Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
in
CAMELIA BEJAN
Editura Credis
Bucuresti, 2001
1
Acest volum este numai pentru uz intern şi este destinat studenţilor
Facultăţii de Litere, învăţământ de zi, la distanţa şi cu frecvenţă
redusă, care studiază sintaxa frazei prin subordonare.
2
INTRODUCTION
We hope that the subject index, the study lists, and the glossary will
make the book accessible to the students working on their own.
The Author
3
4
CONTENTS
1. Clause Types…………………………………………………..3
4. The Participle…….……………………………………………42
5. The Gerund…..……………………………………………..…55
6. Verbs used either with an –ing clause or with a to-infinitive.....61
Key to exercises…………………………………………....……115
Glossary……………………………………………………. …..114
REFERENCES…………………………………………………..121
5
6
CLAUSE TYPES
CLASSIFICATION:
By the number of formal predications sentences are generally
classified in:
8
5. It is understood that damage estimated at more than a hundred
thousand pounds has been caused to furniture, fittings and
equipment in the Embassy building.
6. It never entered her head that their divorce would go through
without a financial settlement having been made.
9
A.
1. It is regrettable that John has left.
2. The point is that we are leaving now.
3. It occurred to me that she might be lying.
4. The rumour that prices were going to rise led to a rush on the
shops.
5. I am quite hopeful that I’ll get the job.
6. We were all amazed that the city could charge so much for a
parking ticket.
7. I must say, it doesn’t really surprise me that the company went
bankrupt.
8. It was astonishing that Sally could manage to do two jobs and
still have time for a social life.
9. There is startling new evidence that the hole in the ozone layer
may be much worse than was at first thought.
10. Many women are conscious that they are being exploited.
11. I appreciate that you’ve had more than your fair share of bad luck
recently.
12. Doesn’t it worry you that Stephen spends so much time away
from home?
13. You can rest assured that there are no additives in his food.
14. I helped you to get this job so it’s important to me that you make
a success of it.
15. Remind your father that we have visitors tonight.
16. It is a scandal that the racket was allowed to go undetected so
long.
17. It turned out that nobody remembered the address.
18. Police chiefs are confident that the case will be solved soon.
B.
1. But if you arm the police isn’t the likelihood that more criminals
will go armed?
2. It’s a common belief that one of the ways in which men and
women differ emotionally is that women experience a strong
drive to become mothers.
10
3. Two of the fundamental bases of British justice are that no one
should be forced to incriminate himself and that neither should he
face trial twice.
4. Many passengers complained that, once they emerged from the
train, there were no emergency personnel to greet them.
5. He was to be priest, so, she thought, it could not be that he was
interested in her.
6. The kids have loved him for years while their cynical elders
sneered that he was just a pretty face.
7. Mr. Lightman wrote that there had been a number of
misapplications of funds and breaches of duty.
8. Like Clinton, he is gambling that a recovering economy will
swell the government’s coffers.
9. The fact remains that you can produce steel much more cheaply
here than you can in Germany or the rest of the European
Community.
10. I decided to give up because I can no longer ignore the fact that it
is bad for my health.
11. David admitted to the clerk that he had been at the scene and had
lent the other youth a knife to get into cars.
12. The story goes that the dish was invented by Kaiser Franz
Joseph’s cook, who had promised to make his master something
delicious to tempt his jaded appetite.
13. It never clicked that I was homeless until I had been on the streets
a couple of months.
14. It comes as no surprise to learn that magistrates in England and
Wales dislike the new Criminal Justice Act and are now seeking
to modify it.
15. Does it surprise you that polls are showing currently that this
initiative will be approved by the voters?
16. I noticed that he was soaking wet, and for the first time it dawned
on me that he had come down across the fields from the hill.
17. It says a lot for her culinary art that so many of her recipes have
stood the test of time.
18. The president boasted that it would be by far the biggest service
program in American history.
11
19. At first it was feared that a bomb had caused the blast but now it
appears that the explosion may have been triggered accidentally.
20. However, the article points out that trade with Britain’s European
partners has risen considerably since 1973.
Model: [What John resents] is [that you refuse to discuss the matter].
This pseudo-cleft sentence has been derived from:
John resents [CP that you refuse to discuss the matter].
12
III. There are instances when the complementiser can be
omitted and other cases when it must be preserved.
Comment on the use of the complementiser that
keeping in mind the following clues:
1. With all the revision you’ve done, I’m sure you’ll pass your
exams.
2. Most students know good jobs are hard to find.
3. Everyone knows she’s been having an affair with Tom.
4. I’ll come back for that, I promise.
5. They reckon the French team’s better than ours.
6. As Mc. Cabe says, now it’s up to the industry to prove him
wrong.
7. He had, as he predicted, immediately assumed a non-executive
chairmanship.
8. He figured he’d better get out of the building before the cops
arrived.
9. When I saw what a lousy driver he was, I figured he was probably
not the best person to learn from.
10. I really feel you would be happier in a different job.
13
11. Naomi feels that she has not made much progress in her studies,
but actually she’s doing very well.
12. It is estimated that up to a million people around the country
suffer from various forms of asthma.
13. I think you all know the song I’m going to sing.
14. Most people think that war is a terrible thing.
15. Both sides firmly believe that a peace settlement is now possible.
16. Raising taxes may be unpopular, but we believe it’s the right
thing to do.
17. The map says there’s six of them.
18. My aunt, it grieves me to say, gets things confused.
19. Most of what he’s marked on the print-out has behind it the
opinion: I would rather that the broadcasters had not said that.
20. Who knows if I’ll still be running in 1998. I am not saying I will
but I won’t rule it out either.
21. I think he made a tactical blunder by announcing it so far ahead
of time.
22. A Foreign Ministry spokesman said, at a press briefing, that
relations with the Community were strained.
23. The 14-year-old brags that he has escaped from custody 31 times.
24. Things didn’t, he admitted, look good in Russia.
25. Italian striker Gianluca Vialli will play for Juventus next season,
Sampdoria president Paolo Mantovani confirmed today.
26. The police would rather you played safe than ended up being
sorry.
27. I’d just as soon you put that thing away.
28. It says here they have live music.
29. I would rather that the theory was stated.
14
When we passivise the main verb, the complement clause has
to move from DO position into subject position. However
such a construction is infrequent because a long phrase in
initial position renders the text more difficult. That is why the
complement clause is extraposed from subject position and
moved towards the end of the sentence.
Model:
Did you infer [PP from her sudden departure] [CP that she was
annoyed]?
15
The complement clause functions as a DO for the verb in the
main clause. The typical position of the DO is immediately
after the verb, but the resulting complex sentence sounds
unnatural and rather difficult to understand:
? Did you infer [PP that she was annoyed] [PP from her sudden
departure].
16
VI. Extrapose the complement clauses:
17
4. An argument with a friend or relative doesn’t mean that you don’t
get on with anyone.
5. I’d sooner he grinned and bore it. He can have a two month rest
in summer.
6. The map says there’s six of them.
7. Experts agree that one cause of poverty among the young is the
dramatic rise in the number of single-parent families.
8. What’ll happen is, it’ll come out that he didn’t shoot himself,
Jack shot him.
9. After the war, it came to pass that he did not resume his medical
studies.
10. It’s hard to say at first why Ed is so remarkable but then it creeps
up on you that this is top-quality son-writing.
VIII. Turn the verb in the main clause into the active voice
and find a suitable noun to function as its subject:
1. The League have arranged it so that all games are played before
the Cup final.
2. You have a reputation for extreme discretion. Can I take it that
what I am going to reveal will remain strictly between the two of
us?
3. It transpired that the gunman had been released from jail
4. Then she undermined him, destroyed his confidence in his own
talent, put it about that he was unreliable, a troublemaker.
5. I hate it that you can paint contentedly while I’m feeling restless
and bored.
6. It came as little surprise that the twelve ministers found much to
criticise in the reform proposals.
7. They’d already broken it to the troops that there was to be no
brief period in reserve as promised.
8. It looks increasingly likely that the three national parties may
form a government of national unity.
9. Having been fortunate enough to see his immaculate garden, I
think it highly unlikely that he shares my relaxed approach to
weeds.
10. When I interviewed him again I put it to him that he’d lied to you
and to me about not seeing his wife that afternoon. And he just
caved in.
1. It was made clear that there was no place for superstition in the
new society.
2. It is considered unlikely that any of the Cabinet changes will
represent any major changes in policy.
3. It was regarded as an affront to civil liberty that any person going
about his lawful business should be stopped randomly by any
authority.
4. It is planned that these documents will be released over the next
two weeks.
5. It is considered unlikely that the money will be refunded.
6. Although people have believed that planets exist orbiting around
suns similar to our own, it has been thought unlikely that neutron
stars would have their own planets.
1. He held her completely responsible for that she took food without
paying for it.
2. She made that she was not interested clear.
3. The judge paid no attention to that she had just lost her husband.
4. That she was foreign made it difficult for her to get the job.
5. That Simon had not been home for three days didn’t seem to
worry anybody.
6. The fact that Simon had not been home for three days didn’t seem
to worry anybody.
20
REPORTED SPEECH
I. A friend of yours at work sees you during the day and
complains about her work. Report this to another
friend a few days later. Begin your report as
suggested at the end of the text:
Mary stopped me at work the other day. She was really fed
up…
(Graver 1995: 175)
1. ……he sneered.
2. ……he stammered.
3. ……he snapped.
4. ……he announced. .
5. ……he retorted.
6. .……he groaned.
7. .……he conceded.
8. .……he gasped.
9. .……he complained.
10. …… he observed sarcastically.
11. .……he commented derisively.
12. …… he answered sharply.
22
13. .……he whispered shyly.
14. .……he said callously.
1. The Secretary of labour stated the other day that in the past
couple of months there have only been 200 lost man days.
2. Bill told me yesterday that the situation has not improved yet.
3. I have never said you were stupid.
4. (He has met her several times but) he has never told his wife that
he had met her.
5. (He has met her many times and ) he has promised her that he
would not say anything to his wife.
6. The tourist discovered that all the buses stop at the central market.
7. I told you that the road is closed and will soon be repaired.
8. The old man said he never locks the back door.
9. Tom said Ann arrived last week.
10. Henry asked if I received the telegram this morning.
11. The clerk said that the best coffee comes from South America.
12. We were told that the new radio service is to start operating next
month.
13. I told you that you are not to use this telephone for your private
calls.
14. Who said he’s coming later?
1. *The Greek thought that the sun goes round the earth.
2. *The teacher told us that water boiled at 100o centigrade.
23
III. Choose a suitable tense, whether for reported speech
(dependent upon the verbs in italics) or for direct speech
(within quotation marks):
24
(29 be) shown to be the most expensive energy source of all. He said,
too, that research into wave power (30 not only/ be) grossly
underfunded in the past but actually suppressed. ‘Did* you know,’ he
asked, ‘that this country (31 be) at one time at the forefront of
research in this field, but that the fruits of this work (32 since/ be)
reaped by other countries? And that this (33 happen) because nuclear
power (34 be) the altar upon which the Department of Energy (35
sacrifice) our future welfare?’
Lord Justice Cleaver, in pronouncing judgement at the Court of
Appeal, said that Mrs. Rudge, who (36 be) wrongfully accused of
shop-lifting five years before, (37 since/ live) with the terrible burden
of having to clear her name. But, he now reminded the Court,
Superstore’s legal counsel (38 say) that the company (39 no longer /
insist) that there (40 be) some truth in its allegations against Mrs.
Rudge. ‘Counsel makes it quite clear,’ he went on, ‘that Superstore
(41 admit) that a very serious error (42 be) made.’ The Judge stressed
that, the increase in the libel award to ₤ 15,000 (43 be) not to be
taken as setting a standard for such awards, which (44 normally/ be)
left to the decision of juries. ‘ But in this case Mrs. Rudge (45 be)
entitled to greater damages than those the jury (46 award) her last
year in the High Court.”
After the Appeal Court hearing, Mrs. Rudge said she (47 believe) in
British justice again. ‘It (48 not / be) the money that (49 really /
matter), but he fact that I (50 have) a public apology from
Superstore.’ She recalled how she (51 be) arrested by a store
detective, searched, and locked in a cell for several hours. When the
case (52 come) to trial in 1987 no evidence (53 be) offered and she
(54 be) acquitted. ‘But I (55 live) under a cloud of suspicion until this
very day.’
* The use of the past tense here is idiomatic; in meaning and in its
influence as a reporting verb upon the following tenses it is the
equivalent of 'Do you know ... ?’
25
THE SUBJUNCTIVE
Model: How odd! Both our wives have the same name.
It’s odd that both our wives should have the same name.
27
THE INFINITIVE
1. It’s better to have loved and lost than never to have loved at all.
2. She seemed always to be falling asleep.
3. I don’t think there is anything more to be done. Thank you for
your help.
4. He asked for only one thing – to be left in peace.
5. He was found to have lied about his business experience.
6. The thief is assumed to be hiding in the woods.
7. We searched everywhere for the dog, but it was not to be found.
8. I seem to have made a mistake in the address.
9. She seems to have been greatly admired in her youth.
10. The Government’s counter-inflation strategy may be being
blown off course.
11. In Hitchcock’s latest film there is not a corpse to be seen.
12. You seem to have been making lot of mistakes lately.
Note:
a. The infinitive can have aspect and voice. A passive progressive
infinitive may be phonetically awkward and rarely used.
28
III. Use the correct form of the infinitive for the verbs in
brackets. In preparation you should study list 1 at the end
of the book:
32
VIII. Reinforce the following statements using the model.
You may use various adverbs or clauses that show
agreement: yes, indeed, certainly, naturally, expectedly,
you’re right, no doubt, undoubtedly, etc. Work in pairs:
CONTROL PREDICATES
36
NOMINATIVE / ACCUSATIVE + INFINITIVE
I. Paraphrase the finite That Complement clauses:
37
III. The verb have may be used in Acc+ Inf structure with
two different interpretations: a. CAUSE, b.
EXPERIENCE:
Model:
They admitted [CP that the opponents had played a better game].
*They admitted the opponentsi [ti to have played a better game].
The opponents were admitted [ to have played a better game].
1. The police conjectured that the substance found in the sink was
poisonous.
2. They deduced that the murderer had escaped up the chimney.
3. It happened that I was standing next to her when she fainted.
4. They disclosed that another diplomat had been arrested for
spying.
5. They maintained that the prisoner was innocent of the charge.
6. They recollected that she had attended the ceremony in the
company of an unknown gentleman.
7. After they granted him the loan, they verified that he was the true
owner of the house.
8. The critics guarantee that the play will be an instant success.
9. It was rumoured that a dangerous convict was hiding in the
marshes.
38
10. I supposed that the citizen had both a duty to be loyal to the state
and the right to change the government.
11. It was eventually proved that the man had been hiding in the
neighbourhood.
12. They think that there are more than 3,000 different languages in
the world.
13. He said that there was a disagreement between the Prime Minister
and the Home Secretary.
Model:
The witness later disclosed his evidence [ to have been perjured ].
The witness later disclosed [CP that his evidence had been perjured].
39
5. They assumed him to be working on that novel.
6. He was asked to take the ladder with him.
7. It is forbidden for tourists to bring pets on board.
8. Sorry to be such a bore.
9. Mary allowed herself to be examined by the surgeon.
10. I don’t want there to be any trouble.
Note: The subject of the infinitive can be retained, raised or deleted.
40
1. I was walking down the hall, looking into rooms, and this
gray-haired guy motioned me to come into his room.
2. They are expected to be summoned to appear in court next
month for a variety of offences.
3. Lots of countries try to coax people to return bottles by
insisting on a refundable deposit.
4. The price was reckoned to be too high.
5. Over the last three or four years, they have egged each other
on to agree a whole series of initiatives to tighten up
immigration and asylum laws.
6. My education was the most important thing to my mother, and
she pestered my father to pay for me to go to the best schools.
7. The French government is believed to be planning to send
transport helicopters to work alongside the German
8. It’s much easier to bribe the children to mow the lawn than to
get down on their hands and knees pulling down weeds out.
9. There are no vested interests that would compel us to conceal
the truth.
10. Far too many handicapped young people have been
condemned to operate at a lower level of education and
achievement than their abilities warrant.
11. Kim’s gnawing conscience and guilt led her to overeat.
12. I did nothing wrong, yet I’m being made to suffer like this.
13. You helped me to hold on and to continue to mother my own
children at times when I didn’t think I could even go on
trying.
14. Off the east entrance we obediently awaited the signal
permitting us to enter.
15. Islands are seen to offer solitude, relaxation and a safe retreat,
a womb of security.
16. I do not permit myself to be influenced away from whet I
think is the right thing to do.
17. He had been scheduled to return to Washington, but now he
clearly hoped to stay on.
18. Mrs Mills said yesterday she was honored to have been
appointed.
41
19. He says the banning of his English play decided him to write
something about censorship.
20. He will have a fitness test on his injury this morning, but is
unlikely to be cleared to play football.
21. He distrusted human reason, knew it to be fallible.
22. New mothers have been observed to touch the feet and hands
first, then the body, and then the baby’s face.
Note:
Control predicates are three-place predicates, while raising verbs are
two-place predicates.
Model: The thief was just leaving the premises. The security guard
perceived him.
The security guard perceived the thiefi [ ti tv leaving the
premises].
1. Norman was rehearsing his part. Shirley could hear him from her
room.
2. The accused man was just entering the bank. The investigator
observed him.
3. The rain was splashing against the window and a wind was
howling in the storm. Alone in her room, the woman could hear
this.
4. Fear was filling my heart. I sensed it.
5. He was about to go into hospital. I couldn’t bear that.
6. The room is hot. You have to put up with that.
7. Her father might see them together. Erin didn’t want to risk that.
42
II. Turn the following sentences into an Accusative +
Participle construction:
Model: I suddenly found [CP that I was following the wrong lead].
I suddenly found myselfi [ ti tv following the wrong lead].
1. Glover could not risk four men standing up in court and telling
the judge he had ordered them to kill someone.
2. Men had been observed entering and leaving the house with large
bags, the police were told.
3. Despite Robin’s importance he was kept waiting a long time.
THE PARTICIPLE
I. Identify the syntactic function of the participle
constructions:
43
2. Anyone touching that wire will get a shock.
3. There’s Neville, eating as usual.
4. Having failed my medical exams, I took up teaching.
5. It rained for two weeks on end, completely ruining our
holidays.
6. Not wishing to continue my studies, I decided to become a
dress designer.
7. Knowing her pretty well, I realised something was wrong.
8. We’ll soon have you walking again.
9. Have you ever heard a nightingale singing?
10. She came to the city looking for a job.
1. Used economically, one tin will last for six weeks. (If …)
2. Most of the people invited to the reception were old
friends.
3. In came the first runner, closely followed by the second.
4. Served with milk and sugar, it makes a delicious
breakfast.
5. Once deprived of oxygen, the brain dies.
6. Leave in the oven until cooked to a light brown colour.
7. We’ll have to get the car repaired before Tuesday.
8. I can make myself understood pretty well in English.
9. The house looked abandoned.
10. She says she’s got a broken heart.
11. Rejected by all his friends, he decided to become a monk.
44
1. The questions were asked and so the students had to answer them.
2. The food had been cooked, so we decided to sit down and have
dinner.
3. Robert didn’t want to give evidence in court, so the trial was
adjourned for a week.
4. The fog never dissipates before ten o’clock and so the plane will
take off after that time.
Model: [ Nobody having any more to say], the meeting was closed.
[Since nobody had any more to say], the meeting was
closed.
1. All the money having been spent, we started looking for work.
2. A little girl walked past, her doll dragging behind her on the
pavement.
3. Hands held high, the dancers circle to the right.
4. A car roared past with smoke pouring from the exhaust.
5. The children not wanting to leave the beach, their mother decided
to stay a little longer.
1. A concerned expression
2. An involved explanation
3. The people concerned
4. The people involved
5. An adopted child
6. The solution adopted
46
9. He was badly shocked by his fall.
10. We were shocked at /by the prices in London.
11. His whereabouts are known to the police.
12. The hills are covered in snow.
13. The room was filled with thick smoke.
IX. Use the verbs: drink, shrink, sink, rot in the past
participle form to modify the nouns:
1. …driving;
2. …cheeks/ cloth;
3. …wreck/ ship;
4. …fruit/ vegetables;
While she was looking out of the window, she saw an old
man.
47
PROi looking out of the window, shei saw an old man.
When the adverb clause has a different subject from the main clause,
the construction is considered to be incorrect by many speakers and
it is termed ‘misrelated participle’:
48
a. anticipating it or there
b. with parenthetic expressions
c. when the subject of the participle is felt to be the pronoun one
d. the participle has the force of a preposition (with regard to)
1. Choosing his words with care, the speaker suggested that the
Government was mistaken in its attitude.
2. Choosing the prettiest girl in the competition proved difficult.
3. He regretted having picked Jones as captain of the team.
4. Having picked the team to meet India in the final test match, the
selectors now have to wait till Tuesday to discover whether or not
their choice was wise.
5. He wasn’t asked to take on the chairmanship of the society, being
considered insufficiently popular with all members.
6. He felt very flattered at being considered the best man to take on
the chairmanship of the society.
7. He denied having been told to service the engine before take-off.
8. Having been told that bad weather was on the way, the climbers
decided to put off their attempt on the Eiger until the following
week.
(Graver 1995: 162)
Note: Gerunds fulfill the same syntactic functions as NPs.
Participles are reduced adverbial clauses.
49
XIV. Complete the sentences, using:
1. There was an important link between the work which was being
done in Scotland and the future development of England.
2. The drinks which are being fixed now will be offered to the other
guests.
3. The premises had become inadequate for the increased volume of
work which was then being executed.
4. The houses which are now being built are going to be quite
unaffordable.
I’m glad Zena’s learning to relax. I saw her yesterday evening quietly
(1 read) a book. All I’d ever seen her (2 do) before was (3 open) one
to flip through the pages.
Marilyn called on her mother the other day and found her (4 lie) on
the sofa scarcely able to move. When they got her to hospital she was
found (5 suffer) from pernicious anemia.
Marilyn got her father (11 lend) her some money to start her business
with. I hear she's got her office (12 run) very smoothly now.
‘You want to see Harry McArthur? I'm afraid he's gone (13 fish) and
won't be back for some time.’
‘Really? I thought he’d gone (14 meet) Christine at the station and
would be back quite soon.’
‘The Managing Director says Denis isn’t (15 use) the company cars
without his personal permission. Apparently he damaged one the
other day.’
‘He damaged mine once. I can assure you he's not (16 borrow) it
again under any circumstances.’
The sound of gunfire sent us all (17 run) for cover. When silence
reigned once more we sent two of the platoon (18 find) out what had
happened.
‘Sir James is very persuasive; I can see he’ll soon have you (19 vote)
for him if you listen to him any longer.’
‘What would you have me (20 do), then - not (21 go) to any more of
his political meetings?’
Do you know what I’ve just heard Sheila (22 say)? She said she’d
never speak to Helen again. Apparently Helen's been overheard (23
say) uncomplimentary things about Sheila's mother. Among other
things, she was heard (24 say) she was practically illiterate.
52
Mary McArthur’s taking Charles and Christine up to London
tomorrow (25 see) the sights. While his wife takes his son and
daughter (26 sightsee), Harry's taking his nephew David (27 fish). I
take this (28 mean) that he wants David to catch the fishing bug too.
I was watching Willie in his architect’s office the other day (29 work)
on the plan of a new building when I saw him absentmindedly (30
write) ‘Sheita’ in one of the rooms. He noticed me (31 watch) him
and blushed.
First I heard the door (32 click). Then, as I lay there in the dark, I
heard footsteps slowly (33 approach). Then I heard them (34 stop). I
could feel my heart (35 beat). The police had observed a man (36
loiter) outside the block of flats several days before, and had come
(37 tell) me about it. He had been seen (38 be) particularly interested
in the first-floor flats. Could this be the person that had come (39
creep) into my flat in the middle of the night? I was never (40 know),
because at that moment my corgi gave a sleepy growl - enough,
apparently, to scare the intruder away.
(Gethin1992: 115)
Note: Verbs taking either the infinitive or the participle fall into three
groups:
53
In the old days when people were poorer, tramps used to
come knocking on our door to beg a crust of bread.
I’ll get him to repaint/ have him repaint the whole room.
I’ll soon get/ have the house looking nice and smart.
THE GERUND
I. Practise aspect and voice in gerundial complements:
1. The editor didn’t publish his book. He was angry about it.
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2. The judge sentenced his friend for four years imprisonment. He
was mad about it.
3. They rejected him. He was furious about it
4. They drafted him for the second time in two years. He was
displeased about it.
5. The employees were not paid cost-of-living bonuses. They were
furious about it.
6. They decorated the soldiers for bravery. Their commander was
proud of it.
III. For each of the sentences below, say whether the ing-
phrases indicate a past action or a possible future
action:
Model: She regretted that her brother had not been promoted.
She regretted her brother/ her brother’s not having been
promoted.
1. They reported that the enemy had been defeated, in all the major
newspapers.
2. I cannot imagine that anyone could dislike him.
3. She doubts that it is so easy to forgive.
4. Do you mind that I am smoking in your room?
5. You must excuse that I am not convinced by assurances only.
Model: He went crazy because she had gambled his fortune away.
He went crazy because of [ her having gambled his fortune
away].
1. They got the news that he was about to return home, instead of
having been slain by the enemy.
2. I informed him that the church was well worth seeing.
3. He insisted that she should accept the invitation.
4. I was not aware that the house had been let.
5. The manager was often accused that he had been hot-tempered.
6. We’ve been assured that we will get plenty of support from local
schools.
VI. Use a gerund and omit the abstract nominal the fact, the
instant, etc.:
Model:
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Perhaps the fact that I was here prevented her coming to you.
Perhaps [NP the fact [CP that I was here]] prevented her coming to you.
Perhaps [ my being here] prevented her coming to you.
1. The fact that she was staying away so long was beginning to
make him uneasy.
2. From the moment when he first spoke to me, his voice connected
itself with an association in my mind which I could not define.
3. The fact that they are making Germany pay in coal is having a
disastrous effect on our mining industry.
4. The thought that you are Sir Anthony’s son, captain, would itself
be a sufficient recommendation.
Note: The distinction depends on the verb in the main clause. The
Acc + present participle is always used after:
a. sense perception verbs
b. the verbs (find, leave, send, catch)
c. causative verbs (have).
The gerund is used after:
a. transitive verbs
b. verbs expressing mental activity or emotional state
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Note: The paraphrase with a that-complement clause clearly shows
that the subject of the infinitive has been deleted because it is
identical with the subject of the main clause. The syntactic
representation uses an index to suggest the identity of reference for
the two subjects:
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XII. Translate into English:
Exam questions
1. Model:
a. It appears [that he still loves her]
b. He appears [ t to still love her]
complex clause: Nom + Inf. obtained as a result of SSR.
c. [ His appearing [ t to still love her]] pleased her. Poss-Ing
d. [ Him appearing [ t to still love her]] pleased her. Acc-Ing
e.*[ His appearance to still love her] pleased her. nominalization
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a. I remember … them just before his sixtieth birthday.(visit)
b. Remember … the door. (lock)
c. Too often we forget … , taking ourselves and life too
seriously. (laugh)
d. I think they regret … it to us. (sell)
e. I’ll never forget … Barcelona to win the Cup-Winner’s
Cup. (beat)
f. I regret…. that I am unfamiliar with her work. (say)
g. He regretted… the small boy, who was now crying loudly.
(hit)
Note:
Ing refers to an event which actually happened beforehand, i.e.
before the moment of remembering or forgetting.
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3. Language is a natural human growth; it follows, therefore, that it
never ceases (change).
4. Edward continued (enjoy) his lessons.
5. She put papers in the machine and began (type) furiously.
6. Clocks of varying reliability were continuing (strike) eight
o’clock in all directions.
7. His fame began (spread) and he did very nicely.
Note:
The gerund makes reference to a specific event which can be
located in space and time; it often takes a manner adverbial or other
adverbials describing aspects of the action
The infinitive expresses potential action (disposition
properties of the subject, generic actions, predictable, regularly
repeated actions, complex or gradual action).
Though begin and start may be used with either the infinitive
or –ing, there is a tendency to use the infinitive for events that are
impersonal (It begins to get cold) or involuntary (I began to get cold),
and –ing for voluntary actions (We started getting ready)
Stop
1. Stop (bother) me!
2. They stopped (help) the old lady to cross the street.
3. I can’t stop him … to the press.(talk)
4. They stopped … the way.(ask)
1. I saw her off to the station; I liked (go out) with an attractive girl.
2. As he was giving them the absurd story, he discovered that he
loved (fool) people.
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3. I hate (break up) this session, but I have a hell of a pile of letter to
attend to.
4. She enjoyed (be) a rich little girl.
5. He began to wave his hands in the air, as though he could not
tolerate (be stopped) in his way.
6. He drinks very little alcohol and at parties prefers (have) ginger
ale.
7. Yesterday I went for a walk in the woods; I liked (walk) in the
wood.
Note:
These verbs take the gerund, when our feelings accompany or
follow what happens. The gerund indicates real occurrences, i.e. an
emotional reaction to a real event.
These verbs take the infinitive when we have feelings
beforehand about what may happen. The infinitive implies that there
is a disposition for actions of a certain kind, for generic actions.
The gerund associates with [+duration], the infinitive
[+repeated] action.
I adore to be engaged.
I adore being engaged.
Dread, regret are used respectively with the infinitives to think and
to say (also to tell, to inform), but with the –ing of verbs that describe
what almost certainly will happen (dread) or what has happened
(regret):
I dread ... what may happen (and so I’ll try not to think
about it)
I dread … to the hospital (but I’m going)
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I regret … your husband is seriously ill (I don’t like to say
what I’m going to say, but…)
Do you regret … her? (hurt)
Other verbs
The verbs below are used either with the infinitive or the gerund
according to their meaning:
Help
1. Careful exercise or gentle massage can help …. the
muscles. (relax)
2. I couldn’t help… the argument. (overhear)
3. Forty thousand letters of protest to the government helped
… his name. (clear)
4. I can’t help … that it was a mistake to let him go. (feel)
Deserve
He deserves hanging for this.
He deserves to be hanged for this.
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He deserves being hanged for it.
Come, go
Go on
Note:
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Use the gerund to show continuation of an activity and the infinitive
to indicate interruption and change of activity.
Helen should stop (1 criticise) people behind their backs. Has she, I
wonder, ever stopped (2 think) what people must be saying about her
in return?
‘ If you say I sent Sheila and Ken an invitation to our party I suppose
I must have, but I completely forget (3 do ) so.’
‘You certainly did, because here it is; you gave it to me to hand on to
them, but I forgot (4 do) so.’
I regret (5 say) that Sheila didn’t get the headmistress’s post she
applied for. She now regrets (6 apply) for it, because the application
took up a lot of her time.
Although I don’t like (7 look after) Zena’s alligator while she’s away
I do so because I wouldn't like Zena (8 think) I was afraid of it.
‘Do you mean (14 tell) me that Willie’s firm of architects didn’t
accept that wonderful contract with the Town Hall?’
‘Yes, I do, because if they had it would have meant (15 give up) an
even better contract in New York.’
It was getting dark and storm clouds were beginning (16 form) when
we eventually arrived at the mountain hut. We’d begun (17 think) we
might have lost our way.
You say you’ve tried (20 stop) (21 snore) but have failed. Have you
tried (22 sleep) on your stomach?
Although I generally prefer (23 be) frank to (24 be) secretive, on this
particular occasion I prefer (25 keep) my opinion of Denis to myself,
if you don’t mind.
My uncle started (26 smoke) heavily a couple of years ago and now
his health is starting (27 deteriorate).
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However good one may think it is (30 get) out into the fresh air at
weekends, it’s no good (31 try) (32 convince) Toby of that; he prefers
indoor pursuits like billiards.
‘I see that Ken has arrived to play tennis with us. I understood him
(33 say) yesterday that he wouldn’t have time for a game today,
didn’t you?'
‘Yes, I did, but I can understand him (34 change) his mind when he
heard Sheila was here.’
I dread (35 think) what my father's reaction will be when I tell him
the news. That’s why I'm dreading (36 go) home tomorrow for the
weekend.
I hate him (37 criticise) me the way he does. But I’d hate him (38
think) his criticism had any effect upon me, and so I keep quiet.
My mother wants me (39 cut) the lawn. I know it wants (40 cut), but
I really haven’t time this weekend. 112
(Gethin 1992: 111)
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Say to which group each of the following verbs and
sentences belongs: (cannot) bear, begin, (not) bother,
cease, continue, hate, intend, like, love, omit, prefer, start:
1. They began going out together and some ten months later decided
to marry.
2. As time passed and he grew colder, he also began to grow tired.
3. I can’t bear being shouted at.
4. I cannot bear to watch the film from beginning to end because of
the bad memories it brings back.
5. Some people have said they will not ever bother going back to
their destroyed homes.
6. He ran out, not bothering to close the door.
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Match the sentences to the meaning groups given above:
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k. Verbs concerned with needing or deserving action or
treatment of some kind: deserve, need, require, want
Model: If you can’t do it, we’ll find someonei [CP whoi can].
The bracketed clause is a restrictive relative clause whose
antecedent in the main clause is the indefinite pronoun
‘someone’.
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III. Decide whether the following clauses are ‘that’
complements or relative clauses:
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Note: ‘That’ may be replaced by ‘which’ or zero only in relative
clauses.
The aimsi [CP whichi the society is pursuing ti] are very
laudable.
The aimsi [CP Øi the society is pursuing ti] are very laudable.
I don’t find the personi [CP whomi/ Ø I’m sharing the flat with ti] a
very congenial companion.
I don’t find the personi [CP withk whomi I’m sharing the flat tk ti ] a
very congenial companion.
1. This is a job. You can take your time over it, because I’m not
in any particular hurry.
2. Some foreign businessmen thought that British exports should
increase after devaluation. I spoke to these businessmen
recently.
3. The language teachers’ association provides a medium. Through
this medium ideas can be shared and discussed.
4. The men’s decision to return to work provides a breathing space.
Both men and management can think again during this breathing
space.
5. They came to a plateau. Around the plateau stood a circle of high
mountains.
6. The two sides have agreed to have further talks on a pay and
productivity structure. Under this pay and productivity structure
the men would be paid at an hourly rate.
7. Coronary thrombosis is a disease. High sugar consumption is
believed to play a part in this disease.
Note:
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If the relativized constituent is a PP functioning as a PO then both
preposition stranding and pied-piping are possible.
If the relativized constituent is a PP functioning as an Adverbial
Modifier (of place, time, manner, etc), then only pied-piping is
possible.
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VII. Use that or which to introduce defining relative clauses
when the antecedent denotes a thing:
1. The thing that the speaker said next was lost in the general
uproar.
2. Why don’t you explain the thing that you have in mind?
3. The teacher tested the students to see if they remembered the
things which they had learnt.
4. The thing that you are asking me to do is out of the question.
5. What a nuisance! That’s just the thing which I didn’t want to
happen.
6. The thing that amazes me is where he gets all his energy from.
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7. Would this be the thing that you are looking for?
8. Mind the things that you say to him; he’s very sensitive.
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X. Join the sentences, using non-defining clauses with a
prepositional construction:
CLEFT CONSTRUCTIONS
1. It was the drug, not the disease, that killed him. He would still
be alive today if he had not taken that drug.
2. Her height is striking enough but it is her face which amazes
everyone.
3. He was at Hove yesterday, and it was a fair bet that it was
Alan Wells who he had gone to watch.
4. It was my new dress not my new shirt that I ruined,
unfortunately.
5. It was this defiant stand against Europe that finally cost her the
premiership.
6. Though it cannot be denied that appearance is the first step
towards attraction, it is similarity of attitude that is often a
deciding factor when it comes to pursuing a relationship.
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This is an instance of non-finite (infinitival)
postmodification obtained as a result of the reduction of
the relative clause in:
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XVII. Define the syntactic function of the following relative
clauses:
Exam question
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INDIRECT QUESTIONS
I. Identify the wh-phrase for each indirect question and
use a co-indexed trace to indicate its initial position.
State the syntactic function of the wh-phrase
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III. Reconstruct the direct questions:
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V. State the two meanings of the following sentence. Then
explain the ambiguity of the sentence in terms of the
wh-movements that might have taken place and the
positions from which the wh-forms may have
originated.
Exam questions
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Long wh-movement
I. Represent the process of successive embedding of the
simple sentence in (a) into the structure of the
complex sentence in (b) to build up wh-questions
and cleft constructions. Apply wh-movement to the
underlined constituent:
b. He rejected the idea [ that they could not cure that disease].
He rejected the idea [ that they could not cure whatk ].
* Whatk did he reject the idea [ that [ they could not cure tk ].
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John rejected the suggestion [ that he should talk [ PP to whomi]].
*To whomi did John reject the suggestion [that he should talk [PP ti]].
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
I. Use when, whenever or as to fill the gaps in the following:
1. …he grew older his temper improved. (His temper got better every
year.)
2. …he grew older (he reached the age of, say, 40) his temper
improved.
3. …he left the house (while he was still in the doorway) he suddenly
remembered where he’d seen her before.
4. …he left the house (after leaving it) he turned right.
5. … we approached the town (came gradually nearer to it) we
wondered whether there’d be room in the hotel.
6. … we reached the town (after arriving) we sent Tom to find out
about hotels.
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7. … you don’t know a district it is always a good thing to have a
map.
8. … the manager is out (every time he is out) his assistant signs the
letters.
9. A revolver appeared round the edge of the door… it swung open
(The revolver appeared before the door was fully open.)
10. … the sun rose the fog dispersed. (the more sun, the less fog)
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IV. Discuss the structure of the following reduced
adverbial clauses:
1. * While (he was) still a boy, his ambition was to become a doctor.
2. *The reason the car broke down is because we drove too fast.
3. *Because he doesn’t like her is no reason to treat her so badly
1. The court jester began to imitate the royal gestures of the king,
whereupon (or whereat) the king began to laugh uproariously.
2. I will be betrayed thrice ere I die.
3. Albeit his ordeal was almost beyond human endurance, he held
steadfast to his goal.
4. We will die ere we surrender.
5. We have lived and we have learnt, albeit the lesson was a costly
one…
6. Albeit that he was sorely wounded, he remained cheerful in spirit.
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VII. Identify the subordinators that introduce concession
clauses:
Note:
Whereas and inasmuch as are used in formal language for
arguments, decrees, preambles, resolutions.
Seeing that is informal.
In that and all the more combine the meaning of extent with that of
cause.
Being that used as a subordinator of cause is regarded as
substandard.
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1. On account of his extreme timidity, Mr Black did not try to
advance himself professionally.
2. On account of his being extremely timid, Mr Black did not try to
advance himself professionally.
3. Being extremely timid, Mr Black did not try to advance himself
professionally.
4. Mr. Black being an extremely timid person, he did not try to
advance himself professionally.
5. An extremely timid person, Mr. Black did not try to advance
himself professionally.
6. Extremely timid, Mr. Black did not try to advance himself
professionally.
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12. She’s suing for divorce on the grounds that he deserted her and
the children.
13. All the efforts of the United Nations are directed to the end that
peace may finally prevail all over the world.
14. Because of the fact that they had made their reservation too late,
they couldn’t get on the plane they wanted.
15. Everything would have gone well with the plane but for the fact
that one of the props caught on fire.
16. Despite the fact that he was well-known all over the world, he
was an extremely modest man.
17. Due to the fact that all trains were delayed, the station was
crowded with people.
18. Except for the fact that her nose was a little long, she would be
very beautiful.
19. He does a full day’s work in spite of the fact that he is eighty
years old.
20. In view of the fact that all the able-bodied men were fighting at
the front, the women had to do all the work.
21. She lived to a ripe old age, notwithstanding the fact that she had a
weak heart.
22. He was fired on account of the fact that he had stolen money from
the company.
23. Owing to the fact that not enough members are present to call our
meeting to order, we will have to chancel the meeting.
24. She insisted on accompanying her husband through the fields
regardless of the fact that the rain was ruining her dress.
1. Capital has always been raised and spent to ensure the continual
provision of ample and reliable supplies of pure water.
2. When the parents were killed, a fund was set up to provide for the
children.
3. This particular piece of music was written to commemorate the
Silver Jubilee of the late King.
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4. Everything possible must be done to preserve the good reputation
of the company.
5. The museum authorities had a gallery specially built to house the
new collection.
6. He even sold his house to raise money for his election campaign.
1. There have been so many books written about this subject that a
student hardly knows where to start.
2. His argument was so full of inconsistencies that no one could take
it seriously.
3. It was such an amazing coincidence that everyone suspected it
had been secretly planned in advance.
4. These truths cut so strongly against the grain of common sense
that they are difficult to believe even after one is confronted with
their proofs.
5. In my opinion, there will be such a violent reaction to the new
measures that the government will be forced to change its mind.
6. His play would have aroused so much criticism that the
management would have been forced to take it off after a couple
of performances anyway.
7. She was injured so badly that she had to go to the hospital.
8. He was so powerful that none dared resist him.
1. Pour boiling water on the coffee grounds, wait till the grounds
(settle), then strain the coffee into a jug.
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2. By the time you (give) the children their meal you won’t have any
appetite left.
3. He was determined to keep the two dogs apart because he knew
that the moment they (see) each other they’d start barking.
4. Some people say that a man shouldn’t think about marrying till he
(save) up enough money to buy a house.
5. You’re a fool to go into teaching. I’m going into business. In ten
years’ time when you (queue) at the bus stop I’ll be driving by in
my Bentley.
6. When you (pick) fruit in the holidays to take out your salary I
(cruise) round the Greek islands in my private yacht.
7. When I (see) all there is to see, I’ll buy a small island and settle
down there.
8. The window-cleaner was in fact one of a gang of safe crackers.
He hoped that while he (clean), or (pretend) to clean windows he
would be able to have a look at the safe.
9. He said he would lend me money whenever I (need) it.
1. The oysters now opened up at the time the tide would have
flooded Evanston – had the town been on the shore and not
perched on the bank of a Great Lake 580 feet above sea level.
2. Powerful though they were, they never dared to challenge the
authority of the King.
3. Had we known about it a few days earlier, we could have made
the necessary preparations.
4. Fool though (as) he was, he knew how to make money.
5. The death toll wound have been much greater had it not been for
the prompt assistance rendered by the rescue services.
6. The demonstration would have passed off quite peacefully – had
the organisers taken a few elementary precautions.
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XVII. Comment on the subordinator in the following
conditional clauses:
1. If you had followed your father’s advice and gone into the army,
you would probably be a colonel by now.
2. If the Company had become part of the Authority in April 1994,
charges would already be 50% higher than they are now.
3. He frankly admits that he would still be a labourer if it hadn’t
been for the war.
4. He would be a rich man today if he hadn’t got involved in that
lawsuit.
5. My father says that the industry would still be making a profit if
the government hadn’t taken it over.
6. I wouldn’t be here now if he hadn’t leaped into the water to save
me.
7. If the boy had listened to his parents last year, he wouldn’t be in
trouble now.
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8. In spite of that she had three small children, he sent her to
prison for six months.
1. Inasmuch as no offer has been made to pay for the damage, our
company will have to take this case to court.
2. Our firm will do whatever is necessary insofar as we are able to.
3. I have no complaint about my job beyond that it is boring.
4. But that he needed money desperately, he would never have
turned to his brother for help.
5. That house is just what we want, except that it is too expensive.
6. Both girls are similar in that they love expensive clothes.
7. Now that we are ready to leave, we must say goodbye to all our
friends.
8. Now that it has started to rain, the crops will be saved.
9. I have no complaint about the hotel, only that it is dull here.
10. We should be able to do the job for you quickly, provided (that)
you give as all the necessary information.
11. The plan would have gone off very well, save that one of the
officials became very greedy.
12. Seeing that it’s getting dark, we’d better go inside.
13. He travelled through half the world so (that) he might see her
once again.
14. The furniture arrived damaged, so (that) we had to send it back.
XXVII. Read the following examples and have fun with the
movie stereotypes then:
1. A man will show no pain while taking the most ferocious beating
but will wince when a woman tries to clean his wound.
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2. When paying for a taxi, don’t look at your wallet as you take out
a bill, just grab one at random and hand it over. It will always be
the exact fare.
3. Any person walking from a nightmare will sit bolt upright and
pant.
4. It is not necessary to say hello or goodbye when beginning or
ending phone conversations
5. Even when driving down a perfectly straight road it is necessary
to turn the steering wheel vigorously from left to right every few
moments.
6. It does not matter if you are heavily outnumbered in a fight
involving martial arts, your enemies will wait patiently to attack
you one by one dancing around in a threatening manner until you
have knocked out their predecessors.
7. Any lock can be picked by a credit card or a paper clip in
seconds, unless it’s the door to a burning building with a child
trapped in it.
8. If being chased through town, you can usually take cover in a
passing St. Patrick’s day parade at any time of the year.
9. Once applied, lipstick will never rub off – even while scuba
diving.
10. If staying in a haunted house, women should investigate any
strange noises in their most revealing underwear
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5. Most laptop computers are powerful enough to override the
communications systems of any invading alien civilisation Police
Departments give their officers personality test to make sure they
are deliberately assigned a partner who is their total opposite.
1. If you need to reload your gun, you will always have more
ammunition even if you haven’t been carrying any before now.
2. A detective can solve a case once he has been suspended from
duty.
3. Should you wish to pass yourself as a German officer, it will not
be necessary to speak the language. A German accent will do.
4. When they are alone, all foreigners prefer to speak English to
each other.
5. If a large pane of glass is visible, someone will be thrown through
it before long.
6. Mothers routinely cook eggs, bacon and waffles for their family
even though their husband and children never have time to eat it.
7. Television news bulletins usually contain a story that affects the
character at the precise moment that they are watching.
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3. Once I realized how much time I was spending at work, and
how little I was enjoying life, I decided that things had to
change.
4. We soon discovered that almost everything we had hidden
had been found, and either carried off or wantonly destroyed.
5. Rigid with fear, Jessica remembered that the window was
open.
6. Research shows that the more children are hit, the more likely
they are to be aggressive themselves.
7. Federal law requires that consumers be informed whenever an
investigative report is ordered.
8. I propose that we examine two basic trends, moving in
opposite directions.
9. Since sound is actually the motion of molecules, it follows
that the fastest speed with which the air molecules can get out
of the way is the speed of sound.
10. It happened that we had a number of very competent women
so it was not difficult to pick a woman to do it.
11. How did it come about that a man so shrewd and wise as
David should fall for such a blatantly obvious confidence
trick?
12. A policeman said it appeared that the bag had contained two
tubes filled with pieces of lead which flew into the air injuring
eleven people.
13. This doesn’t necessarily mean that sport can improve your
emotional health; it could simply be that people with a more
extrovert personality are more likely to enjoy sports in the
first place.
14. The bigger the cost, the more it matters that the money should
not be wasted.
15. It is to his credit that the bitterness he felt over his recent
failure did not alter his determination to carry out his
regimental duties to perfection.
16. It is rumoured that his farmhouse resembles a fortress, with a
panic-button to alert the police in the event of intruders
breaking in.
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17. Though it cannot be denied that appearance is the first step
towards attraction, it is similarity of attitude that is often a
deciding factor when it comes to pursuing a relationship.
18. When word got out that we had spent nearly $1.6 million on
a single sixty-second commercial, irate shareholders began
firing off letters.
19. It was concluded that the aircraft was flying at the maximum
permitted speed when the leading edge of the wing opened
up, ripping the wing apart.
20. At one time it was believed that an addict couldn’t quit until
she hit bottom and lost everything. That’s true for many
people but, it turns out, not for everyone.
21. It is understood that damage estimated at more than a hundred
thousand pounds has been caused to furniture, fittings and
equipment in the Embassy building.
22. It never entered her head that their divorce would go through
without a financial settlement having been made.
KEY TO EXERCISES
Reported speech
The Infinitive
The Participle
XI. 1a, 2 c/ d, 3 b / c, 4 a, 5 c, 6 b, 7 c, 8 d, 9 b, 10 b/ c, 11 b/ c.
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Adverbial clauses
116
GLOSSARY
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CLAUSE: the basic sentence unit consisting of a predicate and one
or more argument NPs or clauses. A clause forms a simple sentence
or is part of a complex sentence:
The verb ‘believe’ takes two argument NPs ‘I’ and ‘the story’ to form
a simple sentence.
The verb ‘believe’ takes two arguments: the Subject NP ‘I’ and the
Object clause ‘that she is a good writer’. The Object NP has been
replaced by a clause.
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The pronoun who has been extracted out of the position marked – in
the bracketed clause, and moved to the front of the overall sentence.
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INDIRECT QUESTION: an interrogative complement clause (i.e.
an interrogative clause used as te complement of a word like ask,
unsure, question, etc.):
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used as a gerund) is said to be imperfective/ progressive/ present
participle:
He is leaving.
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John decided [ PRO to leave].
John decided [ that he should leave].
The family returned to the villa after the car had broken down.
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REFERENCES
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