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colors. In general, the red light enhances the growth in height, The red light is very important in plant breeding.
while blue light, when used alone, can cause a small increase, Phytochrome pigments absorb red radiations and the
stuffed. A proper energy balance of red and blue spectral peripheral parts of red light spectrum. They regulate seed
regions helps plants to have normal growth and form. germination, root development, tuber and bulb formation, the
Specialists have used this knowledge for nearly 150 years, so-called period of "dormant", flowering and fruit production.
since plant lighting technologies closely followed those used Therefore, the red light is essential for stimulation of
for human lighting, which took three general paths of flowering and fruit formation. For aquarium plants, red light
development: incandescent, open arc lighting and enclosed stimulates the development of the plant height, determines the
gaseous discharge lamps [4]. Recent achievement of high strain and vigor of stem and helps on root formation. Red
efficiency LEDs opened up new possibilities for applications wavelengths, mainly absorbed by plants, are between 650 -
in intensive crop farming and efficient indoor plants growth. 680nm (red and orange). A minimum absorption occurs to the
wavelengths 500 - 580nm (red long-wave spectrum), which
Chlorophyll, the pigment vital for photosynthesis, is a unfortunately favors also the growth of phytoplankton.
mixture of two compounds, chlorophyll "a" (solid blue-black) The blue light stimulates chlorophyll production more
and chlorophyll "b" (solid dark green), which gives a green than any other color. It determines the composition and
color in organic solutions (Willstätter Richard - German density of the leaves’ stem consistency, helps to form a
chemist, 1912). In the natural chlorophyll there is a report a:b compact vegetative system (dense leaves and branches). Red
= 3:1, of the two components. Within the reaction of plants use mainly the blue light. Blue color wavelengths
photosynthesis, chlorophyll absorbs light energy and electrons absorbed by the plants are between 400 - 480nm (blue and
from chlorophyll are excited, moving from a lower energy violet). In excess, a predominantly blue light spectrum (>
state to a higher energy state, being transferred to another 10000K), favors algal blooms. Young plants like blue light
molecule. A chain of electron transfer steps ends with an more than mature plants.
electron transfer to the carbon dioxide molecule. Meanwhile, Orange light stimulates creation of carotenoids. Green
chlorophyll who gave up an electron can accept an electron and yellow spectrums provide very little to no benefit to
from another molecule. This is the end of a process leading to growing plants. The green one is not at all used or absorbed,
the removal of an electron from the water. Thus, chlorophyll is but reflected, which is why most plants look green in sunlight.
in the center of the oxidation reaction – reduction between In addition to the aspects of plant growth due to
carbon dioxide and water, resulting in oxygen (the green line photosynthesis, it is important to design the lighting system
from Fig. 2). taking into account the spectral requirements of the plant’s
There are several types of chlorophyll, differring only photomorphogenesis. Photomorphogenesis - light-induced
slightly, in the composition of a single side chemical chain: morphological changes in a plant - is governed mainly by the
• Chlorophyll "a": absolutely present in all plants (absorbs type of photoreceptors: phytochrome, cryptochrome and
light with wavelengths between 430 - 662nm, phototropin. If in photosynthesis the receptors are represented
corresponding to blue-violet and red spectrum); by assimilating pigments, in photomorphogenesis the
• Chlorophyll "b" present in most plants (absorbs light with receptors are represented by phytochrome. By steering these
wavelengths between 453 - 642nm, blue and orange photoreceptors at certain wavelengths, manufacturers are able
spectrum related); to obtain morphological changes in their facilities (e.g.
• Chlorophyll "c1" and "c2", present in different species of induction and suppression of flowers, canopy height, leaf inter
algae; nodal modifications, so on). Achieving the correct
• Chlorophyll "d", present in cyanobacteria. illumination that corresponds to plant photomorphogenesis
calls photomorphogenic sufficiency [6]. According to this
Carotenoids, another key component in the development of principle, only the flux at the specific wavelengths is used to
plant are red, yellow or orange pigments. They are counted induce targeted results. Morphogenetic active radiation (MAR
among the most important antioxidants and serve to balance - "Morphogenetically Active Radiation") has the spectral
the damaging effects of free radicals. Among the most range between 200 and 800 nm. Biological systems are
important carotenoids are lycopene, carotenoids, alpha- usually morphogenetically vulnerable at radiation of
carotene, beta-carotene and lutein. They are synthesized using wavelengths ranging from 280 nm to 320 nm.
light waves between 449 - 475nm, specific to green and blue
spectrums. Therefore photosynthesis takes place inside small plant
cells (chloroplasts) and its efficiency (between 0.1% for green
plants and 8% for sugar cane) is given by the fraction of light
energy converted into chemical energy during photosynthesis.
For example for synthesis of a molecule of CO2 are required
8-10 photons. Photosynthesis can be described by the
simplified chemical reaction [7]:
6H2O + 6CO2 + energy → C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 (1)
The value of photosynthesis efficiency depends on how
light energy is defined (i.e. whether will be considered only
light absorbed), and on what kind of light is used. If is
Fig. 2. Absorption spectrum of several plant pigments [5]. analyzed the solar spectrum incident on a leaf:
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• 47% of the light energy is lost due to photons outside the The photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) quantified
range of 400-700 nm - photonic waste non-bioavailable; in μmol photons m-2s-1 or in Einstein units - μE m-2 s-1, is
• 30% of in-band photons are lost due to incomplete another parameter that characterizes horticultural lighting
absorption or because hitting other than chloroplasts of systems, used more by biologists. This value represents the
plant bio-structures; total number of photons in the range of active wavelength for
• 24% of absorbed light energy is lost due to degradation of photosynthesis, which falls on a square meter per second. This
short-wavelength photon energy at 700 nm; is equivalent to illumination.
• 68% of the energy used is lost in the conversion into
glucose; PPF/delivered Watt is a measure of the effectiveness of
• 35-45% of the glucose is consumed by the leaf during dark the lighting system. This value represents the total number of
periods and photorespiration [8]. photons in the range of active wavelength for photosynthesis
that reach the plant canopy, generated by one Joule of
electricity.
III. GROW LIGHT EVALUATION FACTORS
The measurement units used in lighting design IV. ANALYSIS RESULTS ON LED GROW LIGHTING SYSTEM
fundamentals (lumen, lux or foot-candle) are related to the
human eye’s perception. Instead, horticultural lighting systems A greenhouse has the aim of reproducing the most suitable
are best assessed by parameters showing the use of light or conditions for the growth and development of crops with some
lighting system capacity to stimulate photosynthesis. These independence of the external environment [12]. The most
values are, therefore, related to the absolute number of relevant environmental factors controlled in a greenhouse are
photons. Comprehension, knowledge and proper application temperature, relative humidity, light, CO2, electrical
of these parameters in dimensioning of artificial lighting is conductivity and pH of the nutrients from the irrigation
essential for achieving a plant crop similar to one raised in system. Even for replacing sunlight, supplementing sunlight or
natural light conditions. for boosting growth, the artificial lighting in a greenhouse is
designed in accordance with the crop’s photoperiodicity,
Photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) is defined by the natural day length, average hours of sunlight, solar radiation
CIE as total exposure to photons in the solar radiation band angle and intensity, the amount of structure-induced shading.
from 400 to 700 nm, where the energy is absorbed by As less than 8% of the total light energy a plant receives is
photosynthetic pigments [9]. PAR is expressed in number of used for photosynthesis, its essential to determine what PAR is
photons per second (not as a direct measure of energy), as the necessary for a greenhouse plant.
photosynthetic process occurs when a photon is absorbed by
the plant, regardless of the wavelength of the photon. The subsequent studies were conducted on two different
species of plants, each lighted by a LED growing module of
Conversion between energy-based PAR and photon-based 14W, with 160 red LEDs (630 nm wavelength) and 65 blue
PAR depends on the lighting source spectrum (Table I). LEDs (465 nm wavelength). First, lettuce seeds were planted.
Terrestrial PAR can be usually measured using quantum It is a long-day plant, which can be exposed to continuous
sensors, spectroradiometers or calculated, depending on direct illumination (it has no negative effects, just shortens the
radiation (Im) and diffuse radiation (Id) [10]: generation cycle and leads to the accumulation of large
quantities of dry matter [13]). The light requirement for lettuce
PAR = 0.43 I m + 0.56 I d (2) is 4000 lx. It follows that, for the planted area (35cm x 25cm),
The yield photon flux, YPF (μmol m-2s-1), is the measure the required flux is:
for the efficiency of using photons in photosynthesis. Even if φ = E ⋅ S = 4000lx ⋅ 0.875m 2 = 3500lm (3)
90% of the blue photons are absorbed, about 20% of them are
captured by the non-active pigments of the plant, heat being Considering the conversion factors from Table I, the
lost. Because red light is used more effectively to induce photosynthetic active radiation from the LED source was
reaction of photosynthesis, YPF gives more importance to red determined first (4), then the photosynthetic photon flux was
photons and is based on plant sensitivity curve, between 360 calculated (5). These two parameters feature only to the grow
and 760 nm. light source, as none reveals the amount of photons that reach
the plant’s leaf.
TABLE I. CONVERSION FACTORS FOR PHOTOSYNTHETIC PARAMETERS 3500lm / 265 = 13.2WattPAR , (4)
OF LIGHT SOURCES [11]
13.2 ⋅ 4.56 = 60.2μmol / sec (5)
η_photon η_photon
T η_v η_PAR
(K) (lm/W*)
(µmol/J* or µmol (mol
(W*/W)
Using dedicated computing software (Spectra), the LED
s−1W*−1) day−1 W*−1) growing module was verified whether it provides the
3000 necessary flux and PPFD to the lettuce crop (Fig.3). Therefore,
269 4.98 0.43 0.0809
(warm white) the yield photon flux, using the conversion factor for LED
4000 277 4.78 0.413 0.208 luminaires of PPFD/YPF=1.12 [14]:
5800 (daylight) 265 4.56 0.394 0.368 18.41μmol ⋅ m −2 s −1
YPF = ⋅ 0.875m 2 = 14.38μmol / sec
W* and J* indicates PAR watts and PAR joules (400–700 nm). 1.12 (6)
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Fig. 5. Results related to the optimal number of LEDs for the lettuce crop.
Fig. 3. PAR and PPFD calculation for the LED growing module, with 65
blue LED and 160 red ones, of the same active power.
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The measure of PAR is useful for determining a quantity A disadvantage of growing with metal halide lamps is they
of light, but not the quality of the light received by the plant. produce the full luminous flux and the required light colour
Ultimately, the specific wavelengths that are entering the when having reached the steady state. In horticultural terms,
mesophyll layer are the final determinant of how beneficial or yield photon flux is achievable only after a few minutes from
not the light will be [15]. MH lamp’s ignition. This leads to an increased generation
cycle, which is not suitable in case of boosting crop
The same photosynthetic active radiation and production. Theoretically, calculating the YPF (μmol/sec) as
photosynthetic photon flux density can be achieved from other in (6) it results that metal halides are slightly more capable of
grow light sources than LEDs. Considering the spinach crop pushing photons deep into the canopy in a uniform manner
lighted by fluorescent sources, the same 75μmol/sec and 135 than fluorescents or LEDs:
μmol/m2/sec can be attained from 3 Toshiba T8 FL40SB tubes
(Wide Blue, each of 40W, 600lm, price 10$). The spectrum YPFLED = 105 ,46 YPFFL = 106 .25 YPFMH = 107 .03 (7)
obtained from simulation (Fig.8) shows that the sources
replicate more of the solar spectrum than LEDs, as they Comparing LEDs’, fluorescents’ and metal halide’s
deliver, between 500 and 600 nm, yellow and green. But this chromaticity spaces obtained by simulation (Fig.10) one
1/3 of the spectrum is unsuitable for triggering the vegetative confirms that LEDs are suitable for growing plants with
growth, thus the fluorescent grow lamps do not have vegetative, flowering and fruiting processes, not only in terms
advantages over LEDs than in financial terms. of low power consumption, but in terms of proper light
balance – blue and red.
If the spinach crop is to be lighted by a metal halide grow
lamp, its spectrum must be similar to that resulted from
simulation (Fig.9). A Delphis AstroBeam MH lamp (150W,
2700 lm, price 35$) was used. In this case blue light prevails,
which in qualitative terms is an advantage as the plant has
only vegetative processes.
Fig. 10. Source apparent color at optimal PAR attainment for spinach crop
lighted by different lamps.
V. CONCLUSIONS
There are several lamps for indoor and greenhouse
commercial growing which can provide a targeted spectrum,
but the benefits and advances of LED technology recommend
them for most applications of crop production. Horticultural
lighting systems are best assessed by parameters showing the
lamps’ capacity to stimulate and aid photosynthesis. These
values are, therefore, related to the absolute number of
photons: PAR and PPFD. The first one reveals the delivered
radiation, to be used in photosynthesis, the second one reveals
Fig. 8. Spectral output for spinach crop growth with fluorescent lighting. the photons actually reaching the canopy.
Besides that only a fraction of light energy is absorbed for
photosynthesis, plants response different to wavelengths. So
there is an optimum spectrum for each type of plant according
to its photobiological characteristics.
The study highlights that for indoor crop production better
results can be obtained if adjusting the grow light system. As
for chosen grow lamps the spectrum is known, PAR values
were modified by weighting specific wavelengths. For the
spinach crop, which has only vegetative processes, blue light
(460-470nm) proved to be twice as effective as red light (620-
635 nm).
For a more accurate estimation of the photosynthetic
activity, the photosynthetic response may be considered,
leading to the yield photon flux density comparison. Still, the
small differences of YPF for MH and LEDs, of 1.5%, do not
prevail over the quality of the radiant environment, both red
and blue light being indispensable for plant growth.
Fig. 9. Spectral output for spinach crop growth with metal halide lighting.
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