f money, t h e r e a r e o t h e r items

which e v e r y i n i t i a t e must p r o v i d e . These are:

a) Two kegs o f w i n e ; one keg c o n t a i n s nkwu from t h e palm t r e e w h i l e

the o t h e r c o n t a i n s ngwo.wine from r a f f i a palm and i s , m i l d e r

than t h e f i r s t .

b) Four k o l a nuts c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e f o u r days o f t h e n a t i v e week.

c) A l i v e c h i c k e n , p r e f e r a b l y abuke ("white c h i c k e n " ) .

 92

d) A head o f t o b a c c o .

e) Some yams, coco-yams; e t c .

f ) Some t r a d i t i o n a l c o l o u r s l i k e u l i i ( " b l a c k " ) , u f i e ("yellow"),

nzu ("white").
These a r e d i s t r i b u t e d as f o l l o w s : some o f t h e k o l a , fowl
( e s p e c i a l l y the abuke),.tobacco and wine a r e g i v e n t o t h e p r i e s t o f
the v i l l a g e s h r i n e , N d i e k w i l i . He d i s t r i b u t e s some o f t h e s e t o o t h e r
p r i e s t s who a t t e n d t o o t h e r d u t i e s . . With t h e s e t h e y a r e supposed t o
o f f e r p r a y e r s t o t h e gods and a n c e s t o r s a s k i n g f o r b l e s s i n g s on t h e
i n i t i a t e s and f o r peace and p r o s p e r i t y f o r t h e e n t i r e community. Part
of t h e k o l a , w i n e , c h i c k e n and t o b a c c o a r e a l s o g i v e n t o t h e e l d e r s o f
the v i l l a g e . As l e a d e r s , t h e y s e l e c t those'who a r e t o i n s t r u c t t h e
new i n i t i a t e s and g u i d e them i n t o s p i r i t u a l l i f e . The remainder o f
t h e t o b a c c o , wine,, fowl and k o l a n u t s a r e g i v e n t o t h e s e l e c t e d i n s t r u c -
:

t o r s , t h e " f i r s t among e q u a l s " . T h e i r number depends on t h e number o f

p e o p l e t o be i n i t i a t e d . I t c o u l d range from f i v e t o f i f t e e n , . The yams,
coco-yams and o t h e r f o o d items a r e . u s e d by t h e boys t h e m s e l v e s during
t h i s p e r i o d o f s e p a r a t i o n from home.

The money p a i d by t h e i n i t i a t e s i s used t o p u r c h a s e any new

costumes t h a t may be r e q u i r e d , t o p r e p a r e t h e framework f o r new masks,
and t o pay f o r o t h e r s e r v i c e s such as t h o s e o f a d i v i n e r . He chooses
the m o s t - f a v o u r a b l e s p o t and d a t e f o r i n i t i a t i o n . Usually this f a l l s
on t h e eke day.

When t h e m a t e r i a l s have been d i s t r i b u t e d a c c o r d i n g t o custom, and

the d i v i n e r has l o c a t e d a s p o t f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e a n c e s t o r s f o r p r e p a r - .
a t i o n , t h e i n i t i a t e s assemble a t t h e obimmuo. They g e t t h e r e i n t h e
 93

m o r n i n g and t h e o l d e s t o f t h e i n s t r u c t o r s prays and s a c r i f i c e s t o

the a n c e s t r a l t r e e ( u s u a l l y i r o k o ) and s h r i n e a t t h e obimmuo. He
c a l l s f o r b l e s s i n g s , and i n f o r m s t h e a n c e s t o r s o f t h e i n t e n t i o n o f
the boys, t h e i r f a t h e r s and t h e v i l l a g e a t l a r g e t h a t i n i t i a t i o n
should take place. A t t h e end o f h i s p r a y e r s , he s a n c t i f i e s h i m s e l f
by r u b b i n g w h i t e c h a l k on h i s f o r e h e a d — e v e r y b o d y does t h e same. He
then l e a d s t h e boys t o t h e bush w h i c h t h e d i v i n e r has s e l e c t e d . One
feature o f t h i s spot i s that i t contains a t e r m i t e - h i l l . I t i s the
b e l i e f t h a t masquerades a p p e a r f r o m u n d e r g r o u n d t h r o u g h the termite-
hill. The p r i e s t p r a y s as f o l l o w s :

Enu t a o j i , a n i t a o j i - ("We o f f e r k o l a nuts t o t h e s k y and t h e

earth")
Ndu nwoke, ndu nwanyi - ( " L i f e o f e v e r y b o d y male and f e m a l e o f t h e
village")

Anyi na erne omenani - ("We a r e p e r f o r m i n g traditional rites")

Ukwu a k p o n a f a , i s i awanafa - ("Let t h e r e be n e i t h e r broken l e g s n o r

headache f o r t h e i n i t i a t e s " )
Ka a n y i me ka nnanyi f a - ("Let us do l i k e o u r f o r e f a t h e r s " )
Pi ka n d i mbu - ("Like t h e f i r s t p e o p l e " )
[ E v e r y b o d y ] I h i a - ("Let i t be s o " )

A goat i s r o a s t e d and e a t e n by t h e p r i e s t , t h e e l d e r s and t h e

instructors. The n o v i c e s do n o t p a r t a k e , t h e y have y e t t o e a t w i t h

the s p i r i t s . The wine i s s h a r e d i n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n . After this

r i t u a l , t h e a r e a f o r t h e i n s t r u c t i o n i s d e l i n e a t e d and Omu ("palm

f r o n d s " ) a r e used t o mark o u t t h e e n t i r e a r e a as h o l y . Omu i s a

r e l i g i o u s symbol o f h o l i n e s s among t h e Igbos.. A t t h e c e n t r e o f t h i s

 94

holy spot stands the a n t h i l l . Around t h i s t h e i n i t i a t e s e r e c t

s t r u c t u r e s t o house t h e m s e l v e s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f i n i t i a t i o n .

A f t e r t h e a r e a has been marked o u t and a l l n e c e s s a r y r i t u a l s

p e r f o r m e d , t h e p r i e s t and e l d e r s t a k e l e a v e . Immediately t h e i n i t i a t e s
g e t i n t o work; They c l e a r t h e a r e a o f bush and t r e e s and g e t busy
cutting sticks to build shelter. They u s u a l l y come,with ubejili,
the f i r s t g i f t o f a man t o h i s s o n . U b e j i l i i s a s t r o n g k n i f e w i t h
s h e a t h and s y m b o l i z e s s t r e n g t h . A f t e r b u i l d i n g s h e l t e r , f i r e i s made
by one group on which yam and o t h e r e d i b l e s a r e r o a s t e d . . A n o t h e r
group goes t o f e t c h s p r i n g w a t e r because i n i t i a t e s n e v e r d r i n k water
t h a t f l o w s on t h e g r o u n d . They d r i n k w a t e r from a s p r i n g . This i s
c o n s i d e r e d v e r y o r i g i n a l and pure w a t e r . I t i s n o t p o l l u t e d and
therefore holy.

When t h e y have s e t t l e d down, t h e i n i t i a t e s b e g i n t o r e c e i v e

i n s t r u c t i o n s on how t o p r e p a r e f o r a masked p e r f o r m a n c e . They a r e -
i n s t r u c t e d on t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e mask and how t o r e a d meaning f r o m
the sounds o f a gong. F o r example*, t h e masked p e r f o r m e r uses igwe (a
wind i n s t r u m e n t ) t o speak. O u t s i d e r s , e x c e p t t h o s e who have been
t u t o r e d , do n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h i s l a n g u a g e . The boys learn-how t o dance
to v a r i o u s t y p e s o f masquerade music.

In between p e r i o d s , t h e y p r a c t i c e by g o i n g t o n e i g h b o u r i n g v i l l a g e s
t o watch p e r f o r m a n c e o r p u t on a p e r f o r m a n c e t h e m s e l v e s w h i c h t h e
n e a r b y v i l l a g e a u d i e n c e a p p r a i s e s . But u n t i l t h e f i n a l day o f i n i t i a t i o n , .
t h e y n e v e r p u t on a p u b l i c p e r f o r m a n c e i n O z u b u l u . During t h i s period
t o o , i n i t i a t e s p r e p a r e o t h e r p a r a p h e r n a l i a used i n m a s q u e r a d i n g such
as p r e p a r i n g agwo ( " r a f f i a " ) and making o f igwe. They a l s o l e a r n how
 95

t o compose masquerade music and h e r e s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o c c u r s . There

may be t h o s e g i f t e d i n drumming, t h o s e g i f t e d i n b l o w i n g t h e f l u t e ,
those g i f t e d with r a t t l e s , e t c . T h e r e a r e a l s o g i f t e d d a n c e r s and
singers. A l l t h e s e p r e p a r a t i o n s a r e g e a r e d towards p u t t i n g on an
impressive performance; These boys a l s o l e a r n v i l l a g e r u l e s , p r o v e r b s ,
myths and meanings o f s i g n s and c u e s . . Through s t o r i e s t h e y l e a r n
about t h e v i r t u e s o f h o n e s t y , l a b o u r and h a p p i n e s s , . a n d r e s p e c t f o r
e l d e r s and t r a d i t i o n s . Above a l l , t h e y come t o v a l u e group life
when t h e y w r e s t l e , f i g h t o r d i s a g r e e , b u t s t i l l must l i v e t o g e t h e r
as b r o t h e r s . The f o o d i s m o s t l y r o a s t e d yam; i t i s a most t r y i n g
p e r i o d i n which one i s c o m p e l l e d t o l i v e i n s c a r c i t y and i n an impov-
e r i s h e d environment. A t n i g h t a huge f i r e i s l i t and here v a r i o u s
d e v i c e s a r e used t o f r i g h t e n t h e i n i t i a t e s . One o f such i s t h a t w i t h o u t ,
w a r n i n g , a f r i g h t f u l mask'may a p p e a r when t h e f i r e i s d y i n g o u t and
chase t h e boys a b o u t . I n i t i a t e s a r e n o t supposed t o b e . t e r r i f i e d b u t
s t a n d t h e i r ground.

As t h e weeks pass and t h e y p e r f e c t , t h e day o f t h e i n i t i a t i o n i s

chosen. I n i t i a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e u s u a l l y between m i d n i g h t and morning.
N o t i c e i s s e n t t h r o u g h t o f a m i l i e s t e l l i n g them o f t h e day o f i n i t i a t i o n .
T h i s i s a day o f r e j o i c i n g . Nearby v i l l a g e r s a r e o f t e n i n v i t e d t o
come and watch; however, i n v i t a t i o n i s u s u a l l y t h r o u g h f r i e n d l y f a m i l y
and a g n a t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Mothers make f o o d r e a d y f o r f e s t i v i t y .
F a t h e r s g e t a s much palm wine as p o s s i b l e f o r f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s .
In t h e morning t h e f a t h e r must s a c r i f i c e t o t h e f a m i l y s h r i n e t o g i v e
h i s thanks t o t h e gods'sfor k e e p i n g him a l i v e t o . w i t n e s s t h e e v e n t o f
h i s son's i n i t i a t i o n and f o r p r o t e c t i n g t h e y o u n g s t e r t h r o u g h o u t t h e
 96

period.
In t h e bush t h e i n i t i a t e s a r e b u s i l y g e t t i n g r e a d y f o r t h e i r
encounter with the s p i r i t . On t h i s d a y , . t h e y e a t an e a r l y supper and
then make a b i g f i r e . A f t e r a l i t t l e w h i l e t h e gong sounds and
chants begin. T h e r e might be d a n c i n g . Towards m i d n i g h t a mask c a l l e d
ukwu-mmuo ("the l e g o f t h e s p i r i t " ) , a p p e a r s and b e g i n s t o c h a s e t h e
boys about. He may f l o g them b u t n o t t o o s e v e r e l y ; one i s supposed
to t a k e i t l i k e a man*.no c r y i n g o r s h i v e r i n g o r showing o f any s i g n s
of p h y s i c a l d i s c o m f o r t . A l i t t l e a f t e r , t h e Nne-mmuo o r ozoebunu
("king o f masquerades") a p p e a r s i n i t s m a j e s t y . There i s h i l a r i o u s
s i n g i n g and d a n c i n g b u t t h e i n i t i a t e s a r e n o t supposed t o . l o o k a t i t s
face. T h i s ozoebunu and t h e c h i e f i n s t r u c t o r , . i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e
p r i e s t o f t h e v i l l a g e s h r i n e , q u e s t i o n s e v e r y b o d y whether t h e y wish
to know t h e mmuo. The answer i s u s u a l l y y e s . One by one t h e i n i t i a t e s
t a k e o a t h , h o l d i n g an a l u s i ( " s h r i n e f i g u r e " ) i n t h e i r hands. They
promise t h e f o r e f a t h e r s and t h e ozoebunu t h a t what t h e i r eyes have
seen t o n i g h t w i l l n e v e r be u t t e r e d t o any l i v i n g s o u l ; t h a t t h e i r
mouths w i l l remain s i l e n t a g a i n s t f l i p a n c y . They end by s a y i n g okuku
t o f i e onu g b a j i e y a ( " i f a fowl does n o t peck w e l l , l e t i t s neck
break"). The s y m b o l i c meaning o f t h i s i s t h a t s h o u l d one break h i s
o a t h , d e a t h a w a i t s him. T h e s h r i n e f i g u r e i s r o t a t e d from p e r s o n t o
p e r s o n f o r t h e o a t h and i s f i n a l l y g i v e n t o t h e p r i e s t .

When e v e r y b o d y has t a k e n o a t h , t h e tempo o f t h e music i n c r e a s e s .

The two masquerades ukwu-mmuo and nne-mmuo b e g i n t o dance t o t h e
rhythm o f t h e m u s i c . Everybody who i s t o be i n i t i a t e d watches c a r e f u l l y .
G r a d u a l l y t h e f i r e b e g i n s t o down, a n d , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e masked
 97

p e r f o r m e r s b e g i n t o remove t h e i r masks and costumes. The boys s t a n d

w i t h t h e i r mouths open w a t c h i n g t h e g i a n t ozoebunu remove i t s a p p a r e l
and r e v e a l the man i n s i d e . The aim o f t h e i n i t i a t i o n i s thus accom-
plished. The i n i t i a t e s a r e made t o r e a l i z e t h a t a f t e r a l l i t i s a
human b e i n g who p u t s on t h e mask. Yet'they are r e q u i r e d not to d i s c u s s
t h i s o u t s i d e t h e i r new circle.

By t h i s t i m e i t i s g e t t i n g t o morning. The mask d r e s s e s up

a g a i n t o a v o i d any u n a u t h o r i z e d i n t r u s i o n o r i n t e r r u p t i o n . Everybody
begins to prepare f o r the f i n a l r i t u a l . The mask and t h e boys dance
t o t h e obimmuo and t h e r e p e r f o r m a r i t u a l o f i n t e g r a t i o n by s a c r i f i c i n g
an ebunu ("he g o a t " ) t o t h e s h r i n e t h e r e . The body o f t h e s l a i n
animal i s t a k e n back t o t h e bush, i . e . where t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s took
place. The mask a l s o goes w i t h them and t h e r e e v e r y b o d y h e l p s t o
unmask t h e d a n c e r .

Meals a r e p r e p a r e d w i t h t h e c a r c a s s o f t h e s a c r i f i e d g o a t . '
Everybody p a r t a k e s o f t h i s meal u n l i k e the b e g i n n i n g when the n o v i c e s
were f o r b i d d e n from e a t i n g such m e a l s . The boys then s a c r i f i c e any-
t h i n g t h e y wish t o t h e gods and a r e happy t h a t t h e end has come. It
i s now a f t e r n o o n and t h e wooden gong i s sounded a g a i n t o announce t o
t h e community t h a t a p e r f o r m a n c e must t a k e p l a c e i n t h e e v e n i n g . :
-
People
b e g i n t o g a t h e r a t t h e obom. Meanwhile, t h e boys d e s t r o y t h e camp and
e v e r y t h i n g i s burned. They then f o l l o w t h e mask t o t h e s q u a r e ,
w e a r i n g o n l y emblems. Here top p e r f o r m a n c e i s put.on because everybody
i n t h e a u d i e n c e i s w a t c h i n g t o see how h i s o r her r e l a t i v e i s p e r f o r -
ming. Mothers a r e e s p e c i a l l y a n x i o u s because on the one hand t h e y a r e
happy f o r t h e i r sons but on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e y a r e a f r a i d o f what
 98

must have happened i n the bush. E v e r y o n e i s happy and t h e i n i t i a t e s

are proud.

A t t h e end o f t h i s p u b l i c p e r f o r m a n c e which l a s t f o r about t h r e e

h o u r s , e v e r y b o d y d i s p e r s e s t o t h e i r homes, r e j o i c i n g . There i s
f e a s t i n g i n the v i l l a g e . F a m i l i e s whose sons were i n i t i a t e d , d e c l a r e
open house and f e a s t n e i g h b o u r s , f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s . In t h i s way
t h e v i l l a g e i s . a c h i e v i n g t h e i d e a l s t a t e ' o f mankind which i s t o l i v e
i n a s t a t e o f community.

The i n i t i a t e s have become one w i t h t h e s p i r i t s - - t h e y have been

t r a n s f o r m e d • i n t o men. As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , t h e song w i t h which t h e y
approach the v i l l a g e s q u a r e ' i s s i g n i f i c a n t . They s i n g : o j i j e mmanwu
a d i ka Una y a . T h i s means l i t e r a l l y t h a t " g o i n g t o t h e s p i r i t i s
q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from r e t u r n i n g from t h e s p i r i t " . In o t h e r words,
t h e y a r e s a y i n g t h a t t h e n o v i c e t h a t went i n t o t h e bush a few weeks
ago has been t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n o t h e r p e r s o n .

They a r e now mature b y . t h e r i t e s o f which t h e y were p a r t . It

i s v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t a f t e r i n i t i a t i o n , t h e "boy-man" r e c e i v e s a
second g i f t f r o m h i s f a t h e r . He can own an i k e n g a . . He may p u r c h a s e
a c a r v e d one but t h e f i r s t o f f e r i n g t o t h i s " s t r e n g t h o f man" i s
p e r f o r m e d b y . t h e boy w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f h i s f a t h e r . The boy c o u l d
now own a house and c o u l d m a r r y .

I t would be a p p r o p r i a t e t o comment on t h i s p a r a d o x , : i n i t i a t i o n ; .
namely, t h e unmasking o r showing t h a t t h e mask i s a f t e r a l l a human
being i n d i s g u i s e . One would suppose t h a t t h i s r e v e l a t i o n s h o u l d d i s -
enchant or d i s i l l u s i o n the i n i t i a t e s . On t h e c o n t r a r y , i t r e i n f o r c e s
o r a p p e a r s t o r e i n f o r c e t h e i r b e l i e f i n t h e power o f t h e s p i r i t and
the mask. Perhaps t h e y keep s e a r c h i n g f o r the u l t i m a t e answer o r
m a i n t a i n t h e i r s i l e n c e so t h a t o t h e r s coming a f t e r them would be
as c u r i o u s as themselves were b e f o r e the i n i t i a t i o n . However, the
former o b s e r v a t i o n i s i n agreement w i t h the c o n c l u s i o n o f G i l l a f t e r
a s t u d y o f a number o f c r o s s - c u l t u r a l i n i t i a t i o n , r i t e s . Wrote G i l l
(1976:7):

"In t h e s e few examples from a broad spectrum o f r e l i g i o u s

c o n t e x t s , t h e r e a p p e a r s the common-structure o f a
t e c h n i q u e o f d i s e n c h a n t m e n t used t o i n i t i a t e t h e mature
r e l i g i o u s p e r s p e c t i v e and t o promote a u t h e n t i c a p p r e -
h e n s i o n o f t h e s a c r e d . The a p p a r e n t e f f e c t o f d i s e n -
:

chantment i s i t s e l f i l l u s o r y . A c t s b w h i c h seem t o s p e l l
the end o f r e l i g i o n have been found t o be t e c h n i q u e
t h a t t h r u s t the i n i t i a t e i n t o the a r e a o f a d u l t r e l i g i o u s
l i f e w i t h i n c e n t i v e s t o plumb i t s f u l l d e p t h s . They l a y
bare the l i m i t a t i o n s o f n a i v e views o f r e a l i t y so t h a t
t h r o u g h deepened p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a r e l i g i o u s community
and c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e d a y - t o - d a y e v e n t s o f l i f e i n
r e l i g i o u s r i t u a l , the i n d i v i d u a l may i n c r e a s i n g l y
experience the m y s t e r i o u s ' f u l l n e s s of the sacred, sus-
t a i n i n g r e a l m . And a n a t i v e sense emerges t h a t t h e s a c r e d
symbols can r e v e a l t h e s a c r e d w i t h o u t e v e r e x h a u s t i n g
its reality".

Commentary

The i n i t i a t i o n c e r e m o n i e s have s u r v i v e d among the Igbos f o r so

many r e a s o n s . They s a t i s f i e d b a s i c human d r i v e s ; . t h e y cemented t h e

s o c i a l o r d e r w i t h b l o o d and s u f f e r i n g ; t h e y r e s t e d on s a c r e d , a n c i e n t

custom. L a s t , but not the l e a s t , the r a r e male who evaded i n i t i a t i o n

i n t o the masquerade s o c i e t y found h i m s e l f a s o c i a l o u t c a s t . It is

d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c u s s t h e masquerade e l e m e n t s o f t h e s e c r e t s o c i e t y

i n i t i a t i o n w i t h o u t . d i s c u s s i n g t h e s e a s p e c t s o f the r i t e s and f e a t u r e s

o f i n i t i a t i o n . ; T h r o u g h o u t I g b o l a n d and i n e v e r y form o f i n i t i a t i o n , .
 100

t h e boys a r e i n t r o d u c e d t o some t y p e s o f masks and a s s o c i a t e d c o s -

tumes; Net, c a l a b a s h , f i b r e , and wooden f a c e c o v e r i n g s a r e i n v o l v e d . .
The n e t forms a r e most common, s u g g e s t i n g t h e i r g r e a t e r a n t i q u i t y .
A f t e r i n i t i a t i o n the y o u t h i s f r e e t o use any o f the s e c r e t s o c i e t y
masks a p p r o p r i a t e t o h i s s k i l l s and age. W h i l e t h e i n i t i a t e d boys no
l o n g e r p l a y i n the back o f the compounds w i t h the u n i n i t i a t e d boys i n
t h e i r p l a y s and masquerades, t h e y b r i n g t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h a t time
to bear i n t h e i r own i n i t i a t i o n and i n t h e i r a d u l t m a s q u e r a d i n g l i v e s .
They have worn masks and costumes and l e a r n e d how to- dance and t o p l a y .
I n i t i a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e * does not r e p r e s e n t a s h a r p break w i t h the p a s t
but a t r a n s i t i o n , w i t h r i t e s , from n o n - s a c r e d masks o f the boys to
the s p i r i t u a l l y more powerful ones o f the s e c r e t s o c i e t y . The p o i n t
to note i s t h a t i t i s q u i t e c l e a r t h a t t h e i n i t i a t e d does n o t perform
f o r a l i m i t e d audience ( l a r g e l y o f t h e i r own age arid o f t e n i n the back
o f the compound), but b e f o r e 1arge numbers o f t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c and
1

on o c c a s i o n s such as a f t e r i n i t i a t i o n b e f o r e v i r t u a l l y the e n t i r e
v i l l a g e p o p u l a t i o n , as w e l l as s t r a n g e r s .

When, b e f o r e the i n i t i a t i o n i n t o s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s , . the u n i n i n i a t e d

y o u t h s o p e r a t e , t h e y do s o . l a r g e l y on t h e i r own, w i t h o u t parental
support. T h i s i s t r u e i n a sense o f the y o u t h ' s a c t i v i t i e s within
the r e a l s e c r e t , s o c i e t i e s . But, i n a n o t h e r s e n s e , i n t h e i n i t i a t i o n
ceremonies, r i t u a l s and masquerades, t h e r e i s a s t r o n g sense o f f a m i l y
support,- o f the i n t e r e s t o f the f a t h e r and mother, and o t h e r r e l a t i v e s
o f the b o y s , p a r t i c u l a r l y a g n a t i c ones. The i n i t i a t i o n i s s p o n s o r e d by
the f a t h e r , backed by h i s p a t r i k i n s and p r o v i d e s s t a t u s f o r the sponsor.
I t i s the one time i n the m a s q u e r a d e r s 1
l i f e when t h e r e i s a c l o s e
 101

a s s o c i a t i o n o f m a s q u e r a d i n g and f a m i l y .

Social Implications ofInitiation

A s i d e from the e a r l i e r comments, i t i s q u i t e c l e a r t h a t initiation

p e r f o r m e d - a n d s t i l l p e r f o r m s c e r t a i n i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s among t h e
Igbos.
B e r g e r and Luckmann (1966:27) have p o s i t e d t h a t i n i t i a t i o n i s one
of those secondary s o c i a l i z a t i o n processes o f s o c i e t y . The p r i m a r y
s o c i a l i z a t i o n i s t h a t which t u r n s t h e human o r g a n i s m i n t o a n . i n d i v i d u a l .
But t h i s i n d i v i d u a l needs t o undergo o t h e r c u l t u r a l l y p a t t e r n e d
p r o c e s s e s t o be a c c e p t a b l e t o the community. Secondary s o c i a l i z a t i o n
t a k e s p l a c e when y o u t h s are i n i t i a t e d i n t o the mmuo s o c i e t y . This i s
the a c q u i s i t i o n o f r o l e - s p e c i f i c knowledge. The mmuo s o c i e t y o r t h e
masquerade s o c i e t y has a s p e c i f i c d u t y . I t i s the e x e c u t i v e arm o f
the p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s o f the Igbos, the mask a c t e d as p o l i c e — i t d r o v e
out t h o s e who committed Nso a n i , i . e . a b o m i n a t i o n , i t e x e c u t e d
m u r d e r e r s and p u n i s h e d m i n o r o f f e n d e r s . Therefore, t o i n i t i a t e one
i n t o the mmuo s o c i e t y i s a s e r i o u s a f f a i r .
-1
I t i s a s i f one were
b e i n g commissioned i n t o a p o l i c e f o r c e .

F u r t h e r m o r e , s e c o n d a r y s o c i a l i z a t i o n r e q u i r e s the a c q u i s i t i o n
o f r o l e - s p e c i f i c v o c a b u l a r i e s , w h i c h means, f o r one t h i n g , t h e i n t e r -
n a l i z a t i o n o f s e m a n t i c f i e l d s s t r u c t u r i n g r o u t i n e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and
c o n d u c t w i t h i n an i n s t i t u t i o n — i n t h i s c a s e the s e c r e t mmuo s o c i e t y .
The s o c i e t y has t o l e a r n and u n d e r s t a n d the l a n g u a g e o f the m a s k — a
knowledge p r e s e r v e d w i t h i n the s o c i e t y a n d g u a r d e d j e a l o u s l y . Therefore,
 102

t a c i t understandings,.evaluations and a f f e c t i v e c o l o r a t i o n o f the

s e m a n t i c f i e l d are a l s o a c q u i r e d . ' The " s u b w o r l d s " i n t e r n a l i z e d i n
i n i t i a t i o n a r e p a r t i a l r e a l i t i e s i n c o n t r a s t to the " b a s e - w o r l d "
acquired in primary s o c i a l i z a t i o n . Y e t t h e r u l e s o f the s e c r e t
s o c i e t y are more o r l e s s c o h e s i v e r e a l i t i e s characterized by.normative
and a f f e c t i v e as w e l l as c o g n i t i v e components. T h i s i s why secondary
s o c i a l i z a t i o n , . i . e . i n i t i a t i o n , r e q u i r e s the r u d i m e n t s o f legimating
a p p a r a t u s and must g e n e r a l l y be accompanied by r i t u a l w h i c h achieves
t h i s end. I . w i l l a r g u e f u r t h e r t h a t the aim o f the r i t u a l i s not
only a r i t e of i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o a group.but a l s o a r i t e of separation,
accompanying the t r a n s i t i o n from p r i m a r y t o s e c o n d a r y s o c i a l i z a t i o n ,
i.e. from y o u t h t o . a d u l t h o o d . The ceremony which f o l l o w s , a t which
the; i n i t i . a t e s e a t w i t h the gods ( e a t i n g s a c r i f i c e d a n i m a l ) , and the
l i t t l e masks they r e c e i v e as emblems,, i s s o c i e t y ' s f u r t h e r a c c e p t a n c e
of t h i s l e g i t i m i z a t i o n .

B e r g e r and Luckmann f u r t h e r o b s e r v e d t h a t s e c o n d a r y s o c i a l i z a t i o n
i n v o l v e s the i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f an e l a b o r a t e i n i t i a t i o n process,,
such as we d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r i n the c a s e o f the mmuo s o c i e t y , w i t h the
aim o f g e t t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s to commit t h e m s e l v e s i n a c o m p r e h e n s i v e
way to a new r e a l i t y . Why i s t h i s so? We s h o u l d examine the a d v a n t a g e s
t o the Igbos o f i n i t i a t i o n i n t o the masquerade s o c i e t y to answer t h i s
question.

The s u b m i s s i v e r o l e o f the i n i t i a t e d i n t o the s e c r e t s o c i e t y and

his f a m i l y i s good f o r the s o c i e t y . His t r a i n i n g i n t r a d i t i o n a l
customs makes t h i s n a t u r a l f o r him. The new-phase o f h i s l i f e , i n the
g r o u p , c o n s e c r a t i o n among i t s mature m a l e s , a p p e a r s to him a phase o f
 103

d e s t i n y i n which he w i l l be a b l e t o e x p r e s s h i s w i l l and h i s p o t e n c y
upon n a t u r e . In t h i s e x a l t e d imagery, so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e
g r e a t n o n - m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e o f A f r i c a n s g e n e r a l l y , one can u n d e r s t a n d
t h e r o l e t h e Igbo y o u t h sees f o r h i m s e l f and the meaning o f i n i t i a t i o n
ceremony t o him.

The p s y c h o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f i n i t i a t i o n a r e enormous. I
b e l i e v e - t h a t t h e c e r e m o n i e s c o u l d not have been i n v e n t e d w i t h o u t
such knowledge o f t h e i r advantages on the p a r t o f our f o r e f a t h e r s who
o r i g i n a t e d t h e r i t u a l s , and who t h e r e b y showed deep i n s i g h t i n t o t h e
d r i v e s which m o t i v a t e human b e h a v i o u r . S i m i l a r understanding under-
l i e s o t h e r customary r e g u l a t i o n s .

The r o l e o f t h e s e c r e t s o c i e t y i s t h a t o f an i n s t i t u t i o n where
i n n a t e i m p u l s e s a r e o r g a n i z e d and t h i s has a d v a n t a g e s f o r t h e i n i t i a t e s .
The r i t u a l e n a b l e s them t o e x p r e s s and a c t o u t , under t h e mask, t h e i r
most h i d d e n i m p u l s e s . A t t h e same t i m e , t h e r i t u a l s f i x t h e r e s t r i c -
t i o n s and t a b o o s , and g u i d e s a c t i o n i n t o t r a d i t i o n a l l y a c c e p t e d
customs. In t h e f i r s t phase o f the i n i t i a t i o n , he f a c e s h a r d s h i p and
l i v e s t h r o u g h t h e s e f r e e l y , and i n t h e s e c o n d , h i s a c t i o n s a r e t r a n s -
formed i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l manner, i n t o customs s a n c t i f i e d by Igbo
society. T h e - f a c t . - t h a t t h e i n i t i a t e d underwent t h e s e p s y c h o l o g i c a l
p r o c e s s e s communally and i n a group g i v e s t h e p r o c e s s e s t h e power o f
integrated social forms;

By the p u r i f i c a t i o n i t a f f o r d s , t h e i n i t i a t i o n p r o v i d e s a b s o l u t i o n
f o r the e x p r e s s i o n o f the tabood b a s i c i n s t i n c t s . , w h i c h , a t t h e end o f
t h e ceremony, w i l l l e a d i n t o s o c i a l s u b l i m a t i o n . T h i s i s s o c i a l sanc-
t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l ; t h e r i t u a l b e i n g communal, t h e i n i t i a t e
 104

does not f e e l i s o l a t e d w i t h h i s problems but f e e l s t h a t h i s e m o t i o n a l

experiences.are shared. The s a n c t i f i e d t r a d i t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r of
the r i t u a l s , t h e i r s e n s e o f • c o n t i n u i t y w i t h the p a s t , and the future,
s a v e s the a d o l e s c e n t from l o n e l i n e s s . The Igbo i n i t i a t e emerges from
the r i t u a l s w i t h a c l e a r c o n s c i e n c e and a new liberated identity.
He i s now s e c u r e as a member o f a v a l u e d s o c i a l group t o whose r u l e s
and t r a d i t i o n s he must a d h e r e . M o r e o v e r , he g a i n s a d m i s s i o n i n t o ,
t h i s s o c i e t y on an e x a l t e d e m o t i o n a l l e v e l . He now knows f o r s u r e
t h a t a human b e i n g t r a n s f o r m s i n t o o t h e r f o r c e s by w e a r i n g the mask.
The j o y o f a l l h i s s u f f e r i n g i n the camp i s t h a t the i n i t i a t e i s now
an a c t o r i n a drama t h a t becomes the most memorable e v e n t i n h i s
l i f e — t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n p u b l i c l y i n a masquerade p e r f o r m a n c e .

The i n i t i a t i o n ceremony i s , among o t h e r t h i n g s , an intensive

educational c o u r s e i n the h i s t o r y and i n s t i t u t i o n s o f the society.
T h i s i s not w r i t t e n h i s t o r y but o r a l m y t h o l o g y , t r a n s m i t t e d w i t h an
amazing f a c u l t y o f memory, from g e n e r a t i o n to g e n e r a t i o n . ' Myths and
their psychological s i g n i f i c a n c e have been the s u b j e c t o f extensive
studies . 1 0
Here I o n l y w i s h to p o i n t o u t t h a t myths form a p a r t o f
the i n s t r u c t i o n s i n the i n i t i a t i o n . M o s t l y the myths r e l a t e how
supernatural f o r c e s i n s t r u c t e d the a n c e s t o r s in various•crafts and
ways o f l i f e .

The i n s t r u c t o r s a t the i n i t i a t i o n " s c h o o l " a l s o r e l a t e t o the

n o v i t i a t e s myths which r e c o r d the g l o r i o u s t r i b a l p a s t — t h e deeds,,
often connected with supernatural f o r c e s and a n i m a l s , o f the f o u n d i n g
f a t h e r s , and i n c a l c u l a t e s the i d e a i n t o the Igbo y o u t h t h a t the human
r a c e (seen as an e x t e n s i o n o f h i s s o c i e t y ) , owes i t s e x i s t e n c e t o the
 105

great f o r e f a t h e r s . This mythology,gives t h e y o u t h s an e x a l t e d

opinion o f themselves. H u x l e y (1950) p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h i s evokes
a c o n c e p t o f d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s , "which a l m o s t always r a t i o n a l i z e s i n t o
superiority-feelings". T h i s f e e l i n g i s u n i v e r s a l and n o t p a r t i c u l a r
t o Igbos a l o n e . The e a r l y Jews and t h e Greeks d i s m i s s e d a l l non-,
Jews and non-Greeks as g e n t i l e s and b a r b a r i a n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The i n i t i a t e f e e l s t h a t by f o l l o w i n g c u s t o m a r y laws, he would

be s p a r e d a g o n i z i n g p e r s o n a l d e c i s i o n s . He has no need t o r e v o l t
a g a i n s t a c c e p t e d customs w h i c h h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e s a c r e d
a n c e s t o r s , and w h i c h have s a c r e d and i n f a l l i b l e meaning. 1
He f e e l s
p a r t o f a community i n d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h s u p e r n a t u r a l f o r c e s . As
a member, he t o o has e n t e r e d i n t o t h e w o r l d o f s p i r i t s . This i s
emphasized by t h e s e c r e t l a n g u a g e used o n l y by members o f t h e mmuo
society. T h i s d e s i r e t o b e l o n g i n . a group t h a t can p r o t e c t , t o be
among t h e e l e c t who e n j o y honour, i s a deep human d r i v e . Even t h e
Western s o c i e t y . h a s p r e s e r v e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s w h i c h a l s o impose s e c r e c y
and p r a c t i c e i n i t i a t i o n c e r e m o n i e s w i t h s y m b o l i c objects.

I n i t i a t i o n c e r e m o n y , i s used t o t e a c h t h e laws o f t h e s o c i e t y . a n d
t h i s d r a m a t i c o c c a s i o n was w e l l c h o s e n t o impress the i n i t i a t e with
i t s canonic f o r c e . Also, respect f o r the elders i s given special s t r e s s .
I t i s thus an i n s t i t u t i o n a l d e v i c e t o overcome t h e r e v o l t a g a i n s t t h e
f a t h e r , and c o n n e c t e d with the emotional complex o f t h e f a t h e r - s o n
relationship. We e a r l i e r noted t h a t Igbos r e g a r d a f i g h t between a
c h i l d and h i s f a t h e r as an a b o m i n a t i o n and t h a t t h e son i s r e q u i r e d t o
o f f e r a s a c r i f i c e t o t h e e a r t h goddess t o c l e a n t h e e a r t h o f t h i s s i n .
I n s t i t u t i n g such i n s t r u c t i o n a t t h e i m p r e s s i o n a b l e p e r i o d when t h e
 106

youth i s r i t u a l l y admitted i n t o the group, i s f u r t h e r evidence o f

the g r e a t i n s i g h t i n t o t h e b a s i c human d r i v e s shown by t h e f o u n d e r s
or f o r e f a t h e r s . R e s p e c t f o r t h e aged, f o r t h e f a t h e r and t h e dead,,
has d e v e l o p e d i n t o a vast i n s t i t u t i o n c a l l e d ancestor worship o r
c u l t and t h i s e n g r o s s e s t h e whole a d u l t l i f e o f t h e Igbos.. This
p o w e r f u l , a l l - e m b r a c i n g r e l i g i o u s c o n c e p t , gave b i r t h t o an.amazing
r i c h n e s s o f s c u l p t u r e s i n wood, i v o r y and b r o n z e n o t o n l y among t h e
Igbos b u t w i t h i n t h e e n t i r e c o n t i n e n t o f A f r i c a .

C o l l e c t i v e work i n t h e i n i t i a t i o n camp had been noted earlier.

A s i d e from t h e immediate m a t e r i a l advantage such a s t h e s a v i n g i n
time and l a b o u r when twenty men, i n s t e a d o f one, b u i l t a house, i t
g i v e s an added f e e l i n g o f s e c u r i t y i n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s . The y o u t h
knows t h a t s h o u l d s i c k n e s s o r a c c i d e n t b e f a l l him, members o f - h i s
s e c r e t s o c i e t y would s t a n d by; i f he t r a v e l l e d he c o u l d f i n d welcome
i n t h e home o f a member s o c i e t y o r - o f an a f f i l i a t e d s o c i e t y . From
t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t s a t i s f i e d b a s i c human d r i v e s , s y m b o l i c and h i g h l y
d e v e l o p e d r i t u a l s have e v o l v e d . T h i s r i t e s t r e s s e s p u r i f i c a t i o n and
the a c h i e v e m e n t o f a new l i f e , a new i d e n t i t y . By e a t i n g s a c r e d f o o d ,
c o n t a i n i n g t h e e n e r g y o f t h e s p i r i t s , t h e i n i t i a t e s a c h i e v e d communion
with the world o f s p i r i t s .
 107

CHAPTER IV

Notes and R e f e r e n c e s

1. Eke i s Igbo s a b b a t h a n d t h e h o l i e s t o f t h e f o u r days t h a t make

up t h e Igbo week. L i t t l e o r no work i s done on t h i s d a y
r e s e r v e d f o r w o r s h i p o f t h e gods and a n c e s t o r s .
2. Ikenga f i g u r i n e s r e p r e s e n t t h e "gods o f f o r t u n e " . They a r e
symbols o f a c h i e v e m e n t , prowess a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e and a r e a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h a man's r i g h t - h a n d . A t t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f a d u l t h o o d , a
young man a c q u i r e s an i k e n g a t o s y m b o l i z e both h i s i n i t i a t o r y
a c h i e v e m e n t a n d t o i n s p i r e him t o g r e a t e r a c t i o n s i n t h e f u t u r e .
When s u c h a c t i o n s ' a r e a c h i e v e d , he makes s a c r i f i c e s o f c h i c k e n j
k o l a n u t s , o r palm wine t o h i s i k e n g a . An i k e n g a - i s a l s o g i v e n
t o a w a r r i o r g o i n g i n t o o r . r e t u r n i n g from b a t t l e o r t o a n y man.
who has a c h i e v e d o r i s a b o u t t o a c h i e v e a b r a v e a c t i o n .

3. T h e r e a r e a number o f p o s s i b l e r e a s o n s why women a r e n e v e r

i n i t i a t e d i n t o t h e mmuo s o c i e t y . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , masking
i s a male a f f a i r ' i n I g b o l a n d . T h e s e r e a s o n s may be a n y • o r
combination o f t h e f o l l o w i n g :
a) To keep women i n t h e i r p l a c e ,
b) A d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r i n s o c i e t y i n w h i c h women and o t h e r
males come t o be e n t e r t a i n e d by men o f . t h e s e c r e t s o c i e t y ,
c) S i n c e women e n s u r e t h e g e n e t i c c o n t i n u i t y o f s o c i e t y a n d
s i n c e masks a r e s p i r i t s , who m i g h t be good o r e v i l , men do
not w i s h t o endanger t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e r a c e by l e t t i n g
women gamble w i t h s u p e r n a t u r a l f o r c e s . A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e '
women n a t i v e d o c t o r s who d e a l w i t h s p i r i t s , t h e number i s
i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y s m a l l compared w i t h t h e f a c t . t h a t e v e r y male
i s supposed t o be i n i t i a t e d i n t o t h e mmuo ( s p i r i t ) s o c i e t y .
d) Masquerade o r m a s k i n g r e q u i r e s f o r c e , f e a r l e s s n e s s , courage,,
e t c . , e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g i n i t i a t i o n . . Men do n o t w i s h t o
t o r m e n t o r expose women t o p h y s i c a l d a n g e r s .
e) Because o f t h e i r m o n t h l y m e n s t r u a l p e r i o d s , i t i s f e a r e d t h a t
women m i g h t p o l u t e t h e s p i r i t u a l p u r i t y o f masks.-

4. This i s a point that requires further i n v e s t i g a t i o n . • I obtained

the i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t t h e mmuo s o c i e t y e v o l v e d from a . g u i l d o f
masked a c t o r s a t Awka.
5. T h e r e i s no c l e a r d e m a r c a t i o n between t h e s a c r e d and t h e s e c u l a r
a c t i v i t i e s i n r u r a l communities. F o r a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e community, p l e a s e r e f e r t o N i s b e t (1968:2).
6. I o b s e r v e d t h i s i n Umahia i n December o f 1975 i n t h e workshop o f
Nduka. C a r v e r s o f s k i l l a c c o r d i n g t o Nduka n e v e r c u t t w i c e ,
n e i t h e r do t h e y a d d p i e c e s t h a t had been c u t away.
 108

7. c f H a l p i n (1975) u n p u b l i s h e d seminar p a p e r , , e n t i t l e d "Masks

As Metaphor o f A n t i - S t r u c t u r e " .

8. The b r a c k e t and e n c l o s u r e a r e mine..

9. • P i c a s s o made the s t a t e m e n t i n a c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h the famous a r t .

c o l l e c t o r and c r i t i c , Segy. c f Segy (1975).
10. Messengers may be i n masks such as t h e okpa.. However, t h e y a r e
s e l e c t e d because o f t h e i r m a t u r i t y i n h a n d l i n g such s e c r e t
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . They a r e men o r y o u t h s o f proven i n t e g r i t y .
11. For a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n o f
myths, r e f e r t o Campbell (1949).
 109

CHAPTER V ,

MASKS AS RITUAL THEATRE—THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

In t h i s c h a p t e r * I w i l l argue t h a t Igbo masquerade i s both

r i t u a l and t h e a t r e by showing how masks c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e o r e t i c a l

models o f both r i t u a l and t h e a t r e . The model I w i l l use f o r the

s t r u c t u r e o f theatre i s that developed by Elmer R i c e (1955), while

t h a t o f r i t u a l i s the one d e v e l o p e d by Edmund Leach (1963). While

combining t h e i d e a s o f t h e s e two, I w i l l also apply Eliade's (1959)

f o r m u l a t i o n on f e s t i v a l s t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t d u r i n g masquerades,

Igbos r e c r e a t e and l i v e i n the s a c r e d time o f t h e i r a n c e s t o r s .

The p r o b l e m o f the t h e s i s , w h i c h i s o f prime m u s e o l o g i c a l sig-

n i f i c a n c e * i s t h a t t h e mask a s seen i n museum d i s p l a y s i s a l i f e l e s s

p i e c e o f c a r v e d and p a i n t e d wood. But t o t h e Igbos i t has a f o r c e o f

i t s own.- It i s considered a being. The paradox i s how t o c o n v e r t the

p i e c e o f wood i n t o a s p i r i t u a l force. One i s t h e r e f o r e c o m p e l l e d t o

examine t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between i l l u s i o n and r e a l i t y , i n terms o f the

models f o r t h e a t r e and r i t u a l , two o f t h e c o n t e x t s w i t h i n w h i c h masks

a r e o f t e n worn, and w h i c h c o n t a i n w i t h i n t h e m s e l v e s the same p a r a d o x ;

e s p e c i a l l y the paradox t h a t r i t u a l can b o t h . c r e a t e and r e v e r s e time.>

This in i t s e l f i s also i l l u s o r y . In o r d e r t o s o l v e t h e s e museological

p r o b l e m s , one must put masks and'masquerades i n t o an a p p r o p r i a t e ethno-

g r a p h i c c o n t e x t which I have done i n d e t a i l i n the p r e c e d i n g chapters.

Briefly, these c o n s i s t o f the v a r i o u s r i t u a l s - i n v o l v e d i n c a r v i n g

 no

the mask i t s e l f , those r i t u a l s i n v o l v e d i n i n i t i a t i n g n o v i t i a t e s

i n t o t h e s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h masks, and f i n a l l y , those
r i t u a l s necessary f o r p u t t i n g o n . t h e mask.- T h i s l a s t p a r t needs
further elaboration. When t h e o c c a s i o n i s r i g h t f o r masquerade p e r -
f o r m a n c e , t h e l e a d e r s i n t h e men's s e c r e t masquerade s o c i e t y assemble
i n t h e men's r e s t house o r t h e obimmuo and d e c i d e which mask i s t o
a p p e a r . ' Then t h e y make s u r e t h a t t h e mask and i t s a s s o c i a t e d costumes
a r e i n good shape. F i n a l l y , t h e y announce t h e i r d e c i s i o n t o o t h e r
members, e s p e c i a l l y those a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s p a r t i c u l a r mask through
a p e c u l i a r s o u n d i n g o f t h e ekwe (wooden g o n g ) . Only those associated
would u n d e r s t a n d t h i s s e c r e t l a n g u a g e and would t h e r e f o r e assemble a t
the a p p r o p r i a t e p l a c e . Here a r i t u a l i s p e r f o r m e d t o g i v e l i f e f o r c e
to t h e l a t e n t mask. T h i s i s done, by o f f e r i n g some k o l a nuts t o t h e
a n c e s t o r s and t h r o w i n g of white c l a y or chalk (nzu) t o s i g n i f y that
members a r e p u r e . Then an egg i s thrown on t h e f a c e o f t h e mask t o
r i t u a l l y put l i f e i n t o i t . A l i v e chicken i s s a c r i f i c e d t o the ancestors
t o p r o t e c t t h e mask. Members r o a s t and e a t - t h e meat o f t h e c h i c k e n .
This sharing o f food with the supernatural i s what a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s ,
would r e f e r t o as c o m m e n s a l i t y o r communion. The mask i s then p u t on
and goes on d i s p l a y t o t h e a u d i e n c e . T h i s happens a n y t i m e t h e mask
i s t o a p p e a r f o r w h a t e v e r r e a s o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e Igbo c o u n t r y , although
forms may v a r y d e p e n d i n g on l o c a l circumstances.

I w i l l now b e g i n my d i s c u s s i o n on t h e r i t u a l t h e a t r i c a l i t y o f
Igbo masks by f i r s t p r e s e n t i n g masks as t h e a t r e . '
 m

Igbo Masquerade as T h e a t r e

Basden (1966:117) wrote c o n c e r n i n g t h e Igbos as he saw them

i n t h e e a r l y 1900's: " H o l d i n g t h e most p r o f o u n d b e l i e f s i n , t h e s u p e r -
n a t u r a l , the Ibo i s d e e p l y c o n s c i o u s o f h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e unseen
w o r l d , and e v e r y p r e c a u t i o n must be o b s e r v e d i n o r d e r t o keep the
s p i r i t o f t h e d e p a r t e d i n a s t a t e o f p e a c e f u l contentment". One o f
t h e s e i n t r i c a t e and e l a b o r a t e d e v i c e s f o r k e e p i n g t h e s p i r i t o f t h e
d e p a r t e d i n a s t a t e o f p e a c e f u l contentment i s t o g i v e a dead relative
a p r o p e r b u r i a l , and i n t h i s t h e mask p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t p a r t . > When
a " f u l l grown" man d i e s , , h e i s supposed t o be b u r i e d w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e
rites. Perhaps one needs to d e f i n e a f u l l grown man as the Igbos see
him. He i s a p e r s o n who was born a f r e e c i t i z e n o f h i s community, has
l i v e d a u s e f u l and s u c c e s s f u l l i f e (by j o i n i n g t h e s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s ,
t a k i n g t i t l e s , e t c . ) , has a house, a w i f e and perhaps c h i l d r e n * ' When
such a man d i e s , the community i s s a d t o l o s e a r e a l "son o f t h e s o i l " .
Youths d r e s s e d i n masks must appear t o w i s h him, who has been a member
of the s o c i e t y , a f i n a l f a r e w e l l t o the l a n d o f the dead. Being
s p i r i t s , t h e masks show t h a t he i s welcome t o t h e i r domain. T h i s has
always been the g e n e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n g i v e n t o t h e masquerade p e r f o r -
mance o f y o u t h s a t b u r i a l s . This t r u l y r e i n f o r c e s the r e l i g i o u s
n a t u r e o f the Igbo masks.

What has o f t e n been o v e r l o o k e d i n l i t e r a t u r e i s the f a c t t h a t

t h e s e masked p e r f o r m a n c e s d u r i n g b u r i a l s a r e a l s o t o T i g h t e n t h e mood o f
p e o p l e deep i n g r i e f . W r i t i n g on d e a t h and b u r i a l r i t e s o f the Igbos,,
Basedn ( l o c . c i t . ) c o n t i n u e d , "These q u a i n t a p p a r i t i o n s , n e e d l e s s t o
 112

s a y , . a r e men d i s g u i s e d i n g r o t e s q u e f a s h i o n , with t h e i r bodies

completely enveloped i n c l o t h , and u t t e r i n g p e c u l i a r sounds by
means o f a i r i n s t r u m e n t s f i x e d between the t e e t h . To the e x c i t e d
a u d i e n c e t h e s e a r e v e r i l y b e l i e v e d t o be f i g u r e s a n i m a t e d by s p i r i t s
from the u n d e r w o r l d " . He f a i l e d t o examine the mask as e x c i t i n g
an a u d i e n c e i n . g r i e f but d w e l t i n h i s work on the r e l i g i o u s i m p l i c a t i o n
o f the masked appearance.' My argument i s t h a t masquerade p e r f o r m a n c e
a t b u r i a l c e r e m o n i e s o f the Igbos a r e as w e l l drama e n a c t e d t o c r e a t e
p l e a s u r e and d i v e r s i o n and t h e r e b y l i g h t e n t h e mood o f an a u d i e n c e
i n a "death house".

F o r t u n a t e l y , c o n t e m p o r a r y s t u d i e s o f Igbo masquerades have begun

t o examine t h i s c u l t u r a l ' t r a i t i n a t h e a t r i c a l framework, f o c u s s i n g
a t t e n t i o n s p e c i f i c a l l y on the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the a c t o r s (masked
performers) and t h e i r a u d i e n c e (the community). Ottenberg (1973:32),
who must be seen as one o f the p i o n e e r s , commented t h a t "a f u l l under-,
s t a n d i n g o f the p e r f o r m a n c e r e q u i r e s v e r y c l o s e ' o b s e r v a t i o n o f the
a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e a u d i e n c e as w e l l as the p l a y e r s " . Because he saw
masks as t h e a t r e , he d e s c r i b e d some o f t h e A f i k p o masquerade p e r f o r -
mances he had o b s e r v e d as p l a y s , w i t h a c t s and s c e n e s (see Ottenberg,
1975).

T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f mask as t h e a t r e i s shown by the f a c t t h a t

s i n g i n g , d a n c i n g and j e s t i n g a r e , s u b j e c t s on which i n s t r u c t i o n s a r e '
g i v e n i n i n i t i a t i o n camps,in t h e f o r e s t . Music and d a n c i n g a r e most
important t o the Igbos because e v e r y s t e p has t o b e , m a s t e r e d and
repeated without f a u l t a t masquerade p e r f o r m a n c e s . T r a d i t i o n a l i s m had
a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t here s i n c e i t was the b e l i e f among the Igbos, t h a t
 113

i f t h e r e i s a change, the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e dance would be l o s t .

We.have now a r r i v e d a t t h e i s s u e o r c o r e o f t h e t h e s i s ; namely,

t h a t masks among t h e Igbos c o u l d a l s o be i n t e r p r e t e d o r l o o k e d . a t

as t h e a t r e .

But l e t us examine the n a t u r e o f t h e a t r e t o see i f o u r c o n c e p t i o n

o f t h e mask as t h e a t r e i s c o r r e c t . - Whether o r n o t a r t can be d e f i n e d ,

e v e r y a r t i s t knows o r would know i f he t h o u g h t about i t , t h a t t h e

a r t i s t i c i m p u l s e i s compounded o f two e l e m e n t s . One i s a need f o r

s e l f r e x p r e s s i o n i n w h a t e v e r c o n t e x t , and the second e l e m e n t i s a

d e s i r e t o communicate what i s e x p r e s s e d . In o t h e r words, t h e p u r p o s e

o f a r t - - b e i t s c u l p t u r e , p a i n t i n g , d a n c i n g , p o e t r y , music o r w h a t e v e r - -

i s not c o m p l e t e e x c e p t when i t i s communicated t o o t h e r s who u n d e r s t a n d

and a p p r e c i a t e what t h e a r t i s t has done. I w i l l say f u r t h e r t h a t t h i s

p r o c e s s o f a r t i s t i c communication l i k e most o t h e r human-phenomenon,

f o l l o w s c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s , and t h a t a r t i s t i c t r a d i t i o n depends upon a

c o l l e c t i v e body o f a p p r e c i a t o r s . T h i s i s what drama and t h e a t r e mean

and a r e a l l a b o u t . T h e r e must be an a u d i e n c e . With r e s p e c t t o

drama, t h e e s s e n t i a l r e q u i r e m e n t o f communication i s s i m p l y s t a t e d :

p l a y s a r e t o be p e r f o r m e d before-<an a u d i e n c e . C o l l e c t i v e l y , the

p e r f o r m a n c e , t h e a u d i e n c e , t h e a u d i t o r i u m and many o t h e r e l e m e n t s

c o n s t i t u t e an i n s t i t u t i o n which i n t h e modern sense i s c a l l e d t h e

theatre. The t h e a t r e , one may s a y , i s t h e r e f o r e an i n s t r u m e n t f o r

the communication o f drama,.much as i t has t o d a y an i n d e p e n d e n t s o c i a l

and a r t i s t i c e x i s t e n c e o f i t s own.,

In t r a d i t i o n a l o r r a t h e r p r e - l i t e r a t e s o c i e t i e s , t h e problems

o f communication o f t h e work o f a r t a r e f u s e d . , But i n t o d a y ' s Western

 114

s o c i e t y , the p r o c e s s e s o f c r e a t i o n and o f communication a r e w h o l l y

dissimilar. One i s the s p o n t a n e o u s o r p l a n n e d , s e l f o r group i n i t i a t e d
a c t i v i t y o f an i n d i v i d u a l , group o r community; the o t h e r , an organized
i n d u s t r i a l or t e c h n o l o g i c a l process, a business. R i c e (1955:2)
w r i t e s t h a t " i n p r i m i t i v e s o c i e t i e s t h i s d i s p a r i t y may not be e v i d e n t ,
but i t widens r a p i d l y as t h e s o c i a l t e x t u r e becomes more i n t r i c a t e
and complex; so t h a t i n the modern w o r l d , t h e m a c h i n e r y o f communi-
c a t i o n has a l m o s t a c q u i r e d an i d e n t i t y o f i t s own, w i t h a r e l a t i o n s h i p
to the a r t i s t i c t h a t i s m e c h a n i s t i c r a t h e r than organic" . 1

W r i t i n g on the e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e t h e a t r e whether
p r o f e s s i o n a l , amateur, c o m m e r c i a l , . s u b s i d i z e d or academic, Rice
maintains q u i t e r i g h t l y that theatre i s a c o l l e c t i v e process, to
w h i c h I add t h a t the Igbo masquerade p e r f o r m a n c e i s a c l a s s i c example.

To R i c e , t h e c o l l e c t i v e n a t u r e o f t h e t h e a t r e i s a p p a r e n t in three
2
respects . In the f i r s t p l a c e , p l a y s a r e p e r f o r m e d i n the p r e s e n c e of

a c o l l e c t i v e e n t i t y — t h e audience. He m a i n t a i n s t h a t p l a y s a r e supposed

t o be communicated t o a numerous group g a t h e r e d i n one p l a c e a t one

time. In the c o n t e x t . o f t h i s s t u d y , t h e Igbo a u d i e n c e g a t h e r s a t t h e

obimmuo o r v i l l a g e square o r the m a r k e t square to watch the r i t u a l

and m y t h i c a l drama t h a t i s m a s q u e r a d e ' p e r f o r m a n c e . The o r g a n i z a t i o n

and.assemblage o f the group c a l l s f o r a s p e c i a l s e t o f procedures,,

because the d i f f e r e n c e between a c o l l e c t i v e r e s p o n s e and an i n d i v i d u a l

response i s not o n l y one o f d e g r e e , but one o f k i n d . T h i s temporal and'

p h y s i c a l c o l l e c t i v e assemblage make i t i m p e r a t i v e t h a t t h e p l a y , both'

i n c r e a t i o n and i n p e r f o r m a n c e , be i m m e d i a t e l y apprehensible. There

i s no l i n g e r i n g , no t u r n i n g back. The a u d i e n c e must move.forward w i t h

 115

t h e p e r f o r m e r s because what i s not i n s t a n t l y g r a s p e d may be l o s t .

I t i s noteworthy t h a t Igbo a u d i e n c e s , as O t t e n b e r g (1975) has shown,

a r e a c t i v e o b s e r v e r s a t t h e masquerade p l a y s . They c l a p and o f t e n

move t o t h e rhythm o f t h e m u s i c , t h e y j o i n i n s i n g i n g a t t i m e s , and

3

t h e y c h e e r top p e r f o r m a n c e but j e e r a p o o r show .

R i c e c o n t i n u e s t h a t s e c o n d l y t h e r e can be no d i r e c t communication
between t h e d r a m a t i s t and t h e a u d i e n c e . The p r o j e c t i o n o f h i s p l a y

e n t a i l s t h e s e r v i c e s o f a d i r e c t o r and a c t o r s , d e s i g n e r s o f costumes

and s c e n e r y , s t a g e h a n d s , e t c . A l l t h e s e must be c o - o r d i n a t e d i n t h e

c a r r y i n g o u t o f an o r g a n i z e d p l a n . I n d i v i d u a l ism must b o t h e x p r e s s

i t s e l f and be&-tooa l a r g e e x t e n t — s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e o v e r a l l scheme.

T h i s c r e a t e s c o r d i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and a l s o a t t i m e s c o n f l i c t s . We

have examples o f t h i s c o - o r d i n a t i o n from t h e Igbo masquerade p e r f o r -

mance. In t h e Okumkpa p l a y o f t h e A f i k p o Igbos, t h e r e . i s a l e a d e r

a n d . a s s i s t a n t l e a d e r who a c t as d i r e c t o r s o f t h e p l a y . These a r e

c a r v e r s , makers o f costumes, e t c . , whose c o l l e c t i v e i n d i v i d u a l skills

make t h e m a s q u e r a d e . p l a y p o s s i b l e . In t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , one must t a k e

c o g n i s a n c e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e s s e n c e o f drama i s not words but

action. Plays are w r i t t e n to be,acted. In A r i s t o t l e ' s c l a s s i c d e f i n -

i t i o n , f o r example, a t r a g e d y ( t h a t i s , a p l a y ) , i s an i m i t a t i o n o f an

action. Comedy means a f e s t i v i t y w i t h music and d a n c i n g o r a f e s t a l

procession. A revue i s . a r e - s e e i n g , i . e . a re-enactment of t o p i c a l

incidents. Such words as a c t , p l a y , show and s p e c t a c l e put the

emphasis upon d o i n g and s e e i n g , so do d i r e c t o r , p r o d u c e r , a c t o r , p e r -

f o r m e r , mime, e t c . Scene, s t a g e , and t h e a t r e a l l r e f e r t o a b u i l d i n g

o r s t r u c t u r e d e s i g n e d f o r p e r f o r m e r s and s p e c t a t o r s , w h i l e a u d i e n c e
 116

i n d i c a t e s t h a t p e o p l e come t o see and t o h e a r . It is submitted

h e r e , t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n e a r l i e r a c c o u n t s o f masquerade p e r -

formance i n t h i s study,.that Igbo masquerades q u a l i f y as theatre

i n t h e i r own right.

T h i r d l y , R i c e s t a t e s t h a t the two c o l l e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

the t h e a t r e shown e a r l i e r , i . e . the a u d i e n c e and the executants,

p r o d u c e the n e x t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the t h e a t r e which i s i t s p u b l i c

nature. O t h e r works o f a r t may be e n j o y e d not o n l y by i n d i v i d u a l s ,

but i n p r i v a t e . F a i l i n g a p u b l i s h e r o r an e x h i b i t o r , a poem o r a

p a i n t i n g may be p a s s e d from hand t o hand. Or, i f i t i s c o n s i d e r e d sub-

v e r s i v e o r i n d e l i c a t e , and hence u n a c c e p t a b l e , i t may be read o r d i s -

p l a y e d i n a l o c k e d room b e h i n d drawn b l i n d s . But the f u r t h e r e s s e n c e

of a.dramatic performance i s that i t i s p u b l i c . It is practically

impossible t o keep s e c r e t an a c t i v i t y t h a t demands the f a c i l i t i e s and

the number o f p a r t i c i p a n t s r e q u i r e d f o r the showing o f a p l a y . • I must

q u a l i f y t h i s l a s t s t a t e m e n t by p o i n t i n g out t h a t a l t h o u g h i n the mas-

querade p e r f o r m a n c e , , i n t e r n a l knowledge o f the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the p l a y

i s s e c r e t w i t h i n the s e c r e t s o c i e t y and i t s members, t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e

i s done in. the open; o t h e r w i s e i t would b e . m e a n i n g l e s s t o the community.

The t h e a t r e by i t s v e r y n a t u r e i s o u t . i n the open. T h i s makes i t

s u b j e c t t o many forms o f t r a d i t i o n a l a n d / o r p u b l i c s c r u t i n y , . i n f l u e n c e ,

s u p e r v i s i o n and r e g u l a t i o n , c o v e r i n g m a t t e r s t h a t a r e f i s c a l , p o l i t i c a l ,

r e l i g i o u s , s o c i a l and g o v e r n m e n t a l by n a t u r e . The masquerade p l a y o f

the Igbos, as i n d e e d such p e r f o r m a n c e e i t h e r by the Kwakiutl or the

Melanesians, q u a l i f y in t h i s category also. A l l t h a t has been w r i t t e n

in e a r l i e r chapters f i t s in nicely.
 117

We c a n t h e r e f o r e summarize t h a t t h e t h e a t r e c a n t r u l y be s a i d t o
have f o r m , a s t r u c t u r e , an i d e n t i t y o f i t s own. I t e x i s t s , even i n
the modern s e n s e , f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f s e r v i n g drama and v i c e v e r s a .
In a l a r g e r sense, drama and t h e a t r e n a r r o w l y d e f i n e d a r e t h e same.
T h i s i s t h e c a s e w i t h t h e masquerade p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e I g b o s . It
s h o u l d be a p p r o p r i a t e t o use an Igbo example t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h i s .
Ottenberg has w r i t t e n on t h e Okumkpa p l a y s o f t h e A f i k p o i n w h i c h he
showed t h a t t h e p l a y has f o u r a c t s . I d i d w r i t e on t h e Ozoebunu p e r -
formance o f t h e O z u b u l u when I d i s c u s s e d i n i t i a t i o n ceremony. L e t us
t h e r e f o r e examine f u r t h e r a n o t h e r Igbo community a n d ' t h e a c c o u n t o f
the i j e l e masquerade as r e c o r d e d by Boston . Boston (1960), w r o t e o f

the masquerades o f t h e Nri-Awka Igbos. I t s h o u l d be noted i n p a s s i n g

5

t h a t N r i i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e c r a d l e and a n c e s t r a l home o f t h e Igbos .

His w r i t i n g can be summarized a s f o l l o w s .

A l l masks among t h e Nri-Awka Iqbos a r e c r e d i t e d w i t h supernatural

powers, b u t i n some c a s e s t h i s i m p o r t a n c e i s a l s o f o u n d e d on t h e

s o c i a l f a c t s , s u c h as t h e i r c o s t o r t h e impact o f t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e on

the l o c a l i t y . The summit o f m a s q u e r a d i n g i n t e r m s o f o s t e n t a t i o n and

s o c i a l p r e s t i g e i s o c c u p i e d by a mask c a l l e d i j e l e and i s owned by a l l

the four c l a n s , T h i s mask r e q u i r e s y e a r s o f e f f o r t t o p u r c h a s e and

meet t h e c o s t o f u n d e r t a k i n g i t s performance. In i t s s o c i a l a s p e c t ,

the i j e l e i s n o t u n l i k e t h e p o t l a t c h , s i n c e t h e p r o d i g a l e x p e n d i t u r e i s

c a l c u l a t e d t o make an i m p r e s s i o n o v e r a wide a r e a . The a i m o f t h e

i j e l e i s m o s t l y r e l i g i o u s , s i n c e i t i s a symbol o f c o n t i n u i t y and r i t u a l

w e l l - b e i n g i n t h e community o f i t s owners. The mask i t s e l f , l i k e t h e

Ozoebunu o f O z u b u l u , i s t r e a t e d w i t h g r e a t r e s p e c t , a n d , a f t e r u s e when
P l a t e X. The i j e l e masquerade.
( P h o t o g r a p h by E.C. Onwuzolum).
 119

i t s p a r t s a r e d i s m a n t l e d , t h e y a r e c a r e f u l l y p r e s e r v e d as r i t u a l

o b j e c t s w i t h p o w e r f u l a n c e s t r a l s a n c t i o n s a g a i n s t d i s p o s i n g them t o

anyone o u t s i d e t h e umunna ( " c l a n " ) . The i j e l e i s t h e r e f o r e p u b l i c

property.

The mask, i j e l e , i s a t a b l e a u o f f i g u r e s w i t h t r a p p i n g s h a n g i n g

f r o m i t s bottom edge t o c o n c e a l t h e p e r f o r m e r who c a r r i e s t h e s t r u c t u r e

on h i s head (see p h o t o g r a p h ) . The t a b l e a u i s s u p p o r t e d by a framework

made o f cane and s l a t s o f palm m i d r i b which c o n s i s t s o f a c i r c u l a r

base about s i x f e e t a c r o s s , a p a i r o f a r c h e s s p a n n i n g t h e base and

i n t e r s e c t i n g a t r i g h t a n g l e s some e i g h t f e e t above i t s c e n t r e , and a

l i g h t open work cone f i t t e d t o t h e base, w i t h i t s apex a t t a c h e d t o t h e

j u n c t i o n o f the arches. No p a r t o f t h e framework i s v i s i b l e when t h e

mask i s f i n i s h e d , as the cone i s c o v e r e d w i t h r e d c l o t h and t h e

s t r u t s o f t h e a r c h e s a r e bound a l s o i n r e d c l o t h and f i n i s h e d o f f w i t h

tassels. The theme o f t h e t a b l e a u t h a t o c c u p i e s the upper s e c t i o n o f

t h e i j e l e i s t h e l i f e o f a t y p i c a l Igbo community. Human f i g u r e s a r e

i n t h e m a j o r i t y and a r e a r r a n g e d t o d e p i c t e i t h e r s a c r i f i c e o f a n i m a l s

or t h e p l a y i n g o f m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s , e t c . Realistic figures of
l o c a l a n i m a l s and b i r d s a r e a l s o d e p i c t e d , so a l s o a r e some masks o f

the a r e a .

I j e l e i s made by p r o f e s s i o n a l men who work i n an e n c l o s u r e e s p e c i -

a l l y p r e p a r e d f o r them a t t h e edge o f t h e c l e a r i n g i n which the mask

w i l l e v e n t u a l l y perform. The c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e work i s u s u a l l y i n

t i m e f o r t h e m i d d l e o f t h e d r y season f e a s t p e r i o d and invitations

a r e s e n t o u t t o p e r s o n s o f both sexes o v e r a wide a r e a t o come and w a t c h .

Much o f t h e time o f the a c t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e i s t a k e n up by the owners and

 120

t h e i r male r e l a t i v e s , i n s i n g i n g and d a n c i n g and d i s p l a y i n g t h e

cows, g o a t s and yams, and money t h a t a r e b e i n g p r e s e n t e d t o t h e ijele.
But from time t o time the f i e l d i s c l e a r e d and t h e i j e l e o r c h e s t r a
t a k e s command w h i l s t t h e mask dances out o f i t s h i d i n g p l a c e , f o l l o w i n g
i t s g u i d e who i s the d i r e c t o r o f t h e p l a y , s w a y i n g and t u r n i n g grace-
f u l l y as i t goes t o v i s i t each s e c t i o n o f the huge audience.

We need not b e l a b o u r t h e p o i n t t h a t the i j e l e p l a y and p e r f o r m a n c e

i s t h e a t r e b e c a u s e . t h e d e s c r i p t i o n d e m o n s t r a t e s q u i t e c l e a r l y the three
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the t h e a t r e which Rice p o s t u l a t e s . R i c e (1955:12)
has h i m s e l f shown t h a t t h e a t r e l i k e o t h e r human a c t i v i t i e s i s shaped
and d e v e l o p e d by the s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t . He used t h e examples o f r u r a l
M e x i c o and i n d u s t r i a l i z e d Germany t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h i s , and f o r t h e
p u r p o s e o f our a n a l y s i s i t i s q u i t e n e c e s s a r y to quote his Mexican
example:

"The t h e a t r e . . . i s a v i l l a g e a f f a i r , a communal e n t e r p r i s e
known as f i e s t a , i n w h i c h t h e e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n u s u a l l y
p a r t i c i p a t e s e i t h e r as p e r f o r m e r s o r as s p e c t a t o r s . Often
t h e s e f i e s t a s t a k e on t h e a s p e c t o f a f a i r , l a s t i n g f o r
s e v e r a l d a y s , and c o m b i n i n g w i t h the t h e a t r i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e
a m a r k e t , r e l i g i o u s o b s e r v a n c e s w i t h v a r i o u s forms o f d i v e r -
s i o n . . .Usually the dramatic f e a t u r e o f the f i e s t a i s performed
by a group o f v i l l a g e r s who s p e c i a l i z e i n t h e s k i l l s o f
d a n c i n g , s i n g i n g or p l a y i n g m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s . These
s k i l l s a r e f r e q u e n t l y handed down f r o m f a t h e r t o s o n , so t h a t
t h e p e r f o r m e r s have a l m o s t a p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a t u s , though o f
c o u r s e p e r f o r m i n g i s an a v o c a t i o n w i t h them. Many o f them
have g r e a t t h e a t r i c a l t a l e n t and p e r f o r m most a r t f u l l y . . .
The dramas a r e s i m p l e . . . a r e s i m i l a r t o t h e m e d i e v a l m y s t e r y
and m i r a c l e p l a y s w i t h a s t r o n g emphasis on t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l " .

Rice concluded h i s examination o f t h e Mexican v i l l a g e t h e a t r e by

p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t such a t h e a t r e can f l o u r i s h i n a p r e - i n d u s t r i a l

s o c i e t y among p e o p l e who a r e r o o t e d i n t h e v i l l a g e and d e e p l y imbued

w i t h t r a d i t i o n . T h i s i s t h e c a s e w i t h Igbo masks and p l a y s ; i n f a c t ,

 121

h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e a p t f o r o u r p r e s e n t s t u d y and f o r most o t h e r
s o c i e t i e s t h a t have masks. F o r example, Machon (1966:39-46) d e s c r i b e d
t h e drama o f t h e K w a k i u t l masked c e r e m o n i e s t h u s : "Songs and rhythm
were i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f a . t h e a t r i c a l mood. Each
p e r f o r m e r r e q u i r e d a number o f s e c r e t songs which s t r e s s e d h i s s p i r i t u a l
powers, and t h e s e were composed-by t h e song-maker. The c h o r u s l e a r n e d
t h e songs i n s e c r e c y , p u b l i c p r e s e n t a t i o n o c c u r r i n g f o r t h e f i r s t time
d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a t i o n ceremony. The b e a t o f t h e song was k e p t w i t h a
drum and w i t h b a t o n s which were b e a t e n upon a b o a r d . The b e a t i n g o f
t i m e and t h e words o f t h e songs s e r v e d t o i m p r e s s upon t h e s p e c t a t o r s
t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l powers o f t h e p e r f o r m a n c e " .

Igbo Masquerade as R i t u a l

I t has been d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t Igbo. masquerade i s t h e a t r e . However,

t h i s i s o n l y part o f the s t o r y because, to the Igbos, the masquerade

has r e l i g i o u s i m p l i c a t i o n s . I t was n o t e d e a r l i e r t h a t t h e Igbos b e l i e v e

t h a t t h e mask i s imbued w i t h r e a l meaning and c a r r i e d v e r y r e a l s u p e r -

n a t u r a l powers which i n v e s t e d power i n t h e w e a r e r , the costume, and

t h e mask i t s e l f d u r i n g (and even a f t e r ) such t i m e s as i t was b r o u g h t

f o r t h i n r i t u a l ceremony and t h e a t r i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e . Even t h e p r e p a r -

a t i o n o r c a r v i n g o f t h e mask seems t o a g r e e w i t h C o l e ' s c o n c e p t o f

" a r t - f o r - 1 i f e s a k e ; s i n c e i n most c a s e s the mask was c l o s e l y a l l i e d t o

t h o s e c u l t u r a l mechanisms d e d i c a t e d t o t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f o r d e r and

w e l l - b e i n g among t h e Igbos" . The mask i s o r i e n t e d t o t h o s e s o c i a l

v a l u e s upon which depend t h e s e n s e o f i n d i v i d u a l and community s e c u r i t y .

 122

.There is.-.a-puzzle'to be s o l v e d . A l l o v e r t h e w o r l d men mark

o u t t h e i r c a l e n d a r s by means o f f e s t i v a l s , which a r e forms o f t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n , and i n a l l t h e s e f e s t i v a l s , r i t e s o f passage a r e used t o
mark s o c i a l development o f both i n d i v i d u a l s and t h e s o c i e t y . Why
s h o u l d t i m e be demarcated i n t h i s way? Why s h o u l d i t be a p p r o p r i a t e
t o wear t o p h a t s a t Western f u n e r a l s , and masks on i f e j i o k u ceremony
among t h e Igbos? F r a z e r e x p l a i n e d such b e h a v i o u r by t r e a t i n g them as
s u r v i v a l o f p r i m i t i v e magic. His e x p l a n a t i o n i s q u i t e inadequate. It
i s n o t good enough t o e x p l a i n a w o r l d - w i d e phenomenon i n terms o f p a r -
ticular, localized, archaic beliefs. The o d d e s t t h i n g about t i m e i s
s u r e l y t h a t men have such a c o n c e p t a t a l l . We e x p e r i e n c e i t , but n o t
w i t h our s e n s e s . We do n o t see t i m e o r t o u c h i t , o r s m e l l i t , o r t a s t e
i t o r hear. i t .

A c c o r d i n g t o Leach (1963:132-6), human b e i n g s e x p e r i e n c e t i m e i n

t h r e e ways. F i r s t l y , we r e c o g n i z e r e p e t i t i o n which b r i n g s o u t t i m e

intervals. Time i n t e r v a l s - - d u r a t i o n s - - a l w a y s b e g i n and end w i t h t h e

same t h i n g , e.g. a p u l s e b e a t , New Y e a r ' s day, e t c . S e c o n d l y , we r e c o g -

nize entropy, ageing. L i v i n g t h i n g s a r e b o r n , grow, o l d and d i e . Ageing

i s t h e i r r e v e r s i b l e f a t e o f us a l l , b u t a g e i n g and i n t e r v a l a r e s u r e l y

two q u i t e d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f e x p e r i e n c e , We lump t h e s e two e x p e r i e n c e s

t o g e t h e r and d e s c r i b e them b o t h by one name--time--because a c c o r d i n g

t o Leach (1963:133), "We would l i k e t o b e l i e v e t h a t i n some m y s t i c a l

way b i r t h and d e a t h a r e r e a l l y t h e same t h i n g " . T h i r d l y , our experience

o f t i m e c o n c e r n s t h e r a t e a t which t i m e p a s s e s . There i s evidence to

show t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l ages a t a pace t h a t i s e v e r s l o w i n g down i n

r e l a t i o n t o t h e sequence o f s t e l l a r t i m e . The f e e l i n g t h a t t h e f i r s t
 123

t e n y e a r s o f c h i l d h o o d " l a s t e d much l o n g e r " may n o t be an i l l u s i o n .

B i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s such a s wound h e a l i n g o p e r a t e much f a s t e r ( i n
terms o f s t e l l a r t i m e ) d u r i n g c h i l d h o o d t h a n i n o l d a g e . T h i s
i r r e g u l a r f l o w o f time i s o b s e r v a b l e i n p l a n t s ; t h e y grow much f a s t e r
in the beginning o f t h e i r l i f e c y c l e .

Such f a c t s show t h a t t h e r e g u l a r i t y o f time i s n o t an i n t r i n s i c

p a r t o f n a t u r e ; i t i s a man-made n o t i o n w h i c h human b e i n g s p r o j e c t i n t o
t h e environment f o r t h e i r own p u r p o s e s . Men t r y t o f i x a " c h r o n o m e t e r "
by w h i c h t o measure t h e a f f a i r s o f l i f e . I t i s t h e annual sequence o f
a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h p r o v i d e s t h e measure o f t i m e . F o r . p e o p l e who do n o t
p o s s e s s c a l e n d a r s o f t h e n a u t i c a l almanac t y p e , t h e p r o g r e s s o f t i m e ,
e s p e c i a l l y t h e y e a r ' s p r o g r e s s , i s marked by a s u c c e s s i o n o f f e s t i v a l s .
Each f e s t i v a l r e p r e s e n t s a temporary s h i f t from t h e "normal - p r o f a n e "
o r d e r o f e x i s t e n c e i n t o t h e "abnormal - s a c r e d " o r d e r , and back a g a i n .
The t o t a l f l o w o f time then has a p a t t e r n which m i g h t be r e p r e s e n t e d
as shown below.

/\ r

A Sacred ,C A Sacred C
V

s n s nu
s u ' /

Fig.- V I . R i t u a l Separation
(Taken w i t h m o d i f i c a t i o n s from Leach (1963:134)).
 124

Such f l o w o f time as shown above i s man-made. It i s ordered i n

t h i s way by t h e s o c i e t i e s ( t h e "moral p e r s o n " t o use Durkheim's ter-

m i n o l o g y ) , which p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e f e s t a l r i t e s , and t h i s a g r e e s

w i t h t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f comedy. The r i t e s t h e m s e l v e s , e s p e c i a l l y

s a c r i f i c i a l ones ( a f t e r which masquerades may appear among many p e o p l e s ,

t h e Igbos i n t h e c o n t e x t o f o u r a n a l y s i s ) , a r e t e c h n i q u e s f o r c h a n g i n g

the s t a t u s o f t h e moral p e r s o n from p r o f a n e t o s a c r e d , o r f r o m s a c r e d

to profane. Viewed i n t h i s D u r k h e i m i a n way, t h e t o t a l sequence

embraces f o u r d i s t i n c t phases, o f s t a t e s o f t h e community.

Phase A. These a r e r i t e s and r i t u a l s o f s a c r a l i z a t i o n and/or

separation. The moral p e r s o n i s t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e s e c u l a r t o t h e

sacred world. T h i s i s most s y m b o l i c o f i n i t i a t i o n i n t o t h e Igbo mmuo

o r masquerade s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s . The whole s o c i e t y i s o f f e r i n g s a c r i f i c e s

t o make t h e t r a n s f e r s u c c e s s f u l and b e n e f i c i a l t o a l l .

Phase B. The m a r g i n a l s t a t e . The moral p e r s o n i s i n a s a c r e d

c o n d i t i o n , a k i n d o f suspended a n i m a t i o n , O r d i n a r y t i m e has s t o p p e d .

T h i s i s s y m b o l i c o f f e s t i v i t y - - m a s q u e r a d e s among t h e Igbos. Both t h e

p e r f o r m e r s and t h e a u d i e n c e ( i . e . c o m p r i s i n g t h e community), are i n a

s t a t e o f suspended a n i m a t i o n . P r a y e r s and s a c r i f i c e s have made t h e

s o c i e t y p e a c e f u l and p u r e . The masks ( s p i r i t s - m m u o ) appear t o shower

b l e s s i n g s on t h e p e o p l e and t o d r a m a t i z e t h e m y t h i c a l f o u n d a t i o n and

b e l i e f s o f t h e a n c e s t o r s and t h e i r p r e s e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s — t h e community.

The s o c i e t y i s r e v e r s e d t o t h e t i m e o f t h e a n c e s t o r s . We s h a l l r e t u r n

to t h i s l a t e r .

Phase C. The r i t e o f d e s a c r a l i z a t i o n . The moral p e r s o n , t h e

community, i s b r o u g h t back f r o m t h e s a c r e d t o t h e p r o f a n e w o r l d . He
 125

i s r e b o r n , s e c u l a r t i m e s t a r t s anew. The community has r e a f f i r m e d

i t s e l f t h r o u g h r i t u a l and accompanying masked p e r f o r m a n c e .

Phase D. T h i s i s t h e phase o f normal s e c u l a r l i f e , t h e i n t e r v a l

between s u c c e s s i v e masquerade p e r f o r m a n c e s .

So much f o r L e a c h , b u t l e t me draw a t t e n t i o n t o c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s

i n t h e f o r e g o i n g t h e o r e t i c a l argument. F i r s t l y , i t s h o u l d be emphasized

t h a t , among t h e v a r i o u s f u n c t i o n s w h i c h t h e h o l d i n g o f masquerade p e r -

formance o r s o c i a l drama may f u l f i l l t o t h e I g b o s , one v e r y i m p o r t a n t

f u n c t i o n i s the ordering o f c a l e n d r i c a l time, The i n t e r v a l between

such masquerade a n d / o r i n i t i a t i o n c e r e m o n i e s and f e s t i v a l s o f t h e

same t y p e i s a p e r i o d , u s u a l l y a named o n e , e , g . i z u ("Igbo week"),

afo, ( " y e a r " ) , e t c . W i t h o u t t h e f e s t i v a l s , s u c h p e r i o d s would n o t

e x i s t , and a l l o r d e r would go o u t o f s o c i a l life.

Secondly, there i s the matter o f role r e v e r s a l . I f we a c c e p t

Leach's a n a l y s i s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f r i t u a l w h i c h I have o u t l i n e d

a b o v e , t h e n one m i g h t a r g u e t h a t t h e r i t u a l s o f Phase A and t h e r i t u a l s

o f Phase C o u g h t , i n some s e n s e , t o be t h e r e v e r s e o f one a n o t h e r .

S i m i l a r l y , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d i a g r a m , Phase B ought somehow t o be t h e

l o g i c a l o p p o s i t e o f Phase D. These o p p o s i t e s o r r e v e r s a l s a r e exem-

p l i f i e d i n Igbo masquerade p e r f o r m a n c e ,

We may d i s t i n g u i s h t h r e e s e e m i n g l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y t y p e s o f b e h a v i o u r

i n masquerades a s , i n f a c t , on most r i t u a l o c c a s i o n s . On t h e one

h a n d — a n d t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o Phase A i n F i g . V I - - t h e r e a r e b e h a v i o u r s

in which f o r m a l i t y i s increased. Differences of status are precisely

d e m a r c a t e d by e t i q u e t t e ; moral r u l e s a r e v i g o r o u s l y and o s t e n t a t i o u s l y

obeyed. T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y t h e c a s e w i t h r i t e s and r i t u a l s d u r i n g
 126

i n i t i a t i o n and/or b e f o r e t h e mask i s " b r o u g h t f o r t h i n t o l i f e " , i . e .

put on a d a n c e r f o r p u b l i c p e r f o r m a n c e . In c o n t r a s t , t h e second

b e h a v i o u r (Phase B) i s t h a t i n which t h e i n d i v i d u a l seeks t o d i s g u i s e

his s o c i a l p e r s o n a l i t y and h i s o f f i c i a l s t a t u s . The w o r l d goes i n t o

a mask ( s a c r e d t i m e ) and t h e f o r m a l r u l e s o f o r t h o d o x l i f e a r e f o r -

gotten. F i n a l l y , i n some i n s t a n c e s o f Igbo masquerades, we f i n d an

extreme form o f r e v e l r y i n which p a r t i c i p a n t s p l a y - a c t a t b e i n g

p r e c i s e l y t h e o p p o s i t e o f what t h e y r e a l l y a r e ; men d r e s s up and a c t

as women, e.g. t h e agbogho mmuo o f t h e N o r t h e r n Igbos and t h e n j e n j e

parade o f t h e A f i k p o . In such s i t u a t i o n s , normal s o c i a l l i f e i s p l a y e d

i n r e v e r s e . The y o u t h s m i g h t ' o p e n l y d i s r e s p e c t and c h a s t i s e t h e

e l d e r s , t a k i n g l i c e n c e from t h e mask. T h i s i s p a r t o f Phase B and

a l s o Phase C. I t becomes Phase C towards t h e end o f t h e masquerade

ceremony when t h e a c t s a r e a b o u t t o engage i n r i t u a l s f o r s t o p p i n g t h e

celebrations. They may j o k e and behave i n c o n t r a s t t o e t i q u e t t e .

Let us r e c a l l t h a t t h e s e t h r e e t y p e s o f r i t u a l b e h a v i o u r f o u n d

i n Igbo masquerade drama, i . e . f o r m a l i t y , masks, and r o l e r e v e r s a l , a r e

i n p r a c t i c e c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d even though t h e y a r e c o n c e p t u a l l y

d i s t i n c t species of behaviour. A r i t e which b e g i n s w i t h f o r m a l i t y

ends i n masquerades and r o l e r e v e r s a l , and v i c e v e r s a .

E l i a d e has w r i t t e n f u r t h e r on t h e n a t u r e o f t i m e i n a n o t h e r

dimension. F o r him, annual p e r i o d s o f f e s t i v i t i e s and accompanying

r i t u a l s such as masquerades, a r e ways o f c r e a t i n g n o t o n l y c a l e n d r i c a l

t i m e but s a c r e d p r i m o r d i a l t i m e . W r i t i n g o f such t i m e , E l i a d e (1959:

68) commented:
"For r e l i g i o u s man, t i m e t o o , l i k e s p a c e , i s n e i t h e r
homogeneous nor c o n t i n u o u s . On t h e one hand t h e r e a r e
the i n t e r v a l s o f s a c r e d t i m e , t h e t i m e o f f e s t i v a l s
 127

(by f a r t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f w h i c h a r e p e r i o d i c a l ) ;
on t h e o t h e r t h e r e i s p r o f a n e t i m e , o r d i n a r y temporal
d u r a t i o n , i n w h i c h a c t s w i t h o u t r e l i g i o u s meaning have
t h e i r s e t t i n g . Between t h e s e two k i n d s o f time t h e r e i s ,
o f c o u r s e , s o l u t i o n o f c o n t i n u i t y ; b u t by means o f r i t e s
r e l i g i o u s man c a n pass w i t h o u t d a n g e r from o r d i n a r y
temporal d u r a t i o n t o s a c r e d t i m e " .

One e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e s e two q u a l i t i e s o f time

s t r i k e s immediately: by i t s v e r y n a t u r e s a c r e d time i s a p r i m o r d i a l

m y t h i c a l time made p r e s e n t . E v e r y r e l i g i o u s f e s t i v a l , any l i t u r g i c a l

t i m e , r e p r e s e n t s t h e r e a c t u a l i z a t i o n o f a s a c r e d t i m e t h a t took place

in a mythical p a s t - - i n the "beginning". Religious participation i n

a f e s t i v a l i m p l i e s emerging from o r d i n a r y temporal d u r a t i o n and r e i n -

t e g r a t i o n o f t h e m y t h i c a l t i m e , r e a c t u a l i z e d by t h e f e s t i v a l itself.

Hence, s a c r e d time i s i n d e f i n i t e l y r e c o v e r a b l e , i n d e f i n i t e l y r e p e a t a b l e .

From one p o i n t o f view, i t c o u l d be s a i d t h a t i t does n o t p a s s , t h a t

i t does n o t c o n s t i t u t e an i r r e v e r s i b l e d u r a t i o n . I t i s an o n t o l o g i c a l

t i m e ; i t always r e m a i n s equal t o i t s e l f , i t n e i t h e r changes n o r i s

exhausted. W i t h each p e r i o d i c f e s t i v a l , such as annual ifejioku,

i n i t i a t i o n c e r e m o n i e s and masquerade p l a y s , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s f i n d t h e

same s a c r e d t i m e - - t h e same t h a t had been m a n i f e s t e d i n the f e s t i v a l of

the previous year or t h a t o f a century e a r l i e r . I t i s t h e time t h a t

was c r e a t e d and s a n c t i f i e d by t h e gods. In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s

i n t h e f e s t i v a l meet i n i t s f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e , i . e . t h e f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e

o f s a c r e d t i m e , as i t a p p e a r e d ab o r i g i n e , i n i l l o tempore. In such

annual Igbo f e s t i v a l s , i t i s o n l y n a t u r a l and l o g i c a l t h a t masquerades

w h i c h a r e t h e d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f t h e myths o f t h e p e o p l e , s h o u l d be p u t

i n t o performance. My argument hence f o l l o w s c l o s e l y t h e f i r s t , t h a t

masquerades a t annual f e s t i v a l s a r e t o c r e a t e n o t o n l y t h e r e l i g i o u s
 128

framework f o r t h e f e s t i v a l i t s e l f , b u t a l s o t o c r e a t e a d d i t i o n a l

p l e a s u r e and amusement f o r a p e o p l e i n a s t a t e o f r e l i g i o u s j o y .

I t i s a means o f g e t t i n g t h e community t o g e t h e r as an a u d i e n c e t o

move i n t o s a c r e d : t i m e — t h e time o f t h e a n c e s t o r s ,

Igbo Masquerade as R i t u a l - T h e a t r e

Thus f a r I have p r e s e n t e d two a s p e c t s o f t h e m a s q u e r a d e — n a m e l y ,

t h e a t r i c a l i t y and r i t u a l . The r i t u a l o f t h e mask e n a b l e s t h e Igbos

t o s e p a r a t e space and t i m e and t e m p o r a r i l y l i v e i n t h e m y t h i c a l

b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e i r s o c i e t y , t h e time o f t h e a n c e s t o r s . The paradox

o f t h e mask w i t h i t s r i t u a l and t h e a t r i c a l i t y becomes t h e same a s t h e

paradox o f t h e p r e s e n t and t h e p a s t . The mask i s t h a t p o t e n t symbol

t h r o u g h w h i c h d e v i c e t h e Igbos l o o k a t t h e p a s t . This i s very important

because t h e mask i s n o t j u s t an a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n , b u t a much b i g g e r

phenomenon. T h r o u g h i t s t h e a t r i c a l i t y , Igbos r e l a x and e n t e r t a i n

themselves. Through i t s r i t u a l s they a l s o r e l i v e t h e i r h i s t o r i c

p a s t , i n t h e company o f t h e i r a n c e s t o r s , t h e f o u n d i n g f a t h e r s o f t h e

s o c i e t y who have been evoked and g i v e n form. The mask r e p r e s e n t s t h e

p a r a d o x o f man and t h e unseen o r a b s t r a c t f o r c e s . Through i t , man

communicates w i t h t h e s e unseen b u t s u p e r n a t u r a l and s u p e r p o w e r f u l

forces. The wood t h a t i s mask i s g i v e n power t h r o u g h r i t u a l , and t h i s

i s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t and p o w e r f u l medium o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h t h e

past. The mask i s t h e r e f o r e n o t t h e wood we hang on museum w a l l s b u t

an i m p o r t a n t r i t u a l and t h e a t r i c a l agent.

My argument o r t h e s i s t h e n i s t h a t Igbo masquerade performance i s

 129

n o t o n l y drama o r t h e a t r e i n i t s own r i g h t , but i s s y m b o l i c o f a

c o m p l e t e t r a n s f e r from the s e c u l a r - p r o f a n e w o r l d o f e v e r y d a y l i f e t o
t h e s a c r e d f e s t a l time o f the a n c e s t o r s d u r i n g which time the myths
o f Igbo s o c i e t i e s a r e d r a m a t i z e d . F u r t h e r , masquerades e n a b l e t h e
Igbos t o l i v e o t h e r t y p e s o f l i f e , i . e . l i v e i n the p a s t , and h e l p s
them t o overcome monotony. By so d o i n g , t h e y r e a f f i r m the c o n t i n u i t y
o f t h e i r s o c i e t y , because t h e mask h e l p s them r e t a i n the i n d i v i s i b i l i t y
o f t h e i r a c t i o n s , p u r p o s e s and v a l u e s , a l l o f which a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r
t h e maintenance o f t h e community. Community r e p r e s e n t s the y e a r n i n g s
o f men " f o r a commonality o f d e s i r e , a communion w i t h t h o s e around us,
an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e bonds o f k i n and f r i e n d t o a l l t h o s e who s h a r e a
common f a t e w i t h u s " (Minar and G r e e r , 1970:IX).

Because t h e masquerade p e r f o r m a n c e achieves t h i s , i t i s a proper

ritual-festival. In t h e a r t i s t i c s e n s e i t i s a l s o t h e a t r e . One i s
t h e r e f o r e r i g h t t o i n t e r p r e t masks and masquerades as ritual-festival
and t h e a t r e , o r r i t u a l t h e a t r e f o r s h o r t .
 130

CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSION

In t h i s s t u d y j u s t c o n c l u d e d , we have t r i e d t o p r e s e n t t h e

masquerade p l a y s o f t h e Igbos i n a r i t u a l - t h e a t r i c a l c o n t e x t . But

why s h o u l d one d e v o t e a t t e n t i o n t o . t h e o s t u d y o f masks i n t h e f i r s t

place? What a r e t h e a d v a n t a g e s t h a t come from t h e s t u d y o f masquerade

as t h e a t r e ?

F i r s t l y , I b e l i e v e t h a t p r e s e n t i n g t h e mask as r i t u a l t h e a t r e has

obvious museological implications. We now know t h a t t h e mask i s n o t

j u s t a f a c e c o v e r i n g , b u t a l s o has a s s o c i a t e d costumes and i s used as

s o c i a l drama. F u r t h e r , as S i e b e r (1962) has r i g h t l y p o i n t e d o u t ,

d i s p l a y i n g a mask i n a museum as an i s o l a t e d p i e c e , c o n s t i t u t e s a g r o s s

m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n n o t o n l y o f t h e s o c i a l v a l u e s i n h e r e n t i n t h e mask,

but a l s o o f t h e a e s t h e t i c component o f t h e mask i n i t s o r i g i n a l con-

text. Masquerade p e r f o r m a n c e , l o o k e d a t i n terms o f r i t u a l theatre,

i n c l u d e s m u s i c , d a n c e , s c e n e r y , e t c . , as w e l l as t h e r i t u a l s connected

thereto. These a r e i d e a s c u r a t o r s , d e s i g n e r s and o t h e r museum o f f i c i a l s

s h o u l d bear i n mind i n d i s p l a y i n g Igbo, any A f r i c a n , o r masks from any

other cultures. We d i d i n t e n d t o p u t t h e mask i n i t s p r o p e r context

i n t h e e x h i b i t "The World o f S p i r i t s " w h i c h p r e c e e d e d this thesis.

Having s t u d i e d t h e mmuo s o c i e t y , one i s i n c l i n e d t o b e l i e v e t h a t

t o t h e Igbos, t h e s e c r e t s o c i e t y r e m a i n s an i n d i s p e n s a b l e i n s t i t u t i o n .

I t i s so t o t h e Y o r u b a s , K a l a b a r i s and I b i b i o s , a l l o f whom a r e t h e
 131

n e i g h b o u r s o f t h e Igbos. The Egungun masks o f t h e Yorubas "brought

back t h e s p i r i t o f i m p o r t a n t a n c e s t o r s and gods t o t h e towns' ^. 1

Among the K a l a h a r i , t h e e k i n e dance s o c i e t i e s p e r f o r m e l a b o r a t e mask

p l a y s , whose purposes a r e not o n l y t o r e f l e c t t h e l i f e o f K a l a h a r i
towns and v i l l a g e s , but a l s o t o c r e a t e e n t e r t a i n m e n t f o r t h e p e o p l e .
o

I t had t h e o t h e r f u n c t i o n o f e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e s p i r i t s .

The mask as an i n s t i t u t i o n i s t h e r e f o r e not u n i q u e t o t h e Igbos a l o n e

but i s common t o most o t h e r s o c i e t i e s i n N i g e r i a , A f r i c a and t h e w o r l d

at large. I, t h e r e f o r e , c o n s i d e r i t n e c e s s a r y t h a t s i n c e s i m i l a r

a t t r i b u t e s a r e found i n masks o f o t h e r s o c i e t i e s , t h e mask i s a

s u b j e c t t h a t r e q u i r e s d e t a i l e d s t u d y as a human i n s t i t u t i o n . This

s t u d y . t h e r e f o r e h e l p s t o answer t h e s o c i o - c u l t u r a l q u e s t i o n s r e l a t e d

t o why men d i s g u i s e t h e m s e l v e s i n masks, and why t h e y behave d i f f e r -

e n t l y when t h e y put on t h e mask^. Although the study i s p r i m a r i l y

c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e Igbos, as a humble b e g i n n i n g , i t n e v e r t h e l e s s

c o u l d be used t o s t u d y t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n i n o t h e r s o c i e t i e s and c r o s s -

culturally. I t h i n k t h a t t h i s i s what a n t h r o p o l o g y i s a l l a b o u t , i . e .
h e l p i n g u s , a c c o r d i n g t o Sanday (1976:XV), " t o seek a g r e a t e r under-

s t a n d i n g o f how t h e c u l t u r e i n which we l i v e a f f e c t s o u r l i v e s " . I

w i s h t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h i s i s even more demanded i n a n t h r o p o l o g y t o d a y ,

because o f t h e need t o s t u d y and d e s c r i b e c u l t u r e s , and i n o r d e r t o

b u i l d a body o f knowledge and t h e o r y t h a t p o r t r a y s and e x p l a i n s "both

t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s and t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e c o n d i t i o n o f m a n k i n d , t o

g e t a t what' i s common t h r o u g h t h e d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t have a r i s e n t h r o u g h

an i n t e r a c t i o n o f men w i t h e x t e r n a l n a t u r e and each o t h e r i n d i f f e r e n t

s e t t i n g s " (Hymes, 1969:12).

 132

S t u d i e s o f t h i s type have become i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o t h e emergent

c o u n t r i e s o f t h e t h i r d w o r l d , o f which N i g e r i a i s o n e . The a u t h o r

o f t h i s s t u d y i s h i m s e l f f r o m N i g e r i a where he has worked and may

c o n t i n u e t o work i n a museum. The museums a r e p a r t o f t h o s e

mechanisms through w h i c h s o c i e t i e s p r o t e c t t h e i r c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e .

The a d v a n t a g e s t o s o c i e t i e s o r c o u n t r i e s t o p r o t e c t t h e i r c u l t u r e c a n

be seen from t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h a t t e c h n i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l term

i t s e l f as g i v e n by Belshaw (1969:12). To him, c u l t u r e has t h r e e

aspects:
a) "That a s p e c t i n w h i c h i t i s c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e end r e s u l t o f s o c i a l

action".
b) " I t s n a t u r e a s a s t o c k o f r e s o u r c e s and c a p a b i l i t i e s w h i c h c a n be

used f o r f u r t h e r a c t i o n " .
c ) " I t s n a t u r e a s an o p e r a t i o n a l s y s t e m w h i c h i n f l u e n c e s a c t i o n , t h a t
i s , as a c u l t u r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o r t h e a n o l o g y o f s o c i a l o r g a n -

ization" .

Masquerade p e r f o r m a n c e s i n t h e p a s t and p r e s e n t d e p i c t some i f

n o t a l l o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . o r a s p e c t s o f c u l t u r e a s I have shown.

I t i s n o t an i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t s h o u l d be a l l o w e d t o d i s a p p e a r with

s o c i a l c h a n g e , and h a p p i l y t h e mmuo s o c i e t y o f t h e Igbos has a d a p t e d

t o change and t h i s has made i t f u n c t i o n a l l y dynamic. T h i s mmuo s o c i e t y

c o u l d be u t i l i z e d f o r d e v e l o p m e n t i n such a r e a s a s i n community

e f f o r t s and d e v e l o p m e n t . But t h i s i s a p o l i t i c a l question.

; We i n t h e museums have t h e p r i e s t l y d u t y t o :

a) P r e s e r v e both o b j e c t s o f c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e and i n f o r m a t i o n pertinent

t o them.
 133

b) To s y s t e m a t i c a l l y and d e l i g h t f u l l y p r e s e n t what t h e museum has

preserved t o the p u b l i c .
c ) To i n t e r p r e t what i t has p r e s e n t e d i n d i f f e r e n t ways f o r t h e v a r i o u s
s e c t i o n s o f t h e community; hence I b e l i e v e t h a t l a b e l s , d i a g r a m s
and p h o t o g r a p h s s h o u l d be so used i n d i s p l a y t h a t t h e v i s i t o r s
c o u l d r e l a t e them t o t h e a r t e f a c t s on e x h i b i t .

d) To s t i m u l a t e and e n c o u r a g e r e s e a r c h and s t u d y i n t o c u l t u r e , and

also t o provide entertainment and enjoyment i n an atmosphere o f
b e a u t y and r e l a x a t i o n .

The d e c i s i o n t o e n c o u r a g e t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f o u r c u l t u r a l o b j e c t s

and t h e i n f o r m a t i o n c o n n e c t e d w i t h them f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f d e v e l o p -

ment, may be t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s . Nevertheless,

I t h i n k t h a t e d u c a t i o n and d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t does n o t t a k e i n t o account

t h e c u l t u r a l r e a l i t i e s o f t h e s o c i e t y i s l i k e b u i l d i n g a house w i t h o u t

a foundation. Such a house w i l l s u r e l y c o l l a p s e w i t h time and

external pressure. I t i s i n t h i s connection that a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s can

come t o be h e l p f u l , i f a l l o w e d t o be, i n d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n n i n g . When

museums i n N i g e r i a u n d e r t a k e and p u b l i s h works such as t h i s o n e ,

d e a l i n g w i t h t h e masks o f a p a r t o f N i g e r i a , i t c o u l d be c o r r e c t l y

s a i d t h a t N i g e r i a ' s government i s t a k i n g c a r e o f i t s c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e .

The a d v a n t a g e s o f such a measure a r e f o u r f o l d :

1. To i n c u l c a t e a s e n s e o f p r i d e among i t s c i t i z e n s , t h e r e b y promoting

n a t i o n a l p r i d e and i d e n t i t y ;

2. The p r e s e r v a t i o n o f c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e i s t h e f o u n d a t i o n on w h i c h

t o b u i l d a d e q u a t e and e v e r l a s t i n g p o l i t i c a l f r a m e w o r k s , b e c a u s e

t h e p r e s e n t has i t s b a s i s i n i t s p a s t , and t h e f u t u r e w i l l have

 134

i t s basis i n the present. I t i s important, therefore, t o preserve

the i n s t i t u t i o n s o f s o c i e t y so t h a t t h e y o u t h s w i l l be b e t t e r
able t o i n t e r p r e t the s o c i a l happenings i n the country o f t h e i r
birth;

3. T h e r e i s , o f c o u r s e , t h e i n d i s p u t a b l e a d v a n t a g e o f both t h e edu-

c a t i o n a l and h i s t o r i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o f c u l t u r e . As s a i d e a r l i e r ,
education i s n o t m e a n i n g f u l w h i c h does n o t r e f l e c t i t s c u l t u r a l
setting;
4. I t i s t h r o u g h t h e museum, w i t h i t s f u n c t i o n as a p l a c e where o b j e c t s
are preserved, t h a t such i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s as t h e
UNESCO and ICOM d e r i v e p a r t o f t h e i r f u n c t i o n . It i s in this
respect that c u l t u r e helps to f o s t e r the universal or i n t e r n a t i o n a l
b r o t h e r h o o d o f mankind, w h i c h t h e w o r l d r e q u i r e s so much i n t h i s
n u c l e a r age i f i t i s t o s u r v i v e .

I t i s hoped t h a t t h i s s t u d y o f Igbo masks f i t s i n t o t h e g e n e r a l

a t t e m p t t o p r e s e r v e t h e p a s t o f n o t o n l y N i g e r i a , b u t s h o u l d form a

s t a r t f o r such s t u d i e s e l s e w h e r e . I t may n o t have a l l t h e a n s w e r s ,

e s p e c i a l l y when i t i s n o t e d t h a t Igbo s o c i e t y , . T i k e most A f r i c a n

s o c i e t i e s , has undergone a l o t o f change r e c e n t l y because o f t h e urge

t o m o d e r n i z e and t h e r e i s t h e t e m p t a t i o n t o f o r g e t t r a d i t i o n as

a r c h a i c and c o n c e n t r a t e on i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n . R i c e b e l i e v e s that

t h e a t r e o f t h e s o r t d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h i s study c a n f l o u r i s h o n l y i n a

p r e - i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y , among p e o p l e who a r e r o o t e d i n t h e v i l l a g e and

d e e p l y imbued w i t h t r a d i t i o n . As i n d u s t r i a l i z e d urban c e n t r e s multiply

and v i l l a g e r s a r e drawn t o them by b e t t e r means o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and

o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r employment, t h e v i l l a g e u n i t y and t h e h e r i t a g e o f
 135

s k i l l s w i l l be weakened, and g r a d u a l l y t h e m a c h i n e r y o f mass com-

m u n i c a t i o n — m o v i e s , r a d i o , t e l e v i s i o n — m i g h t push t h e f i e s t a o r
masquerades into obsolescence. I s i n c e r e l y hope t h a t t h i s does n o t
happen t o Igbo t r a d i t i o n , because t h i s i s t o o i m p o r t a n t f o r r e a s o n s
already demonstrated. In t h e words o f N j o k u , " t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e

Igbos and N i g e r i a n c u l t u r e s h o u l d n e v e r be a l l o w e d t o be f o r g o t t e n ,
9

else p o s t e r i t y w i l l not forgive t h e i r predecessors" , i . e . ourselves.

I w i l l end t h i s t h e s i s w i t h a s t a t e m e n t by Edmund Leach (1963:5).

He w r o t e :
"Generalization i s inductive; i tconsists i n perceiving
g e n e r a l laws i n t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f s p e c i a l c a s e s , i t
i s guesswork, a gamble, y o u may be r i g h t o r wrong, b u t i f
you happen t o be r i g h t y o u have l e a r n t s o m e t h i n g a l t o g e t h e r
new. In c o n t r a s t , a r r a n g i n g b u t t e r f l i e s a c c o r d i n g t o
t h e i r t y p e and s u b - t y p e s i s t a u t o l o g y . I t m e r e l y r e a s s e n t s
s o m e t h i n g y o u know a l r e a d y i n a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t f o r m " .
 136

CHAPTERS V & VI

Notes and References

1. Elmer R i c e i s an a r t i s t and has w r i t t e n e x t e n s i v e l y on drama and

t h e a t r e . A l s o , F r e e d l e y and Reeves (1941) have w r i t t e n on
drama and t h e a t r e , e s p e c i a l l y t h e i r o r i g i n and communal n a t u r e .

2. c f R i c e (1955:14-28) f o r a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f t h e a t r e . A l s o c f F r e e d l e y and Reeves ( 1 9 4 1 : 8 ) .
3. c f O t t e n b e r g ' s a n a l y s i s o f t h e A f i k p o Okumkpa p l a y (1975:104).
4. B o s t o n (1960). "Some N o r t h e r n Ibo M a s q u e r a d e s " . R e p r i n t e d f r o m
the J o u r n a l o f t h e Royal A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l I n s t i t u t e . V o l . 90,
P a r t I.
5. T h i s f a c t has a l r e a d y been made i n C h a p t e r II on Igbo h i s t o r y .
c f Basden, 1966; I s i c h e i , 1973 and .1976.
6. c f H.M. Cole, African Arts of Transformation, 1970.
7. c f H o r t o n - W i l l i a m i n Forde (1971:672-3).
8. c f H o r t o n i n F o r d e (1971:605).
9. c f Njoku (1974) "Death and B u r i a l Customs, B e f o r e C u l t u r e Change
i n T r a d i t i o n a l Ibo S o c i e t y " .
 137

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Achebe, C 1965. Arrow o f God. A f r i c a n w r i t e r s s e r i e s . London.

A d e d e j i , J . 1972. "The O r i g i n and Form o f t h e Yoruba Masque T h e a t r e " .

V o l . X I I o f C a h i e r s D'Etudes A f r i c i n e . ( P a r i s , Mouton).

Amankulor, J.N. 1977. "The F i r s t All-Ngwa C u l t u r a l F e s t i v a l " i n

A f r i c a n A r t s . J a n u a r y 1977, V o l . X, No. 2.

A r d e n e r , E.W. 1954. "The K i n s h i p T e r m i n o l o g y o f a Group o f S o u t h e r n

Ibo". A f r i c a , V o l . 24, No. 2,

B a k e r , D. 1976. " S t r u c t u r a l T h e o r y o f T h e a t r e " i n The Y a l e T h e a t r e ,

V o l . 8, 1976. New Haven, C o n n e c t i c u t .

Basen, G.T. 1966. Among t h e Ibos o f N i g e r i a . Frank Cass & Co. L t d . ,

London.

. 1966. N i g e r I b o s . Frank Cass & Co. L t d . , London. New I m p r e s s i o n .

Belshaw, C S . 1969. The C o n d i t i o n s o f S o c i a l P e r f o r m a n c e : An E x p l o r a t o r y

T h e o r y . R o u t l e d g e and Kegan P a u l , London.

Benda, W.T. 1945. Masks. W a t s o n - G u p t i l l P u b l i c a t i o n s , New York.

B e r g e r , P.L. and Luckman, T. 1966. The S o c i a l C o n s t r u c t i o n o f R e a l i t y :

A T r e a t i s e i n t h e S o c i o l o g y o f Knowledge. Doubleday & Co. I n c . ,

Garden C i t y , New Y o r k .

Boas, F. 1931. The Mind o f t h e P r i m i t i v e Man. M a c m i l l a n Co., New York.

B o s t o n , J . S . 1960. "Some N o r t h e r n Ibo Masquerades". R e p r i n t e d from t h e

J o u r n a l o f t h e Royal A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l I n s t i t u t e , V o l . 90, P a r t I .

B r e t o n , A. 1960. Phoenix o f t h e Mask. X X S i e c l e , New S e r i e s , 22nd

e

y e a r , no. 15.
 138

Buchanan,,K.M. and Paugh, J.C. 1964. Land and P e o p l e s i n N i g e r i a .

London (reprint).
C a m p b e l l , J . 1949. The Hero w i t h a Thousand Faces.,New York.

• 1959. The Masks o f God: P r i m i t i v e M y t h o l o g y . V i k i n g P r e s s ,

New York.
C a r o l l , K.C. 1967. Yoruba R e l i g i o u s C a r v i n g . London.
C o l e , H.M. 1970. A f r i c a n A r t s o f T r a n s f o r m a t i o n . C a l i f o r n i a .
Crowder, M. 1966. A S h o r t H i s t o r y o f N i g e r i a . R e v i s e d and e n l a r g e d
e d i t i o n . F r e d e r i c k A. P r a e g e r P u b l i s h e r s , New Y o r k , Washington.
Durkheim, E. 1915. The E l e m e n t a r y ; F o r m s o f t h e R e l i g i o u s L i f e . T r a n s .
J o s e p h Ward Swain. London: George A l l e n and Unwin L t d .
E i n s t e i n , C. 1921. A f r i k a n i s c h e P l a s t i k . B e r l i n .
E l i a d e , M. 1959. The S a c r e d and t h e P r o f a n e : The N a t u r e o f R e l i g i o n . •
H a r c o u r t , B r a c e & World I n c . , New York.

F l i n t , J . E . 1966. N i g e r i a and Ghana. Englewood C l i f f s , N.J. P r e n t i c e - H a l l .

F o r d e , D. 1971. P e o p l e s and C u l t u r e s o f A f r i c a . O x f o r d P r e s s .

F o r d e , D. and Jones C . I . 1950. The Ibo and t h e I b i b i o - S p e a k i n g P e o p l e s

of South E a s t e r n N i g e r i a . O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s f o r t h e I n t e r -
national African Institute.

F r a z e r , D. 1966. The Many Faces o f P r i m i t i v e A r t . P r e n t i c e - H a l l I n c . ,

Englewood C l i f f s , N.J.

F r e e d ! e y , G. and Reeves,.J.A. 1941. The H i s t o r y o f t h e T h e a t r e . . C r o w n

P u b l i s h e r s , New York.

G a s k i n , L.J.P. 1965. A B i b l i o g r a p h y o f A f r i c a n A r t s . L o n d o n : . I n t e r -
n a t i o n a l A f r i c a n I n s t i t u t e , A f r i c a B i b l i o g r a p h y S e r i e s B.

G i l l , S.D. 1976. " D i s e n c h a n t m e n t " , In P a r a b o l a : Myth and t h e Q u e s t f o r

 139

Meaning. Volume 1, I s s u e 3, Summer 1976.

H a l p i n , M. 1975. "Masks as Metaphor o f A n t i - S t r u c t u r e " . U n p u b l i s h e d

seminar p a p e r .

H a r l e y , G.W. 1941. Notes on t h e Poro i n L i b e r i a . Cambridge, Massachusetts.

P u b l i s h e d by t h e Peabody Museum.

H a r t l e , D. 1966. "Bronze O b j e c t s from E z i r a , E a s t e r n N i g e r i a " , The

West A f r i c a n A r c h a e o l o g i c a l N e w s l e t t e r , No. 4.
. 1966. " A r c h a e o l o g y i n E a s t e r n N i g e r i a " . T h e West A f r i c a n

A r c h a e o l o g i c a l N e w s l e t t e r ( 1 9 6 6 ) , No.-5.

Henderson, R.N. 1972. The King i n E v e r y Man. Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,

New Haven.

H o r t o n , R. 1966. K a l a h a r i S c u l p t u r e . Lagos.'

H u i z i n g a , F. 1949. Homo Ludens: A Study o f t h e P l a y Element i n C u l t u r e .

R o u t l e d g e and Kegan Paul L t d . , London.

H u x l e y , J . 1950. "New B o t t l e s f o r New Wine: I d e o l o g y and S c i e n t i f i c

Knowledge". T h e J o u r n a l o f t h e Royal A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l I n s t i t u t e ,

Volume IXXX, P a r t 1.11.

Hymes, D. (ed.) 1969. R e i n v e n t i n g A n t h r o p o l o g y . Pantheon P r e s s , New

York.

I s i c h e i , E. 1973. The Ibo P e o p l e and t h e European, F a b e r a n d Faber

Ltd., London.,

Lear' . .1976. T h e H i s t o r y o f t h e Igbo P e o p l e . The M a c m i l l a n P r e s s L t d . ,

:

London..

L e a c h , E.R. 1963. R e t h i n k i n g A n t h r o p o l o g y . U n i v e r s i t y o f London, The

Athlone Press.

L e i t h - R o s s , S. 1939. A f r i c a n Women: A Study o f t h e Ibo o f N i g e r i a .

 140

R o u t l e d g e and Kegan P a u l , London.

Levy, B r u h l , L. 1923. P r i m i t i v e M e n t a l i t y . M a c m i l l a n Co., New Y o r k .
;

. 1935. P r i m i t i v e s and t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l . E.P. Dutton & Co.,

New York.

L i p s , E. The O r i g i n o f T h i n g s : A C u l t u r a l H i s t o r y o f Man. George A.

H a r r a p L t d . , London.
Lowie, R. An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o A n t h r o p o l o g y . R i n e h a r t & Co., New York.
Machon, M.J. 1966. Masks o f t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a s t , P u b l i c a t i o n s i n

P r i m i t i v e A r t 2. Milwankee P u b l i c Museum.
M i n a r , D.W. and G r e e r , S. 1970. The C o n c e p t o f t h e Community. A l d i n e
P u b l i s h i n g Co., C h i c a g o . ,
N i s b e t , R. 1968. S o c i o l o g i c a l T r a d i t i o n . New York.

N j a k a , E.N. 1974. Igbo P o l i t i c a l C u l t u r e . N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y Press.

N j o k u , 0. 1974. "Death and B u r i a l Customs B e f o r e C u l t u r e Change i n
the T r a d i t i o n a l Ibo S o c i e t y " . In B u l l e t i n o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Committee on Eagen A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l and E t h n o l o g i c a l Research,
No. 16, V i e n n a .

Nzimiro, I . 1972. S t u d i e s i n t h e P o l i t i c a l Systems. U n i v e r s i t y o f

C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , B e r k e l e y and Los A n g e l e s . .
Ottenberg,- S. 1971. A n t h r o p o l o g y and A f r i c a n A e s t h e t i c s . University

o f Ghana P r e s s , Accra.
O t t e n b e r g , S. 1973. " A f i k p o Masquerades: A u d i e n c e and P e r f o r m e r s " i n

A f r i c a n A r t s . Summer 1973, V o l . V I , No. 4.

O t t e n b e r g , S. 1975. Masked R i t u a l s o f A f i k p o . The U n i v e r s i t y o f

Washington P r e s s , S e a t t l e and London.

R i c e , E. 1955. The L i v i n g T h e a t r e . H a r p e r & B r o t h e r s , New Y o r k .
 141

R i l e y , 0. 1955. Masks and Magic. S t u d i o P u b l i c a t i o n s . o f T . I .

C r o w e l l Co., New York.
R o e d r i g e r , V.M. 1961. C e r e m o n i a l Costumes o f t h e P u e b l o I n d i a n s .

U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , B e r k e l e y and Los A n g e l e s .
Sanday, R.R. (ed.) 1976. A n t h r o p o l o g y . a n d the P u b l i c I n t e r e s t . Academic
P r e s s , New York.
Segy, L. 1953. " I n i t i a t i o n c e r e m o n i e s a n d A f r i c a n s c u l p t u r e s " . R e p r i n t

from t h e American Image. V o l . 10, S p r i n g 1953, No. 1.

Shaw, T. .1970. Igbo-Ukwu, An A c c o u n t o f A r c h a e o l o g i c a l D i s c o v e r i e s
i n E a s t e r n N i g e r i a (2 v o l u m e s ) . London.
S i e b e r , R. 1962. Masks as agents': o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l . . A f r i c a n S t u d i e s
B u l l e t i n V (May 1962), #11.
S t a r k w e a t h e r , F. 1966. T r a d i t i o n a l Igbo A r t . . U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n ,

Ann A r b o r .
T a l b o r t , P.A. 1926. The P e o p l e s o f S o u t h e r n N i g e r i a . V o l . . 2 . London.

Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press.
Thomas,.K. 1973. R e l i g i o n and t h e D e c l i n e o f Magic. W e i d e n f e l d &

Nicolson.

Thompson, R,F. 1974. A f r i c a n A r t i n M o t i o n . C a l i f o r n i a .

T u r n e r , V. (ed.) 1975. D r a m a s , . F i e l d s and Metaphors. S y m b o l i c A c t i o n

i n Human S o c i e t y . C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , I t h a c a .
Uchendu, V.C. 1965. The Igbo o f S o u t h E a s t e r n N i g e r i a . H o l t R i n e h a r t

& S i n s t o n , New York.

Ucko, P.J. and Dimbleby, G.W. 1969. The D o m e s t i c a t i o n and E x p l o i t a t i o n

o f P l a n t s and A n i m a l s . London.
Underwood, L. 1952. Masks o f West A f r i c a . A l e c T i r a n t i L t d . , London.
 142

Valentine, CA. 1961. Masks and Men i n a M e l a n e s i a n S o c i e t y . University

o f Kansas P u b l i c a t i o n , Lawrence, Kansas.

Webster, H. 1932. P r i m i t i v e S e c r e t S o c i e t i e s : A S t u d y o f E a r l y

P o l i t i c s and R e l i g i o n . M a c m i l l a n Co., New York.

W i l l e t , F. 1971. A f r i c a n A r t . P r a e g a r P u b l i s h e r s , New York;
W i n g e r t , P.S. 1974. P r i m i t i v e A r t s * New American L i b r a r y , New York.
W i s s l e r , C. 1966. I n d i a n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . New Y o r k .