Learning Concepts

Anxiety
Anxiety can be an inhibiting factor in learning and therefore has received considerable attention. It is
closely related to arousal, attention and motivation as well as the entire topic of emotions (Clark &
Fiske, 1982; Mandler, 1984). Anxiety is usually triggered by a situation that involves a decision or
judgement; tests and exams are common precursors of anxiety in educational settings.

A distinction is made between state anxiety, increased arousal due to environmental factors, and trait
anxiety, an individual's characteristic way of reacting to arousal. The level of anxiety displayed by a
person is a mutual function of both types of anxiety. Trait anxiety is an aspect of personality and
social behavior; for example, it correlates with self-esteem and defensiveness.

Anxiety has been shown to impair performance in a wide range of cognitive functions including
attention, memory, concept formation and problem solving (e.g., Sieber et al., 1977; Spielberger,
1966). There is an interaction with task difficulty; anxiety results in poorer performance in complex
tasks but may improve performance on very simple tasks. This result can be explained by Hull's drive
reduction theory in so far as arousal increases the strength of responding but competing responses
are activated in complex tasks. Because of its influence on performance, anxiety is highly relevant
to Aptitude x Treatment Interaction (ATI) research .

Anxiety can be reduced in an instructional context by:

1) instructions that minimize stress and prepare individual

2) increased use of positive feedback during a task

3) reduced opportunities for failure in a task

Arousal
The concept of arousal has been a major aspect of many learning theories and is closely related to
other important concepts such as anxiety, attention, and motivation.

One of the most important findings with respect to arousal is the so-called Yerkes-Dodson law which
predicts a U-shaped function between arousal (motivation) and performance. Across a broad range of
experimental settings, it has been shown that both low and high levels of arousal produce minimum
performance whereas a moderate level of arousal results in maximum performance in a task. This
suggests that too little or too much stimulation tends to be ignored by individuals.

Berlyne (1960) attempted to explain the relationship between arousal and curiosity based upon Hull's
drive reduction theory . According to Berlyne, there is an optimal level of arousal for an individual at a
given time. If the level of arousal drops below the optimal level, the organism will seek stimulation
(i.e., exploratory behavior). Berlyne argued that curiosity was a consequence of "conceptual conflict"
that could be caused by: doubt, perplexity, contradiction, incongruity, or irrelevance.

Eysenck (1982) examines the relationship between attention and arousal. He concludes that there are
two types of arousal: a passive and general system that can raise or lower the overall level of
attention, and a specific, compensatory system that allows attention to be focused on certain task or
environmental stimuli. Mandler (1984) argues that arousal is the key element in triggering emotional
behavior.

Attention
Attention is a major topic of study in psychology and is closely related to the subject of consciousness
which was the principal focus of the early psychologists such as Wilhelm Wundt and William James.

In 1958, Broadbent proposed his filter theory which specified that we could only attend to one input at
a time. The theory suggested that stimuli can be filtered based upon physical attributes, prior to full
processing by the perceptual system. Filter theory proposed that attention was a limited capacity
channel that determined the serial processing of the perceptual system.

Filter theory did not allow for the influence of long-term memory or meaning of the stimulus. However,
studies showed that semantic characteristics of the stimulus did affect attention. Theories proposed
by Deutsch & Deutsch (1963) and Norman (1968) suggested that all inputs are analyzed but only
pertinent stimuli were attended to. Neisser (1967) outlined a two-process theory that made attention
(and hence consciousness) a matter of degree. According to Neisser's theory, both properties of the
stimuli as well as semantic factors, play a role in attention. Neisser argues for a constructive view of
cognition in which perception is shaped by existing knowledge and hence attention is influenced by
experience.

Kahneman (1973) introduced a model of attention that introduces the idea of deliberate allocation.
The model suggests that in addition to unconscious processes, attention can be consciously focused
(such as when someone mentions our name). The model also introduces the idea of attention as a
skill that can be improved (i.e., as a learning strategy). In his Conditions of Learning theory , Gagne
suggests that gaining the attention of the student is the first step in successful instruction.

Eysenck (1982) examines the relationship between attention and arousal. He concludes that there are
two types of arousal: a passive and general system that can raise or lower the overall level of
attention, and a specific, compensatory system that allows attention to be focused on certain task or
environmental stimuli.

Attitudes
Attitudes are usually defined as a disposition or tendency to respond positively or negatively towards
a certain thing (idea, object, person, situation). They encompass, or are closely related to, our
opinions and beliefs and are based upon our experiences. Since attitudes often relate in some way to
interaction with others, they represent an important link between cognitive and social psychology. As
far as instruction is concerned, a great deal of learning involves acquiring or changing attitudes.
Attitude change is especially relevant to management and sales training .

Hovland, Janis, & Kelly (1953) provided one of the first major theories of attitude change, developed
in the framework of Hull's learning theory , and oriented towards the effects of persuasive
communication. According to the Hovland et al theory, changes in opinions can result in attitude
change depending upon the presence or absence of rewards. The learning of new attitudes is no
different in nature than any other verbal or motor skill, except that opinions relate to a single
proposition whereas other skills involve a series of propositions. The acceptance of a new opinion
(and hence attitude formation) is dependent upon the incentives that are offered in the
communication.
Heider (1958) developed a balance theory of attitude change that was influenced by Gestalt
principles . In Heider's theory, when beliefs are unbalanced, stress is created and there is pressure to
change attitudes. The two main factors affecting balance are the sentiment (e.g., liking, approving,
admiring) and unity (e.g., similarity, proximity, membership) qualities of beliefs. Balance exists if the
sentiment or unity between beliefs about events or people are equally positive or negative; imbalance
occurs when they are dissimilar in nature.

Abelson (1968) and others developed theories of cognitive consistency. Cognitive consistency
suggests that people will try and maintain consistency among their beliefs and make changes (i.e.,
accept or reject ideas) when this doesn't occur. For example, if a college student who wants to live in
a coed dormitory and also wants to get good grades is presented with the fact that students who live
in coed dorms get poor grades, the student will either reject this proposition or change his attitudes
about coed dorms or good grades.

Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance is one of the best known and most researched frameworks
pertaining to attitude change. According to this theory, attitude change is caused by conflict among
beliefs. A number of factors determine the strength of the dissonance and hence how much effort is
required to change attitudes. By manipulating these factors, attitude change can be facilitated or
inhibited.

Attitudes are one of the five major categories of learning outcomes in Gagne's theoretical framework.

Cognitive/Learning Styles
Cognitive styles refer to the preferred way an individual processes information. Unlike individual
differences in abilities (e.g., Gardner, Guilford, Sternberg) which describe peak performance, styles
describe a person's typical mode of thinking, remembering or problem solving. Furthermore, styles
are usually considered to be bipolar dimensions whereas abilities are unipolar (ranging from zero to a
maximum value). Having more of an ability is usually considered beneficial while having a particular
cognitive style simply denotes a tendency to behave in a certain manner. Cognitive style is a usually
described as a personality dimension which influences attitudes, values, and social interaction.

A number of cognitive styles have been identified and studied over the years. Field independence
versus field dependence is probably the most well known style. It refers to a tendency to approach the
environment in an analytical, as opposed to global, fashion. At a perceptual level, field independent
personalities are able to distinguish figures as discrete from their backgrounds compared to field
dependent individuals who experience events in an undifferentiated way. In addition, field dependent
individuals have a greater social orientation relative to field independent personalities. Studies have
identified a number connections between this cognitive style and learning (see Messick, 1978). For
example, field independent individuals are likely to learn more effectively under conditions of
instrinstic motivation (e.g., self-study) and are influenced less by social reinforcement.

Other cognitive styles that have been identified include:

 scanning - differences in the extent and intensity of attention resulting in variations in the
vividness of experience and the span of awareness
 leveling versus sharpening - individual variations in remembering that pertain to the
distinctiveness of memories and the tendency to merge similar events
 reflection versus impulsivity - individual consistencies in the speed and adequacy with which
alternative hypotheses are formed and responses made
 conceptual differentiation - differences in the tendency to categorize perceived similarities
among stimuli in terms of separate concepts or dimensions
Learning styles specifically deal with characteristic styles of learning. Kolb (1984) proposes a theory of
experiential learning that involves four principal stages: concrete experiences (CE), reflective
observation (RO), abstract conceptualization (AC), and active experimentation (AE). The CE/AC and
AE/RO dimensions are polar opposities as far as learning styles are concerned and Kolb postulates
four types of learners (divergers, assimilators, convergers, and accommodators) depending upon their
position on these two dimensions. For example, an accommodater prefers concrete experiences and
active experimentation (AE, CE).

Pask has described a learning style called serialist versus holist. Serialists prefer to learn in a
sequential fashion, whereas holists prefer to learn in a hierarchial manner (i.e., top-down).

Theoretically, cognitive and learning styles could be used to predict what kind of instructional
strategies or methods would be most effective for a given individual and learning task. Research to
date on this problem has not identified many robust relationships (see Cronbach & Snow). However,
the 4MAT framework based on the work of Bernice McCarthy which suggests 4 learning modes
(Analytic, Imaginative, Common Sense, and Dynamic) has been widely applied in education
(seehttp://www.aboutlearning.com). And the learning styles framework developed by Dunn & Dunn
(1999) seems to be useful in terms of creating teacher awareness of individual differences in
learning.

There have been many different approaches to the study of creativity. The relationship between
creativity and intelligence has been always been a central concern of psychology (Guilford, 1950).
Much effort has been devoted towards the measurement of creative potential (e.g. Guilford 1989;
Torrance 1979). There have also been many attempts to increase creative behaviors (e.g., Osborn,
1953; Parnes, 1967). Taylor & Williams (1966) provides a survey of the relationship between creativity
and instruction.

While there are many views about the nature of creativity (see Sternberg, 1988; Finke, Ward & Smith,
1992), there is some agreement that the creative process involves the application of past experiences
or ideas in novel ways. The Creative Problem Solving (CPS) Model, based upon the work of Osborn
and Parnes, suggests that the creative process involves five major steps: fact-finding, problem-
finding, idea- finding, solution-finding, and acceptance-finding (VanGundy, 1987). Certain cognitive
skills seem to underlie creative behavior such as: fluency, flexibility, visualization, imagination,
expressiveness, and openess (resistance to closure). These skills may be personality characteristics,
they may be learned, or they may be situational. There is also general acknowledgement that social
processes play a major role in the recognition of creativity (Amabile, 1983).

Langley et al. (1987) have argued that creativity in the context of scientific discovery is a form of
problem-solving. Specifically, they propose that finding problems and formulating them involves the
same underlying cognitive processes of heuristic search and subgoal generation as any other kind of
problem-solving behavior.

Other work closely related to creativity includes: originality (see Maltzman ), productive thinking
(Wertheimer ), and lateral thinking (DeBono). Creativity plays a central role inmanagement training) .

Grit and Persistence

Grit is the characteristic of indivudals who demonstrate perseverance to accomplish educational goals
in the face of challenges and setbacks. According to Duckworth (2007), Grit entails working
strenuously toward challenges, maintaining effort and interest over years despite failure, adversity,
and plateaus in progress. The gritty individual approaches achievement as a marathon; his or her
advantage is stamina. Whereas disappointment or boredom signals to others that it is time to change
trajectory and cut losses, the gritty individual stays the course.

Related to grit is the concepts of persistence or perseverance. According to Peterson and Seligman
(2004), persistence is the voluntary continuation of a goal-directed action in spite of obstacles,
difficulties, or discouragement. Simply measuring how long someone works at a task does not
adequately capture the essence of perseverance because continuing to perform something that is fun
or rewarding does not require one to endure and overcome setbacks.

According to a 2013 report by the US Department of Education, there are three main elements of grit:

1. Academic mindsets. These are how students frame themselves as learners, their learning
environment, and their relationships to the learning environment. Mindsets include beliefs, attitudes,
dispositions, values, and ways of perceiving oneself.

2. Effortful control. Students are constantly faced with tasks that are important for long-term goals
but that in the short-term may not feel desirable or intrinsically motivating. Successful students
marshal willpower and regulate their attention in the face of distractions.

3. Strategies and tactics. Students are also more likely to persevere when they can draw on specific
strategies and tactics to deal with challenges and setbacks. They need actionable skills for taking
responsibility and initiative, and for being productive under conditions of uncertainty—for example,
defining tasks, planning, monitoring, and dealing with specific obstacles.

Imagery
Imagery is a cognitive phenomena of long-standing, first studied by Wilhelm Wundt at the turn of the
century. From a theoretical perspective, imagery is a critical issue in terms of memory structures and
processes (e.g., Shepard & Cooper, 1982). Theories that postulate a propositional basis for memory
(e.g., ACT ) have difficulty accounting for imagery. A number of imagery researchers have developed
their own theories of memory that focus on the visual components of imagery. Paivio has proposed a
dual coding theory that suggests that verbal and nonverbal information is processed separately.
Kosslyn (1980) has proposed a two-stage model of imagery that involves a surface representation
generated in working memory from a deep representation in long-term memory. Piaget & Inhelder
(1971) discuss the role of imagery in cognitive development.

From a practical point of view, imagery has been shown to facilitate recall in many studies. It also
appears to play a major role in problem-solving and creativity. For example, there are many
anecdotes of imagery in scientific discovery (Miller, 1984). Imagery also appears to help sensory-
motor skills by allowing mental rehearsal of a task or activity. However, it is clear from theories of
intelligence (e.g., Guilford ) that people differ in their ability to create visual images.

Learning Strategies
Learning strategies refer to methods that students use to learn. This ranges from techniques for
improved memory to better studying or test-taking strategies. For example, the method of loci is a
classic memory improvement technique; it involves making associations between facts to be
remembered and particular locations. In order to remember something, you simply visualize places
and the associated facts.

Some learning strategies involve changes to the design of instruction. For example, the use of
questions before, during or after instruction has been shown to increase the degree of learning
(see Ausubel). Methods that attempt to increase the degree of learning that occurs have been called
"mathemagenic" (Ropthkopf, 1970).

A typical study skill program is SQ3R which suggests 5 steps: (1) survey the material to be learned,
(2) develop questions about the material, (3) read the material, (4) recall the key ideas, and (5) review
the material.

Research on metacognition may be relevant to the study of learning strategies in so far as they are
both concerned with control processes. A number of learning theories emphasize the importance of
learning strategies including: double loop learning ( Argyris ), conversation theory (Pask), and lateral
thinking ( DeBono ). Weinstein (1991) discusses learning strategies in the context of social interaction,
an important aspect of Situated Learning Theory.

Mastery
A fundamental change in thinking about the nature of instruction was initiated in 1963 when John B.
Carroll argued for the idea of mastery learning. Mastery learning suggests that the focus of instruction
should be the time required for different students to learn the same material. This contrasts with the
classic model (based upontheories of intelligence ) in which all students are given the same amount
of time to learn and the focus is on differences in ability. Indeed, Carroll (1989) argues that aptitute is
primarily a measure of time required to learn.

The idea of mastery learning amounts to a radical shift in responsibility for teachers; the blame for a
student's failure rests with the instruction not a lack of ability on the part of the student. In a mastery
learning environment, the challenge becomes providing enough time and employing instructional
strategies so that all students can achieve the same level of learning (Levine, 1985; Bloom, 1981).

The key elements in matery learning are: (1) clearly specifying what is to be learned and how it will be
evaluated, (2) allowing students to learn at their own pace, (3) assessing student progress and
providing appropriate feedback or remediation, and (4) testing that final learning critierion has been
achieved.
Mastery learning has been widely applied in schools and training settings, and research shows that it
can improve instructional effectiveness (e.g., Block, Efthim & Burns, 1989; Slavin, 1987). On the other
hand, there are some theoretical and practical weaknesses including the fact that people do differ in
ability and tend to reach different levels of achievement (see Cox & Dunn, 1979). Furthermore,
mastery learning programs tend to require considerable amounts of time and effort to implement
which most teachers and schools are not prepared to expend.

The mastery learning model is closely aligned with the use of instructional objectives and the
systematic design of instructional programs (see Gagne, Merrill). TheCriterion Referenced Instruction
(CRI) model of Mager is an attempt to implement the mastery learning model. In addition, the
theoretical framework of Skinner with its emphasis on individualized learning and the importance of
feedback (i .e., reinforcement) is also relevant to mastery learning.

Memory
Memory is one of the most important concepts in learning; if things are not remembered, no learning
can take place. Futhermore, memory has served as a battleground for opposing theories and
paradigms of learning (e.g., Adams, 1967; Ashcraft, 1989; Bartlett, 1932; Klatzky, 1980; Loftus &
Loftus, 1976; Tulving & Donaldson, 1972). Some of the major issues include recall versus recognition,
the nature of forgetting (i.e., interference versus decay), the structure of memory, and intentional
versus incidental learning.

According to the early behaviorist theories (e.g., Thorndike, Guthrie, Hull), remembering was a
function of S-R pairings which acquired strength due to contiguity or reinforcement. Stimulus sampling
theory explained many memory phenomenon on the basis of statistical outcomes. On the other hand,
cognitive theories (e.g., Tolman) insisted that meaning (i.e., semantic factors) played an important role
in remembering. In particular, Miller suggested that information was organized into "chunks" according
to some commonality. The idea that memory is always an active reconstruction of existing knowledge
was championed by Bruner and is found in the theories of Ausubel and Schank.

Some theories of memory have concerned themselves with the nature of the
processing. Paivio suggests a dual coding scheme for verbal and visual information. Craik &
Lockhart proposed that information can be processed to different levels of understanding. Rumelhart
& Norman describe three modes of memory (accretion, structuring and tuning) to account for different
kinds of learning.

Other theories have focused on the representation of information in memory. ACT assumes three
types of structures: declarative, procedural, and working memory.Merrill proposes two forms:
associative and algorithmic. On the other hand, Soar postulates that all information is stored in
procedural form. Kintsch (1974) suggests that memory is propositional in nature and it is the
relationship among propositions that gives rise to meaning.

Many theories of instruction do not make assumptions about the nature of memory but do specify how
information should be organized for optimal learning. For example,Pask outlines the development of
entailment structures and Reigeluth discusses elaboration networks.

Individual differences in memory abilities are discussed by Eysenck (1977) and Guilford and represent
an important aspect of intelligence.

Mental Models
Mental models are representations of reality that people use to understand specific phenomena.
Norman (in Gentner & Stevens, 1983) describes them as follows: "In interacting with the environment,
with others, and with the artifacts of technology, people form internal, mental models of themselves
and of the things with which they are interacting. These models provide predictive and explanatory
power for understanding the interaction."

Mental models are consistent with theories that postulate internal representations in thinking
processes (e.g., Tolman , GOMS , GPS ). Johnson-Laird (1983) proposes mental models as the basic
structure of cognition: "It is now plausible to suppose that mental models play a central and unifying
role in representing objects, states of affairs, sequences of events, the way the world is, and the
social and psychological actions of daily life." (p397)

Holland et al. (1986) suggest that mental models are the basis for all reasoning processes: "Models
are best understood as assemblages of synchronic and diachronic rules organized into default
hierarchies and clustered into categories. The rules comprising the model act in accord with the
principle of limited parallelism, both competing and supporting one another." (p343) Schumacher &
Czerwinski (1992) describe the role of mental models in acquiring expertise in a task domain.

Some of the characteristics of mental models are:

 They are incomplete and constantly evolving

 They are usually not accurate representations of a phenomenon; they typically contain errors
and contradictions
 They are parsimonious and provide simplified explanations of complex phenomena
 They often contain measures of uncertainty about their validity that allow them to used even if
incorrect
 They can be represented by sets of condition-action rules.

The study of mental models has involved the detailed analysis of small knowledge domains (e.g.,
motion, ocean navigation, electricity, calculators) and the development of computer representations
(see Gentner & Stevens, 1983). For example, DeKleer & Brown (1981) describe how the mental
model of a doorbell is formed and how the model is useful in solving problems for mechanical devices.
Kieras & Bovair (1984) discuss the role of mental models in understanding electronics. Mental models
have been applied extensively in the domain of troubleshooting (e.g., White & Frederiksen, 1985).

One interesting application of mental models to psychology is the Personal Construct Theory of
George Kelley (1955). While the primary thrust of Kelly's work was therapy rather than education, it
has seen much broader applications (see http://repgrid.com/pcp/) [Thanks to Richard Breen for
bringing this to my attention]

For an exploration of the relationship between mental models, systems theory, and cyberspace
culture, see "A house of horizions and perspectives" by Heiner Benking and James Rose.

Metacognition
Metacognition is the process of thinking about thinking. Flavell (1976) describes it as follows:
"Metacognition refers to one's knowledge concerning one's own cognitive processes or anything
related to them, e.g., the learning-relevant properties of information or data. For example, I am
engaging in metacognition if I notice that I am having more trouble learning A than B; if it strikes me
that I should double check C before accepting it as fact." (p 232).
Flavell argued that metacognition explains why children of different ages deal with learning tasks in
different ways, i.e., they have developed new strategies for thinking. Research studies (see Duell,
1986) seem to confirm this conclusion; as children get older they demonstrate more awareness of
their thinking processes.

Metacognition has to do with the active monitoring and regulation of cognitive processes. It represents
the "executive control" system that many cognitive theorists have included in their theories
(e.g., Miller, Newell & Simon, Schoenfeld). Metacognitive processes are central to planning, problem-
solving, evaluation and many aspects oflanguage learning.

Metacognition is relevant to work on cognitive styles and learning strategies in so far as the individual
has some awareness of their thinking or learning processes. The work of Piaget is also relevant to
research on metacognition since it deals with the development of cognition in children.

Motivation
Motivation is a piviotal concept in most theories of learning. It is closely related to attention, anxiety,
and grit. For example, a person needs to be motivated enough to pay attention while learning; anxiety
can decrease our motivation to learn. Receiving a reward or feedback for an action usually increases
the likelihood that the action will be repreated. Weiner (1990) points out that behavioral theories
tended to focus on extrinsic motivation (i.e., rewards) while cognitive theories deal with intrinsic
motivation (i.e., goals) .

In most forms of behaviorial theory, motivation was strictly a function of primary drives such as
hunger, sex, sleep, or comfort. According to Hull's drive reduction theory, learning reduces drives and
therefore motivation is essential to learning. The degree of the learning achieved can be manipulated
by the strength of the drive and its underlying motivation. In Tolman's theory of purposive
behaviorism, primary drives create internal states (i.e., wants or needs) that serve as secondary
drives and represent instrinsic motivation.

In cognitive theory, motivation serves to create intentions and goal-seeking acts (see Ames & Ames<,
1989). One well-developed area of research highly relevant to learning is achievement motivation
(e.g., Atkinson & Raynor, 1974; Weiner). Motivation to achieve is a function of the individual's desire
for success, the expectancy of success, and the incentives provided. Studies show that in general
people prefer tasks of intermediate difficulty. In addition, students with a high need to achieve, obtain
better grades in courses which they perceive as highly relevant to their career goals. On the other
hand, according to Rogers, all individuals have a drive to self-actualize and this motivates learning.

Malone (1981) presented a theoretical framework for instrinsic motivation in the context of designing
computer games for instruction. Malone argues that instrinsic motivation is created by three qualities:
challenge, fantasy, and curosity. Challenge depends upon activities that involve uncertain outcomes
due to variable levels, hidden information or randomness. Fantasy should depend upon skills required
for the instruction. Curiosity can be aroused when learners believe their knowledge structures are
incomplete, inconsistent, or unparsimonious. According to Malone, instrinsically motivating activities
provide learners with a broad range of challenge, concrete feedback, and clear-cut criteria for
performance.

Keller (1983) presents an instructional design model for motivation that is based upon a number of
other theories. His model suggests a design strategy that encompasses four components of
motivation: arousing interest, creating relevance, developing an expectancy of success, and
producing satisfaction through intrinsic/extrinsic rewards.
Productions
Production rules are a primary component of many contemporary computer models of cognition
(e.g., ACT, GPS, Soar). A production has the form: If THEN When the current state of memory
matches the side of the rule, the specified is carried out. The action could be any form of mental
processing. Productions can also generate new productions giving rise to new cognitive rules (c.f.,
creativity).

Flow of control in a production system goes through the set of productions sequentially until a
condition is matched. After executing the action, the system continues with the next production or
returns to the beginning of the set. This sequence is repeated until a terminal goal condition is
satisfied. Thus, production systems require no executive level of control; all control is determined by
the productions. Clearly, order of productions in the set is important since it determines which actions
are satisfied first.

It is possible to add constraints to productions that alter the strict sequential order and hence
introduce some form of higher level control. For example, preference can be given to conditions
according to recency or frequency of occurence. Productions can be limited to firing only once for a
given condition (rule of refractoriness). Or, goal symbols can be added to the conditions that must be
satisfied in order for the production to be satisfied.

Productions map very closely onto the notion of rules found in many cognitive theories and hence are
a natural representation to use when building computer models of such theories. They also resemble
the S-R associations of behavioral theories, except that production rules do not normally encompass
any notion of strength; they are all or none. However, some theorists have allowed individual
production rules to have probabilities of executing based upon frequency of use or characteristics of
the conditions.

Feedback/Reinforcement
Feedback and reinforcement are two of the most pivotal concepts in learning. Feedback involves
providing learners with information about their responses whereas reinforcement affects the tendency
to make a specific response again. Feedback can be positive, negative or neutral; reinforcement is
either positive (increases the response) or negative (decreases the response). Feedback is almost
always considered external while reinforcement can be external or instrinsic (i.e., generated by the
individual).

Information processing theories tend to emphasize the importance of feedback to learning since
knowledge of results is necessary to correct mistakes and develop new plans. On the other hand,
behavioral theories such as Hull, Guthrie, Thorndike, and Skinner focus on the role of reinforcement
in motivating the individual to behave in certain ways. One of the critical variables in both cases is the
length of time between the response and the feedback or reinforcement. In general, the more
immediate the feedback or reinforcement, the more learning is facilitated.

The nature of the feedback or reinforcement provided was the basis for many early instructional
principles, especially in the context of programmed instruction (e.g., Deterline, 1962; Markle, 1964).
For example, the use of "prompting" (i.e., providing hints) was recommended in order to "shape" (i.e.,
selectively reinforce) the correct responses. Other principles concerned the choice of an appropriate
"step size" (i.e., how much information to present at once) and how often feedback or reinforcement
should be provided.
Schema
Bartlett (1932, 1958) is credited with first proposing the concept of schema (plural: schemata). He
arrived at the concept from studies of memory he conducted in which subjects recalled details of
stories that were not actually there. He suggested that memory takes the form of schema which
provide a mental framework for understanding and remembering information.

Mandler (1984) and Rumelhart (1980) have further developed the schema concept. Schema have
received significant empirical support from studies in psycholinguistics. For example, the experiments
of Bransford & Franks (1971) involved showing people pictures and asking them questions about
what the story depicted; people would remember different details depending upon the nature of the
picture. Schema are also considered to be important components of cultural differences in cognition
(e.g., Quinn & Holland, 1987). Research on novice versus expert performance (e.g., Chi et al., 1988)
suggests that the nature of expertise is largely due to the possession of schemas that guide
perception and problem-solving.

Schema-like constructs also form the basis of many theories of cognition

including: Schank (scripts), AC (productions), Soar (episodic memory), Piaget, and Rumelhart &
Norman (modes) as well as some instructional theories such as Bruner, Reigeluth, Spiro and Sweller .

Sequencing of Instruction
One of the most important issues in the application of learning theory is sequencing of instruction. The
order and organization of learning activities affects the way information is processed and retained
(Glynn & DiVesta, 1977; Lorch & Lorch, 1985; Van Patten, Chao, & Reigeluth, 1986)

A number of theories (e.g., Bruner, Reigeluth, Scandura) suggest a simple-to-complex sequence.

Landa's algo-heuristic theory prescribes a cumulative strategy. According to Gagne's Conditions of
Learning theory, sequence is dictated by pre-requisite skills and the level of cognitive processing
involved. Criterion Referenced Instruction (Mager) allows the learner the freedom to choose their own
learning sequence based upon mastery of pre-requisite lessons. Component Display Theory
(Merrill) also proposes that the learner select their own learning sequence based upon the
instructional components available.

Theories that emphasize the goal-directed nature of behavior such as Tolman or Newell &
Simon would specify that the sequence of instruction be based upon the goals/subgoals to be
achieved. Gestalt theories, which emphasize understanding the structure of a subject domain, would
prescribe learning activities that result in a broad rather than detailed knowledge for a particular
domain.

On the other hand, behavioral (S-R) theories of learning such as connectionism, drive
reduction or operant conditioning, would tend to support a linear sequence of instruction. From the
behavioral perspective, learning amounts to S-R pairings and mastery of a complex subject matter or
task involves the development of a chain or repetoire of such connections. Indeed, a fundamental
principle of Skinnerian programmed learning was the "shaping" of such S-R chains.

Theories of adult learning such as adragogy orminimalism emphasize the importance of adapting
instruction to the experience or interests of learners. According to these theories , there is no optimal
sequence of instruction apart from the learner. A similar position based upon abilities would be
espoused by theories of individual differences (e.g., Guilford, Cronbach & Snow, Sternberg) and
supported by research on cognitive styles.
axonomies
Following the 1948 Convention of the American Psychological Association, Benjamin Bloom took a
lead in formulating a classification of "the goals of the educational process". Bloom headed a group of
educational psychologists who developed a classification of levels of intellectual behavior important in
learning. This became a taxonomy including three overlapping domains; the cognitive, psychomotor,
and affective (see Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Bloom & Krathwhol, 1956, Gronlund, 1970).

Cognitive learning consisted of 6 levels: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis,

and evaluation. For each level, specific learning behaviors were defined as well as appropriate
descriptive verbs that could be used for writing instructional objectives. For example:

1. Knowledge: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, recognize,
reproduce state.
2. Comprehension: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate,
recognize, report, restate, review, select, translate,
3. Application: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate,
practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use, write.
4. Analysis: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate,
discriminate, distinguish, examine, experiment, question, test.
5. Synthesis: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design, develop,
formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare, propose, set up, write.
6. Evaluation: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend estimate, judge,
predict, rate, core, select, support, value, evaluate.

The Affective domain (e.g., Krathwhol, Bloom & Masia, 1964) consisted of behaviors corresponding
to: attitudes of awareness, interest, attention, concern, and responsibility, ability to listen and respond
in interactions with others, and ability to demonstrate those attitudinal characteristics or values which
are appropriate to the test situation and the field of study. This domain relates to emotions, attitudes,
appreciations, and values, such as enjoying, conserving, respecting, and supporting.

Although not part of the original work by Bloom, others went on to complete the definition of
psychomotor taxonomies. For example, Harrow (1972) proposed these six levels: Reflex (objectives
not usually written at this "low" level), Fundamental movements - applicable mostly to young children
(crawl, run, jump, reach, change direction), Perceptual abilities (catch, write, balance, distinguish,
manipulate), Physical abilities (stop, increase, move quickly, change, react), Skilled movements (play,
hit, swim, dive, use), and Non-discursive communication (express, create, mime, design, interpret).

The significance of the work of Bloom and others on taxonomies was that it was the first attempt to
classify learning behaviors and provide concrete measures for identifying different levels of learning.
The development of taxonomies is closed related to the use of instructional objectives and the
systematic design of instructional programs (see Gagne, Merrill or Mager ).