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Chapter 1 Functions
1.1 Functions
(a) state the domain and range of a function, and find composite functions;
The domain of a function is all the possible input values, and the range is all possible
output values.
Domain: set of all possible input values (usually x)
Range: set of all possible output values (usually y)
The domain is all the x-values, and the range is all the y-values
Domain: {3, 5, 1, 2}
Range:{–2, 4, -1, 6}
This is a function. There is only one arrow coming from each x; there is only one y for
each x
This is not a function. 5 is in the domain, but it has no range element that corresponds to
it
The function composition of two functions takes the output of one function as the input
of a second one
(b) determine whether a function is one-to-one, and find the inverse of a one-to-one
function;
A one-to-one function is a function in which every element in the range of the function
corresponds with one and only one element in the domain.
The Horizontal Line Test: If you can draw a horizontal line so that it hits the graph in
more than one spot, then it is NOT one-to-one.
f(x)=x3
f(x)=x3 is one-to-one function and has inverse function. (The horizontal line cuts the
graph of function f at 1 point, therefore f is a one-to-one function)
f(x)=x2
f(x)=x2 is NOT one-to-one function and does NOT has an inverse function. (The
horizontal line cuts the graph of function f at 2 points, therefore f is NOT a one-to-one
function)
If we restricted x greater than or equal to 0. The horizontal line cuts the graph of function
f once and f(x)=x2 is one-to-one function and has an inverse function.
f(x)=3x−4
Draw the graph of f(x)=3x-4
The horizontal line cuts the graph of function f once, therefore f is a one-to-one
function and it has has inverse function.
f(y)=x
3y−4=x
y=x+43
f−1(x)=x+43
The graph of an inverse relation is the reflection of the original graph over the identity
line, y = x.
Example 1
f(x)={2x−1,x<1x2−3,x≤1
Example 2
f(x)=anxn+an−1xn−1+a1x+a0
f(x)=4x+1
f(x)=2x3−4x2+5x+11
f(x)=x7−6x4+3x2
f(x)=P(x)Q(x)
where P and Q are polynomial functions in x.
y=2x+5x−1
f(x) is not defined at x=1.
We can't have x = 1, and therefore f(x) has a vertical asymptote (a line that a curve
approaches as it heads towards infinity) at
x=1
Horizontal asymptote will be the result of dividing the leading coefficients.
y=21=2
Graph of Rational Functions of f(x).
f(x)=(x−1)(x3+4x2+2x+3)−4
x2+3x+2x2−16≥0
x2+3x+2x2−16=(x+2)(x+1)(x−4)(x+4)
(x+2)(x+1)=0
x=−2,x=−1
The fraction will be undefined wherever the denominator is zero
(x−4)(x+4)=0
x=4,x=−4
Consequently, the set
(−∞,−4),[−2,−1],(4,+∞)
Solution in "inequality" notation
x<−4,−2≤x≤−1,x>4
x2+3x+2x2−16≥0
x2+3x+2x2−16=(x+2)(x+1)(x−4)(x+4)
(x+2)(x+1)=0
x=−2,x=−1
The fraction will be undefined wherever the denominator is zero
(x−4)(x+4)=0
x=4,x=−4
Consequently, the set
(−∞,−4),[−2,−1],(4,+∞)
Solution in "inequality" notation
x<−4,−2≤x≤−1,x>4
(f) solve equations and inequalities involving modulus signs in simple cases;
A1ax+b+A1(ax+b)2+...+Am(ax+b)m
11x+21(2x−3)(x+6)=A2x−3+Bx+6
Distribute A and B
11x+21=(x+6)A+(2x−3)B
If x=-6
11(−6)+21=[2(−6)−3]B
B=3
If x=0,
21=6A−3B
A=5
The partial fraction
11x+21(2x−3)(x+6)=52x−3+3x+6
For a > 1:
For a > 1:
The logarithmic function is the function y = logax, where a is any number such that a > 0,
a ≠ 1, and x > 0.
y = logax is equivalent to x = ay
The inverse of an exponential function is a logarithmic function.
Since y = log2 x is a one-to-one function, we know that its inverse will also be a function.
When we graph the inverse of the logarithmic function, we notice that we obtain the
exponential function, y=2x
1. Indices
an,a≠0
a0=1,a≠0
a−n=1/an
2. Law of Indices
am×an=am+n
am÷ an=am−n
(am)n=am×n
am×bm=(a×b)m
am÷bm=(ab)m
3. Logarithms
Ifa=bc,then logba=c
loga1=0
logaa=1
alogab=1
4. Law of Logarithms
logaxy= logax+logay
loga(xy)= logax−logay
logaxn= nlogax
5 Change of base of Logarithms
logab=1logba
logab=lognblogna
(j) solveequations and inequalities involving exponential or logarithmic expressions;
x2+3x+2x2−16≥0
x2+3x+2x2−16=(x+2)(x+1)(x−4)(x+4)
(x+2)(x+1)=0
x=−2,x=−1
The fraction will be undefined wherever the denominator is zero
(x−4)(x+4)=0
x=4,x=−4
Consequently, the set
(−∞,−4),[−2,−1],(4,+∞)
Solution in "inequality" notation
x<−4,−2≤x≤−1,x>4
(k) relate the periodicity and symmetries of the sine, cosine and tangent functions to their
graphs, and identify the inverse sine, inverse cosine and inverse tangent functions and
their graphs;
(l) use basic trigonometric identities and the formulae for sin (A ± B), cos (A ± B) and tan
(A ± B), including sin 2A, cos2A and tan 2A;
(m) express a sin θ + b cos θ in the forms r sin (θ ± α) and r cos (θ ± α);
(n) find the solutions, within specified intervals, of trigonometric equations and
inequalities.
Trigonometric Identities
sin(A+B)=sinAcosB+cosAsinB
sin(A−B)=sinAcosB−cosAsinB
cos(A+B)=cosAcosB−sinAsinB
cos(A−B)=cosAcosB+sinAsinB
tan(A+B)=tanA+tanB1−tanAtanB
tan(A−B)=tanA−tanB1+tanAtanB
sin(2A)=2sinAcosA
cos(2A)=cos 2(A)−sin2(A)
=2cos2(A)−1
=1−2sin2(A)
tan2A=2tanA1−tan2A
Express a sin θ ± b cos θ in the form R sin(θ ± α), where a, b, R and α are positive
constants.
Let
asinθ+bcosθ≡Rsin(θ+α)
Expand R sin(θ ± α) as follow
Rsin(θ+α)≡R(sinθcosα+cosθsinα)
Rsin(θ+α)≡Rsinθcosα +Rcosθsinα
Apply Trigonometric Identities as below
sin(A+B)=sinAcosB+cosAsinB
So
asinθ+bcosθ≡ Rcosαsinθ+Rsinαcosθ
Equating the coefficients of sin θ and cos θ in this identity, we have:
For sin θ: a = R cos α ----(1)
For cos θ: b = R sin α ----(2)
ba=RsinαRcosα
=tanα
So
α=tan−1ba
(α is a positive acute angle and a and b are positive)
a2+b2=R2cos2α+R2sin2α
=R2(cos2α+sin2α)
=R2
R=a2+b2−−−−−−√
Then we have expressed a sin θ + b cos θ in the form required
asinθ+bcosθ≡Rsin(θ+α)
Example
Express 4 sin θ +3 cos θ in the form R sin(θ + α)
R=42+32−−−−−−√=25−−√=5
α=tan−1 34=36.87∘
So
4sinθ+3cosα=5sin(θ+36.87∘)
Express a sin θ ± b cos θ in the form R cos(θ ± α), where a, b, R and α are positive
constants.
asinθ+bcosθ≡Rcos(θ−α)
Expanding R cos (θ − α), Trigonometric Identities
Rcos(θ−α)=Rcosθcosα+Rsinθsinα
asinθ+bcosθ≡Rcosαcosθ+Rsinαsinθ
2.1 Sequences
Convergent Sequence
Example
The sequence 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001, . . . has limit 2, so the sequence converges to 2.
The sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . has a limit of infinity (∞). This is not a real number, so
the sequence does not converge. It is a divergent sequence.
1,12, 13,14,15,16....,1n
Limit=0
1,12, 23,34,45,56....,nn+1
Limit=1
2.2 Series
(c) use the formulae for the nth term and for the sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic
series and of a geometric series;
An arithmetic progression or arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers such that the
difference between the consecutive terms is constant.
an=a1+(n−1)d
Sn=n2[2a+(n−1)d]
or
Sn=n2(a1+a2)
an=arn−1
The sum of the first n terms of a geometric series is:
a+ar+ar2+ar3+.....+arn−1=∑k=0n−1ark =a1−rn1−r
Derive the sum of the first n terms of a geometric series as follows:
Let
s=a+ar+ar2+ar3+.....+arn−1
rs=ar+ar2+ar3+.....+arn
s−rs=a−arn
s(1−r)=a(1−rn)
So
s=a1−rn1−r
As n approaches infinity, the absolute value of r must be less than one for the series to
converge.
a+ar+ar2+ar3+ar4.....=∑k=0∞ark =a1−r
When a=1
1+r+r2+r3+....=11−r
Let
s=1+r+r2+r3+.....
rs=r+r2+r3+.....
s−rs=1
s(1−r)=1
So
s=11−r
Proof of convergence
1+r+r2+r3+....=limn→∞(1+r+r2+r 3+....+rn)
(d) identify the condition for the convergence of a geometric series, and use the formula
for the sum of a convergent geometric series;
(e) use the method of differences to find the nth partial sum of a series, and deduce the
sum of the series in the case when it is convergent;
(x+y)0=1
(x+y)2=x2+2xy+y2
(x+y)3=x3+3x3y+3xy 2+y 3
(x+y)4=x4+4x3y+6x 2y2+4xy 3+y 4
(1+x)n=(n0)x0+(n1)x1+(n2)x2+...+(nn−1)xn−1+(nn)xn
(1+x)n=∑k=0n(nk)xk
According to the ratio test for series convergence a series converges when:
if limk→∞(ak+1ak )<1, series converges
if limk→∞(ak+1ak )>1, series diverges
iflimk→∞(ak+1ak )=1, result is indeterminate
(g) expand (1+x)n , where n∈Q, and identify the condition | x | < 1 for the validity of this
expansion;
Matrices
3.1 Matrices
Diagonal matrix is a matrix in which the entries outside the main diagonal are all zero.
A=⎡⎣ a11000 a22 0 00 a33⎤⎦
A−1=⎡⎣⎢⎢⎢⎢⎢⎢⎢1a11000 1a22 0 00 1a33⎤⎦⎥⎥⎥⎥⎥⎥⎥
Example
A=⎡⎣ 5000 3 0 00 1⎤⎦
A−1=⎡⎣⎢⎢⎢⎢15000 13 0 001⎤⎦⎥⎥⎥⎥
A matrix is a triangular matrix if all the elements either above or below the diagonal are
zero. A matrix that is both upper and lower triangular is a diagonal matrix.
B−1=∣∣∣∣1/2003/2−10−1161∣∣∣∣
Properties of Matrices
AB≠BA
A+B=B+A
A(B+C)=AB+AC
(A+B)C=AC+BC
A(BC)=(AB)C
AI=IA=A
A0=I
Scalar Multiplication
λ(AB)=(λA)B
(AB)λ=A(Bλ)
Transpose
(AB)T=BTAT
Properties of Inverse Matrix
AA−1=A−1A=I
(A−1)−1=A
(AT)−1=(A−1) T
(An)−1=(A−1)n
(cA)−1=c−1A−1=1cA−1
(e) find the inverse of a non-singular matrix using elementary row operations;
A=⎡⎣adgbeh cfi⎤⎦
Properties of Determinant
(h) reduce an augmented matrix to row-echelon form, and determine whether a system of
linear equations has a unique solution, infinitely many solutions or no solution;
(i) apply the Gaussian elimination to solve a system of linear equations;
Perform elementary row operations to put the augmented matrix into the upper
triangular form
Switching the first and second rows (without switching the elements in the right-
hand column vector) gives
Finally, second row times -7/3 and minus third row gives (augmented matrix has
been reduced to row-echelon form)
(j) find the unique solution of a system of linear equations using the inverse of a matrix.
Complex Numbers
4 Complex Numbers
The real numbers include all integer, rational number (number that can be expressed as
the quotient or fraction p/q of two integers, with the denominato r q not equal to zero) and
irrational numbers (numbers cannot be represented as a simple fraction)
Intergers
...−4,−3,−2−1,0,1,2,3,4....
Rational Number
12,−12,1537,....
Irrational Number
2√,3√3,π,e,log23,....
Imaginary number is a number than can be written as a real number multiplied by the
imaginary unit i
i=−1−−−√
i2=−1
A complex number is a number that can be put in the form
a+bi
wherea and b are real numbers and i is the square root of -1, the imaginary unit
i=−1−−−√
i2=−1
(c) find the modulus and argument of a complex number in cartesian form and express
the complex number in polar form;
Argand Diagram
Example:
Z1=3+2i
Z2=−4+i
Conjugate of
Z∗1=3−2i
Z∗2=−4−i
Z1+Z2=−1+3i
(e) find the complex roots of a polynomial equation with real coefficients;
(f) perform elementary operations on two complex numbers expressed in cartesian form;
(g) perform multiplication and division of two complex numbers expressed in polar form;
(h) usede Moivre’s theorem to find the powers and roots of a complex number
De Moivre's
De Moivre's formula states that for any real number x and any integer n,
(cosx+isinx)n=cos(nx)+isin(nx)
eix=cosx+isinx
(eix)n=einx
ei(nx)=cos(nx)+isin(nx)
Example 2: Use De Moivre’s theorem to find (√3 + i ) 7 . Write the answer in exact
rectangular form.
r=(3√)2+12−−−−−−−−−√=4√=2
sinθ=12, θ=30∘
cosθ=3√2, θ=30∘
(3√+i)7=27[cos(7.30∘)+isin(7.30∘ )]
=128(cos210∘+isin210∘)
=128(−3√2−12i)
=643√−64i
Chapter 5 Analytic Geometry
5 Analytic Geometry
A conic section is the intersection of a plane and a double right circular cone. By changing the
angle and location of the intersection, we can produce different types of conics, such as circles,
ellipses, hyperbolas andparabolas.
A parabola is the set of all points P in the plane that are equidistant from a fixed point F
(focus) and a fixed line d(directrix).
The vertex of the parabola is at equal distance between focus and the directrix.
(e) find the equations of parabolas, ellipses and hyperbolas satisfying prescribed
conditions (excluding eccentricity);
Unit Vectors
(c)
(d)
Position Vectors
A vector that starts from the origin (O) is called a position vector.
The scalar product, or dot product is an algebraic operation that takes two equal-length
sequences of numbers (usually coordinate vectors) and returns a single number.
u.v=v.u
u(v+w)=uv+uw
u.u=||u||^{2}
c(u.v)=cu.v=u.cv
a.b=|a||b|cosθ
|a| means the magnitude (length) of vector a. and
a.b=axbx+ayby
a.b=axbx+ayby
a.b=|a||b|cosθ
a.b=(2)(1)+(3)(−2)+(4)(3)=8
|a|=22+32+42−−−−−−−−−−√=29−−√
|a|=12+(−2)2+32−−−−−−−−−−−−√=14−−√
8=29−−√14−−√cosθ
cosθ=0.397
θ=66.6∘
(d) find the vector product of two vectors, and determine the area a parallelogram and of
a triangle;
The Vector Product, or Cross Product of two vectors is another vector that is at right
angles to both.
|a∗b|=|a||b|sinθ n
|a| is the magnitude (length) of vector a
|b| is the magnitude (length) of vector b
θ is the angle between a and b
n is the unit vector at right angles to both a and b
Vector Product, C,
a⃗ ∗b⃗ =∣∣∣∣i25j36k47∣∣∣∣
a⃗ ∗b⃗ =∣∣∣3647∣∣∣i−∣∣∣2547∣∣∣j+∣∣∣2536∣∣∣k
=−3i+6j−3k
u⃗ =⟨−3,6,−3⟩
Vector product, c = a x b = (-3, 6, -3)
6.2 Vector geometry
(e) find and use the vector and cartesian equations of lines;
Example: Compute the vector equation of a straight line through point A and B with position
vector:
a=⎛⎝2−13⎞⎠,b=⎛⎝13−2⎞⎠,r=⎛⎝xyz⎞⎠
b−a=⎛⎝13−2⎞⎠−⎛⎝2−13⎞⎠=⎛⎝−14−5⎞⎠
r=a+λt
r=⎛⎝2−13⎞⎠+λ⎛⎝−14−5⎞⎠
Cartesian Equations of Lines
a=⎛⎝axayaz⎞⎠,b=⎛⎝⎜bxbybz⎞⎠⎟,r=⎛⎝xyz⎞⎠
Cartesian Equation will be
x−axbx−ax=y−ayby−ay=z−azbz−az
Example: Compute the cartesian equation of a straight line through point A and B with position
vector:
a=⎛⎝1−32⎞⎠,b=⎛⎝3−15⎞⎠,r=⎛⎝xyz⎞⎠
x−13−1=y−(−3)−1−(−3)=z−25−2
x−12=y+32=z−23
(f) find and use the vector and cartesian equations of planes;
(g) calculate the angle between two lines, between a line and a plane, and between two
planes;
Example 1: Find the acute angle between the lines y = 3x - 1 and y = -2x + 3.
tanθ=∣∣∣m1−m21+m1m2∣∣∣
tanθ=∣∣∣3−(−2)1+(3)(−2)∣∣∣
tanθ=|−1|=1
θ=tan−1(1)=45∘
Example 2: Find the acute angle between the lines 6x - y + 8 = 0 and -3x -11y +10 = 0
Rearrange the equation
y=6x+8
y=−311x−1011
m1=6, m2=-3/11
tanθ=∣∣∣m1−m21+m1m2∣∣∣
tanθ=∣∣∣∣6−(−311)1+(6)(−311)∣∣∣∣
tanθ=∣∣∣−697∣∣∣
θ=tan−1697=84.2∘
(h) find the point of intersection of two lines, and of a line and a plane;
5 0 0Google
- See more at: http://coolmathsolutions.blogspot.com/2013/03/find-point-of-intersection-
between-two.html#sthash.hyvNVGN1.dpuf
Find the vector equation of the line in which the 2 planes 2x - 5y + 3z = 12 and 3x + 4y - 3z
= 6 meet.
The normal vector of first plane is <2, -5, 3> and normal vector of second plane it is <3, 4, -
3>
To determine whether these two planes parallel
n1→∗n2→=∣∣∣∣i23j−54k3−3∣∣∣∣
n1→∗n2→=∣∣∣−543−3∣∣∣i−∣∣∣233−3∣∣∣j+∣∣∣23−54∣∣∣k
=3i+15j+23k
Vector product is <3, 15, 23>
Find some point which lies on both the planes because then it must lie on their line of
intersection. Any point which lies on both planes will do. Could be plane-xy, yz, xz.
If x=0,
−5y+3z=12
4y−3z=6
y=−18,z=−26
Point with position vector (0, -18, -26) lies on the line of intersection.
If y=0
2x+3z=12
3x−3z=6
x=3.6,z=1.6
Point with position vector (0, 3.6, 1.6) lies on the line of intersection.
7.1 Limits
(a) determine the existence and values of the left-hand limit, right-hand limit and limit of
a function;
A limit is the value that a function or sequence "approaches" as the input or index approaches
some value.
Example: Find
limx→2−(x 3−1)
limx→2−(x 3−1)=limx→2−(23−1)=7
As x approaches 2 from the left, x 3pproaches 8 and x 3-1 approaches 7.
Find
limx→2+(x 3−1)
limx→2+(x 3−1)=limx→2+(23−1)=7
Properties of limits
limx→ak=k
The limit of a function multiplied by a constant is equal to the value of the function multiplied by
the constant.
limx→ak.f(x)=k.limx→af(x)
The limit of a sum (or difference) of the functions is the sum (or difference) of the limits of the
individual functions.
limx→a[f(x)+g(x)]=limx→a f(x)+limx→ag(x)
limx→a[f(x)−g(x)]=limx→a f(x)−limx→ag(x)
7.2 Continuity
Continuity at a Point
ii) if
limx→af(x)
exists.
iii) if
limx→af(x)=f(a)
If any of the three conditions in the definition of continuity fails when x = c, the function
is discontinuous at that point.
Continuity on An Interval
If d is between f(a) and f(b), then a corresponding c between a and b, exists, so that
f(c)=d
Chapter 8 Differentiation
8.1 Derivatives
Common Derivatives
Table of Derivatives
ddx(x)=1
ddx(xn)=nxn−1
ddx(ex)=ex
ddx(lnx)=1x,x>0
ddx(sinx)=cosx
ddx(cosx)=−sinx
ddx(tanx)=sec2x
ddx(sin−1x)=11−x2−−−−−√
ddx(cos −1x)=−11−x2−−−−−√
ddx(secx)=secxtanx
ddx(cscx)=−cscxcotx
ddx(cotx)=−csc2x
There are two ways to define functions, implicitly and explicitly. Most of the equations we have
dealt with have been explicit equations, such as y = 3x-2. This is called explicit because given an
x, you can directly get f(x).
The technique of implicit differentiation allows you to find the derivative of y with respect to x
without having to solve the given equation for y. Given
x2+y2=10
Parametric derivative is a derivative in calculus that is taken when both the x and y
variables (independent and dependent, respectively) depend on an independent third
variable t, usually thought of as "time".
dydx=dydtdxdt
dydx=dydt.dtdx
x=f(t),y=g(t)
Example: Find the first derivative, given
x=t+cost
y=sint
dydx=dydtdxdt=cost1−sint
Example: Find the first derivative, given
x=t4−4t2
y=t3
dydx=dydtdxdt=2t23t3−8t
(e) determine where a function is increasing, decreasing, concave upward and concave
downward
concave down: if the second derivative is negative, f ''(x) < 0 the function curves
downward, convex down.
concave upward: if the second derivative is negative, f ''(x)> 0 the function curves
upward.
b) f(x) is increasing and concave down if f'(x) is positive and f"(x) is negative .
d) f(x) is decreasing and concave down if f'(x) is negative and f"(x) is negative.
(f) determine the stationary points, extremum points and points of inflexion;
Stationary Points
A stationary point is an input to a function where the derivative is zero. At stationary points,
dydx=0
Extremum Points
Maxima and minima are points where a function reaches a highest or lowest value,
respectively
(g)
(h)
(i)
Second Derivative
If f'''(x) is positive, then it is a minimum point.
If f'''(x) is negative, then it is a maximum point.
If f'''(x)= zero, then it could be a maximum, minimum or point of inflexion.
Point of Inflexion
An inflection point is a point on a curve at which the sign of the curvature changes.
d2ydx2=0
Third Derivative
(h) find the equations of tangents and normals to curves, including parametric curves;
Related rates problems involve finding a rate at which a quantity changes by relating that
quantity to other quantities whose rates of change are known. The rate of change is usually
with respect to time.
Example: Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon such that its radius increases at a
rate of .80 cm/min. Find the rate of change of its volume when the radius is 5 cm.
The differentiation and its applications can be used to solve practical problems. This
include minimizing costs, maximizing areas, minimizing distances and so on.
(b) integrate xn (n∈Q), ex , sin x, cos x, sec2 x, with constant multiples, sums and
differences;
Variable
∫xdx=x22+C
Power
∫xndx=xn+1n+1+C
Reciprocal
∫1xdx=ln|x|+C
Exponential
∫exdx=ex+C
∫axdx=axlna+C
∫ln(x)dx=x(ln(x)−1)+C
Trigonometry
∫cos(x)dx=sin(x)+C
∫sin(x)dx=−cos(x)+C
∫sec 2(x)dx=tan(x)+C
(c) integrate rational functions by means of decomposition into partial fractions;
f(x)=P(x)Q(x)
A rational function can be integrated into 4 steps
1. Reduce the fraction if it is improper (i.e degree of P(x) is greater than degree of Q(x).
2. Factor Q(x) into linear and/or quadratic (irreducible) factors.
3. Find the partial fraction decomposition.
4. Integrate the result in step 3.
csc 2θ=1sin2θ
sec 2θ=1cos 2θ
cot2θ=1tan2θ
Pythagorean Identities
cos 2θ+sin2θ=1
csc 2θ=1+cot2θ
sec 2θ=1+tan2θ
Properties of Integrals
Additive Properties
Split a definite integral up into two integrals with the same integrand but different limits
∫baf(x)dx+∫cbf(x)dx=∫caf(x)dx
If the upper and lower bound are the same, the area is 0.
∫aaf(x)dx=0
If an interval is backwards, the area is the opposite sign.
∫baf(x)dx=−∫abf(x)dx
Integral of Sum
Scaling by a constant
∫baf(x)dx=F(b)−F(a)
∫ba|f(x)|dx=F(b)+F(a)
Integral inequalities
If
f(x)≥0 and a<b, then ∫baf(x)dx≥0
f(x)≤ g(x) and a<b, then ∫baf(x) dx≤ ∫bag(x) dx
(i) evaluate definite integrals;
(j) calculate the area of a region bounded by a curve (including a parametric curve) and
lines parallel to the coordinate axes, or between two curves;
If y = f (x ) is continuous and non-negative on [a, b], then the area under the curve of f
from a to b is:
Area=∫baf(x)dx
If y = f(x) is continuous and f(x) < 0 on [a, b], then the area under the curve from a to b
is:
Area=−∫baf(x)dx
(k) calculate volumes of solids of revolution about one of the coordinate axes.
Chapter 10
Differential Equations
(a) find the general solution of a first order differential equation with separable variables;
(b) find the general solution of a first order linear differential equation by means of an
integrating factor;
(c) transform, by a given substitution, a first order differential equation into one with
separable
variables or one which is linear;
(d) use a boundary condition to find a particular solution;
(e) solve problems, related to science and technology, that can be modelled by
differential equations.
Chapter 11
Maclaurin Series
(a) find the Maclaurin series for a function and the interval of convergence;
Maclaurin Series
Taylor series is a representation of a function as an infinite sum of terms that are calculated
from the values of the function's derivatives at a single point.
Taylor Series
f(x)=∑x=0∞fn(a)n!(x−a)n
=f(a)+f′(a)(x−a)+f′(a)2!(x−a)2+f′′(a)3!(x−a) 3+...+f(n)(a)n!(x−a)n+...
f(x)=∑x=0∞fn(0)n!xn
f(x)=f(0)+f′(0)x+f′′ (0)2!x2+f′′′ (0)3!x 3+...+f(n) (0)n!xn+...
f(x)=e5x f(0)=1
f′(x)=5e5x f′(0)=5
f′′(x)=52e5x f′′(0)=52
f′′′(x)=53e5x f′′′(0)=53
f(4)(x)=54e5x f(4)=54
e5x=1+5x1!+52x22!+53x33!+...+5n xnn!
=∑n=0∞5nxnn!
Interval of Convergence
The set of points where the series converges is called the interval of convergence
Finding interval of convergence
1) perform ratio test to test for the convergence of a series.
2) Check endpoint
Ratio test
L=limn→∞∣∣∣an+1an∣∣∣
if L < 1 then the series converges.
if L > 1 then the series does not converge;
if L = 1 or the limit fails to exist, then the test is inconclusive
11−x=∑n=0∞xn=1+x+x2+x 3+....
ex=∑n=0∞xnn!=1+x+x22!+x33!+....
(1+x)k =∑n=0∞xn(kn)xn=1+kx+k(k−1)2!x2+k(k−1)(k−2)3!x3+...
(b) use an iterative formula of the form xn+1 =f(xn ) to find a root of an equation to a
prescribed degree of accuracy;
(f) use sketch graphs to determine whether the trapezium rule gives an over-estimate or
an under-estimate in simple cases.
Chapter 13
Data Description
Discrete Data
Discrete Data is counted and can only take certain values (whole numbers).
Eg Number of students in a class, Number of children in a playground, etc.
Continuous Data
Continuous Data is data that can take any value (within a range)
Eg. Height of children, weights of car, etc.
Grouped Data
Data that has been organized into groups (into a frequency distribution).
Eg.
Class Frequency
0−5 10
6−10 20
11−15 17
16−20 4
Ungrouped Data
Stem-and-Leaf Diagrams
45 46 48 49 63 65 66 68 68 73 73 75 76 81 85 88 107
4 |5689
5 |
6 |35688
7 |3356
8 |158
10 | 7
key 4 | 5 means 45
Box-and-Whisker Plots
The first and third quartiles are at the ends of the box,
The median is indicated with a vertical line in the interior of the box
Ends of the whiskers indicated the maximum and minimum.
Histograms and Cumulative Frequency Histograms
An observation occurring most frequently in the data is called mode of the data
In the given data, the observation 28 occurs maximum. So the mode is 28.
The range is the simplest measure of dispersion; it only takes into account the highest and
lowest values.
(d) determine the median and interquartile range of ungrouped and grouped data;
Interquartile range
Q2=(n+12)th observation
Q1=(n+14)th observation
Q3=(3(n+1)4)th observation
Example 1: Find the median, lower quartile and upper quartile of the following numbers.
12, 5, 22, 30, 7, 38, 16, 42, 15, 43, 35
Example 2: Find the median, lower quartile and upper quartile of the following numbers.
Q1=(12+152)=13.5
Q2=(22+302)=26
Q3=(38+422)=40
Interquartile Range = Q 3 -Q1 = 40 - 13.5 = 26.5
Range = Largest value - smallest value = 50 -5 = 45
Median=Lm+(n2−Ffm)C
n = the total frequency
Lm = the lower boundary of the class medianF = the cumulative frequency before class
median
f = the frequency of the class median
fm = the lower boundary of the class median
C= the class width
Q1=LQ1+(n4−FfQ1)C
Q3=LQ3+⎛⎝3n4−FfQ3⎞⎠C
Q2=20.5+⎛⎝502−2312⎞⎠10=22.167
Q1=10.5+⎛⎝504−1010⎞⎠10=13
Q3=30.5+⎛⎝3(50)4−358⎞⎠10=33.625
(e) calculate the mean and standard deviation of ungrouped and grouped data, from raw
data and from given totals such as
Ungrouped Data
Mean
x¯=∑xn
Standard Deviation
s=∑(x−x¯)2n−−−−−−−−−√
s=∑x2n−(∑xn)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−− ⎷
Grouped Data
Mean
x¯=∑fx∑f
Standard Deviation
s=∑f(x−x¯)2n−−−−−−−−−−√
s=∑fx2∑f−(∑fx∑f)2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− ⎷
(f) select and use the appropriate measures of central tendency and measures of
dispersion;
Measures of Dispersion
Measures of Dispersion is group of analytical tools that describes the spread or variability of
a data set.
Skewness
Skewness is a measure of the asymmetry of the probability distribution. Skewness value can
be positive or negative.
Negative skew: The left tail is longer; the mass of the distribution is concentrated on the
right of the figure.
Positive skew: The right tail is longer; the mass of the distribution is concentrated on the
left of the figure.
Example: Calculate the coefficient of skewness of the following data by using Karl
Pearson's method.
1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4
Probability
Addition Principle
If we want to find the probability that event A happens or event B happens, we should
add the probability that A happens to the probability that B happens.
Addition Rule:
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
Multiplication Principle
When two compound independent events occur, we use multiplication to determine their
probability. To find the probability that event A happens and event B happens, we should
multiply the probability that A happens times the probability that B happens.
Multiplication Rule:
P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B)
Example: A pizza corner sells pizza in 3 sizes with 6 different toppings. If Peter wants to
pick one pizza with one topping, there is a possibility of 18 combinations as the total
number of outcomes.
(b) use the formulae for combinations and permutations in simple cases;
Permutations
A permutation is the choice of r things from a set of n things without replacement and where
the order matters
Permutation Formula
n Pr=n!(n−r)!
Combinations
A combination is the choice of r things from a set of n things without replacement and where
order does NOT matter.
Combination Formula
n Cr=(nr)=n P rr!=n!r!(n−r)!
Complementary Event
The complement of any event A, A' is the event that A does not occur.
Exhaustive Event
A set of events is collectively exhaustive if at least one of the events must occur. For example,
when rolling a six-sided die, the outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 are collectively exhaustive, because
they include the entire range of possible outcomes. Thus, all sample spaces are collectively
exhaustive.
P(A∪B)=1
Two events are 'mutually exclusive' if they cannot occur at the same time. Example, tossing a
coin once, which can result in either heads or tails, but not both.
P(A∩B)=0
P(A∪B)=P(A)+P(B)
(e) use the formula
Formula
P(A∪B)=P(A)+P(B)−P(A∩B)
Independent Events
Two events are independent means that the occurrence of one does not affect the
probability of the other. Two events, A and B, are independent if and only if
P(A∩B)=P(A).P(B)
Conditional Probability
Conditional Probability is the probability that an event will occur, when another event
is known to occur or to have occurred.
Given two events A and B, , the conditional probability of A given B is defined as the
quotient of the joint probability of A and B, and the probability of B
P(A|B)=P(A∩B)P(B)
P(A∩B)=P(A|B).P(B)
Commutative laws
A∪B=B∪A
A∩B=B∩A
Associative Laws
(A∪B)∪C=A∪(B∪C)
(A∩B)∩C=A∩(B∩C)
Distributive Laws
A∪(B∩C)=(A∪B)∩(A∪C)
A∩(B∪C)=(A∩B)∪(A∩C)
Impotent Laws
A∩A=A
A∪A=A
Domination Laws
A∪U=U
A∩∅=∅
Absorption Laws
A∪(A∩B)=A
A∩(A∪B)=A
Inverse Laws
A∪A′=U
A∩A′=∅
Law of Complement
(A′)′=A
U′=∅
∅′=U
DeMorgan's Law
(A∪B)′=A′∩B′
(A∩B)′=A′∪B′
Relative Complement of B in A
A−B=A∩B′
Chapter 15 Probability Distributions
Var(X)=E(X2)−[E(X)]2
Var(X)=σ2x=∑[x2i∗P(xi)]−μ2x
A discrete variable is a variable which can only take a countable number of values.
f(x)=Pr(X=x)
∑x=inf(xi)=1
F(x)=P(X≤x)
The probability that random variable X will take the value xi is denoted by p(xi) where
P(xi)=P(X=xi)
Mean and Variance of a Discrete Random Variable
Mean
E(X)=μx=∑[xi∗P(xi)]
Variance
P(a≤X≤b)=∫baf(x)dx
The graph of f is the density curve.
Area of the region between the graph of f and the x – axis is equal to 1.
The cumulative distribution function, F(x) for a continuous random variables X is defined
for every number x by
F(x)=P(X≤x)=∫x−∞f(y)dy
P(a≤X≤b)=F(b)−F(a)
For each x, F(x) is the area under the density curve to the left of x.
Expected Value
The expected or mean value of a continuous random variables X with pdf f(x) is
E(X)=μx=∫∞−∞x.f(x)dx
Variance
(i) use the probability function of a binomial distribution, and find its mean and variance;
(j) use the binomial distribution as a model for solving problems related to science and
technology;
Binomial Distribution
The binomial distribution is used when there are exactly two mutually exclusive outcomes
of a trial. These outcomes are appropriately labeled "success" and "failure".
If the random variable X follows the binomial distribution with parameters n and p, X ~ (B(n,
P), the probability of getting exactly k successes in n trials is given by the probability mass
function
f(k;n,p)=Pr(X=k)=(nk)pk (1−p)n−k
If X ~ B(n, p), X is a binomially distributed random variable, then the expected value of
X is
Mean = np
and the variance is
Variance = np(1−p)
n number of successes
p is the probability of success in Binomial Distribution, assumes that p is fixed for all
trials.
(k) use the probability function of a Poisson distribution, and identify its mean and
variance;
(l) use the Poisson distribution as a model for solving problems related to science and
technology;
Poisson Distribution
Poisson distribution is a discrete probability distribution that expresses the probability of a
given number of events occurring in a fixed interval of time and/or space if these events occur
with a known average rate and independently of the time since the last event.
A discrete stochastic variable X is said to have a Poisson distribution with parameter λ > 0, if for
k = 0, 1, 2, ... the probability mass function of X is given by
f(k;λ)=Pr(X=k)=λk e−λk!
K is the number of occurrences of an event; the probability of which is given by the function
λ is a positive real number.
(m) identify the general features of a normal distribution, in relation to its mean and
standard deviation;
(n) standardise a normal random variable and use the normal distribution tables;
(o) use the normal distribution as a model for solving problems related to science and
technology;
(p) use the normal distribution, with continuity correction, as an approximation to the
binomial distribution, where appropriate.
Normal distribution
Binomial Approximation
The normal distribution can also be used to approximate the Poisson distribution for
large values of λ (the mean of the Poisson distribution).
16.1 Sampling
(a) distinguish between a population and a sample, and between a parameter and a
statistic;
(b) identify a random sample;
(c) identify the sampling distribution of a statistic;
(d) determine the mean and standard deviation of the sample mean;
(e) use the result that X has a normal distribution if X has a normal distribution;
(f) use the central limit theorem;
(g) determine the mean and standard deviation of the sample proportion;
(h) use the approximate normality of the sample proportion for a sufficiently large sample
size;
Sampling
Sampling
Sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a statistical
population to estimate characteristics of the whole population.
A population includes each element from the set of observations that can be made.
Depending on the sampling method, a sample can have fewer observations than the population,
the same number of observations, or more observations. More than one sample can be derived
from the same population.
Parameter and Statistic
Random Sample
A simple random sample is a subset of a sample chosen from aa population. Each individual is
chosen randomly and entirely by equal chance (same probability of being chosen at any stage
during the sampling process).
The central limit theorem states that even if a population distribution is strongly non-
normal, its sampling distribution of means will be approximately normal for large sample
sizes (n over 30). The central limit theorem makes it possible to use probabilities
associated with the normal curve to answer questions about the means of sufficiently
large samples.
According to the central limit theorem, the mean of a sampling distribution of means is
an unbiased estimator of the population mean
μx¯=μ
Similarly, the standard deviation of a sampling distribution of means is
σx¯=σn√
The larger the sample, the less variable the sample mean
Example:
The population has a mean of 12 and a standard deviation of 4. The sample size of a
sampling distribution is N=20. What is the mean and standard deviation of the sampling
distribution?
μx¯=12
σx¯=420−−√=0.8944
Example:
Suppose the true value of the president's approval rating is 53%. What is the mean and
standard deviation of the sample proportion with sample of 800 people?
μp^=0.53
σp^=0.53(1−0.53)800−−−−−−−−−−−−√=0.0176
16.2 Estimation
(i) calculate unbiased estimates for the population mean and population variance;
(j) calculate an unbiased estimate for the population proportion;
(k) determine and interpret a confidence interval for the population mean based on a
sample from a normally distributed population with known variance;
(l) determine and interpret a confidence interval for the population mean based on a large
sample;
(m) find the sample size for the estimation of population mean;
(n) determine and interpret a confidence interval for the population proportion based on a
large
sample;
(o) find the sample size for the estimation of population proportion.
Unbiased Estimator
If the mean value of an estimator equals the true value of the quantity it estimates, then the
estimator is called an unbiased estimator. Using the Central Limit Theorem, the mean value
of the sample means equals the population mean. Therefore, the sample mean is an unbiased
estimator of the population mean.
This makes the sample variance an unbiased estimator for the population variance.
s2=∑ni=1(xi−x¯)2n−1
Although using (n-1) as the denominator makes the sample variance, an unbiased
estimator of the population variance,the sample standard deviation, , still remains a
biased estimator of the population standard deviation. For large sample sizes this bias is
negligible.
Confidence Interval
α: between 0 and 1
A confidence level: 1 - α or 100(1 - α)%. E.g. 95%. This is the proportion of times that
the confidence interval actually does contain the population parameter, assuming that the
estimation process is repeated a large number of times.
The central limit theorem states that when the sample size is large, approximately 95% of
the sample means will fall within 1.96 standard errors of the population mean,
μ±1.96(σn√)
Stated another way
X¯−1.96(σn√)<μ<X¯+1.96(σn√)
Example:
A survey which estimate the average age of the students presently enrolled. From past
studies, the standard deviation is known to be 3 years. A sample of 40 students is
selected, and the mean is found to be 25 years. Find the 95% confidence interval of the
population mean.
X¯−1.96(σn√)<μ<X¯+1.96(σn√)
25−1.96(340−−√)<μ<25+1.96(340−−√)
25−0.93<μ<25+0.93
24.07<μ<25.93
Hypothesis Testing
Chi-squared Tests
(a) identify the shape, as well as the mean and variance, of a chi-squared distribution with
a given number of degrees of freedom;
(b) use the chi-squared distribution tables; (c) identify the chi-squared statistic;
(d) use the result that classes with small expected frequencies should be combined in a
chisquared test;
(e) carry out goodness-of-fit tests to fit prescribed probabilities and probability
distributions with known parameters;
(f) carry out tests of independence in contingency tables (excluding Yates correction).