DESIGN CRITERIA FOR EXPOSED

.PENSTOCKS

A Dissertation
submitted in partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the degree
of
MASTbR OF ENGINEERING
in
WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

S. MADHUKAR
TRAINEE OFFICER
MYSORE

7e
K~ ` . -~
pFROOR

5Pt .

`~~~~CEE• *`

WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT TRAINING CENTRE

UNIVERSITY OF ROORKEE
ROORKEE (INDIA)
1972
Professor Ran . Krishna, Water Resources Development
Professor Planning, Training Centre,
University of Roorkee !
ROORK (U.P.) INDIA.

C IFICAT

Certified that the dissertation entitled "lESIGN

CRITERIA FOR XPOSID PENSTOCKS" which is being submitted
by Shri S.Madbukar in partial fulfilmrent for the award of
the degree of Master of Engineering in Water Resources
Development of the University of Roorkee is a record of
candidate's own work carried out by hies under may supervision
and guidance. The matter embodied to this dissertation has
not been submitted for the award of any other Degree or
Diploma.

This is further to certify that he has worked from

1st October 1971 to It July 1972 for preparing this
dissertation.

Dated:

Place t BKEE('C.P.) ( HMI xxzamoe ) /
 The author expresses his profound gratitude to
Professor Hari Krishna$ of Water Resources Development
Training Centre, University of Boorkee, Boorkee (U.P.)
for his valuable guidance and encouragement at every stage
In the preparation of this dissertation.

I thank the Government of Mysore for having given

Me this unique opportunity by way of deputing me to the
XVth course of Water Resources Development Training at
the University of Roorkee (U.P.).

Numerous articles on the subject as referred to

in the bibliography have been consulted and materials from

them have been freely used in the preparation of this

dissertation for which$ the author expresses his grateful-
ness to the various authors of these articles.

(S. MADBUKiR
 C. ~.., .,. .N ..T.S.U.
N

CERTIFICATEI .. .
ACKNOWLEDGE tEE S .. .
S!NOPSIS .,.
I INTRODUCTION ... I- 6
1.1 Genera]. .. .
1.2 Location and Arrangement ... 2-
1.3 Limitations in Choice of Pressure
Conduits ... ~}
1.h. Scope of Dissertation ...

II HI'DRAVLICS OF PENSTOCKS AND SELECTION

©F DIAMETER ... 7-z
2.1 General .. . '7
2.2 Friction Loss Along the Penstock ...
2.3 Abrasion Due to Water Conveyed ... 11
2.1f Governing Conditions of the Turbine ... I 1
2.5 Cost of Penstock ... I4-
2.6 Cost of Turbine Governor ,.• 1 y-
2.? possibilities of Pipe Manufacture ... i S
2.8 Water hammer ... I5~
2.9 Means of Reducing Water Hammer ... 19
III ECONOMICAL DIAMETER FOR PENSTOCKS ... 22- - 3
3.1 General ... 22-
3.2 Empirical Formulae 0 ... 2.3
3.3 Cost Analysis ... 2-4
3,t. Effect of Variable Diameter •.. 28
CRAPTER
_.1Q. .. w............,...w..~BSC , TION..~.,.
3.5 Number of Penstock lines ... 31
3.6 Economic Size of Penstock for
Sharavathy Valley rdro Power Project •.. 3 3
IV TIPS OF PIPE CONSTRUCTION ... 37- 49
General ... 37
4.2 Wood Stave Pipes ... 37
Reinforced Concrete Pipes ... 37
>'~.. Cast Steel And Cast Iron Pipes ... 37
+.5 J'ointlees Steel Pipes ... 38
1+.6 Forge Welded Steel Pipes ... 3~
4.? Fabric ate d Steel Pipes too 4-1
14.8 Recent Construction .... 4,}-
4.9 Banded Steel Pipes ... 44
1+.10 Multi-Layer Penstocks ... 43
V i SIGN CRITERIA POE RXPOSRD PENSTOCKS ... 5 0 - 1 oS
5.1 Maxlaws Water Pressure ... so
5.2 Thickness of Shell ... S 5~
5.3 Practical Design of Shell Thickness •.. s~y
•ih Stresses in Pipe Material .•. 6 'L
5.5 Design of Large Pipe Line
(Supported on Ring Girders) ... 7 2.
5.6 Design of Banded Pipes ... ~3
5,? Design Stresses (USER) ... g~3
5,8 Design of Multi-Layered Penstock ... c~ G
5.9 Vibration in Penstocks ... c~ o~
CHAP R

VI SUPPORTS AND ANC RS ... ) b( _

6.1 Genera]. ... 106
6.2 Supports ... 107

6.3 Anchors ... 113

VII FABRICATION AND INSTALLATION ... 1 - ► 33
7.1 General ...
7.2 T7pesot3oint ... (q

7,3 Sleeve Type Coupling ... 12 S

?.4 Expansion Joint :.. 12 s
7.5 Fabrication :.. 1 2 8
7.6 Radiographic Iflpoøtifl of Welds :.. I 3
7.7 Tests ...
Vtll PENSTOCKC ACCES RI .. , . ~-
8.1 Accessories ... i 3 ~-
$.2 Penstock Specials ... 13 ']
8.3 Air Inlet Valves ... I¢o
3X CONCLUSIONS, ... 14 -14

SIBLIOO ... ~ 4q
 .,.3_XJ.,.O..,g,_$_I.ft.

Penstocks are pressure conduits for the conveyance of

water from reservoirs or surge tanks to hydraulic turbines. They
should be hydraulically efficient to conserve available head and
structurally safe to prevent failure and loss of life or property.
Exposed penstocks are Installed above the terrain surface and
supported on anchors and saddles. Such penstocks are preferred
keeping in view the possibility of continuous and adequate
inspection, the lesser cost of installation and the ensured
safety against sliding with properly designed anchorages.

The penstock shell thickness is designed by the well

known thin cylinder formula considering the maxi urm Internal
water- pressure causing the. hoop stress. Assessment of maximum
water pressure is complicated by the phenomenon of water hammer
caused when the rate of flow In a conduit is rapidly changed.
The effect- of water hammer in the design has been discussed.
The variation of hoop stress due to large diameter of penstock
is taken to account in the design, as per Mr. Herman Schoyer.
Various design principles for supports and anchors,, Air Inlet
valves, banded and mutt :l aver constructions, have been critl-
cally reviewed.

The design criteria for exposed penstock have been

detailed out with tables, graphs and sketches. Numerical
examples have been included to clarify the principles of design.
 ~ yr

1.1ENZRAL:

1.1.1 Pressure pipe lines and conduits have long been used
for conveying water supplies to communities but they do not as
a rule involve either very large diameters or very great pressures.
The development of R"dro - Electric Engineering during the present
century has called for intensive and continuous study of the
problems involved in the - design and construction of pipe-lines
for supplying water to power station installations of greater
and greater capacity. Each installation introduces its own
particular problems and very few cases arise where the methods
of ordinary water supply practice are applicable. Exceptionally
high heads may have to be dealt with, and as these are found only
among the mountainous terrain, the problem may then be one of
designing pipes upto the limits possible In engineering practice
and of overcoming at the same time great difficulties of access
and erection.

The highest head so far developed In a single fall

exceeds 5O0 ft (16?6.b metres) e.g. at Reisseck,, where a head
of 580O' has been developed, and there are numerous installations,
particularly in the Euxopean Alps with heads exceeding 3000 ft
(91+.1+ metres) . In such high head plants the quantity of water
to be conveyed is not usually very great. The opposite is the
case In medium and low head 'plants where the quantities of water


involved may be enormous, and the problems arise mainly from

the exceptional size of the construction. Between the two
extremes, almost any combination of head, capacity and location
may have to be dealt with. Penstocks for high heads are a
special problem.

1.1.2 penstocks/pressure conduits are required to convey

water from reservoirs# forebays_, or other sources of supply to
turbines located in hydro-electric power plants. They should be
hydraulically efficient to conserve available head and structura-
lly safe to prevent failure and loss of life or property. These
may be constructed of w000d staves, reinforced concrete, or steel.

1.2 X AT 2I AND INS_ .I

1..1 In most hytro-.electxi.c projects the route to be taken
by the penstock is determined largely by major considerations
involving the layout of the project as a whole,, and arrangement
of generating works In particular. It is possible to make a very
loose classification of the arrangements which are commonly adopt-
ed for the generating works.

The simplest type of st?Uation may perhaps be descri-

bed as a "local" installation and is one in which a river is
intercepted by a dam with which the power station is combined.
In such an arrangement, penstocks are taken through the dam mono
lithe, with the necessary transitions for smooth hydraulic flow
and control devices at the intake entrance. In a low head plant
where the power structure itself forms a part of the obstruction
created against the flow, the penstocks are even shorter. Within


very short distance the flow enters the scroll case chambers.
In all such low head developments, it may be seen that there is
no necessity toy steel plate lining to the penstock walla. The
velocities are not very high and therefore the dynamic pressure
pulsations are also not severe. As we go on increasing the head
on the plant, naturally, the velocity of flow in such penstocks
become larger Band consequently the necessity for resistance to
higher stresses. A change over Is effected from concrete see-
tions to steel penstocks for higher heads.

1.2.2 A slight modification in the arrangement of local

Installation is location of penstocks for dams in narrow gorge
when power house cannot be located on the downstream toe of the
dam in the river channel section; but is located on one side of
the gorge a little distance downs tree am of the dam. In such cases
tunnels may be driven in the abutments to form the penstock con-
duits or penstocks may be located in diversion , tunnels after
diversion has been discontinued and the intake of the tunnel has
been plugged.

1.2.3 On many projects where the development of natural water

falls; or the heads created by t steeply graded river or by the
difference between adjacent valleys; or heads which are higher
than could be practically or economically created by the dam
alone, the intercepting dam is separated from the power station
by a considerable distance - possibly several Kilometers and is
termed as "remote" installation. The conduit system may be
divided in two parts, namely the "high line" consisting of power
channel or low pressure conduits laid slightly below the hydraulic


gradient lire # and the penstocks or pressure conduits - carrying

the flow to the turbines well below the hydraulic gradient lire.
Read race canals or flumes and closed conduits (wood stave pipes
or concrete pipes) are used for high line portion of the conduit
system: Occasionally steel pipes are employed for it. The
pressure conduit is generally of steel pipe or a tunnel.

'Zn menr cases, depending upon site conditions, topo-

,
graphy and geology of the area$ there may not be any high his
portion and conduit system may be s

i) Steel pipe line running on or near the ground

surface.
ii) Pressure tunnels,
or Ili) Pressure conduit partly in tunnels and partly
as pipe lint..

1.3
1.3.1 The choice between adoption of a pipe line or low
Level tunnel is largely governed by the considerations of ec onon r
end many other factors such as topography of the terrain; the
nature of the ground whether composed of sound rock or deposited
material; the amount of rock cover; the most desirable position
for the portal having regard to its most suitable slope; constru-
ctional, drainage, ventilation
.ation and access problems; the variation
In water pressure likely to occur in the system; the effect of the
pipe line on the amenities of the district; and the vulnerability
of gtteok In war time.

On account of the last reason, there is a possible

tendency to favour location of low level tunnel instead of the
pipe line more frequently than in the past. In exceptionally.
rugged and difficult terrain with suitable conditions, penstock
tunnels would be preferable . However' as the tunnels have to.
be .lined in most cases which itself is :a costly proposition, pipe
line has been considered to be a suitable choice and it has been
provided on a large number of projects taken up in recent years,
where found feasible. Even in case of tunnels where it is
possible to locate their portal at a relatively high level these
have been terminated on the hillside with steel pipe line connect
ing downstream portal of the tunnel to the power house.

1.3.2 In view of accessibility for inspection, maintenance

and repairs$ and initial costs the pipe lines are generally
used. However# the pipe lines may sometimes be buried in the
ground for reasons of amenity or defence. It may frequently
happen that a pipe line which is mainly above ground has a part
de rground on account of the contour of the ground. surface or
to avoid other features such as road. The pipe lines may often
be buried to avoid damage to the pipe line, at locations where
they cross small ravines or hollows, especially in ground subject
to land-slides, snow-slides or roiling boulders# or where pipes
run at the foot of a cliff or escarpment. In cold climate also
where the pipe line may be long and velocity is low, the pipe line
may from econon r view point be rather buried than protected from
freezing by other means. The best location for the exposed pipe
line is generally obtained when it is situated on a ridge down a
hilt, as in this position drainage is Simplified and the pipes
are less liable to damage from earth slips caused by rain or the
effects of frost. Where these dangers cannot be avoided, special
protective works will be necessary.

Exposed penstocks axe supported or anchored at suitable

intervals. Necessary space is left between the pipe and. the ground
surface to provide ace es to the underside of the pipe, even ie ze
they are installed In service tunnels or are located in trenches
out through the ledge of rock or soil coming in the alignment of
the penstocks

Advantages of exposed penstocks over those laid under-

ground are as follo s-

I) The installation is invariably less expensive, more

so in case of large diameters# even when special
measures have to be taken to, provide for the effect
of atmospheric temperature variations# including
risk of freezing, and
ii) Such pipes are readily accessibb and therefore
Inspection can readily be carried out and effective
maintenance ensured during operation.

The designs and details of underground pipelines are

generally the same a pipe lines above the ground. Exposed penstocks
are howver preferred in view of advantages mentioned above # unless
the local eonditioos make the use of buried pipes desirable, and
are more frequently used.
1.4. SCOpE..p
The aim of this dissertation is to review and summaries
the design criteria applied to pipelines with special. reference to
exposed penstocks$, keeping In view the latest trends in desire, and
construction of such installations.
2.1.1 Penstocks are desigried to carry water to the hydraulic
turbines. Poi' schemes of major importance $ where a considerable
quantity of water is utilised by a number of turbines $ there may
be a large choice of possible combinations of pipe arrangements
and diamreters, Economical studies for selecting a economic; die-
meter will be 3.iscussed in Chapter III. The size of the pipe
line will depend upon the total water pressure to which it will
be subjected. These pressures will include the static pressures
due to level of reservoir# less losses upto the point under
consideration, plus an increase on account of surge and water
hammer if an►. However# the following factors will have to be
considered while selecting the slams tte r of penstock from the point
of view of hydraulic considerations I-

a) "riction loss along the penstock.

b) Abrasion due to water conveyed.
c) Governing conditions of the turbine.
d) Cost of penstock
e) Cost of turbine Governor
t) Technical possibilities of pipe manufacture.

Ea sh of the above factors has been discussed briefly

in the following paragraphs.
 Hydraulic losses in a penstock reduce the effective
head in proportion to the length of the penstock and approximately
as the square of the water velocity. Accurate determination of
losses is not possible. Estimates can be made on the basis of
meager empirical data obtained from pipe flow teats in Laboretor-
tes and full-scale Installations.

Read losses in pipes because of friction vary considera-

bly, depending upon velocity of flow, viscosity of the fluid, and
condition of the inside surface of the pipe. Among the conven-
tional pipe flow formulae used for the computation of head Losses,
the Scobey, Manning, and Hazen-Williams formulae are the most
popular. For large steel pipes the Soobey formula: is favoured;
for concrete pipe, the Manning formula; and for cast-iron pipe in
water works, the Hazen-Williams formula. None of these standard
formulae are 'very accurate. Attempts are now being made to•, super-
sede them with more recently developed equations which maintain
dimensional correctness by considering viscosity through use of
the dimensionless coefficient known as Reynolds Number, A. Some
equations include a roughness coe 'ficient# K, which takes into
consideration the effect of surface roughness upon flow. Although
the newer formulae1 , by poised jie, Von Karman, Nikuradse,Prandtt w
and Coolehrook, may be theoretically correct for some conditions
of flow or surface roughness# they will be of little use in the
design of water conduits until they have been substantiated by
experiments covering a wide range of conditions. Until this Is
done the older pipe flow formulae will, probably be more reliable
for water flow than the new ones,
 9
The Scobey formula2 derived from experiments on
nwneroue steel-pipe installations, is expressed
,
as to .lows:-

b, = Kt d11 ....• 2*0

Where,
try = head lose due to friction in feet per 19000 feet
of pipe.
Ki = lose coefficient, determined experimentally.
d = diameter of pipe In feet.
'V = Velocity of flow in feet per second.

The value of, Xs, varies from 0.32 for now smooth pipe
to 4.40 for 15 `ears old pipe. Friction losses for various flown
and pipe sizes computed from Scobey's formula using a value of
0.31 for K s are shorn graphically in .g.2.1.

2.2.2 The permissible head loss due to conduit friction ova be

determined by an economical analysis comparing the amount of
energy regained by reducing friction head. losses with the incre-
ment cost of installation required therefor. Greater penstock
diameters result in lower head losses but in greater weight end,
consequently, in higher cost. The trend is reversed for smaller
diameters. The investigation of several diameters provides a
satisfactory basis for selecting the reasonable and economical
sire of the penstock.

2.2.3 M$Ofl7t3 proposes the formula for friction head loss 831
 Where A depends upon both the Reynolds number and the
relative surface roughness. However as per Nikuradse and Prandtt,
for Reynolds number greater than 100,003, the friction coefficient
depends solely on the relative surface roughness . In as much as
they velocity of flow in power penstocks Is sufficiently high and
the corresponding Reynolds Number related to the pipe di ter
Re

is we 1. above the order of magnitude of 145 . in the range of

higher R5, Nikuradse proposed for the friction coefficient the
following tation$1»

2#83
t.75+5.7 'log(r/k)

The relationship, although h;.ghly valuable from the

theoretical point of view, is of little direct use for the practi-
cal design and, therefore, data and formulas of more appro .rna'
character yet suitable for rapid ca culat ons 411 be given in the
following as per ffopf and From in,

A = 0.01 (N
d
)O.31t

'ire values of the parameter iu are I

For taw coal-tar coated steel pipe 145 m

For now Gast-iron pipe, smooth concrete pipe 2.5m

For rusty steel pipe
For rough concrete, untrimmed wood 7.Q as
A value of !, = 3 to 5 a should be adapted for used
Steel pipe.
 In order to eliminate, respectively to maintain at a
predetermined degree the abrasion caused by high-velocity flow of
water conveying more or less suspended sediments a limit velocity
depending in part on the pipe material and in part on the amount
of sediment transported may be, established. Besides the sediment
concentration of the power flows the rate of abrasion to Influenced
also by two important characteristics of the sediment.

The particle size, respectively the gradation in case

of materials of less uniform composition.

The surface roughness of particles( rounded or sharp

C. 0 A eon.
concerned) .

With respect to abrasion permissible velocities, for

properly settled waters are in general

V = 3 to 5 m/sea.

Yet exceptionally higher velocities upto 8 a/sec may

also be tolerated. Higher values apply to water carrying finer,
sediments while lower ones to water conveying coarser and sharper
materiels.

2.4.1 Governing Conditions Of The Turbine I

Penstock velocities mer further be limited by governing

conditions of the turbine, on the one hand# to prevent excessive
water ha r pressures following closure and, on the others to
reduce subnormal pressures occuring at time of starting up. Water
hammer and ensuing overpressures and depressions will be dealt
with in paragraph 2.8. and now we shall examine only the other
deterkmental consequences of sudden gate opening. Sudden opening
of the turbine involves the danger of water being drawn out faster
from the penstock than can be supplied, because the time required
for accelerating the stagnant water column or length L in the
penstock to normal operating velocity V is governed by the heed,
the length of the pipe and the wall friction. At the initial
moment the pressure head accelerating the water column enclosed
in the penstock is the entire head H which# however, decreases
continuously as soon as the movement has started, part of the
pressure energy being transformed into the kinetic energy of the
f lowing water mass and part of it being lost to overcome wall
friction. At any moment during acceleration the so-called accele-
rating head is thus

y
a g losses

Since at operating velocities common in penstocks of

h7Ltro-electric installations both velocity head (V2/2g) and head
lose are negligibly small compared to the full head# changes in
acceleration during the entire process are small. Consequently,
the error introduced by the aseua tion of a uniform rate of
acceleration, under a constant accelerating head equal to the
:Cull head H, is but very small. Since from Ruler's theorem it
follows directly that

g dt

The rate of acceleration during the entire period Ta

necessary to attain the ope rating velocity V may be considered
uniform $
 At Ta

Substituting and rearranging terms, the weld.-known

e cpression for the time of acceleration

Ta see .....(2.6)

is obtained.
The time of opening should be longer than the time of
acceleration established above failing to satisfy this condition
the water column in the penstock may rupture, depression may occur
and, what is even more dsngerou 5, the belatedly accelerating water
column may exert excessively high hydrodynamic impacts on the empty
pipe section, respectively on the wheel.. In addition to distur.
bances due to the oscillating start of operation# thews impacts
may damage the penstock and the turbine and may lead to failures.

As indicated by the formula long penstocks and high

operation velocities involve extremely long acceleration periods
that would necessitate the use of exceedingly long opening times
the time of opening obtained by the formula may even be too long
to be considered as basis for designing automaticel governing
devices. In principle, the time of opening can be extended by
increasing the flywheel effect and the same principle applies to
the time of closure, though Its application is subject to practical.
considerations. The flywheel effect cannot be increased beyond
&.certain value without parallely increasing the cost of the
mechanicall equipment. Consequently, for any given flywheel effect
the design of the governor and the specified rate of governing
define unanimously the permissible time of acceleration which in
turn, determines according to equation (2.6) One of the limit
values of normal flow velocity.

It is deemed necessary to stress the importance of these

considerations associated with opening, as there is no other war to
prevent detrimental consequencies of sudden opening. On the other
hands the occurrence of the unwanted phenomenon of water hammer
following sudden closure can be prevented by other methods as
well (over pressure relief valves! Set defectors).

Costs are a fundamental item to be considered in deter-

mining the diwneter of the penstock, The knowledge of unit costs
`Ili,. sele.vkeal maaks is esew( -fr
of the economical analysis discussed in chapter III • A further
ease in point is the relative magnitude of penstock costs in
comparison with the other investments, in other vords f the ratio
or expenses for the penstock to the first cost of the power house
or even the entire developments is of interest. Obviously savings
in money to be invested into the penstock are the more indicated,
the higher these costs are relative to those of the total invest-
ment. If, on the other hands the relative Costs of the penstock
are low, significantly greater diameters and# in turn, costs may
be Justified by the more efficient utilization of available energy.

The costs of turbine governor are also closely related

to the selected penstock diameter and to the normal velocity
of flow. Governors required in case of higher velocities i.e.
of cheaper penstocks are more expensive and vice versa.
 Limits imposel. by difficulties in manufacturing, trans-
porting and erecting especially large pipes of great shell thick-
nose have to be considered. Available pipe materials and manufaeft
turiog plant equipment thus tend to define the greatest possible
pipe diameter.

2.8 WTER ROME

Water hammer is a term applied to be phenomenon produced
when the rate of flow In a conduit is rapidly changed. It consists
of the develbpment of a series of positive and negative pressure
waves, the intensity of which is proportional to the spread of
propagation and the rate at which the velocity of flow is decele-
rated or accelerated, An accurate determination of' the effects of
water hammer on a penstock requires a rather complex mathematical
analysis.

2.8.1 IRff toi Wa.e H p

Pre ssure wave In the penstock produced due to rapid
opening or closing of the turbine gates $ has an intensity which
is proportional to the speed of propagation of the pressure wave
produced and the velocity of flow destroyed. J"ouko ky' a Ada.
mental equation given the maximum increase in head for closure
in time less than 2L/a seconds.

h=

In which
h a max. increase in toad
a = velocity of pressure vase
L = length of penstock from forebay to turbine gate.
 V = velocity of flow destroyed.
g = acceleration due to gravity.

From the formula, which is based on the elastic water-

harmme r theory, Alievi, Gibson, Durand, Quick, and others developed
Independent equations for the solution of water hammer problems.
In his notes published in 1903 and 19130 Allievi introduced the
mathematical analysis of water hammer, while M.L.Beygeron, R.S.
Quick, and R.w. Angus developed graphical solutions of water-hammer
problems which are more convenient to use than the analytical
methods.

For individual penstocks of varying diameter, the pres-

sure reflections at points of change in diameter complicate the
problem. However, if the varying diameter is reduced to a penstock
of equivalent uniform diameter, a close estimate can be made of
the maximum pressure rise. For penstocks with branch pipes, it
is necessary to consider the reflection of pressure waves from the
branch pipes and dead-ends In order to determine the true pressure
rise due to valve closure. The water hammer analysis of the
Hoover Dam penstocks published by the Bureau of Reclamation Is an
example of the method used for compound pipee .

As the investment In penstocks is often considerable,

they must be safe gaurded against surges, accidental or otherwise.
Surges of instantaneous type may develop through resonance caused
by rhythmic gate movements, or when the governor relief or stop
valve is improperly adjusted. A parting and rejoining of the
water column
i in the draft tube or a hasty priming at the head gate
may also cause surge waves of the instantaneous or rapid type.


Adjustments in the profile of a penstock may be necessary, parti

cularly at the upstream end, to prevent the development of a
vacuum and parting of the water column during negative pressure
surges . As water hammer surges o ceu ring under emergency condi-,
tions could jeopardize the safety of a penstock if they are not
considered in the design, their magnitude should be determined
and the shell thickness designed for the resultant total head.
Stresses approaching yield point values may be allowed. Dy using
ductile materials in the penstock, excessive surge stresses may
be absorbed by yielding without rupture of plates or welds.

2.8.2 When the length, diameter and profile of the penstock

have all been determined according to local conditions and economi ,
considerations, the selection of a minimum closure time for the
turbine gates will require a compromise between the allowable
pressure variation in the penstock, the flywheel effect, and the
permissible speed variation for given load changes on the unit.

With reaction turbines, synchronous relief valves, %hich

open as the turbine gates close, may be used to reduce the pressure
rise in the penstock. Reduction of pressure rise is proportional
to, the quantity of released. As relief valves are usually designs
to discharge only a portion of the flow, this portion is deducted
from the total flow in computing the reduced velocity and the
corresponding pressure rise.

2.8.3 o9sure Rise In Simple Conduits I

With instantaneous gate closure, maximum pressure rise

in penstocks of uniform diameter and plate thickness occurs at the
gate; from there, It travels undiminished up the conduit to the
intake or point of relief. For .slower closure which take less
than 2L/a seconds, the maximum pressure rise is transmitted tin-
diminished along the conduit to a point where the remainder of
the distance to the intake is equal to Ta/2 (T = Time for fun
gate stroke), from which point to the intake the pressure rise
diminishes uniformly to zero. With uniform gate closer equal to
or greater than the critical time, 2L/a, the maximum pressure
rise occurs at the gate, from which point it d minishe s uniformly
along the length of the penstock to zero at the intake. An
analysis of pressure time curves shows that the maximum pressure
rise is determined by the rate of change of velocity with respect
to time. Maximum pressure rise Will develop in a penstock when
closure starts from some relatively small percentage of full
stroke so that some finite velocity is cut off in a time equal
to 2L/a seconds.

The governor traversing time is considered to be the

time required for the governor to move the turbine gates from the
rated capacity position to the speed-on-load position. As the
rate of governor time is adjustable, it is important that a maximum
permissible rate be specified if maximum pressure rise in the pen-
stock Is to be kept within design limits.

Water hammer conditions should be determined for the unit

operating at rated head and under maximum static head. The highest
total heal, consisting of static and water hammer heads, should be
used for computing plate thickness of the penstock.

R.S.Quick6 simplified water hammer computations by using

a pipe line constant, K, and a time constant, N3 in the equations
hammer, resulting from instantaneous closure. The chart in,
figure 2.2 shows the relative values of K and P (equal to h/ham)
for various values of N. Also included is a chart which shows the
velocity, as of the pressure wave in an elastic water column for
various ratios of penstock diameter to thickness. Fig. 2.2 gives
only the maximum values of P for uniform gate motion and complete
closure. It covers a range of closures from instantaneous to 50
intervals, and a range of values of K from 0'.0? to 40, -which
includes the majority of practical cases. The nearly vertical
curve shows the limiting value for maximum pressure rise at the
end of the first time interval, 2L/a. Values of pressure rises
to the left of this line attain their maximum values at the end of
the first interval. The solutions obtained from the chart will
give pressure rises at the turbine which may be assumed to reduce
uriifornlly along the penstock to zero at the intake or other point
of relief7.

In practice it is only in fairly low head plants with

short pipe-lines that the flow in the pipes mey be stopped direct.
ly by the closure of the turbine ,gates. For medium and high head
plants it is usual to provide an effective and reliable method of
limiting the pressure rise. To achieve this, the flow In the
pipe-►'line must be retarded at a suitably slow rate, much slower
than the rate required for shutting down the machines.

For Peiton.wheel plants the arrangement is simple and

effective. The first. action of the governor is to cause a
the wheel. The next action follows immediately and consists of
a slow movement of the needle valve, thereby gradually shutting
off the water. With Pel ton-wheel sets suitably arranged and
governed, he pressure rise in the pipe can be kept within 10
per cent# of the maximum static head.

For reaction turbines a different arrangement is adopted.

A relief valve is placed on a branch leading from the spiral casing
to the tail-race. This valve is interconnected with the governor
of the machine and synchronously with the closure of the turbine
gates the relief valve is opened so that there is no sudden inter-
ruption to the flow of water in the pipe. Closure of the relief
valve foUows gradually after the closure of the turbine gates and
this may take about a minute or so. The pressure rise in the pipe-
line for purposes of calculation when relief valves are installed
is usually of the order of 20 per cent to 25 per cent$. While the
apparatus may be adjusted to give smaller rises, allowance has to
be made for some uncertainties until it. has been subjected to test.
Rance there after has to be placed on the perfect action of
mechanical and hydraulic interconnection.

Under normal conditions of steady operation the pressure

head In the pipes will be less than the static reservoir level by
the kinetic energy or velocity bead of water plus the head lost
by friction. Pressure# above the static pressure are caused by
the action of the turbine gates in reducing or shutting off the flow
to the machines, and the highest pressures and severest conditions
for design uduauy occur during rapid shut down of the station due
stoppage is that the speed of the machine increases as the rotat-
ing parts have to absorb the power being generated. Slight
increase of speed causes the governor to come into action to
effect closure of the turbine gates$ thereby shutting off the
supply of water to the runner. This closure has to be rapid in
order to avoid a dangerous rise in speed and may be effected in
a matter of a few seconds.

Action of surge tank in reducing the length of penstock

from the effect of pressure waves is well known and the Scope of
the topic does not permit to describe the various aspects of
surge tank
 J

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 22

3.1 Selection of the mast economical penstock diameter is

one of the more important phases of hydro-electric design. The
penstock should not only be capable of safely conveying the
requisite quantity of water for- the generation of desired power,,
but it should also do this efficiently and economically. Theoreti-
cally$ there is only one penstock diameter which could be consider-
ed the most suitable for any particular installation. Thus the
'economic diameter' of a penstock, is the diameter which 'rill
result in the lowest annual cost when charges for amortization
of construction costs; operation and maintenance, and replacement
reserve are taken into account. An accurate determination of the
economic diameter in a given case requires the making of estimates
of total annual costs, taking into consideration the value of
power lost in friction$ for conduits of several sizes. In actual
practice* it may be desirable to have a penstock with a variable
diameter, the average size being same as the economical diameter.
The effect of variation of 'diameter is discussed in paragraph 34.
For the present only uniform diameter is considered.

There are two methods of obtaining the economical dia-

meter of a penstock. The first, an empirical approach, relies on
simple formulae based on experience and well-tried data obtained
from actual installations. If information regarding anticipated
plant costs and future power requirements is not reliable, it ie
convenient to obtain the economical penstock diameter by using
 23
some of these empirical formulae. Mr. G.8.Sarkaria9 believes
that the empirical formulae mentioned below give quite reliable
results: The second, and the customary method, is to make
detailed cost comparisons for different sizes of penstocks. Both
these methods are described.

A formula for economical penstock design, based on data

from Installations representing a Very wide range of practice*
and consistent with theoretical considerations, has been proposed
by Mr. G.S. Sarkaria10 . It expresses the economical diameter as:
x.43
d =4. .....C3.1)
In whieb,
d = economical diameter of penstock in feet.
P = rated horse power of turbine
R = rated head of turbine in feet.

This formula is applicable primarily to power plants

with Francis and propefloriitype turbines, and gives reliable
results for penstocks of 5 feet or more in diameter.

Another empirical formula11! also based on rated horse-

power and head of tuitine, is as follows 2-
d= (-4}.~bb
.....(3.2)

The U.S.Bureau of Reelamation12 uses an empirical

formula which expresses the recommended velocity as a proportion
of the spouting velocity',. as s
 .....(3.3)
V = 0.125 /

These formulae applied to a number of power plants

constructed by the Bureau of Reclamation give values as listed
in Table 3.1: Table 3.1 shows a fair agreement with actual dia-
meters in nine cases of economical diameters obtained from the
velocity fora, (3.3) , but in only six oases of economical.
diameters obtained from the diameter fornul # (3.2) . The latter
formula shows good agreement for all high-head plants$ having
been developed from data obtained from such plants. Since final
determination of the economical diameter is dependent upon the
construction cost of the penstock, the value or power lost in
frictions and more or less arbitrary allowances for depreciation
or replacement reserve, and turther®ore, since such items can be
expected to vary considerably during the life of plant, the deter-
mination of the most economical diameter is not subject to exact
calculation. Economic diameters may be estimated approximately
by use of the chart? in Fig.3.O.. ° It Is advisable to check
preliminary computations by means of detailed analysis of several
diameters and to determine the total annual cost of each at various
points along the profile.

3.3.1 øt Analysis
The second method of working out the economical diameter
is based on the combined minimum capital cost both for, construe•
tion and power loss. The best means for determining the most
economical size is to plot curves of cost against size of penstock
vide Fig. 3.1.
 Generally, the coat per foot at any section of a pen-
stock depends on the thickness and the diameter of the section.
As the pressure or the cost of steel per pound incree,ses, it is
economical to decrease the diameter of the penstock because the
annual value of the electricity lost as a result of the friction
loss in' the penstock may increaae13. Therefore# the construction
cost may be reduced. Algol as the load factor on Installation
increases, the diameter should be increased. Therefore, it is
possible to express the combined cost mathematically as a function
of these variables. By differentiating this equation with respect
to the diameter and placing the result equal to zero, the most
economical diameter can be obtained by solving the resulting
equation.

3.3.2 r~Derivation Of Equations

■~i~rrw.rr~rw~■ur■~rr.rrn~ rrwir.~rir.+~~r~1

.tee. Goat o!' Penstock Per Pout:

Because the unit weight of steel is 490 lbs.per cu.ft.,
the weight per foot of penstock may be exprassed as

in which, I = diameter of pipe, in feet, and t Is the thickness #

in inches.

From the hoop tension formula,

t= 62.1 HI) 12
E .....(3.5)
In which 1i is the working head, including water hammer*
surge, and so forth$ In feet; f1 is the allowable working stress#
in pounds per square inch; and F. is the efficiency of the
electrically welded longitudinal, joint, in percentage.

Combining equations (3.)) and (3.5) with

C,1 = ew .....t3.f~)

Yields 331i, 2
Cl 9 ..... 3.7)
s
in which C1 represents the capital cost of a penstock,
in dollars per foot„ and a Is the cost of steel installed, in
dollars per pound. (This cost reflects all costs of Installation,
including such items as capitalization of maintenance and replace-
ment. Cost of accessories like expansion Joint# air inlet valves,
governors etc. is assumed to be constant with the variation of
diameter).

Capitalized
.ized Value Of Energy Lost Per Foot :
From the Manning formula# (vide "Optimum penstock dia•
meter", ASCE, Power Division, July 1962) . Darcy-Weisbackformula Is
recommended by Shri Wag and others (vide "Penstock for hydel
plants" Journal of the Institution of Engineers, India J an.1959) ,

0.463X 8/3 8112

n
Assuming n = 0.012, then
2
S = (6.68x 14'4) 00.00t3.8b)


and
Q3 (6.68x10'_)o.' i
C2 D16 '3 8.8 i

Q3(6.68x1 O ) (365 (24)(o. ) Ve

D16/3 8.8 1

in which. Q Is the quantity of water at full loads in cubic

feet per second; n is Manning' a coefficient; C2 represents
the capitalized value of energy lost, in dollars per foot; K 1
is a fixed yearly charge, In dollars per Kilowatt (this charge
contains the cost of money, taxes, insurance$ depreciation, and
a fixed cost of operating) ; e is the combined turbine and generato
eff :ciency, in percentage; I Is the rate of interest, in percen-
tage; K2 represents the operating cost# which proportional to
the nuatberof Kilowatt hours produced, in dollars per Kilowatt
hour; and F is the load factor of the station, . t.:' percentage.

Combined Coat Per Foot of Penstocks

The equation for the combined cost per foot of penstock
is
C C1 + c+ 2

2 (6.68x10`+)O. eQ3
fe E 8.81

.....(3.lo)
in which C is the combined capital cost. Differentiating C
with respect to D yields
 (6.68z1©'l
') 4.746 a q3
a D= a t~ E D193
IK1+8764 5?J
8 .8 i
.....t3.11)
Minimizing and simplifying equation (3.11) yields

Q t 1p+ 7.33
D = to.00#52 K1+39.6 K2F)
.....(3.12)
Equation (3.12) can be applied to moot cases In which
hoop stress is the governing factor for the thickness. However$
during filling and draining, when there is no internal pressure
a .large deformation in the pipe shell may cause buckling.
Rigid ring girder and saddle supports may pregent any distortion
of appreciable magnitude in the pipe,, However, for many inetafla-
tions, concrete saddles are often more economical than large-
diameter field assembled ring girders .

3.1 9~C1. -VAKADIA

3..1 Penstocks may be designed with a uniform diameteriwhieh
generally is the most economical for flat profiles, or with a
diameter reducing taard the power plant,. The latter design is
often more economical for high-head plants withi penstocks on
steep profiles $ since a reduction in diameter near the power
house may result in sufficient saving in first cost to •compens;te
for resulting higher head losses.

Consideration of the effects of varying the diameter$

is bound up with the velocity of the water and the amount of head
or power available lost in the pipe-lines due to friction. For
calculating friction loss Mr. E .K.Chapaen17 :propósee Manning
fora. The basis formula is as follows

1.t 86 R°67 9O.5°

Fa om this basic formula the following two formulas

are derived $

--' !2
2.2 x:33

S = (applicable to circular pipes only) '

The 'use of these foimulas makes it possible to study the effect

of variations of dia eter of the pipe4ine an locity of the
water, on the friction loss. If it is ssu d that the type of
construction will be un '`orm# in other words that n is constant,
It will be seen that 3

(a) For constant diameters, the friction loss variOs

directly with the square of the velocity. The effect
of this variation is shown graphically by the dotted
line In Fig. 3.3.1 .

(b) For constan velocity the friction loss varies inver.

rely as the 1.33 power of the diameter and the affect
of this is shown by the dotted line In Fig.3.3.2.

(a) For constant discharge the friction loss varies tnver-

rely as the 5,33 power of the diameter. The effect of
 this large variation is strikingly shown by the full
line in figure 3.3.2•

Since Q varies as D2V, for constant discharge the

velocity varies Inversely as the square of the diameter.
From this it follows that :.

(d) For constant discharge in pipes of different diameters,

the friction lose varies directly as the 2.67 power of
the velocity, and the effect of thiss is shown by the
full line in Vig.3.3.1..

The cost of a pipe line is largely determined by its

weight which in turn is a measure of the diameter times
the thickness. For any given pressure the thickness
varies directly with the diameter and hence the weight
will vary directly as the square of the diameter. From
this and (c) above It follows that

(e) For constant discharge and pressure the friction loss

In a given length of pipe line varies Inversely as the
2.67 power of the weight of that length of pipe line.
The effect of varying the weight and f?fiction loss under
these conditions. is shown graphically in Fig.3.3.3„

3.t,2 Study of these relationships clearly indicates the

effects of variations of diameter and velocity on the friction
loss and also enables an economic balance to be struck between
friction loss and the weight or cost of the pipe-tine. If the
discharge of a pipe-line is constant it can be shown for example,
that a 20% reduction of diameter from 1.00 to 0.80 will increase
the friction lose in the ratio 1.00 to 3.28; an increase of 228%,
whereas the weight is decreased in the ratio of 1.00 to 0.64 or
a saving of 36%. A 20% increase of velocity from 1.00 to 9.20
will increase the friction loss from 1.00 to 1.63 an increase of
63% and the weight will be reduced from 1.00 to 0.83 a saving of
17%•

3.5 N0 _OF PEs1OCIc La M

3.5.1 From the above considerations itis also possible to
study the effect of a single pipe in place of multiple pipes.
It has been shown that an increase of diameter produces vex ►
considerable decrease in friction loss# other things being equal.
Therefore, if a single pipe is used in place of two pipes, for
equal friction loss a higher velocity may be used and there will
be a saving in weight and also generally a saving in cost of the
pipe-line unless the larger diameter involves a more expensive
type of pipe construction. For equal friction losses and dis-
charge the ratio of diameter of one pipe Instead of two would
be 1.30 to 1.0, the .speed ratio 1.18 to 1.00 and the weight
ratio for equal efficiency of construction 0.85 to 1.00. The,
corresponding figures for one pipe in place of three, vould be
1.519 1.32 and 0.76 respectively. These figures illustrate the
foregoing contention that a considerable saving in weight and
cost may be obtained by making the pipes as large as possible and
thereby reducing the number. From this, it follows.# that for
cases of high head pipe-lines where constructional difficulties
In making the pipes may intervene to limit the diameter In thoe$
portions subject to the highest pressure, it may pay to use a
bifurcation at some point of lower pressure above which pipes of
double the capacity become possible. In reckoning the advantage
of such an arrangement account must be taken of the additional
cost of the bifurcation and of possible extra isolating valves.

In most of the larger power plants two or more turbines

are installed. Consequently,, the question arises whether to use
an individual penstock for each unit or use a header system
serving two or more units by means of branch lines. Although the
header system is usually more economical In construction, indivi-
dual penstocks permit more flexibilIty in operation and maintenane
and simplify turbine regulation. Diameters of individual penstock
are kept to a minimum and complicated branch connections are avoid
ed. This aspect has to be considered while marking out economical
size of penstock. Economics and practicability may both enter
into the final determination of the proper size of penstock.

3J.2 In the foregoing remarks the relative effect of varies

time of numbers of pipes, diameters and velocities upon the
weight and cost of the pipe line has been considered. It may
be concluded that for a given discharge an increase of velocity
l be accompanied by a decrease of diameter and correspondingly
of cost* but the friction loss will be increased. It is clear
that if the saving in cost of the pipe•line obtained by reducing
the diameter is large in relation to the power lost owing to the
inoreaged friction# it may be more economical to have the smaller
pipe -line.
3.6

The penstocks to be installed for this scheme, located

in Mysore State, have special features. The gross head Is 1515
feet and this head does not permit the use of 8 ft. or? ft.
diameter penstocks made entirely of low carboi, steel plates
rolled in India. Either extra high tensile steel plates or the
use of special Banded type of penstocks have to be used. But for
the purpose of working out the economical diameters the former
type of penstocks is adopted# using as much indigenous steel
as possible for the lover pressu es, limiting the thickness to
1+ finch.

The diameter of the penstocks are fixed to be 8 feet

for a certain length and 7 feet onwards upto the turbine inlet
based upon economical consideration. The cost data have been
worked out for four different types of penetock. Different sets
of calculations are male assuming definite values of diameters
and corresponding thickness and the total weight of the penstocks
as wei"i as the respective power losses due to friction in these
are calculated. Then the fixed annual charges for the penstocks
including interests depreciation, maintenance # etc., are eelculat-
eds; and compared with the cost of the power loss in friction.
The most economical, design is the one in which the sum of total
of the two charges is ', minimum. The results are noted in Table
3.2 and it is seen that the most economical case is xo.3„

The following assumptions were made I-

i) The ultimate tensile strengthi of ordinary steel.

60# 000 psi
 i) The ultimate tensile strength of high tensile
steel 1,00,000 poi.

iii) Factor of safety = 4.5j

lv) Efficiency of welded joints 3 90%

v) Increase of pressure due to the water hm*nier

action above the static head at Its location 20%
uniform.
vi) Penstocks of the ordinaxy steel can be fabricated
from the indigenous steel locally at site and that
of the special. steel imported# it necessary.
 35

v n ad 'd ttr co Co CO

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te
f' rr r~ . ~►

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rte- em-s ~,• as • • t•
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•
r ~,. co r-
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f r .fi- N ~'• e~}

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C i7 0 g y o lb m O p~
0 1- ,- (g Co q N 0 'tom ey9

0
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14


NOTATION
U 1JJS: .-Y; '..,. s.nerz,:l,/at 11 °WG'ighied average head C(ucY.n9 rVater.hOJ7ner,feet
3 =2.'.r'ne:C -- n., .. ..^ J" ; ^~%Jy ;~ ifs =F•'cf:vn coeff.c.e.'7 t ,.7 3r 'bet's Forrnula
b : Value Jf ,Js. , Jwer'O JJ...J'5 .)e kWh . n Ratio Jf [rwe'q t tJ wt Of p -)e shelf
D= Econom-c diameter Feet Q = cow cc Feet
• per Second
C =avcro1 olait elfIciency r = Rolio Jf'r+'Inua/ Cost to a.
JO nt eft c e 7. • 59. A/1Jwable tension, p.s. 1.
Loss factor {'rorn Graph A

too 200 300400500 1000 2000 3000-foo~7 10.000 20,000 40,000

~* 1 r 1 1 I1 VALUES OF KS t 1 + + +
t +
14 _ } + + f t } f+24-
22 < h, 'sq C b i -
T + I R * ..
NrnstOCk ,
20 —a r( ~) - + t s +
~•e K : 1% c s9 6Jb ror pun,ines'

14 -+

4444
6 r~
! GRAPH B
.
.9 t GRAPH A I . . . r J

{actor-AVCrayC~oad
LOL~d
Moxim m 10 + ' r l ,
.5 - + + 4. I i ++.+ +

-- -
+ + I.. + r +~~
• —H 9 4 + - ~`~ r-++ .

j "
r r t
Load fpc/OY L t . + + + +
4 S 6 9 ,0 r + + r + + } +

r « J 0
4-4 + . 60o
f . t 400

1 1 44 4444
t- i t + t 1 4 . r 2

••
GRAPH C H

( r-'lo w Q In c F s I I

JO 20 30 40 50 foo 200 300 4 loo Soo ; > >0 2000 4000

FIG 3.0 EC:)NOMIC DIAMETER- STEEL PEN:,T ')C AND

PUMP LINES
USE OF CHART, OBTAIN LOSS FACTOk f FROM CRAI + A 'N'PUTE K AND
OBTAIN B FROM GRAPH B TAKE D F'UM GRAPH C T F EL NOMIC DIA
15 D-BXD',


a
w
U) 800 _` yTOTAL COMPAR ___ aN
U COST L
j~ 600 0
w
70O soo 8
ap CAPITALISED VALUE 400> 0
O
OF POWER
LOSS 300U)-
UQ
0 600
JV 20OQN
r _
IOO a 0
~ 500 0V
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
PENSTOCK DIAMETER,FT.

FIG. 3.1

PRESSURE HEAD
(WATER HAMMER INCLUDED),

z I +IN

' ~— _ D PENSTOCK

4--

Sf K[ 2
184.95 n

FIG. 3.2_PRESSURE HEAD AND DISTRIBUTION OF LOCAL LOSSES

AS EQUIVALENT FRICTION LOSS
 1601 r I T rt TT + 1
+ } + 240 j +± t t±
I SC 1 } CONSTANT
230
140 DISCHARGE
+ F +
130 l± t, I ii
210 t
N 120
0 1 200 --#-CONSTANT
Z 110 i+, r CONSSTANT
D 9O 7 DISCHARGE
190
0 IOC)
130
U 9O-+ +
tt L 70
80
vi 16
70 L _ -;.-•~-,
ISO
FIG.3-3.1 60 } F+ . ; +* -a
80 100 120 Z 40 ~ ++~
1
VELOCITY() U 130
+t T 120
200
~ I In ~-~{-~ ,
t +-t
19O t+ .. CONSTANT
v 1 $ 1 00 ~~ , -,_ VELOCITY
N 180 -+ + ; #CONSTANT r+
! DISCHARGE 90 -----r a
170 C + j& PRESSURE r~ t
Z , 14 80 r-+-T «
O 120 II++1
1 70 J

100 4 4
60 ~ -1
u. 80 `+ t f r+ NH
F+ 1 r so
60 + +
FIG. 3.3.3 Li L 1I.L 40 FIG. 3.3.x,
60 100 140 80 100 140
WEIGHT (°lb) DIAMETER (%)

CURVES SHOWING VARIATION OF FRICTION

LOSS IN RELATION TO VELOCITY DIAMETER
AND WEIGHT ON A PERCENTAGE BASIS
 37

. ~•~~ V ~ ` ~ ~ 1. ~ , + T~ ~ ~,.1

4.1 The type of pipe and method of construction adopted,

will depend largely upon a combination of heal and diameter, el-
though other factors such as price and availability of materials,
tran3port charges, site conditions* etc., also have to be taken
into account. The following types of pipe - line construction
have been used to a varying degree In HyttroiEleotrio works.

The Wood stave pipes are used in countries where an

abundant supply ©f good, cheap timber Is available. The pipes
are formed of straight planks running parallel to the length of
the pipe line, but jointed and banded with steel rod or wire.
When well constructed of suitable timber they provide a satis-
factory pipe-line with a very smooth bore. Their life is modera-
tely good under favourable conditions, but this will largely
depend on the timber used and the climatic conditions prevailing.
Maintenance is relatively simple.

Beinfoa'ced concrete pipes may be cast in-situ, or they

may be made in pre-cast sections of a convenient length and joint-
edonsite.

Cast steel is used primarily for special pieces(bends,

vyes) expansion joints, flanges etc. The tensile strength of the
material is from 1+5 to 55 1 /Sq.mm at an elongation of from 20 to
io%. Wail thicknesses are governed, excepting cases Of high
pressures # by .requirements of casting. For the sake of informa-
tion, a few minimum wall thicknesses that can be cast are given
below'

Far d = 0.5 1 00 1.5 m

,n 20 30 35 mm

Cast iron penstocks upto the 1200 mm diameter can be

encountered at older developments. Cast iron is rarely applied.
to-shay for penstock construction. Owing to its very limited
strength (permissible stress being but 3 1s/Sq.mm or 300 Jg/Sq.m.)
and great rigidity* cast .iron is highly sensitive to dynamics.
effects, is of great weight, and requires close Joint spacing.
Cast-iron pipes are manufactured to standard dimensions upto )+ m
in length and 1.2 rn in dia. and In upright position in order to
reduce casting defects. Computed wall thicknesses are usually
increased by from 5 to .7 mm for reasons of safety$ yet casting
techniques frequently necessitate the use of still higher values.-
Wall thicknesses for pipes cast in upright position are (mm)
d/50 + 9 (where d is in mm)

There are two types of jointless steel pipes, the solid-

drawn Mannesmann, and a laminated pipe of larger diameter which
was made in Germany before the second World War. They are both
excellent pipes as they provide a smooth bore with the minimum of
weight, but needless to say they are very expensive. Their use in
restricted to very high pressures and small diameters.• The
Mannesmann can be constructed to a limiting diameter of 2 ft
(0.61 m) and the laminated form to something in excess of this,
but its dimensions are limited by the weights of the large masses
of Incandescent metal which the construction necessitates. In
view of these limits in size, this type of pipe is superseded for
large installations by banded pipes which can provide much gre ate r
capacity under similar conditions of head.

Pipes manufactured by this process have been used for

many years and constitute probably the largest proportion in tonn-
age of existing power pipe-lines. The Joints are made by forge
welding with the use of water gas for heating the edges to be
welded. The pipes are usually made of plates 25 to 30 ft (7.6 to
9.1 it) long, etch are rolled length-wise in plate rolls to
circular form. A pipe 3 ft.. (0.91 m) diameter can be rolled out
of a single plate with one longitudinal seam. Over 3 ft (0.91 m)
and upto 6 ft (1.83
.83 m) diameter requires two plates with two seams
and beyond that upto 9 ft (24ti" m) diameter, three plates would
be required. For wlding, the plate edges overlap an inch or so
and are heated simultaneously by rows of water gas flames until
the metal, reaches welding temperature. The edges are then closed
together and thinned down to a single plate thickness by a machine
applying pressing and rolling action. In the finished pipe the
Joint runs diagonally across the thickness. Successive lengths
of the seams are closed in this way until the whole pipe Is comp-
late. The pipe is then heated in a stove, kept at annealing
 1 s v

temperature for a few hours # re•rol ed while hot to recover cir-

cualarity and then allowed to cool. Spigots and sockets or other
forms of end connection are then made by the use of special roll-
lug and pressing machines. If flange, are required they are
welded on. The finished pipe presents a smooth bore with no
apparent Joints.

A disadvantage of this type of pipe is due to the fact

that the water gas welding process requires that the steel shall
be of a special soft welding quality of lower tensile strength
(about 24 » 28 Tons per sq.in. ultimate) than the standard British
mild structural steel. With steel of this quality and normal
workmanship and taking into account the efficiency of 3oints, the
appropriate working stress is about 11,000 psi (773 8, per sq.cm),
which is considerably under the 6 Tons per sq.in. (9.45 4 per sq.
mm) normally used, for febricaaed. mild steel. pipe. Plates upto
't} in (3.81 cm) thick may be welded by this process but the practi-
cal limit of thickness for important work is about 1* in (3.18 cm)
as the manufacture of pipes thicker than this is attended by
increasing difficulty.

This form of construction has a wide range of applies.

tl.on and can be adopted. for low and medium beads and over a wide
range of sizes. Despite the lover quality of steel necessarily
used in their manufacture # these pipes can be used for higher
heads than are practicable with riveted pipes, and a smoother
bore is provided and watertightness is more easily assured.

&1.

)+ ,7 1ED
4.7.i As the name implies, this method of pipe construction
consists essentially of forming steel plates into circular shape
by cold rolling through heavy, plate rolls, joining the segments
into complete rings and finally joining the rings` and to and to
form complete pipes„

The method is of wide application and is suitable for

pipes of the smallest to the largest sizes encountered and also
through a large range of thicknesses. There does not appear to
be any top limit for diameter and the construction has been used
for pipes over 2 in (5.08 cm) thick using are welded joints. The
steel used is normal quality mild steel of 24.33 tons per sq.in.
(t)+ .1 to 52.0 g per eq.m;) breaking stress and higher woz'king
stresses can be adopted than for forge welded steel pipes.

The thickness of the metal used and accordingly the

weight of the pipe line is, however, governed by the efficiency
of the joints used, The three types of joint in most common u8e'
together with their limiting efficiencies, are as follows $ -

(a) . Are welded joints y- Upto 1©0% efficient

(b) Riveted joints Upto 84 efficient( depending
on type)
c) . ►ge . joints - Can be made 100% efficient.

A detailed account of various types of joints Is given

in Chapter IX. VI1
.

The materiel used for manufacturing riveted or welded

steel pipes is a perfectly weldable, nm dium-strength 5 M(Siemens•
 U

Martin) steel of boiler plate quality $ having a tensile strength

of from 34 to 45 1s per s q .mm at a yield point of from 18 to 2.5 gg
per sq~mm. It should be noted that high strength steels are
difficult to weld, wherefore medium strength steel having a ten.
sale strength of 34 Lg/sq,mm or so are mostly used for welded
pipes; Steel not exceeding in strength 1+0 kfsq.tnm. can still be
welded without difficulty, Increasing difficulties are enoountere:
In welding harder steels having both higher strength and higher
carbon content.=

'o day welded pipes are Installed most frequently. They

are also suitebb for the highest heads. The outstanding advantages
of th*s type of construction over riveted pipes are the

lower weight and

lower hydraulic resistance

under identical conditions and for identical diameters. Actually

the lower hydraulic friction also results in saving material,
since for a specified head loss welded pipes of smaller diameter
can be installed.

The friction coefficient of riveted pipes is 0 times

that of welded pipes# therefore the equivalent diameter
ter can be
expressed from the equation

V r

Where Index w refers to welded pipes„ while Index r

to pipes of riveted construction. With conventional simplification
equation ( .1) reduces to
 1
dwr dr

Whence' dv 5 dr .....1.~
vs
As observed in practice, coefficient 4 may attain values
as 'high as 1.14. in which case

dw =' 0.93d r .....O#.2a)

Since the necessary well thickness varies directly with

the diameter the ratio of the net weights of the pipes (excluding
rivets# respectively seams) can be expressed as

YHi d, c~y d

.....0 .3)

0
Wherefrom,
% = 0.865 Or •....`~!'w4)

Farther reductions in weight are due to differences

between joints, i.e. the omission of overlapping parts and butt
straps. Compared to riveted pipes both, fabrication and erection
of welded pipes involve smaller difficulties.

Elements of great diameter ( d >3 m) penstocks are

owing chiefly to limitations imposed by transport facilities usual
delivered to the site not in entire pipe sections but as half or
 .L i

third cylinders. Edges of 6 to 8 m long coarser are prepared

corresponding to the method adopted for jointing.

In order to Illustrate the rapid development in penstock

construction, a few representative data are given below after 0.
Gerrand. At the Eget power station constructed in 1922 a total
flow of 5.3 cu•m/sec is supplied to the turbines through 7 pen-
stocks under a head of 750 m. The entire weight of water-gas
welded pipes amounts to 2)+50 tons. A single penstock world be
installed if the station were built to-da3r. On the other hand,
no more than two penstocks having a total weight of 4400 tons
were provided at the )Ialgovert power station built in 19t.8 to
utilise a flow of 50 cu.m/sec again under a head of 750 meters.
With the techniques of 1922 the same installation would have
required penstocks weighing 5.5 time that night.

409 BA DED STEL PIP S

1..9.1 This form of construction is very expensive and is used
only for extremely high pressures combined with large capacity.
The construction adopted is based on the use of tubes of moderate
thickness reinforced with bands of rectangular cross section which
are shrunk on to the outside of the tube . The tubes are formed of
steel plates rolled to a circular shape and the joints may be forge,
welded or electrically welded. The bands are rolled into circular
hoops from a pierced disc of metal in the manner of a tyre for a
railway vehicle. They are, therefore, without joint, are 100%
efficient and are usually made of high tensile a ,el. Two different
processes are employed for applying the bands on to the tube.
 In one method the bands are accurately machined to a
slightly smaller internal diameter than the out side diameter of
the pipe, and are heated to increase their size temporarily and
slipped into position. While cooling,# the bands contract and
gip the tube thus placing it in initial in- compression. The
original diameters of the tube and the bands are so adjusted that
when the pipe is under working pressure there is a suitable alloca-
tion of stress between the two.# the stronger bands being subjected
to a higher stress than the tubes.

In the other method. the complete tube * with the bands

in position but not tight, is placed with its ends against the
face plates of a very powerful hydraulic press. The tube is
then filled with water which is pumped upto a pressure equal to
about twice the working pressure, the end loads being held by the
press. This high pressure stresses the inner tube beyond the
elastic limit and causes it to expand thereby bearing against the
band rings and putting them Into tension. The inner tube becomes
slightly upset between the rings so that the inner surface of the
tube has flat corrugations in the form of waves, but these are not
of sufficient extend to add unduly to the frictional resistance.
O removal of the pressure the diameter contracts and the 'tube is
left in compression and the bands In tension. It will be noted
that in this method an essential workshop process is combined
with an except.onally severe workshop test.

t .9 2 Banded pipes show substantial advantages over plain

welded pipes and the principal advantages" from the technical
and economic points of view are
(a) By means of composite shell-zing structure of the banded
pipe,, a greater safety factor is achieved against the
bursting of the pipe than the one given by calculation.
This happens for all composite structures such as e]
ropes # Galle chains and trussed beams because in the
calculations no account is taken of the fact that the
accidental failure of one element does not cause the
failure of the whole system. For instance, the unlikely
failure of one ring due to for-tuit#ohs ,causes (i.e.the
falling of a rock) does not necessarily cause bursting
of the banded pipe, but when the failure has been report-
ed it Is possible to go ahead in-v aid. safety with the
repair job.

(b) Completely efficient welding, that ie to say showing

mechanical properties not less than those of the steel
plates,, can be achieved more easily when the steel plate
is thinner. The pipe shell of banded pipes requires a
wail thickness about one-third of that necessary for a
plain welded pipe under the same operational. pressure and
the same safety factor ag nst yield point and ultimate
tensile strength. This happens because in the banded
pipes the banding rings take the main part (about two-
thirds) of the peripheral tension of the pipe, as the
banding rings are made of high strength quenched and
tempered steel that could not safely be used in the
manufacture of plain welded pipes owing to the problems
of welding.
 -47

(0) On account of the same reduction in thickness the

"notch tough" prop~+rties can be obtainned more easily for
a banded pipe than for the equivalent plain Molded pipe.

(d) In banded pipes all the longitudinal loads (brought

about by the friction of the supports, by the axial
component of the pipe weight, by the thrust of the
expansion joints: etc.) are convey9d exclusively through
the pipe shell. Consequently the banding rings are
stressed only by circumferential loads# that is to say,
they are in the most determinate static conditions
comprising unidirectional stress that finds ctirec.t
correspondence with the usual tensile test and does not
cause problems of plasticity or the composition of the
multidirectional. stresses. This is the more to be
appreciated as the strength of the pile against internel
pressure is mainly in the banding rings.

(e) The time of execution hand the cost of the, girth melds
to be carried out at the erection of the pipe are reduced
to at least 709 of what would have been required for plat
welded pipe of the same diameter, pressure , and safety
factor. This is due to the reduced well thickness of the
pipe sheU .

(f) The weight of a banded pipe is about twos-thirds of that

of the equivalent plain welded pipe. This leads to
savings and to easier transportation and erection.
4.9.3 A modification of banded construction consists, instead
of rigid bands, flexible high tensile wire cables are wrapped
round the tube and these are stressed by the method of pumping
water Into the pipe under high pressure. After manufacture, the
pipes are surrounded by a layer of concrete to protect the cables.
An example of this class of pipe has been constructed at Aueeois
in Savoy. The high pressure pipe -line has an internal diameter
of. 5' 3" (1.6 m) and is designed to operate under a maximum static
head of nearly 3,000 ft (91t M) . This single pipe -lthe can supply
a power station containing three turbines with a combined capacity
of 1,23,000 h.p.

Multt.leyer penstocks are an adaptation of the multi-

layer principle originated to develop a safer and more economical
method of constructing high pressure vessels in which tho, ratio
of diameter to wall thickness was 10 to I or less . As the name
implies, multi ►layer construction involves the use of several
layers of steel,# each progressively wrapped and tightened around
a cylinder by mechanical means and then gelded together at the
edges. The inner -shall is the inner most band of a layered pipe
and is made up in the same manner as any solid.waU. pipe. The
thickness of the Inners shell is from 3/8 in. to 1/2 in. The
outer layers are approximately 1/it in. thick. All longitudinal
welds are staggered relative to each other and are ground flush
prior to adding the subsequent layers. The ends of the multi•
layer shall sections are scarfed for voiding to adjoining shell
sections in order to make a pip* of desired length.
 49

The basic advantage of mtalti•la rer construction is

that it peratts the use of thin plates for -high head pertatocke.
The well-known advantages of thin plates over thick plates are
(1) thorough visual inspection of plates (ii) higher yield and
tensile strengths (iii) negligible residual welding stresses and
(IT) less susceptibility to brittle fracture.

Some design considerations of such construction have

been mentioned its para 5,9 of Chapter V.
 . '5U

5.4 Loading influences particularly the thickness of plate

and the longitudinal joints. Loading comprise the pressure both
static and dynamic which includes the weight of water in the
pipe, water hammer and the weight of the pipe itself. The
design criteria has been discussed under the following heads s-

1 . Penstocks supported on piers and anchors

2. Penstocks with ring girder supports
and 3. Banded and multi layered construction.

5.1.1 In the case of freely supported pipes # i.e. those with

no earth covert the into mal pressure of the water determines
the thickness of the shell. It there is an earth covert the
external pressure of the earth must be taken into account in
addition.

The maximum water pressure in the penstock occurs when

the water in the surge tank is at its highest level, or when a
water hammer Is produced by sudden complete Stoppage of the flow.
This maximum is used as the basis of design,

Formulas for computing the rise of pressure due to the

water hammer have been derived by L. A .lieri..- If the flow in a
penstock is changed suddenly, or at least very quickly, considera-
bie change In pressure will result. The velocity 'a' in meters
or tt, per sec.,, with which the pressure waves traverse the pipe
line is given by
 31

9900
(metric units)
748.3+K2

IE (English units )
;13.3+K

The values 9900, or 32,-?0, and 1+8.3 ' are constants

holding for water of mean temperature, while D and a are the
diameter and thickness $ respectively of the pipe in meters, or
feet. Further

lc= i00 (metric units)

iiffli~i~r+
it•2 x 10'

English units)

in which E is the modulus of elasticity of the material of

the pipe walls In It per sq.m., or lba.per eq.in. The value of
K can be. taken from the following table too

Pipe_. Me,tenia' , IC

Lead, concrete 5.0

Wood 10.©
Iron., steel 0,5
Cast Iron 1.0

The pressure waves due to the checking of the flow

travel from the gate (or the point where the flow is checked) ,.
back up in the penstock to its origin or point of relief, are
reflected there, and travel back to the gate, where they are
again reflected, and so forth. This process is repeated until
the osti .ations are completely damped out by friction. The
time in seconds required for the round trip of the press
waves is called the period or the penstock, and is equal to

in which L is the length of the penstock.

r'1 r2 The maximum pressure at the gate can be computed on
the . assumption that the pipe friction is negligible. Three
different cases must be considered. In the following,, let y be
the maximum pressure at the gate due to its complete closure, yo
the . pressure head at the gate before closure, Vo the mean velo-
city In the penstock at the gate before dosing begins, g the
acceleration due to gravity# t the time in seconds from the
beginning of the gate movement, T the duration of gate movement
in seconds (Fig.55. i . )
e aV0 < 2 g y0 . The maximum pressure (not pressure rise)
y is given by the relation

2
A- g +H2 =0.
rr..r\ r4)
in which
if =Y'0 + •....(5.5)
g

The value of if is also the maximum pressure head due to sudden

closure; tc , in a time equal to or less than 2L/a.:

The variation of the maximum pressure along the pipe 0

line for this case is shown in .g.(5.9;) .

2ne2 2g po < a Vo< 3g 7 , The maximum pressure at the
gate occurs before, when, or after t = 21/a, depending on whetherr
T is smaller or greater than

a VO
rt~.ai r rrwr.~r~+r~
•
•
a Vo 2g yo a

If T is smaller, the maximum pressure is computed

as in case 1 and if greater, as in the following case 3.

3 a Qo
3g yQ. The maximum pressure head y occurs
when t > 2L/a, and is equal to the positive root of the equation

Z 2+( ~)
g Yo
+i = o .....t.b~

in wh ieh
Z - .....(5.7)
0

In this case the pressure decreases from its maximum

value at the gate to the static pressure at the origin in direct
proportion to the pipe length g.(5.1b) . Creager and Justin
recommends that the computed surge pressure be increased by a
constant percentage,) to, allow a margin •f'or inaccuracies in Its
computations.

5.1.3 When a penstock is put Into operation, the pressure

at the gate falls below the value y which the dynamic pressure
head rill have when the gate has stopped moving and equilibrium
has set in. For the computation of the minimum pressure at the

J 1k

gate during its opening, it is also necessary to consider two

distinct cases. In the following, T is the time of opening.

C ue J T 2L/a. The minimum pre s sunce y j is given by

2
1 7 o g +7 =0
__\
.....(5.8)
in which V. is the velocity corresponding to yo.

Se 2 fi > 2L/a. The minimum pressure can be computed from

the following relation I

Z~ . Z 2+ ( gT
)
+ i o • .... t x.93

in Eaich
Z
0

The negative root of equation (5.9) which is Identical

with equation (5.6), is the minimum pressure head*

The variation of the minimum pressure along the pen.

stock for these two cases is also shown in Fig. 5.1.

If the thickness and diameter vary along the pipe line,

mean values are used. Thus instead of aTo„ aVa/ n is
employed, in which n Is the number or pipe sections. LV/L
is used instead of V0, and a mean value, of a is determined In
similar manner.
 55

The rise of pressure for rapid closure may be quite

considerable. As an example, the pressure rise for various
closing times is given in the following table. The length L of I
the penstock; 750 in (+60 ft), the velocity Vc is 2.50 m(8.20 ft)
for sec., and the initial net head y© is 150 in (1492 ft) .

Time of closure T Pressure rise (7 - y)

Seconds in ft.

0 105 . 31.5
3. . 93 305
6 40 131
12 19 62

Such pressures, if taken into account In the design #

would make the cost of the penstock unreasonable. It is, accord-
ingly, common practice to install relief valves « At times of
load rejection! these Valves, which are controlled by the turbine
governor, divert the excess f1.ow corresponding to the decrease
in load into the tail water, and than close so slowly that the
rise in pressure does not exceed 10 to 1$ per canto? the static
heed.

!.2 THI.C L
I4Q. ;.5. ;t S

5.2.1The stresses ins thin cylindrical shell due to internal

water pressure can be analysed by a method originated by D.Thoma.
The internal water pressure in penstock causes bursting force and
may cause longitudinal force in the pipe # both of which are
tensile . The bursting force tends to rupture the pipe about its
 J V

longitudinal seams and gives rise to hoop stress in the plate.

in Thoma's method, the forces acting on en infinitesimal.
rectangular element of the shell are analysed. The element
subtends the central angle 6, and its linear dimensions are
du, dz and to the latter being the thickness (Fig .5.2) .. The
water pressure Is p, and the normal force acting on the element
is p.du»dz. The total tangential force acting circumferentially
on each of the longitudinal sides of the element is T1 .ds.t; and
the resultant of the components of these two tangential forces
in a direction norms to the element is
d ~
2 T1 t dz sin 6.9••(,5.1 1)

Since
Sin do - .0
2 2P.

it follows that the value of this resultant is

T1 tdzt u.
.«...(5.13)
All the other stresses have no resultant in the N -
direction. If the weight of the element is neglected, the
condition of equilibrium requires that

pdudz T'1 tdo A t•6..` .11)

and the required thickness of the shell is

t=
fl 0....(5.15)
 tI

in which f I is the allowable unit stress for the pipe material.

The longitudinal force tends to rupture the pipe along its
circumferential Joints and causes longitudinal tension equal
to limit the amount of the hoop stress. The longitudinal force
may occur during normal operation by the pressure of water
against the face of a shut valve. The provision of expansion
Joints and anchor blocks $ however, may have a cancelling effect
on the longitudinal. force. A detailed discussion of iongttudi-
nal stresses is given in paragraph 5.4.

5.2.2 The validity limit for the equation (5,15), the so

called boiler formula, is defined in the literature by the ratio
d/t ? 20. The vertical distance between the maximum pressure
line Fig. (5.1) and the centre line of the penstock may be obtain-
ed from the penstock profile. Therewith the design pressure at
the corresponding point along the profile is

p = ' R tong/sq.m. .....t5.~6)

= 0.1 H /sq.om. .....(5.1?)

'ire H should be substituted in meters. Unless the pipes are

of the seamless type and consequently of small diameter only,
the stress computed by Eck. (5.15) must not attain the value
specified as allowable, f1. For all other conditions

f1
...0.(5.18)
Where 0 is a coefficient depending upon the type of joint used.
For welded pipes values from 0.85 to 0.95 should be used, although
recently weld coefficients jf = 100 have also been applied for
 3b

weld equivalent in quality to shell material. F'or riveted

joints
e -L
e

Where . is the rivet diameter, and a is the rivet pitch

parallel to the joint.

For the steel material of penstocks a factor of safety

of from 3.0 to 3.5, based can the tensile strength, Is usually
adopted, thus the allowable stress f1 for a material having an
ultimate tensile strength of 3700 Kt/sq.om. is not higher than
1200 4 per sq.cm., while at an ultimate strength of 5500 S per
sq.oar. the allowable stress is 1600 4 per sq.em. The allowable
stress is usually reduced for elbows and eyes (a factor of
safety of 5 to 6 Is used) .

For designing. purposes the above formulae are combined

and equation (5.15) is applied In the form
pd Ed,
t = 0.0 mm .....t«191
2¢ 1

Where H should be in meters:# d in millimeters and f1 in 4 per

std,.cm.unit.

In view of the fact that even the best surface coating

is not considered to offer adequate protection over extended
periods, a so•ca led corrosion allowance of from 1 to 3 mm I,s
added to the computed plate thickness.
 J it

592.3 %esuits computed by the above simple procedure cannot

be accepted in case of pipes having relatively thick walls,# for
which d/t <20. These are commonly r a fe rre d. to as thick-walled
pipes, Formula given below3 can be proposed as one of sufti- ,
cient accuracy for practical design purposes t

t- g +O.o?H
~'J r
6 fir/
n
—

l
• 1 i 11~,~l~/

$ f1 0.13 E I

Where shell thicknesses based on stress considerations

as less than thicknesses calculated from the following formula
the latter should govern
d+24
tmin = o inches .....(5.21)

in which d is in inches*

On the other hand Moaozyi proposes a minimum plate

thickness of about 6 mme for small diameter pipes and 10 mss for
large penstocks.

5.3 2
5.3.1 Obviously, results obtained by the above procedure of
dimensioning ma not be accepted as eatis f ac to ry unless the
computed wall thicknesses are in fair agreement with those
assumed previously for water hazer investigations. If this is
not the case, the computations will have to be repeated until,
agreement is obtained.

It has been found expedient to start practical design-

ing with an approximate assumption. The velocity of propagation
of the water hemmer wave is taken as round 1000 rn/sec . It is
 U V

assumed that the pipe diameter has al re ady been determined on

the basin of the permissible velocity. Having thus established
the flow velocity and using the assumed pressure wave celerity$
the pressure gradient lines may be constructed. The penstock
can hereafter be dimensioned, proceeding downstream from the
intake. The head is computed for the first penstock section
of given diameter and of minimum practicable shell thickness
from

Trtf
Yrrni.~++wr
t
R `= wwirr =
= 20 $f1

(a)

rd

Downstream from the point where this head is attained

a greater shell thickness is necessazy. The latter is assumed.
as the basis of practical considerations for the subsequent
section, the end point of which is determined as described above.
Proceeding in the above mariner, shell thicknesses are establish-
ed for the entire length of the penstock with due regard to
changes in diameter, where such a change is deemed practicable.
The penstock thus designed is hereafter checked for water hammer.
Pressure gradients are then adjusted according to values obtain-
ed by the water hammer analysis and shell thicknesses are# in
turn, checked, using the adjusted pressure values. It found
unsatisfactory or uneconomical, the penstock must be redesigfled.
If the wall thickness at any point reaches the value of d/20,,
the following pipe section should be designed according to
equation ( .2o) .

5.3.2 The determination of the maximum pressure drop to be

anticipated and thereby that of the lower gradient line ?ig.(5.i )
 61.

mar provide information about the possible danger and potential

locations of depressions, i.e. subatmospheric pressures occur-
ing in the penstock. Such conditions may arise at places wh4rO
the lower gradient line Intersects the axis of the penstock.
Depressions and even complete vacuum, may occur beside the
conditions outlined above, also in case of failure of the air
valve installed at the valve chamber. The thin-walled pipe
may be defamed or collapsed by the external. atmospheric over-
pressure.

The external pressure p5, likely to result in collapse f

may be computed from the formula of Re Mayer:

pe r =
3E1
d3
EX.
Fj/amt .....(5.22)

In the above formula I Is the moment of Inertia of the

pipe wall cross-section related to its own axis and computed
fora width o f I cm:

V (Cu.am.) ....(5.23)

Introducing safety factor n, equation (5.22) may be

rewritten as t

whence

t= d
\/ 2 (cm) •.i.M
\ 5r
+
 62

The factor of safety may be taken as

2 lbr buried penstocks

t for exposed penstocks,

While E' me r be taken as 2 x 106 k/aq.cm.

With the above values, and assuming complete vacuum in
the penstock, the simple formula

t = d 3 If ---~ = 0.01 d .....(5.26)

2z 2* 10

Is arrived at from which t is obtained In units identical to

those of d.

As indicated by eq.(5.26), fairly large plate thick-

nesses are required to resist the external. atmospheric load in
case of complete vacuum in the pipe. Obviously, every effort
should therefore be made to eliminate, as far as feasible, the
possibility of internal vacuum. This contingency should, however,
be prevented$ and the analysis for minimum pressures to be anti-
cipated should be carried out, even if the shell thickness
computed according to equation (- '., 2b) be smaller than that
required to carry the internal water load..
R

In the foregoing paragraphs analysis of hoop stresses

i.e. circumferential stresses have been made. The nature and
magnitude of longitudinal stresses are given in the following.
The details of the loads causing such stresses, are also reviewed,
 V ►J

according to grouping of A,Schoklitsch220

Moments develop in penstocks supported at isolated

points by piers or saddles, and additional stresses are set up
in the pipe shell as a result. Such a pipe can be regarded as
a freely supported continuous bean. The maximum bending moment
is approximately

M 1 N' L

in which L is the uniform span between supports and 91 the

component normal to the pipe axis of the weight of pipe and
water for the length L. If the pipe axis makes an angle of
with the horizontal,, and W' is the weight of pipe and water in
the length L, then

N' W' cos ~ ....9(5.28)

The maximum tangential stress in a longitudinal direction due
to the moment M to
Md
T2 -21
-r- .....(5.29)

In which I Is the moment of inertia of the pipe section. For

a shell. thickness t and di ame to r d, the moment of inertia of
the pipe section is

i = li t .....(.3O)

and the maximum longitudinal stress is

kM
2 =_ 2 9999. 5.31)
IN t d

-- 0 l-

In general it may be said that bending stresses are of not

much big magnitude except for oases of very thin pipes.

We .ded, and riveted longitudinal joints are not as

strong as solid plate and must not be placed at the highest
or lowest point of the pipe section. If the longitudinal
joint is located an angular distance of t5o from the vertical
axis of symmetry, its distance from the neutral axis of the
pipe ig --1--'-d f and the longitudinal stress at this point is
fl

2,.8 # 1 .....(5.32)
T'2 1 t d2

5.4.2 In addition to the stresses produced by the. internal

water pressure and the normal component of the might of the
pipe, there are also the following forces and stresses to be
taken into account the component of the weight of the pipe in
the direction of the pipe axis, the stresses due to the changes
in length caus$d by temperature variations# the pressure on the
conical. reducers, the pressure on the end area of the spigot
in expansion joints, and the friction in the expansion Joints.

(a) The axial force due to the dead weight of the inclined
penstock is

PI =Wp Sin 4....(5.33)

in which dip is the weight of the empty pipe between an anchorage

and an expansion Joint and V is the angle of the pipe axis with
the horizontal. Both the force and the resulting compressive
 U5

stress increase gradually and attain the may i*wn value

respectively, P1/ Il fit immediately upstream of the anchor
block. The force P1 is resisted by the anchor block.

(b) The full magnitude of temperature stresses occurs in

the so-called rigid or fixed penstocks only. The expansion of
a ponstock section of length 1., when subject to a change in
temperature of Too s Is

/S~ = w,- T toms) l......\5.~' ')

The efficient of thermal. expansion for the material, of

steel penstocks mor be taken as 1.2 x 1O'. Tensile or compress-
lye stresses In a penstock section of length A, , fixed at both
ends, due to a decrease respectively increase in temperature of
Too are

v 9 T (i&/eq.cm.) .....(5.353
With the substitution w = 1.2 ac iO"5/ °C

and 9 a 2.1 xI O5 Kg/cat

t = 25 T (k/ca2)

that is in a rigs penstock every change in temperature of °C

induces a stress of 25 4/ca2,, which is tensile for cooling and
compressive for heating and, naturally, Independent of length.
 A portion ©f this stress is only induced in the sod.
called semis-rigid type of penstock. if no expansion joints are
provided between anchor blocks, it will be necessary to design
circumferential joints for greater strength then would be
required when arraigements are inee for expansion. It is usually
more economical to provide special expansion joints and it is
the general practice.

Cc) Circumferential stretching of the pipe wail also induces

longitudinal stresses which develop fully in rigid penstocks.
Owing to the elastic internal water load,# the pipe tends to
contract in length in keeping with the fundamental relationship

.1....(5.37)
Where in ~L n Is the ci rcumfe nti . strain induced by
hoop stresses and m is the reciprocal value or Poison's
number. (Pr steel* used for penstocks m 3.3) With the.
substitution c 62g, There ('ig hoop stress,

C ..... (5.38)
Since the penstock section find at both ends Is
restrained, the contraction cannot take place and tensile
stresses are bound to develop in e. manner similar to temperature
rates
comes. The Magnitude of these stresses is given by
 A portion of these stresses is only developed in semi.
rigid penstocks depending upon the friction caused by sliding
over the supports.

(d) Friction at the supports of semi-rigid penstocks

results in axial forces as the pipe tends to expand or contract
under the influence of changes in temperature . When the force
due to differential temperature is smaller than the frictional
resistance, the pipe is stressed by the former, yet when greater
the magnitude being irrelevent the axial load is governed by the
frictional. force. With the supports spaced at a distance b, and
the dead weight of the section of length b being W, inclusive
of water inside it, the frictional force at the support is
given by

Pf /Le&w Coop (Kg)

The total resistance at several support is

A W Cos

for a penstock section filled with water and extending from an

expansion joint to the subsequent anchor block.

The corss.section immediately upstream from the, anchor

block is subject to this axial load.

Values of the friction coefficient for more important

combinations of materials are given in the following table.
 •
la

Steel on concrete or on brick work .

1+5 - 0.50

Oast iron on concrete 0.50 - 0.7

Steel on steel, without lubricant 0.30 + 0.50
steel on steel with graphite 0. 0.22
Steel on steel greased 0.12 • 0.15
Steel roller on steel 0.05 - 0.10
The excentricity of frictional forces relative to the
penstock centre line induces additional moments. With the
arrangement and notations of Fig.5.3 the frictional force 'f
acts at the centroid of the saddle arch AB and thus the ma3d.r.1a
longitudinal stress due to friction forces Pf developing over
all supports within a section between an expansion joint and the
subsequent anchor is

6 _ p + aZ — Y
P
wrrr.
~ ( `, I~
Ml/sq.cm. .....`5. I2)
A

This stress will be pressure if the temperature increases, and.

will be tension if the temperature drops. Substituting for the
section modulus

3=rtd =

We obtain

J ;:i: [
A d
w► is/0m2 ....(5*U3)
•

Where A = dt i.e. the area of the annular cross section In

eq.cm. Denoting the central angle of the saddle are by 'C. ' ,
the vertical position of the centroid, and thus the point of
application of the frictional force Pf may be computed from

d Sits oC
a arc0S

and there with

(e) Expansions or contractions may result in considerable

friction at the expansion joints as well, which contributes tt
the longitudinal, force acting on the pipe. In case of the
sleeve type expansion joint shown In Fig.5.4., friction develops
over a surface d a corresponding to the depth a of the pack-
ing. One of the prerequisites for a good water stop being that
the pressure of the packing material against the shell should at
least equal the max.mum internal water pressure (P), the total
frictional force acting in the centre line will be

P =/U1 Fk d e p ( It*.....(5.45)

W re the coefficient of friction may be , taken as I = 4.25 •

Stress due to this resistance yields -compression when warming
up# and tension when cooling downT

Cr) At expansion joints both pipe ends are subject to a

force due to direct water pressure (p`ig.5.5)

Pe a d t p (Ig)

(g) It reducing pieces (con fusers) in the penstock a force

parallel to the direction of tapering# i.e •, pointing downstream,
 fU —

exerts a load on the piece. The magnitude of this force is,

with reference to Pig.5.6.

PC = /-\ Fp(19)

.....{5.4?)

it must be noted that the diameter is made to change

mostly at anchor blocks so that this thrust does not induce
stresses in the pipe wall .

(h) The force due to the drag of water flowing in the pen-
stock section of length A. Is

Pd, = 1
{fit) .....(5.)8)

and points in the direction of flow, In the formula 3 denotes

the piezonetric gradient under noim al operating conditions. This
force is usually very small and should in general be neglected.

5,4+.3. . The longitudinal design stress is obtained by properly

superimposing part stresses due to loads listed under points (a)
to (h) and stresses due to bending moment T2. The possibility
of simultaneous occurrence of these should be investigated for
each particular installation separately, and alternative sets
of load conditions should be compared.

For more accurate calculation the principle of the

"fictitious" reduced stresses a ey be applied. If for any oombi-
nation of loads,

T1 is the circumferential, stress - according to

Equation (.i5
T2 is the tangential stress in longitudinal direction
due to bending moment(beam action) as per eqn. (5.31)
 _ rl

T3 is the stress due to forces listed under items ( a)

to (h)

where a is the area of the pipe shell

p is the radial pressure (water load) , then the reduced

stresses are as follows: (t.e. Principle stresses)

Circumferential, f c = T •• m (t2 + T3 + p) .....(+9)

radial, tr p - m (T + T2 + T3) .....15.50)

Longitudinal f = T2 + T3 - (T,~ + p )

in th ich m is Poisson's Ratio.

These fictitious reduced stresses are to be compared

with the allowable stress. Tensile and compressive stresses
should be considered with opposite signs. Poisson's number may
be taken as 3„3 for steel penstocks,,

Hoop stress and longitudinal stress govern the d*sign

of the pipe joints. The thickness of the pipe and the form of
the longitudinal joint will be determined by the maximum per•
•missible stress round the circumference, The stresses In the
longitudinal direction Will be less# and advantage can be taken
of this to provide a cheaper and less efficient form of circum-
ferential joint. The effect of the combination of two tensile
stresses at right angles, is not serous. According to the
maximum principle stress theory, the maximum of the two tensile
stresses is the one which produces failure and hence no additional
margin of safety is required.
 72
The maximum longitudinal stress under girder action
occurs at the top and bottom of the pipe there there is no shear.
On the neutral axis of the pipe, however, there is no longitudi-
na , stresses due to girder action but the shear stress is at a
l gximum. The effect of the shear stress combined with the
tensile stress is to Increase the principle stress slightly, but
the increase is generally smear, and under average conditions
will be less than 5% of the major tensile stress. This increase
due to shearing force is normally ignored in the design of the
joints, as it is insufficient to be worth calculating.

5.5 DEIGNOF LAB 2IP i (Supported on Ring Girders)

5.5,1 An exact theory for the design of large pipe lines and
their supports is discussed under this paragraph. In the case
of large pipe lines, instead of the saddles commonly used, the
pipe is supported end kept in shape by full ring girders which
were first Introduced in Sweden. The ring girders act as stiff,
disk shaped members, preventing large distortions over the
supports and the#r, transmission into the pipe shell proper. Under
these conditions stresses can be analysed by the elastic theory
of thin shells . It is found that the shell then is mainly
subject to direct beam and ring stresses, the loads being
mitted to the supporting rings by shearing stresses. A narrow
zone of secondary beading stresses occurs in the shell portions
a&lacent to the supporting rings, induced by the restraining
action. The governing design stresses in the shell and the
stress analysis of a circular supporting ring is also given.
 73
Direct
5.5.2 +rn Stresses
~+rrrrrwww wit In Pige
Sheli
rr~rrw s

Fig. 5.7 shows a horizontal pipe section connected too

and supported by, two stiff, disk-Shaped, members, which prevent
large deformations of the rim and their transmission into the
she ,l proper. Under such rim conditions the theory of thin
shells shows that continuous surface loads, applied over the
shell area, will cause mainly direct stresses in the pipe walls.

Pig .5.8 shows a small element of the pipe shell, loaded

by the external force components, X, T and Z. The element is
held in equilibrium by the ,stress components ?, T2, and the
shearing forces, 3, which act in pairs of equal magnitude on all
four faces. Designating tension - by the positive sigh, and the
radius of a curvature . of the cylinder element by R, Ba 1ersfeUd
(as mentioned by Sows rey23) has derived the following ge ne ral
differential equations,

T2 = - R Z .....t2~
~ T2
a =_ dx+ dx' +t1(u) .....t .3
= dxt .' X dxi + f •....~~. ► h
R?~u

The functions* f1(u) and f 2(u) , depend on the origin of

the co-ordinate system and the conditions at the supports. With
the origin at the center of the span, as shown in Fig. (5.7) ,
f1tu3 = 0. Assuming, that any inside pressure on the end disks
is resisted by corresponding forces tn the opposite direction,
then, in the case of P.g.( 5.7), the stress component s Ti, must
become zero at the supports, which condition determine f2(u).
 lI

The following cases of. loadings are considered.

Case I I Dead Load Stresses

Designating the weight of the pipe she l per unit area
by w, fig, 5.9 gives the following values for the load compo-
nentsI

Z =wCos u; t =w elan u; and X=O

Substituting Z in equation (5.52) ,. the ring stress component

becomes,

T2 =- rwcos u .....(5.55)
r being the 'radius of. shell which is constant.
Substituting the partial ierivativè, T2/ a u = r w sin u,
and the value of Y in equation (5.53):

S'- - 2 w X' sin u 9....(5.5+0

The partial derivative of g, a s/ a u =. 2w x' cos u, is then
substituted in equation (5.54) . Byr integration*

w(0 2
T1 = Coo u + f 2 (u). Since T.~ = 0# when

2
X' = 2 t t'2tu) - os u. Therefore..,

3L' t t 2 - x:os a ..... (55?)

The unit stresses are obtained by dividing the expressions for
the stress components by the shell thickness, to
 IJ

C se 2 i Stresses For Pipe Precisely Full I

Assuming that a liquid of unit weight,, q, precisely

falls the pipe to the top, with free level at u = 0, the load
components are given by Fig.5.9 f ass Z = q r (1-Cos u); ! = 0
andX=0.

From equation 5.52,

T2 =gr2 ( 1-Cosu )

Proceeding as shown for case 1, from equation (5.53)., .

S=qrx' Sinu .....(5.59)

Equation 5.51i becomes

T1 = ' r L2 *f (x)2j Cos U .....(5.60)

Case 3 3 ]Pipe Half PuU s

For practical purposes# a design based on Case 2,

including the rim stresses will be safe for a pipe half full.

Case ) s Combined Direct Stresses I

Combining the two cases of loading and designating
the maximum unit ring stress by ' r then from equations (5.55)
and (5.58), with D = , 2 rt

= C w + q D)

This stress occurs at the bottom of the shell, where the tension
due to the dead load Is increased because of the weight of the
liquid.
 'U

If the pipe is under pressure, corresponding to a head$

w, above the bottom of the pipe, then the maximum combined ring
stress, designated by f r' beco es,

f. = (w+ qh) .....( .6 1

The combined maximum longitudinal stress (ft) is
obtained from equations (5.57) & (5.6O); with it' = 0, and a 0,
oru=
i.2
fL ( + 2 .....t5.b3)

If in pipe is prevented from expansion and contraction

due to temperature changes, the longitudinal stresses duo to
this cause must be superimposed to the stresses, fL'

Longitudinal and circumferential joints of riveted and

welded construction must be designed to transmit the full shell
stress.

5.5.3 t stre ss es :

Assume that the pipe section shown in Pig.5.7 is under

uniform Inside pressure. Due to thS elasticity of the shell the
pipe diameter will Increase by a small amount in direct proper-
Lion to the ring stress. The shell r.ms, on account of their
rigid connection with the end disks t cannot widen in the s ei
manner as the more distant shell portions$ so that bending defor-
mations occur in the restrained rim .zone.

In practical cases the pipe is built as a continuous

structure over more than two supports. In order to provide an
unrestricted flow area the full disks of Fig.5.7 are replaced by
ring disks members. Pig.5.17(a) shows the state of deformation
of a pipe shell, which is under a uniform inside pressure # p,
and is rigidly connected to a circular ring to constant cross-
sectional, area, Ar. The radius of the unrestricted shell
portions Das increased by the elastic amount, r'pp and the
radius of the ring disk, by the amount, r' d. Fig.5.1?(b) shows
one-half the pipe shell out at its connection with the ring. The
original deformation of the free rim is restored by applying a
uniformly distributed radial thrust, H, acting inward* and a
uniformly distributed radial moment, M, which has the tendency
to turn the rim outward. H and H are measured per unit length
of circumference.

The rim, deformations due to such radial, loads are

given by P. Pasternak. The following analysis of the rim stress-
es is based on Pasternak's method...

It the free cylinder rim is loaded by the radial thrust,

H, alone, as shown in 'ig .5 .i7( o) , the rim deformation is e p re-
seed by the radial deflection# dif,, and the angular change of the
generetrix, designated by 9... If the free rim is loaded by the
radial moment, H, alone, as shown in Pig.5.17(d) , the correspond-
ing deformations are designated by dp and S M„ respectively.

Pasternak has derived the following expressions for the

deformations of the rim* die to the radial loads, H and M I

2 r2 H
dS
 to

2r2 8

2 r2 M
ZS
2 M
d S = .wr, r. .....(5.67)

t Z3 S
Vrt
in which Z is n constant for the she 1, equal to
3(9-r)

Due to the inside pressure $ p, per unit area, the

radius of the unrestricted shell portions increases by the amount,
p r2 ~a
= .rrar.68

The disk ring is loaded by the direct pressure, p,

acting over the width, c,t and the radial thrust$ H, transmitted
From both shell rims. Designating . by N t in total tension in
the ring caused by the combined loads $ then

Nt =(pc+2H) r ..0..(5.09)

Further, if A2, designates the croas.eectionel area of thu

ring ,
rr rr.(5.7o)
r' d =(pe+2H)

With reference to Fig. 5. i?(b) , the following relation

can next be written:

'gy p - d$ + dM =
 79

Since the connection between the ring and the shell

Is assumed as Mixed,
.....C5.11a)

Substituting the corresponding values for the deformations,

equations (5.6)+) i (5.65), (5.66), (5.67), (5.68) and (5.70), in
equations (5.?1) and ( .?1al) , respectively,
4 ~j • ~t /
y .'I

R MY'Yr II y"' "~iYA_

r
p Z2 ( Ar - ct )
and M = ~-- t" 2 tz

For steel,, with m2 = 0,10, the shell constant equals,

/31 m2)
Therefore equation (5.72) becomes

9=O.78prt ( A .....(5.)
r + 1•56 t/t )

and equation (5.73)

M = O, 3© p,rt ,
C~•ot)
....,. .....( 5.76)
(A+1.56 t/rt )
The section modulus, S., of the shell plate,, per unit
width of circumference, is t/6. Designating by f the maximum
rim bending stress of the shell, f rom equation (5.76),
y CA •Ct) pr
( +1.. 56 t/rt)
 In equation (5.87), the factor, pr/t, is identical
with the ring stress in the unrestricted shell, also called
the cylinder stress. Effect of variation of A, , and c is
evident from equation (5.87). The wider the ring disk, the
smaller will be the bending stress. The total tension$ , Nt, .n
the supporting ring can now be determined by substituting H,
from equation (5.75) 9 in equation (5.69), which gives,

Nt pr To + 1.56
i
ti +1.56 t/pct )
•

In cue of unsymmetrical loads the mexiicum rim bending

stress is obtained with good approximation by substituting the
max. ring stress (equation 5.62) In place of the cylinder stress,
part, in equation (5.87).

5.5. .n
Fig. 5.18 shows a circular ring of uniform cross-
section, loaded, and held In equilibrium by the external forces,
P. For the purpose of analysts the ring is cut at the top and
the right half is fixed at C'.. The left half is provided with
a rigidly connected lever ems, co, in which o represents the
elastic centre of the ring (identical in this case I4th the
geometric Centre) At o, the unknown forces X1, Y and the
unknown moment, Utz are applied so that the ring deformations
at e, with respect to C', disappear,

If di. designates the length of a email ring element

and N. defines the moment of the external forces between C and
3D, then the unkbowns awe found front the following equations# as
r~ rl V1 ks1TY OF
RoeAa
given by Muel .er-breslen
5 M 41
7' d .....t5.89)
1 =
S
x dl
0....(5.90)
Sd1

= .r. ...,.,. .....(5.91)

S d3.

The forces* X1 and L1, are assumed positive when acting in the
direction shown in Pig.5.18, and all moments are taken as
positive when acting clockwise.

.. Substituting di. = R du; x = R sin a; and y = B cos u

and integrating between the lets, u = 0 and u = 2 equations
(5.89), (5•9o), . ( 5.91) become,

cos. u du .....C5*92)
xiJir
0
2k
....4(5493)
0
f Me Sin u du

2 It
and MtSMedu .0...(5.94)
O

Designating by Q the total load of the pipe shell,

transmitted by shear to one ring disk, the distribution of the
shear, S, per unit width of circumference is given by equations
( 5,56) or (5.59) ; therefore, with reference to Pig. 5.19.
 Uz

S Sin v ..... .' )

11

Fig.5.19, shows the circular ring disks symmetrically

loaded at the inner circumference by the shearing force•# S,
acting tangent to the circle at each point. The ring is held
in equilibrium by the two vertical reactions, Q/2, applied at
the distance, a, from the neutral axis of the ring. The forces,
5, and Q/2f then represent the external load systems which is

symmetrical to the vertical dieter. For this reason the un-

known, Y , equation (v.93),. is zero.

The external. moment consist of the bending moment

due to. the shearing forces,, designated by M5, and the moments
due to the reactions, designated by MA and Ma,,. respectively.

With reference to Fig.

n
Ms = J is • r dv

From analytic geometi r*

b R(Sinu Sin v+•co•u COS v- .....{ 0.97)

and therefore, with •. from equation
•Qfl u
M• = - •.nv(sinusint+a4•acapgv-r/R)~

By integration,
4R
M -... to
.--ginu„ r/R(I-Cv•u) ..«0.(5.99)
 11
The-left reaction causes a moment between u = r and u = 2 )1 „
equal to

QR ( A - sin a + ) f ... f ( . ioo )

and the right reaction between u , and u = 211 ,Caueee a

moment,
Qh
I - ( r + sin u + 1 ) .....(5.1oi)
Equation ( 5.92) then becomes,
y~
2
X1 R - f M. X30 U d1 I MAcosudu+ J t.tCosudu)
0
.....(5.1o2)

Substituting equations (5.99), (5.100) and (5..101) in equation

(5.102) , and Integrating between the limits shown,
a3
Q
..... (5.1©3)
For the moment, ?, equation (5.91) gives,
2 2(1 2
•• • f
Me du + I X du +M dU ..... (5.14*')
2[
(i
r
3 ~v
Substituting equati,r a (5.99), (5.100) and (5.101) in (5.104)
and integrating between the limits shove,

Hz LRuuiç t )J
The resulting moment at any point of the ring is obtained by
combining the external moment, Me with the moment, M and the
moment due to X1. Designating the moment at the top of the ring#
u=0, by I


M =MZ .RX1

r ~ + r ( I - '
)J ....(.iO6)
The normal force at this point, designated by Na: is equal to X19

11111\~1~V(~
iM

Designating the resulting ring moment in the first quadrant by

M1,, then# from equations ( .99), (5.106) and (5.107),

MJ 4 MQ + NOR ( I - oo u) + Ma

2a, i iW
Iti
or M1 = C u loin u + cos u - T + r (oos u -

Designating the resulting ring moment in the second quadrant

by M2* then

12„ = Mo + N01t (1-00" u) + Me, + M

A .... ( . i'1©)

arid, with reference to equation (5.0 00) 9

M2 1. It -►u) gin u coo u- w'

(cos u + yi ..Mi.(5.1Ii)

• A comparison of equations (5.149) and (.iii) shove

that the absolute moment values In both quadrants are the neus.
Except for the opposite sign $ the moment curves are symmetrical,,
about the horizontal diameter. On account of symmetry in load.
ing the moments in the third and fourth quadrant are identical
with those in the second and first q uadrant.
 •i

In order to determine the maximum moments it will be

sufficient, therefore, to consider the first quadrant only.
Extreme values occur. at u : 0, at u = 1`/2, and at some inter-
mediate angle, which is found by differentiating equation(5.109)
tl. th respect to u, thus.!

U cot U= 4.

The maximum Intermediate moment, N, I9 obt sine d by

substituting in equation (5.109) the value of u given by .eqn.
(5.112) . Designating the moment for u = '/2 by Ma, equation
(5.109) gives

•....(5.113)

Fig. 5,20 shows the absolute values of H0 , M, and M plotted

In the function of the ratio,, e/R. The eccentricity, a, is taken
as positive when the reactions are applied outside the neutral '
axis of the su portii ring. The minimum possible ring moment
is obtained for a/R = .O,0, in which ease,

M = 0.010 QR

iig.5.21 illustrates the momnt distribution for this came •

1-
The maximum normal, ring force; due to the shearing
forces, e o occurs at u = 11 /2 and Is designated by N e , expressed
by the relation,
.,....5.915)
Ne =
This force exerts compression just above,, and tension
just below, the horizontal diameter. Siam e, for a/R

•

the maximim bending stress is also found at this paint, a

somewhat smaller combined stress will be obtained with + 0.04
0.00.

In addition to the normal force, Na, the ring is stress-

ed by the tensile force, Nt, equation (5.88), which is independent
of a/B, but can assume large values for higher heads in combi-
nation with thicker shells.

5.5.5 Rxastple And Application $

~rl~i~~ II~nOf ~ irk w+~.wrr~l~igl F+r~Y~tilll~r

Assume a pipe liner continuously supported by circular

rings, and having the following charsoteristies z D = 10 ft;
t=1/4in.; L = 60 ft; Ar =I inIr12.25in.; a :0.04R;
H = 100 ft; w = 12 lb .per sq. tt. (estimated including joint
material); and q = 62,5 lb. per ou.ft. Fird the maximum stress-
es in the pipe she'll and supporting ring.

For the maximum ring stress, equation (5.62) gives

10 x 12
tr = xo 25
(1262«5
+` x1010 z =10,0440

Since the pipe is continuously supported, the maximum

longitudinal beam . stress occurs at the supports; its magnitude
is taw twosthird, the value given by equation (5,63);

2 6o2112 2x12 62.5

+
fL 3 o a
1 6730

The maximum bending stress at the rim is obtained by

substituting f r = 10,440 for the cylinder stress,_ pr/t, in
equation (5,87); therefore,
 124
fbo = 1.82 x IM40 ,~ * 580
-1 a 16

The combined longitudinal shell stress then becomes $

tL + f, = 23,310. On account of the large stress it would
be advisable to increase the shell thickness at the supports.
since the membrane stress, fL, and the bending stress # fo, both
decrease rapidly with increasing distances from the supporting
disk, the increased plate thickness would probably be required
for only one course.

The total reaction, in lbs. transmitted to one support-

ing ring is,

Q 60 ( xIO x 12 +•►r x 52 x 6295) = 317000 Fig. 5.20

with eIR = 0.01r 9 gives for the maximum ring mvment, in inch
pounds, M = 0.010 x 317000 x 66.25 = 210000. The maximum bend-
ing stress in tl r supporting ring then is
210000 x 6
f1
122 8? 0

From equation (5.115) the maximum normal ring stress

due to shearing 'orcea, Sw equals,' 1 = 6610. The
normal ring stress due. to radial forces, from equation (5.88)
• galn f3 * ( i + 60.1+ x ,~ , , ) = 102►.

Since all these stresses occur combined at the horizontal dia-

meter, the maximum fiber stress, (tension) in the supporting
ring becomes,
ff1 *f2 +f3 =16,380
 If the thickness of shell Is greater than 60 ama, it
is difficult to bend the plates in factories. Under such airy-.
eumstancer banded pipes or banded corrugated pipes may be
employed. Fig. (5.9) above a section/banded corrugated pipe..

The required cross-sectionel araof the rings Is

L1 (pr - t f1)
ar s....~r
j• 7~
fr
in which f1 and fr are the working unit stresses for the
shell and ring materials, respectively, and the remaining
symbols are as shown in Fig. (5.9) .

It the radius of curvaturea of the corrugation is made

equal to

Re Y +0
•....(5.78)

the corrugations become pats of hollow spheres, and the

required shell thickness is then

t Bp
Zt' ....(5.79)

i.e. only half as. great as for cylindrical pipes.

5.7 - SI + ST 8S OF_ U.s..B.R

5.7.1 Past Bureau practice in penstock design has been
substantially in accord with the requirements of section VIII,
Division I of the AS Code for Pressure - Vessels. This code,
which governs the design of -pressure vessels used in a broad
 n 1l

spectrum of operating conditions, has been recognized as not

being entirely applicable to the design of penstocks. This is
particularly. true of the allowable design stresses permitted
under this code. In recent years% the use of higher strength
steels for penstock installations dictated a reappraisal of
allowable design stresses to take proper advantage of the
higher yield points and ultimate tensile strengths of these
steels. However, allowable stresses cannot be arbitrarily
increased. This decision must be made subsequent to a study
of the following t »

1. Design load- based on design conditions and the

accuracy with which these loads may be determined.
2.. Methods of stress analysis and the reliability
of the stresses computed from the design loads."
3. Quality control of steel plates
1+. Quality, control of fabrication & erection.
5. Hazard of failure.

• These criteria consider the preceding factors In

settir allowable design stresses, methods of stress analysis,
and requirements for hydrostatic pressure testing and nondestaru-
ctive testing of welds.

5.7.2 Although stresses based on one-half the miniium yield

point or ore-quay the mini ultimate strength are widely
used in penstock design# it is not considered realistic to use
the same design stresses that are used for pressure vessels
which fafl within the scope of Section VIII, Division I of the
ASS Code. Penstock design loads can be accurately determined
and reliable methods of structural analysis are used in desigt*b
Ing these structures. These factors g coupled with good quality
control of fabrication and erection # were considered In estab-
lishing the foal owing design conditions with the corresponding
factors of safety.

a) !i mal Condition I
This condition includes maxim= static head plus
pressure rise. due to normal operation. The recom'aended Factor
of Safety (PS) is 3.0 based on the specified minimum ultimate
tensile strength,, but In no ease. shall the allowable stress
exceed 2/3 the specified isnimum yield. point.

b) Intermittent Condition 8
This includes Conditions during filling and draining
the penstock and earthquake during normal 'operation. The
recommended PS is 2.25 based on . the specified minimum ultimate
tensile strength but In no case shall the allowable stress
exceed 0.8 of the specified minimum yield point.

c) Ems rgency Condition :

■~~+~r~ - r ~rlirq..I~wlir.~.g1..Yrp41Gi11Mrlli .

This condition includes governor cushioning stroke

inoperative and part gate closure in (2Lra) seconds at maximum
rite. The recommended PS is 1.5 based on the specified minimum
ultimate tensile strength, but in no case shall the allowable
stress exceed the specified minimum yield point.
d) Excep tional Condition I
~~yy~~/i~rryMlil 11r~~5~

This condition includes mel functioning of control

equipment in the most adverse manner and shall not be used
as the basis of design. If the maximum stress does not exceed
the specified minimum ultimate tensile strength, the structural
integrity of the tenstock is reasonably assured precautions
must be taker to minimize the probability of occurrence and
effects of the exceptional. condition.

Commonly used penstock steel and allowable stresses

are shown in Table .1.

Ring girders which support the penstock are designed

using structural quality steel and an allowable stress in
accordance with the AX (American Institute of Steel Contn.)
Manua, of Steel Construction.

AU fabrication is in accordance with requirements of

the ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1. All longitudinal and
girth joints are double-welded butt welds with complete penetra-
tion and are radiographically inspected 100%. The allowable
joint efficiency is 100%. In addition to radiographic inepec-
Lion of welding, magnetic particle inspection of welds is
frequently specified for penstocks fabricated using high-
strength heat-treated alloy steels.

All exposed penstocks are subjected to hydrostatic

test during which the penstock Is supported In a manner that
permits the visual examination of all welded joints. The test
pressure is specified as equal tO 1.33 times the
pressure for the normal design condition, but not to exceed
a pressure that would result in a stress greater than 80 of
the yield point of the steel used. Test location and extent
of penstock assembly for testing are based on the following
alternatives s-

1 , Shop or field fabrication plant testing of fabri .

sated sections.
2, Field testing of fabricated sections in temporary
location.
3,. Field testing of installed penstock in final
location.

The structural analysis of exposed penstock involves

the determination of many longitudinal and circumferential
stresses which# when appropriately combined, result in a maxi-
mum stress which is not permitted to exceed the allowable stress.
The stresses eonsidere3 under normal. condition are 5-

Between Supports
1. Longitudinal stresses due to beam bending.
2. Longitudinal stresses due to longitudinal movement
under temperature changes and Internal pressure.
3. Circumferential (hoop) stress due to internal
!r! e9# .*.
« Equivalent stress based on Eeneky- ices Theory of
Failure..


93

0 0 0
0 0
0 08
0 • 0
w 0 w
~ 0 t 0 r+~"
e- co

to

0 0 4,
© 0
o 0 'O 0
N 4
0 O•

fi
Ga
U,
r

o 0 00 43
w
0
w
0
w w w w

tli
a4)
P cd
a
0
0 0 0 0 0 0
046 0 M 0 0 t+n
w w
U)
w * • Cii

ci to C,

0 .-443 Øj
0 0 00 Ci
© 0 0 0
C1 0 '00 . 0
m u,
r
40
oøo
43

© o C0.r4 r4
r~
0
0 a 0 0
00
© 0 m

' '0 © r
co 00
f
No t . 00 m

4Ø u0 tv 0
 ~ k

At Supports s

1. Circumferential stresses in supporting ring girder

due to bending and -direct stresses and tensile
stress due to Internal pressure.
2. Longitudinal stresses In the shell at support due
to beam bending and stresses in the shell due to
longitudinal movement of the shell under tempera-
ture changes and internal presscre.
3. Bending stresses imposed by the rigid ring girder.
Equivalent stress based on Hencky-Mises theory
of failure.

The penstock she ,l between supports is designed as a

continuous beam. Several combinations of span lengths are
studied in arriving at the optimum span lengths for existing
conditions. Span lengths between supports and length of eanti..
levered sections adjacent to the expansion, joint are proportioned
so that the longitudinal bending moment at the supports is equal
to or approaches the moment for, a fixed end beam, K = ~wL2/12.

The moments # reactions at the supports, and bending

stresses are readily computed. 'Combined with these stresses
are the stresses due to longitudinal forces imposed on the shell
in overcoming the forces of friction at the supports and expan-
sion Joints. The latter force is considered to be 500 lb.per
circumferential ft. The stresses from these frictional forces
are -small but are combined with the longitudinal bonding stresses
when considering the combination of longitudinal and circumferen-
tial stresses. The circumferential or pr/t stress In the shell

between supports is computed and combined with the longitudinal

stress in accordance with the Hence-4ises theory of failure.

The equivalent stress can be readily obtained from

Fig. S-\3 . From the enc uMtsaø theory S = S 2 -S S +S

In which s = equivalent stress and ., S F = principal stresses

This stress is not permitted to exceed the allowable stress shown
In Table 5.1 rt for the normal condition. This analysis will result

in variable plate thickness between supports+ Thicker shell

plates vii]. be required at supports with thinner plates in the
region of Inflection points and Increasing plate thickness at
the mid span.

6•~

` .g. is used to compute the circumferential

stresses due to bending# direct stress, and tensile stress.
Longitudinal stresses at the supports include beam bending
stresses, stresses due to frictional. forces at the supports
and expansion joints and bending due to the restraint of the
pressurised pipe shell by the ring girder. Although the bond-
ing stress Is only a local stress in the shell, which sharply
decreases with increasing distance from the support,, it is
added to the other longitudinal stresses. Bending stress due
to ring restraint is (See equation
i r ict) pr
1
682
(Ar+1.5b t/rt)
Circumferential and longitudinal stresses are combined
in accordance with the Hencky.Mises theory (Fig P5.13) and the
maximum equivalent shell stress is limited to values in Table
5.1 for a normal condition,
 96

The normal condition (Static bead plus water hemmer)

with the corresponding allowable stresses usually governs the
design. Ho'aeyer, an analysis is made on the basis of the
intermittent and emergency conditions to acquire a realistic
evaluation of the structural integrity of the penstock structure.

The use of these criteria, which are less conservative

than the former, In conjunction with good design, fabrication#
and erection procedures will not appreciably affect the stru-
ctural integrity of a penstock installation and will result in
significant savings in penstock coats.

A brief description of multita yer penstock has been

given in Chapter IV under para '4.10. Some of the design consi.-
de rations are enumerated below:

5.8 .1 The well thickness of a high-head mkti-leer penstock

is satisfactorily determined on the basis of a fibre stress of
50% of the mintia specified yield strength of the steel with
a Joint efficiency of 100%. The latter value is used because of
the staggering of the longitudinal joints of the 'sayers. There;
forre # the formula for thin shells in Section VIII of the ASE
Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels may be written as
t = p 2
23 - # .2

In which t is the wall thickness, in inches; P is the design

pressure, in psi, which includes allowance for water her; I)
is the inside diameter, in inches; and S is the allowable
hoop stress$ in psi
 JI

Substituting the '#t'drostatic head for P, equation

becomes
o.433HD
t =S 0. 2

in which H is the head, in feet.

Multi--layer construction usually begins with a total

wail. thickness of 5/8 in., which can be increased in increments
of 1/32 in,, or 1/16 in, to satisfy increasing pressure require-
ments. Plain penstock pipes of a thickness less than 5,/8 In.
are of single-wall construction and are not stress relieved.

'Expansion joints,, taper pieces, eyes, and, all other

special pipes, such as pipe courses with thrust rings for bends
that are to be made of single plates, are completed and stress
relieved in the manufacturing plant. The wall thickness Is
determined on allowable stresses based on the physical prope rties
of the steel used in the stress relieved condition.

In order to avoid the necessity of welding and stress

relieving thick soled-wad. portionsoof the penstock in the
field, the design is arranged so any field 3oint exceeding
that

5/8 in. thick will be between two pipes t, one of which will be
of multi-layer construction. This is simply accomplished by
shop welding multi-layer stub ends to the pipe of solid-wail
construction after the latter has been stress relieved. These
stub ends are * usually 2j ft. long but can be made longer if so
desired.
 JU

5.8.2 Ring-type supports for long spans and large pipe dia-
meters are also feasible in connection with lti.leyer penstocks.
Two approaches are open to choose from in order to obtain the
depending on the evaluation of
most satisfactory installations, depenting
all factors governing the design. One method would be to make
that portion of the pipe to which the ring support is attached
of solid wall construction. The entire assembly could be
completely shop fabricated, stress relieved$ end machined to
assure accurate alignment of the bearing. plates. Multi-layer
stub . ends could be shop welded to each end so that field weld-
ing would be remote from the support* The other and, no doubt,
more economical method would be to apply an over-wrap layer of
required length and thickness to the multi-layer pipe and weld
the rings and column supports to the over-wrap. The stress
analysis In either case may be made in accordance with the
theory, of thin cylinders described under para 5.5 very large
Pipes. .

In respect to bending stresses due to long spans the

behaviour of multitlayer pipe at mid span is not different from
that of a single wail shell of equal total thickness.

The standard length of multt.leyer pipe sections as

they come from the wrapping machine is 20 ft. The diameter of
muitj-Mayer pipe is limited only by shipping limitations and
manufpcturing equipment. Multi-layer penstock sections having
an inside diameter of 35 in. or less may be made in 4th ft.
lengths using electric-resistance flash-welded pipe for the
inner shell. The plate material used for the inner shell and
 JU

'Layers is In accordance with the nmdified ASTM .. A212 Specifi-

Cation.

Fig. 5.15 shows the useful range of multi-layer cons-

truction as it may apply to specific needs. The curves are
drawn on the basis of a hoop tension of 22,540 psi and for
diameters from 2 ft. to 12 ft. which are not, however necessa-
rily the limiting sizes for multi-layer construction.

5.9.1 es j
When water is merely flowing through the penstock,
there is no cause to make the penstock vibrate, but if a
pressure wave generated, for example, - at the turbine runner,
is transmitted to the penstock# it may cause the penstock to
vibrate. Zr,, by chance, the frequency of vibration of the
pressure wave is very close to the natural frequency of vibra-
tion of the penstock itself, the state of resonance may be set.
up, and excessive vibration of the penstock can be observed.

TLere are several causes of pressure wave generated in

a water turbine or in its vicinity, which we can examine.
According to Prof. Pumiki Kito* sal+ investigation, the i st
usual origin is in the draft tube, in which a rotating vortex
is fond, which vibratos of its own acco rd. In this case the
vibration frequency is approximately equal to

f = j (Rheingans' a formula)

(at least when the draft tube is of the usual shape) .

 100

The cause next In importance is the shook to the water

flow arising at each vane of the runner. This is characterised
by the fact that its frequency is just equal to the speed of
its runner multiplied by the number of vanes. In a few cases
a vibration having a frequency equal to the speed of the runner
may occur. There are also cases where the vibration Is consi-
dered to be due to some surging flow or irregular vortices.

A pressure wave generated anywhere in a water turbine

wtfl travel upto the penstock, and when reaching any cross
section of the penstock, will have an almost uniform value
across this area at any instaft. Such uniform pressure can
cause a bending vibration as the actual form of penstock, being
naturally thin called, is somewhat deformed and not a true
circle. Thus, when a vibratory pressure acts upon such a slight-
ly deformed wall, it can cause the wall to vibrate.

5.9.2 Prevention Of P nstocc V b iv $

The most ra ial method of preventing the vibration of
a penstock, is to remove the source of the pressure wave, which.
is generated probably sons©where ' in the water turbine . It the
runner vanes are concerned with the vibration, it may be effect-
ive to change the number of vanes, but there may exist cases in
which penstock vibration can be practically stopped merely by
enlarging the radial clearance between guide vanes and runner
vanes . When some surging or cavitation phenomenon is the source
of vibration, the modification of the form of the runner vanes
or draft tube may be considered.
 101

There are many cases in which the source of vibration

is in central core set up in the centre of the draft tube (in
such a case vibration occurs only at part load, and its freq -
nay has a characteristic value) . For such a case, the introdu'
ction of air into the top centre of the draft tube is very
effective.- It has often happened that even when the air was
introduced, the vibration of the penstock did not completely
the out, but upon examination it is usually found that the
quantity of air introduced is not sufficient, and that by
introducing much more air, the result obtained is satisfactory.
In some cases, introduction of air is felt undesirable, as it
reduces the output of the turbine.

But even when we have succeeded in eliminating the

source of vibration to some extent# it cannot be expected that
complete elimination is always possible . There may arise cases
in which the tlirnination of a source of vibration cannot be
effected on account of other regiirements. In these cases we
must alter the natural frequency of vibration of the penstock
and thus get away from the state of resonance. One way of doing
this is to fix suitable stiffner rings to the penstock. It is
to be noticed that the purpose of fixing the st ffner lies not
in strengthening the penstock but in raising the natural
frequency.

5.9.3 Prof. FuIiki Kito has developed an equation for the

natural frequency of vibration of a penstock $ after conducting
several observations on penstocks in Japan. The equation ;
 102
f
2„r Y r n/n2,.1

r n~Cn22j) 2
c,

Where
' = frequency per second of natural vibration of
cylindrical stall,
r = radius of penstock (cm) (in)
T = Young's modulus of Wall material(/cm2) (psi)
Poisson's ratio of wall material
g = gravity constant (9.8 m/sec2) (32.2x12 in/see2)
n = a whole number# cos no giving the made of vibra-
tion (See Pig.5.11 )
i

length of a span of penstock (cm) (in)

= peripheral elongation

2Rh (1 )
: h~/3r2
h = half the thickness of the wall (ciao) (in. )
- = a factor giving the effect of virtual mass of water
contained in the shell

h
`ra r+1
Y y = specific weight of vaterts/omi3) (lb/in3)
Yin = Specific weight of wall material
 1uj

a numerical factor, which may be taken equal to

1/n, at least for practical. use.
q mean pressure (in ZC/om2, lb/in2) of hydrostatic
head of water.

This fcrmula has been deduced by the author as a result

of his analytical study on the vibration of a penstock. In the
formula, three effects are taken into considerations (9) the
elasticity of the pipe well : (2) the fact that the water flow-
ing through the penstock must also make a vibratory motion in
accordance with the movements of the pipe wall (so called effect
of virtual mass of water); (3) the hydrostatic head, which gives
rise to hoop tension in the pipe wall.. The effect of (3) is to
tighten the elastic wall and so raise somewhat the value of
natural frequency, where as the effect (2) considerably lovers
the natural frequency due to the inertia of the heavy mass of
water.

5.9.4 Prof. }`umik . Kits has establisbed a relation after

analytical study, for stiffner rings fixed tightly to the pen-
stock by means of bolts. The condition under which this foam
of stiffner ring is effective is given by

2 I B'

Where B an Io are given by

- _ (n2-1)2 + ( n2- 7) m A v2 ( 1+
r6 p O n

Po='q/'o
 104
respectively$ using the following notations $

ro = radius of the penstock

mA = Mass (wig) per unit length of the stiffner ring.
9I = flexural rigidity of the stiffner ring
v = angular frequency (= 2 Jf) of vibration
a = amplitude of vibration (2a a double amplitude) of
the penstock, after the stiffner ring was fixed.
To : tension in cross-section of the ring due to tight-
ening of the bolts (together with effect of the
static head) .
it = number of lobes of vibration ( a whole number)

It is to be noted that the value of a cannot be

exactly known before the stiffner ring is actually fixed, so that
an assumed value has to be taken for the first calculation.

!umericai Example:

As a numerical example to the above mentioned formulae

case of Marozuka plant (Japan) is taken. In this case we have
r, = 160 cm, A : 32 em2, I . 1070 Cm, F-I = 21 .'+ x 10, mA =2.5 +)
x1 e)+ K8-sec2/+imp, n = 2. The vibration frequency being found
(by actual measurement) to be about 5 cycles per second, we have
w = 2x 5 = 31.x. radian/sec . Suppose that we tighten the
stiffner ring by bolts, causing in its cross section a tensile
stress of 50 %/cm2 . Then we shall have T o = 1600 %0 and Po
1600 =- 16 = 10 Kg/cm.

Putting these values into the equation C ) we have,

 105

- a 21.4x10
(16o) --8 10
x 9 + x 3 - 2. x1©..
x4 31.1 2x1.25

=29.3+©.188 0.313
=29.2

The amplitude of vibration a was initially about

2 mm, but after the stiffner is fixed we may assume that a
will be reduced to 0.50 mm. Thus we have,

B =29.2x0.05

and we may say fairly well that the stiffner ring is effective.
Actually„ the test after fixing the stiffner rings showed .a
vibration amplitude less than a = 0.25 ma.
 if c v-vo) losin y Gradient ~2
(yi o) (yo) j 4 y^Yo) ~j.
cpg T
(' Ope in rale pt~

a) aVo <29yo

5.i VARIATION OF PRESSURE ALONG PIPE LINE FOR

SUDDEN CLOSURE AND OPENING

N
4
t

Ti pdudz i

dy

R1 os

4 du

T j T~

T2

5.2_FORCES ACTING ON FIG 5.7

ELEMENT OF PENSTOCK
CELL

~Rin9 ~ o
i L WQter Z
Pressure~p=k9<<'^ 1
F. - t,. _--4Thipe Axis

F1G.5.9-BANDED CORRUGATED PIPE

FIG._5.8
 Dir cc%/OP of pipc
~ ~ ? expans,on(contracfion )

4
e'! p/ec eevc

53 £ CE/\Tf1. _iTY OF fig/L r1U/v

Water hvm~cr9r°,Y/C17

hi hz

A _ nd8
e

h,th~
PC :dFd 1

;5 i/VArEf' LOAD Ot AD..'ACENT RIPE 5 f WATER L )AD On, 7A 'ff<E'L
fc,T/vS AT E',cPAN.5/QA' JOi/vr . rAANIT/JN /EGA .

3
 !00
70
50

• 30

20
w

Ni?I0
u
w
ad 7
(9a 5
Zw
N a
aco 3
J z2
J

0•203 0507 I 2 3 5 7 10 20 3040

VALUES OF L/D
FIG.5.IO__COLLAPSING PRESSURES OF STEEL PIPE LINES
`4 Is r T T

D f TT'
w _
a O
C w
wa 12 I

!O
O I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ELEVATION ABOVE SEA LEVEL, IN THOUSAND OF FEET
.7. 5.11__BAROMETRIC PRESSURES AT VARIOUS ELEVATIONS
ABOVE SEA LEVEL
0.7

O 0.3 Q 0.5
J 0.2

O•!

O.O
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12
VALUES OF E V
C
2SIZE OF AIR-INLET VALVE REQUIRED TO PREVENT PIPE LINE
COLLAPSE


16
15
14
13
12
0 11
z 10
D 9
0 g
7
z
0
uA5
z 4
3
2
1
0
1
2
N 3
a
Z 4

O 6
x
F 7
i g
z
Q9
u IO
u
w
cc II
12
0 13
14
IS
16

0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (0 Ii 12 13 14 15 16 17 I8 19
TENSION - THOUSANDS

FIG. 5.13__EQUIVALENT STRESS DIAGRAMME

 r.
/tFt - / ,/ /

3
7///
w
w
L
Q
0
0
2

0 I
w /f///. t - t
Q

t f /////Y .
I I i

0
1/2 I 1-1/2 2 2-1/2 3 3-1/2 4

WALL THICKNESS IN INCHES

5.15__USEFUL RANGE OF MULTI-LAYER CONSTRUCTION

AT HOOP STRESS OF 22,500 PSI

n -2 n --3 nt i

.16 VIBRATION MODES OF CROSS-SECTION OF A PENSTOCK

 rp

(b.

FIG. 5.17

(v)

Al

2 2

FIG. 5.18 FIG. 5.19

 +0.10

+0.08

+0.06
0
I-
W +0.04

LL
O 40.02

w
O.OJ

\J:
+0.02 f
i i
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 0014 0.016 0.018
VALUES OF MOMENT COEFFICIENT

FIG. 5.20 BENDING MOMENTS IN SUPPORTING RING.

IM 0.0085 QR

ii
~Md=0010 QR

2 I 2
t
IF -~{ r`-
i

a 0.04 R
+ a = 0.04 R

FIG. 5.21 BENDING MOMENTS IN SUPPORTING RING

FOR R -O.04
 1UO

CHAPTOR . VI

SUPPORTS AND ANCHORS

Steel pipe lines are either covered or exposed above

ground. The covering or burying is usual only in the case of
small diameters. Large penstocks, and also small ones where
several are installed side by side, are always entirely
exposed above ground. The penstock is supported on a number
of piers, on which it is free to move in an axial direction.
The friction between pipe and pier should be as small as
possible. If the declivity of the land is greater than the
angle of friction for pipe and pier# the pipe will have a
tendency to slide down the slope, and must be anchored at
some suitable place. Between each two such anchorages, an
expansion Joint is inserted as a provision against the changes
in length due to temperature variations. This movement of the
pipe also takes place in the flat sections of the pipe line;
and anchorages are also necessary in these portions of the
line to prevent Irregular wandering of the pipes, even when
in the absence of downhill sliding forces. The anchorages
are placed every 100 to 150 in (330 to )#90 ft) and an anchorage
must also be placed at every change in direction of the pipe
axis.

At several of the supports, the pipes are held down

with stirrups to prevent the pipe from lifting off the piers $
should the friction in the expansion Joints become too great.
 107

The clearance between stirrup and pipe should be such as to

allow the pipe to move on the saddle.

Where the terrain is some distance below the pipe axis,

rocker supports have also been. employed instead of ordinary
piers. These consist of rocker bents or frames supported at
the bottom on concrete ' piers, and attached at the top to ring
girders around the pipe. The rockers move to and fro when
the pipe moves. .

Short .pipes of very large diameter are supported on

short stanchions attached at the top to ring girders, and
anchored at. the bottom in concrete piers.

6.2 SPPOIITS
6.2.1 Modern trend in design , requires that steel penstocks
located in tunnels, above ground,, or across streams be self
supporting. This is possible in most cases without an increase
in plate thickness except adjacent to the supports of the
longer spans. If the penstock is to function satisfactorily
as a beam, deformation of the s hell at the supports must be
limited by use of properly designed stiffner rings or ring
girders. A long pipe line with a number of supports forms a
continuous beam except at the expansion joints where its conti-
xnuity is lost. Ring girders prevent large deformation of the
pipe shell at the supports. Stresses may therefore be analysed
by the elastic theory of thin cylindrical shells23. The shell
will be mainly subjected to direct beam and hoop stresses, with
loads being transmitted to support rings by shear. Because of
 108

the restraint imposed by a rigid ring girder or concrete

anchor.9 secondary bending stresses occur in the pipe shell
adjacent to the ring girder. Although this is only a local
stress in the shell which decreases rapidly with increasing
distance from the sti 'frier, it should be added to the other
longitudinal stresses.
z
For a pipe fully restrained the maximum secondary
stress Is:

y 1,82 p .....(6.1)
in which
p = pressure in psi
r = radius of pipe in inches
t = plate thickness in inches

This secondary bending stress decreases with any

decrease in restraint23,

If use of equation (6.1) results to excessive longituw

dinat stresses, It may be necessary to increase the pipe shell
thickness on each side of the stiffner ring for a minimum
Length of 3/q, In which q 1.285/ . At this distance from
the stiffner ring, the magnitude of . the .secondary ptresses
becomes negligible.

Pipes designed in accordance with the preceding princi-

pies may be supported on long spans without intermediate stitt-
ner rings. The length of the span to be used on any particular
job is usually a matter of 'economy. Very long spans are
 109

econosical only under certain conditions, 'euch as crossing

of rivers or canyons where the construction of additional
piers# which shorter span would require, is not feasible.

A pipe can be. designed to resist safely the bending

and shear forces acting In a crosseseutionel plane by several
methods# as follows *-

1. By sufficient stiffnere in the shell. itself•

2. By continuous embedment of part of the periphery
of the pipe.
3. By individual support cradles or saddles.
By etiffner rings which carry the load to concrete
piers by means of support columns.

As the static pressure within a pipe varies from top

to bottom$ it tends to distort- the circular shape of the shell.
This is especially pronounced for thin shelled large diameter
pipes under low head or partially filled. The weight of the pipe
itself and the weight of the backfil p if the pipe is covered*
also cause distortion of the shell.

6.2.2 Depending on the method of supports stresses and de

formation around the circumference of a * filled pipe will assume
Various patterns as shown in F3g.6.1. These diagrams indicate
the best location for longitudinal joints in pipe shell and
Joints in etiffners to avoid points of highest stress or largest
deformation. If the types of supports shown$ the saddle and
the ring girder with column supports are the most widely used.
The one point support should not be used for a per tanent
 110

InetsUation. It is included merely to illustrate its flatten-

Ing effect on an unstiffened pipe.

Stiffner rings or ring girders should be placed over

the centre of supports to transmit the load most effectively
to the saddles or piers. For the pipe supported on saddles,
the bending moments in , the s ttffner ring and the deformation
in the pipe shell due to the weight of pips and contained
water may be computed in accordance with tests and formulae
developed by the University of Illinois. Computation of
bending moments in the shell can be simplified by the use of
moment coefficients given in Fig.6.2,. which were computed In
accordance with formulae developed at the University of
Illinois.

For the ring girder and column' tyre supports the

support columns are attached to the ring girders eccentrically
with respect to the c entroidal axis of the ring section so as
to reduce the maximum bending moment in the ring section. Iri
computing the section modulus of the ring girder#, a portion
of the ad j ecent shell may be considered as acting with the
girder. The total, length of the shell thus acting is 3

+ 1.56 1art

in which b is the width of the ring girder and r

and t as defined in equation (6.1) . Essentialformulae and
coefficients for the computation, of stresses in ring girders
are given in Fig.6.3. These formulae and coefficient were
developed during the stiffner ring analysis for the Hoover
Dan penstocks . The table gives stress coefficients, Ki to K6
inclusive, for various points around the circumference of the
ring. These coefficients are to be Inserted in the appropriate
equations shown for the determination of direct stress, T,,
bending moment, M, and radial shear stress# 3,' in the ring
section, By adding the direct, bending and tensile stresses
in the ring due to internal pressure In the pipe #, the total
unit stress in the inner and outer fibres of the ring may
be determined.

In installations subject to seismic disturbances, the

severity of the earthquake shocks should be ascertained from
local records and considered in the design of the supports.
Unless the project is located close to a fault zone, a hori-
zontal seismic coefficient of 0.1 to 0.2 of the gravity load
Is adequate for most areas. Stresses due to earthquake loads
for various points along the penipher r of the ring g .rrder may
be computed from the equations and stress coefficients given
In i'ig.6.1. In determining the required section for a ring
girder, stresses so computed should be added to the stresses
caused by static Loads.

A typical ring girder and column support designed for

an 8' penstock with a span of ' is shown in Pig.6.5. The
girder consists of two stiffner rings of 6 by 3/Li inch cross
section continuously welded to the pipe on both sides and tied
together with diaphragm plates welded between two rings. Two
short columns consisting of 8 Inch aide flange L.beams are
welded between the rings to carry the load to the rockers by
means of cast-steel bearing shoes. A typical rocker assembly
for penstocks of 8 ft. diameter is shown . in Pig.6.6.

6.2.3'iO
Penstocks Installed -above ground or in open tunnels
are usually supported on piers* spaced from 20 to 60 feet
apart. Piers are usually of reinforced concrete. Ag the
size of piers is influenced by the type of soil on which they
rest, some information regarding the soil is required before a
design can be prepared. It is preferable to construct piers
on rock foundation wherever possible. Bases should be placed at
elevations sufficiently below the frost line to protect the
structures against frost damage.

Piers are designed to support the dead- load of pipe and

contlined water and resist the longitudinal forces resulting
from temperature change. Earthquake forces may be considered
in the design in areas subject to seismic disturbances. For
large th#nw3he .1 pipes and pipes supported on high piers or
bents* lateral wind-loads on the empty pipe may effect the
design of the supports. The magnitude of longitudinal forces
in a pens took provided with expansion joints is dependent on
the methods of support between pipe end pier. Piers which
carry the pipe directly on the concrete or on steel bearing
plates, are sub1eet to large longitudinal forces when axial
mavesaent of the pipe occurs. These longitudinal forces may be
reduced by placing lubricated plates or graphited service
sheets between pipe and pier or by use of rocker and roller
supports. The friction coefficients recommended in each case
have been mentioned in p ara 5.4 •2of Chapter ;
 11.3

After all the forces acting on the supports have been

ascertained, the proportions of the pier may be determined
from the moments and shear forces. Piers should be designed
so that the resultant of the vertical load (including the
weight of the pier and the prism of earth over the base) and
the longitudinal and lateral forces will intersect the base
within its middle third. Pig.6.7 shows a typical concrete pier
designed for an 8 foot penstock supported on rockers. This
pier Is of monolithic construction with two grout recesses on
top for the rocker bearings, which are fixed In place with
anchor bolts.

6.3 ANCHORS
..
6.3.1 Anchor blocks are provided for penstocks to fix the
penstock in position and to keep up forces that develop at the
bond points. The bond may be either in vertical plane or
horizontal plane or both planes. Anchor blocks are also
necessary for straight penstocks at some regular intervals to
limit the magnitude of forces on the anchor blocks to reasonaa
b1,e limits.

The forces developed on anchor blocks are due to the

static and dynasic action of flowing water$ dead weight of
pipe and water, temperature variation etc.. These have to be
transferred to the foundation safely without endangering the
pipe. This pulse is usually achieved by the provision of
massive blocks of concrete or masonry so that each block
provides enough vertical load to keep the resultant of all
the forces within the middle third of the base of the block
from the stability standpoint. The spacing of anchors in long
 Iii

tangent sections between bends depends primarily on the eEagni-

tulle of the longitudinal forces in the line.

6.3.2 orces On Anchor Blocks t

The external, forces acting on any type of pipe line
may be considered from two aspects *-

Either as s
- Pe,manent forces
- Intermittent forces
Exceptional forces

Or as a
- Static forces
- Dynamic forces

The three types of farces first mentioned bear on the

factor of safety which is taken into account In the calculi..
tions while the two latter categories cause different effects#
and here the calculation methods are not the sue.

Permanent Forces s
The permanent forces normally come into operation when
the pipe line is in service at Its calculated pressure. These
forces are

(a) The weight of the filled pipe line.

(b) the hydraulic forces created by the water on:
i) :oints

ii) Elbows
i Converging or diverging sections ~,
 115

(c) thermal stresses due to the variations of the

temperature.
(d) frictional, forces resulting from displacements
set up by the other forces.

Intermittent Forces =
The intermittent forces operate temporarily$ under
conditions which, occur relatively in-frequently. These forces
are

(a) thermal stresses operating as an empty pipe line.

(b) bydraulc forces due to the setting up of testing
pressures on site
(c) forces due to an external pressure$ in ttD cave
of a pipe line in a tunnel.

Exceptional, Forces :
Exceptional forces operate under abnormal and rarely
encountorod conditions. These forces are s

(a) hydraulic forces due to the setting up of test

pressures in the wort.
(b) forces due to atmospheric pressure in the case
of a pipe line subjected to absolute vacuum
conditions.
Cc) earthquake forces
(d) AU other exceptional forces, which may be net out
in the specifications for example, the subsidence
of a support in the case of a pipe line on spaced
support-s.
 116

Static Forces :
The action of static forces is setup slowly. In this
connection we have to consider forces due to weight, the over-
burden of the earth, to thermal variations, and to static
pressure of the water. In a normal service these forces are
constant, or at any rate it is more or less certain that be-
tween them they will vary slowly and within small limits.

Dynamic Forces :
The action of dynamic forces is set up in a very short
period, and their intensities dueing this period may vary with-
in wide limits. In this connection we have to consider water
hammer, earthquake forces, and the action of atmospheric
pressure on an empty pipeline. .

All the external forces previously mentioned ope rate

on the pipeline and through the medium of the pipe t have reper-
cussions on the anchorages and on the supports. These supports
are, in addition, subjected to two other forces, their own
weight and the reactions of the ground on which they are
constructed. It is not in general, possible to separate the
study of the pipe line from the study of its anchorages, since
the position or the spacing of the latter has a considerable
influence on the stresses set up in the pipe, and also condi'-
tions their reaction on the pipe on its fixed points.

The pipe line is thus a complete assembly, and the

calculation of the pipe itself should be completely integrated
with that of its anchorages.
 117

6.4 Anchors may be of the type which encases the entire

circumference of the penstock or they may be of the type which
is in contact with only slower segment of the circumference as
ehewm in Fig. 6.20.E 'This type of anchor may be constructed
before the penstock is Installed, in which case recesses are
provided in the concrete for grouting the pipe and stiftner
rings In place after installation. The stiffners will assist in
transferring the longitudinal forces from the pipe to the
anchor,,
o u+ttti UNUNK our o
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D4R

/179 Girder and Pier supparZ ✓'7omen tS ~~flecfio~ s

FIG'. 6.1 /L/onIENrs AND DEFLECT/ONS DEV£LUPED /N 4 .C"/PE

P.ec C/S£L Y FULL, Us//v' VAR/OUS T YPES OP SORTS.
 to H1

-• u
o8F F
1 ~e~

"~ p-Totot -eoctlon ~/5uovO,tL. _~

1 L 20 140
~0 20 40 60 8o roo
VG/ues ofe/nde9Pe S

CO£FFrC/£AvTS FOR P/P SHELL

RESTING ON S.1DDLE
IC 6 2 .'1 )!'Et T
F !c'OM DN/VE S/T Y Or
o TS OF VARIOUS COA'TAC T A vGC CS
Ll =) ; E._LL ET1N, TESTS OF GYL/i L R/CAL SNELLS,'' 194/
 Ot
boned /~

~~~

} K , r F4JL 2 t /i
~2j(~
Qs~~2+u)
+
/ 20 4— 2

Poisson ratio = 0 s

,2
r

A. Area Combined ring .Section in sq rOre /nchr's = t !b t/ t 2 et,

1 = MOo ent Of rni i-/ia of Sect,on y
L Length Jf ,Jne Sloop .n 'nches
N=Bendn9 mOa7en/ in fhe rnq, 'i7Ch pi•7dS
N = Ten S/017 due to rnter,'al pressure, o Suction of rin9 in pociir(/s
P u Tyr essurc head .7 pounds per sq. -e inc,.
QS'r'igAt O{ p,nt Sht !r •:r. 0e .SP<"n n C 1c.70'S
C n5 7C/ yht n pr a,h: 1.' i' 1 w let -, c.7~,~
'pon, n pOUnaS
S =EOdin r Sheprstr65S in Str~F•nc,- my n ound5
r = Direct Stress in the 1-i' g en 'tc s ve of ti n p'u 'ds
TJtoz Stress in OuIA-,- ber of
rrny =,~ - M
Total Stress in inner 1,/ e1- of ring = t Al w
A 1
TensiorJ = COmpressiUn

T +BK
~ ~ r 4 5 6

k2 i< K4 ng t l<
238732 + 3/83 , > T 0. 26.1
0683 0 ) , O
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t
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5C' 263704 t '59,55 (
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263023 t 0823A5 6 5 0, 3 t
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An° + 238732 3/ 83'O 01/267 o3~ 1
- ~.se, Q o

6 .3—FORMULAE. AND COEFFICIENTS FOR THE COM', 'AT'ON OF

STRESSES IN RING GIRDERS AS DEVELOPED F K ST;FFENER
RING ANALYSIS OF HOOVER DAM PENSTOCfiy.


fL(TJ1
+LL

,5EC7/ON F-F'
r ,u2) L, j
C ,1 r
HiMQEO ~ K 'ki L p t (I *,u?) (l - T Q ) r '
L
1 2M 1 r
c ft
` frt

C l Q — I I i Y ) 't ¢Q ((s POISSON 'S RATIO = 0'3

A = :1,-ea of Combined Sccfion ring in Square inches E(b +156 frt )+21t,

Length of one span r~ Inches

P1 = Bending moment in the /-/fly, Inch pounds

!~S weight of pipe She!/ in one span, Pounds

= Combined weight o/,olpe shell and water in one sppn, pounds

n = seismic coc/'f/cirri t

S r Radio' shear stress in sliffcner ring, pounds

T .Direct 5fress in sflf'!'ener ring, pounds

Total 5t/ 5$ in inner 1i6er Oi ring -M
Tota! Strtss in ,nner f.ber of ,iny = 7 fM z
A r

FIG 64_FORMULAE AND COEFFICIENTS FOP THE COMPUTATION OF STRESSES

IN RING GIRDERS DUE TO EARTHQUAKE LOADS.


Ic4,
- ___C.U~umn to beCr~rec //y~.3q
1 pt,ned vnd welded fo 3 +j► fI '
i r n~~ pftGrrin9s havc II t
11
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p,p '

I
LL t .`t ~

tu.f afs<.ppf —tt

HALF SECT/ON A-A
rnd plug we/a !'lush
SwF1r

; L1 4= L

SECTION C C

6 5 i YF'/C:'7L e/tiG G/i2DER AhD COLUMN SUPPO/T FOR 8 FOJr

1 , rid r A' T'~ N TO /< WITH A 60 - f 00T 5 ~`-'A IV .
66 T>'PICAL ROCKER 5df- Qf,>T FUR 6 FOOT D/AMETER PENS TACK jHF
A/vGZF YOKE /S J FD ONLY FOR AL/NrME/VT DUR/NG GQO//T/-yG.
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 119

FABRICATION . N~ INST k&Ti JN

~l IL ; t

The types of conduit construction used are largely

determined by phy'siosl conditions at the site of installation.
In some cases, however, two or more types of construction
would appear to be equally satisfactory or appropriate. In
these eases, costs, safety features, operating requirements#
and other pertinent items shouldd be considered before selecting
the type or types of construction to be used. Where the con-
duit sizes are such that the pipe can be shipped by rail or
truck$ it is usually desirable to have the pipe fabricated in
an established fabricating plant In lengths suitable for
ment end installation. If -the size of a conduit is such that
- it is impracticable to fabricate it in sections small enough
to ship by rail or truck, the establishment of a field, fabri-
cating plant at or near the site of installation may be nece-
ssary. In either event, the spacing and type of field joints
should be such that the fabricated pipe sections can be trans
ported, unloaded and installed under the conditions prevailing
at the point of installation.

A pipe line may be constructed with either riveted,

electrically welded, or water-gas 'dap-welded , o .nts. AU three
types of joints have their special merits and the most suitable
for any particular pipe line wiUU depend on the circumstances.


120
Welding, however, has made rapid progress In recent years
and it is certain it will continue to gain superiority in
the futu ►"e .

?.2.1. Riveted Joint I

A riveted joint is an old established method of joie»
trig plates and, while considerable skill is required to give
a satisfactory Joint, with correct design the strength of the
connection is largely assured when the rivets have been driven.
The great disadvantage of the riveted joint is the loss of
metal in the plate where the rivet holes occur-the strength
of the Joint depending upon the arrangement of rivets, being
only 60 - 8 per cent of the strength of the original. plate .
As a result, the thickness of the whole plate has to be in-
creased to allow for the loss in strength at the joint; this
i
adds to the weight of the steel and the cost of the work.

The diameter of the rivet hole varies with the thick-

ness of the plate. Suitable sizes can be obtained from the
to .a27

D 0.1$T + 0.20

Where
D = diameter of the rivet hole, inches,
T = Thickness of the plate, inches.

The distance from the centre of the rivet hole to the edge
of the plate should not be less than one-and-a-half times the
diameter of the rivet hole.
 12)

It is important that the rivets should produce a tight

joint by bringing the two plates Into close contact with one
another. The caulking of the joint is a permissible process,
but should be looked upon as an additional precaution in pro-
ducing a watertight joint. The watertightness should not
depend solely on the cauulking$ as otherwise through tempera-
ture movements, etc. It will probably need re-caulking from
time to time.

Lap joints are cheap for thin plates. Rivet will be

in single shear. Butt joints with single *over plate and
double cover plates, are costly. They have greater efficiency
and are generally adopted as longitudinal joints. Fig.7.1 &
7.2 show double riveted butt joint with single butt strap and
double riveted butt joint with double butt strap for ci rcum-
ferentiel and longitudinal riveted joints, respectively.

he following empirical formulae are of use in deter-

Mining the most suitable pitch (P) in inches for the rivets
depending on the diameter CD) of rivet holes in inches.

For circumferential double-riveted butt joints with

one outside butt strap,

6.4 ..(7.2)

For longitudinal double-riveted butt joints with double

butt straps,
Pa d +3D ..... (7.3)
 122

For both the above types

Cross pitch = +

7.2.2 Welded Joint =

A satisfactory electrically welded joint will have
about 70 to 95 per cent of the strength of the parent plate,
and a lighter pipeline is therefore obtained than when. a
riveted joint is used. For first class work and for thick
plates, annealing is very desirable, but this is not possible
for large items or site work.

A water-gas lap-welded Joint is made in a machine by

heating the edges of the plate along the longitudinal Joint to
be welded, then applying pressure to form the joint. For thin
plates this joint has a high efficiency, but with increase of
thickness, permissible efficiency of the joint is reduced.

Are Welded Joint s

Use of this type of weld joint has become well known
and confidence in the results has increased considerably. Care
and skill in the manufacture and the application of expert
technique based on accumulated. experience, are necessary to-
gether with systematic testing if a reliable result is to be
obtained.

The joint most generally required is the butt joint,

for joining directly the edges of plates. For medium to thick
pipes welding should be done on both sides of the plate and the
double 1 or double V Joint should be adopted. The actual form
 123
of joint used will depend on the . plate thickness and on the
type of and capacity of welding plant availab'e. Fig.7.3 shows
a double V joint.

It ie important that Inspection should be carefully

and systematically carried out, and for high pressure. work It
is advisable to have an inspector skilled In the latest techni-
que constantly on the job, Inspection can be considerably
assisted by the use of X-ray photographs regularly taken$ but
the interpretation of these requires expert knowledge.

The steel used for are welded pipes is normal mild steel
with ultimate strength of 28.33 tons per sq.in. (44.'! - 52.40
Y* per sq.m.m.) but to ensure good welding results the carbon
content should be limited so as not to exceed 0.20 per cent.
This limit on the carbon content may tend to reduce slightly
the ultimate strength of the steel and may give the steel
maker some difficulty in achieving the special strength, parti-
cularly for thick plates.. Some specifications for arc welded
pipes require that the welds be stressed relieved by heating
and cooling in order to reduce the internal stresses caused
by the intense heat of the electric arc. For small diameter
pipes, this may not be difficult to lea, but it adds appreciably
to the cost of the work. For the larger sizes of pipes the
process becomes difficult and very costly and may be of doubt-
ful usefulness.

7.2.3 Visaged Joint s

These joints are normally used at connections to
special such as valves or expansion joints. For large diameter
 144

pipes operating under high pressures the flange thickness

trill generally be not less than about 2 inches (50.$ mm) and
may well be con3iderabiy more. The manufacture of heey
flanges is expensive and they are avoided as far as practi-
cable. Their uses should be restricted to places in the pipe
line where extra longitudinal forces occur Bch are beyond
the capacity of riveted joints$ or to such other places where
for purposes of inspection or repair, it may be necessary at
some time to break a joint. .

In Pig. 7•l a typical arrangement of a flanged joint

is shown. For high pressure work the joint should be of the
, spigot and socket type and the jointing ring should be located
in a special circular grown so that it willbe squeezed as the
bolts are tightened up. The cross section of this groove is
made slightly wedge shaped so that internal water pressure on
the joint ring causes it to tighten in the groove.

The strength of a flanged Joint depends upon the stren-

gth of the bolts and the strength of the flange and is not
easily calculated as many assumptions are involved. The thick-
ness of the flange will vary directly as the diameter of the
bolt used. The width of the flange will also very directly
as the diamter of the bolt and accordingly the weight of the
flange will vary as the bolt diameter squared for any given
size of pipe. Hence i.t is economical to use smallest practi-
cable
cable size of bolt possible at the minimum pitch. Bolts at
close centres assist the water tightness of the joint. The
ilnimum pitch of bolts Is dependent on the size of the bolt
 143

and is usually about three times the diame to r. Considerable

economies are likely to result in high pressure wow from the
use of high tensile steel bolts.

7:3 Esther i elded joints or sleeve-type couplings may be usei

for circumferential field connections with any of the different
types of construction, The use of sleeve type couplings is
limited to pipe with diameter which are within the range of
coupling sizes furnished. Sleeve-type couplings are a commer-
cial product* a typical section of which is shown in Fig.7.5.
They consist of a middle ring with pipe stop # follower rings,,
gaskets and connecting bolts.

For penstocks above ground$ the temperature of the

steel is influenced principally by the temperature of the
water when filled, and by the' tempe rature of the air when
empty. If the pipe is exposed , its temperature Will be affect-
ed by heat from the sun. In underground Installations,, the
pipe temperature is affected by the temperature of the con-
tained water and surrounding soil..

The main purpose of expansion joint is to permit longs.

tudinal expansion and contraction of the pipet which results
from temperature change. Expansion joints also servee as
construction joints to adjust discrepancies in pipe lengths.
Disregarding frictional resistance, the change In length of a
pipe of length L per degree temperature change Is
C.0000065L.
 126
Among the several types of expansion joints in use, the
sleeve type is the most popular for large steel pipes. Longi-
tudinal movement is permitted by two closely fitting sleeves,
one sliding in the other, with a stuffing box and packing to
prevent leakage. A bolted packing gland is used to compress
the packing which consists of long-fibre braided flax impreg,-
nated with a suitable lubricant.

A typical expansion joint of this type designed for an

8' penstock under 210' static head is shown in Figure 7.6. The
exterior surface of the inner sleeve is clad with nicket to
prevent corrosion and insure free sliding in the joint. This
type of joint may also be designed with two stuffing boxea,as
shown in Fig.?.7t to permit longitudinal temperature movement
and transverse deflection in the line . Such a flexible Joint
is desirable where a penstock passes through a construction
Joint separating the concrete masses of a dam and power louse.
As the dam is built on a foundation considered to be elastic,
its downstream toe will deflect vertically with respect to the
power house when subjected to reservoir pressure.

Sleeve type expansion joint have been used successfully

for penstocks upto 15' diameter,, as at Shasta Dam„ operating
under a static head of 450 feet and for many smaller pipelines
operating under heals upto 440 ft or more o The largest expan-
sion Joints of this type have been designed for the 22' pen-
stocks at Davis Dare. This type of expansion joint can be used
only on pipes which are accessible for tightening and replac-
trig the packing. The 'lubricated flax packing loses its piastici,
 127
and water sealing effect after years of service, especially
where the pipe line is frequently empty and exposed to the
direct rays of the sun. Under these conditions, the lubri-
cant becomes fluid and runs out of the packing.

The sleeve-type expansion joint must be well.-fitted

with reasonably close to ley races to insure watertightness
under high beads. Sleeves and the packing glands are often
machined in order to achieve a watertight fit. Stress reliev-'
ing after welding will facilitate machining operations and
reduce residual welding stresses which might otherwise cause
distortion in the joint. The inner sleeves should be designed
to withstand the external pressure exerted by the packing.
The clearance at the ends of the sleeves and distances from
the ends of the sleeves to the packing-retainer rings should
be ample to permit the maximum movement expected.

The bolts or studs should bo of sufficient size to

exert the force required to develop a pressure between the
packing and the Inner sleeve of from 1.25 to 1.50 times the
maximum normal internal operating pressure with a spacing of
from 12 to 14". The packing should consist of from four
to eight rings of square, lubricated, braided, long fibre
flax rings $ the number depending upon the internal pressure.
The size of the packing may vary from 518" to 1*" depending
upon the size of the expansion joint.

Frictional resistances in expansion joints may be

assumed at 500 to 1000 lbs4ine ar foot of circumference.
 128
?. ARtCJAjtQ
7.5.1 Penstocks may be fabricated in the manufacturer's
shops or in a field fabricating shop near the site# depending
on the size of the pipe . , Pipes upto approximately 12' in
diameter may be shipped by rail. These are usually shop
fabricated In sections or laying lengths of from 20 to 4O

feet. Fabrication. of penstock requires a variety of special.

machines and equipment, such as rolls, presses,, flame-cutting
tools, welding machines, testing, radiographic and handling
equipment. If the plates are to be assembled into sections
of pipe at a field fabricating plant$ it is usually econonit.
cal to prepare the plates and appurtenant fixtures In the
manufacturer's home plant and ship them to the field plant
for neianbly. This preparation in the home plant usually .
consists of cutting the plates to size# preparing the edges
for welding, and rolling in two or more circular segments,
the number of segments being dependent on the diameter of
the penstock and length of the plate available. In some
cases* it may be possible to completely fabricate pipe
section of large diameter in the contractor's home plant
provided they can be shipped to the site of installation.
Length of the sections is Influenced by various factors such
as the width of plates#, loading eccnonr, capacity of testing
and field handling equipment etc. Steel mills publish infor-
mation concerning the availability of sheared plates of
various. thicknesses, width* and lengths. Plates of thickness
3/8" or greater, which exceed 100" In width# and plates less
than 3/8" thick which exceed 72" in width, are subject to a
'width extra' in addition to the base piece. ' This "width
extra" should be balanced against the cost of welding, which
decreases as the plate increases in width. If pressure
tested in a testing machine, the length of the section will
be limited by the length of the machine. Bends or sections
exceeding the capacity of the testing machine may be tested
by closing both ends with bulkheads. This limitation should
be considered in the design. If penstock sections are to be
installed and welded under a separate contract, it will be
necessary to predetermine the length.

Fabrication includes cutting the plates to exact

dimensions, preparing the edges for welding, pressing and
rolling the plates to the required radius, and welding the
plates together. - The type of edge preparation required depends
on the welding procedure to be used, shop joints are usually
welded with automatic welding machines, while field joints
are manually welded. In shop Welding, after the plates have
been rolled, they are tack-welded into pipe courses, then
welded by automatic machines. With the union melt process,,
the joints are either machine welded on either side, and the
opposite side welded manually# or are welded by one pass of
the machine on both inside and outside . If a multiple pass
machine is used, the weld metal Is deposited in successive
layers, the number of layers depending on the thickness of the
plates being welded* In the installation of a penstock in a
tunnel, there may not be sufficient clearance between penstock
arid tunnel walls to back-veld field Tirth joints from the out-
side. In such cases, it will be necessary to complete the
 i i ')

weld from the inside using an outside backing strip.

from
Stiffner rings may be formad/bars or fl -cut from
plates. The segments so produced are butt-welded into full
rings$ then welded to the pipe with fillet welds either
manually or by machine.

Special rounding-out spiders are often used to aid

fitup and welding work and to prevent distortions in the pipe.
Make-up sed ions with excess laying lengths are provided for
long tangents to provide for discrepancies In length between
anchors. They are also useful between penstocks and turbines
or control valves for the same purpose. Flanges for connection
to turbines or valves should be faced after welding to the ,pipe
to eliminate distortions due to welding. This facing operation
will be facilitated by welding the flange to a short section
of pipe which may be provided with some excess length in order
to adjust misalignmsents between pipe and flange in the field.

7.5.2 Each pipe section is placed accurately to line and

grade, The . bend sections willbe installed first and fixed in
place with the concrete anchors before proceeding with the
penstock tangents between the anchors. Installation, will
proceed from the anchors toward the expansion joints. While
the support piers must be constructed before the pipe sections
are installed# the concrete anchors, or at least the top
portion around the pipe ' will be constructed after the pipe
is in place. The bases of piers, anchors and other concrete
structures are placed on undisturbed soil and the backfill
around the completed structures is placed and compacted in
accordance with applicable specification.
 131

7.6 ADIO4 Ra1? h .,., _SPCflOROF MELDS

7.6.1 After being welded,, the longitudinal joints are
radiographed to detect welting defects. Either the X-ray or
ga ma-rey equipment is used. Radiographic inspection of shop
and field-welded girth. joints is not usually employed, espe-
cially if the penstock is subjected to a proof hydrostatic
test after installation. As the radiographic inspection of
longitudinal joints permits a 1a*point increase in joint
efficiency, the plate thickness can be reduced correspondingly.
his offsets to some extent the cost of radiographic inspection.
The radiographic inspection should determine quantitatively
any defects of size equal to or greater than 2 per cent of
the plate thickness, The sizes of defects are determined by
gages called penetrameters. Two penetrameters are placed
adjacent to the weld length to be radiographed. Defects may
consist of slag inclusions$ cracks, gas pockets porosity,
unfused areas, or undercutting., certain defects, such as cracks,
L3
under cuts and incomplete fusion, are not acceptable, w ii b
porosity, slag inclusions, or cavities are acceptable only If
their size and distribution is such as not to impair the
strength of the weld. Unacceptable defects should be removed
by chipping, machining or flaw-gouging. After the defective
parts of the weld have been revelded, the repair should be
radiographed again to prove the quality of the repair.

The presence or extent of defects close to the surface

may be traced by magnaflux inspection, which is being used in
some cases to supplement the radiographic inspection of welds
or to check the efficiency of weld repair.
 132
?.62 Preheating And Stress Relieving s
~.~.wr.~..nw~w~ww..r~..irrr■rr~■ r...r

Preheating and stress relieving are not always required

being used for the heavier plates and for steels of high carbon
or alloy content. However, penstocks fabricated from plates s=
thicker than 1 inch are usually benefited by preheating before
welding. This reduces the cooling rate of the welds and
reduces the eeei residual stresses in the completed section.
Sections to be stress-relieved are heated in an enclosed fur-
nace to a minimum temperature of 1,100°
F and maintained at
that temperature for 1 hour for each inch of plate thickness,
then cooled in the furnace to 600'x? at a rate not exceeding
500°F per hour divided by the maximum thickness in inches,
then cooled in still air to normal temperature.

77 SS

7.7.1 ydrostatic Test s

A proof hydrostatic .test on the penstock after installa-
tion is most desirable. If the entire penstock cannot be test-
ed hydrostatically, individual sections may be tested in the
shop - after they have been radiographed and stress-relieved.
Hydrostatic tests should be performed at a pressure sufficient
to groove the adequacy of all plates and welds with the
required margin of safety. The following formula may be used
to determine the test pressure to be applied$
)4.0,000 a t
p = d .....(?.5)
in which,
p e test pressure in psi
 133
t = minimum plate thickness in section to be tested
in inches.
d = internal diameter of penstock in inches.

The test pressure so determined will produce in the

pipe a hoop stress of 20# 000 psi, or approximately I times
the usual design stress. The pressure should be applied three
time, being increased and decreased slowly at a uniform rate.
The test pressure should be held for a length of time euffi-
c ent for the inspection of all plates, Joints and connections
to detect leaks or signs of failure. It is desirable that the
pressure test be performed when the pipe and water have a
temperature of not less than 600F. The penstock should be
vented at high points during filling to prevent the formation
of air pockets. Hammer impact tests are not recommended, as
such tests do not represent operating conditions and are
considered unduly severe. Objectionable defects disclosed
during the pressure test should be repaired by welding, the
section radiographed again, and retested.


II/16 BUTTSTPOP 7/8 DIA RIVET HC)t.E S

N
PLATE

1/
\j\
•
5/BS I EEL

4'4+4
2 782 /B~

•• 1

DOUBLE RIVETED BUTT JOINT WITH

SINGLE BUTT STROP _-

FIG. 7.1 CIRCUMFERENTIAL RIVETED JOINT 5/8 PLATE.

9/16 BUTTSTROPS I DIA. RIVET HOLES

7/8STEEL
33/4
P'1 / PLATE i3/4

H •-- H
I L

4
DOUBLE RIVETED BUTT JOINT WITH
DOUBLE BUTT STROP.

FIG. 7.2 LONGITUDINAL RIVETED JOINT FOR 7/8 PLATE.

EDGE MACHINED TO
8 0 TO FACILITATE

COULK ING COULKING POOL
BUTTS TROP

V-7 77- f

7t
SHELL PLATE

EDGE OF PLATE PRESSED

AGAINST SHELL TO FORM
A WATER TIGHT JOINT.

FIG.7.3 CAULKING .
 2 1/2 • 2 1/2
5I-1 34 DIA.
I BOLTS OFF

SEALING
f RING
J p
Q '; a cn} ~~1L.11

~ al
—rr
J f

c (7~
aD

FIG. 7.4 FLANGED JOINT.

 FOLLOWER

BOLTS

TI

i o t

GASKET

PLAIN END PIPE

`MIDDLE RING

FIG. 7.S SLEEVE -TYPE COUPLING

NOTES:
PIPE STOPS TO BE PROVIDED ON COUPLINGS FOR PIPE 3.500 O.D.
AND OVER.
DIMENSIONS A,B, AND D. TO BE AS SHOWN ON ACCOMPANYING
DROWLINGS
MATERIALS TO BE IN ACCORDANCE WITH SPECIFICATIONS.
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 131
CRATER VIII

PENSTOCK ACCESSORIES

8.1 Among the penstock accessories which should be given

consideration in design are the following

(a) Pb Xngt ion d. Testin $

i) Temporary supports are generally required for
penstocks embedded in dams or tunnels. They
should be designed to carry only the empty pipe
and to anchor the pipe to the dam to prevent
flotation during placement of concrete. These
supports remain in place and are concreted in
with the pipe.

ii) Grout connections for penstocks located in dam

or tunnel., for grouting purposes.

iii) Standard dished test heads are used in hydro-

static pressure tests of the installed penstocks.

iv) Piezometer connections for turbine performance

tests, one. type of which is shown in Figure 8.1,
should be placed in straight sections of pipe
away from bends and branch outlets.

(b) For Maintenance

Proper maintenance of penstocks requires the
following accessories s**
i) Drain andPilling Line Connections $
Nozzles for connecting drains and filling lines
should be attached to conduits where required.
 13)
0

A drain nozzle should be placed in the bottom

of each conduit at the lowest point of the line,
Suitable gratings of 'bars $ flush with the inner
surface of the conduits, should be installed across
the opening for safety reasons. The size of the
drain is dependent on the time alcoved for drain-
ing. Sweep.type nozzles are generally used. Fill-
Ing lines are provided for penstocks only. They are
used to fill the penstock with water and place the
control gate under balanced pressure• to facilitate
its opening. The intake nozzle should be connected
at the horizontal center, near either end of the
penstock, but preferably near the down-stream end
to permit filling under aua'omerged conditions . The
8 line should b connected to the reservoir and
should be of sufficient size to complete the fill-
ing in about 8 hours, assuming a leakage through
the turbine gates at 1% of the rated flow to the
turbine. individual lines are usually provided
for each penstock, the flow being controlled with
suitable valves.

i) Air Inlets, And Outlets

Air Inlets should be provided at the upstream

ends of penstocks to prevent negative pressures
while the conduits are being drained and to
release air while the conduits are being filled.
Air vents or float-operated combination air and
 136
vacuum-relief valves should be installed in all
conduits at summits to prevent reductions in flow
caused by sir 'accumulations and to prevent the
formation of partial vacuums in the conduits.
Under some condition9, air pipes or air valves
e'hould be installed at points where the grade of
a conduit changes abruptly from a flat slope to a
steep slope. These connections will admit air
into.' the line when drained either intentionally
or accidentally due to a rupture of the pipe
section on the steep slope,. All air valve connec-
tions should be protected with shut-off valves to
permit servicing of the air valve. An analytical
method of determining the size and location of
air-inlet valves in steel penstock is explained
in paragraph 8.3.

. t) Manholes:
Manholes for inspection and maintenance purposes
should be placed in all conduits large enough to
permit entrance. Where practicable, manholes
should be .placed from 434 to 500 feet apart. They
may be located at the top, at the side $ in the
lower quadrant, or at the bottom of the conduit.
In 'large conduits, manholes in the lover quadrant
are usually the most convenient to enter. One or
more manholes, depending upon the length and
•prof, ,e of the conduit, should be placed at the
top to provide ventilation. Figure 8.2 shows a
typical 20 inch diameter manhole.
 137

iv) Walkways $
Walkways and, stairs are required for inspection
and maintenance of large penstocks In open
tunnels or above the ground.

8.2 C 3 HC L:
8.2.1.
Bends are required to change the direction of pipe line
both horizontally and vertically. Mr. Williamson pointed
out that the total loss in bend can best be expressed by Squat»
11
ing the bend to a certain length of equivalent straight pipe.
This length of straight pipe is expressed ass certain number
of diameters and the method has the merit of taking Into account
the roughness of the pipe.

The actual length of equivalent straight pipe varies

with both the angle of the bend and its radius of curvature.
Mr. Williamson shows in his paper a graph plotting the loss of
head in bends of various radii turning through different angles
of deviation, expressed as an equivalent number of diameters
of straight pipe lengths.* For 90 degree bends the figures for
loss are as follows:.

Radiuø Of Centre-Line Of Send

Diameter of pipe `,, 2 j 1.5 1.06 0.875
Loss of head(in
equivalent diameters)
of straight pipes = 5.0 7,55 12.5 18.5
 138

These figures illustrate the large increase of head

loss that occurs with sharp bends and in view of this it Is
advisable to limit the radius of bends to not less than
times the diameter of the pipes wherever possible. This can
usually be arranged, and if so, the additional loss of head,
due to the bend will be relatively smell.

For very small high pressure pipes#, such as the joint

less or banded pipes, it may be necessary to use bends maraud.
factured of cast steel. For forge-welded or fabricated steel
pipes' bends are made up by mitreing short lengths of straight
pipe. These rnttres are generally joined by welding and this
is best done in the shop. For large diameter riveted pipes
which are transported piece-smaU, it is best to arrange the
site joints square to the pipe In order to avoid very oykward
shaping of the cover straps. These site joints will then be
arranged mid-way between mitres.

A typical arrangement of a bend in a riveted pipe-line

is shown in Figure 8.3.

8.2.2. Bifurcations And Branches'

Bifurcations, trifurcations and branches of various
types may be required at points where It is necessary to split
one pipe into two or three smaller pipes. Castings can only
be used for small pipe-lines and generally the specials are
fabricated from mild steel plates, using welded or riveted
construction. Some quite complicated developments of plates
may arise and to avoid these as far as possible* the design
 139

of the special should be kept geometrically simple and symmew

trical and ease of fabrication should be a primary considera-
tion. A typical arrangement of a welded bifurcation is shown
in Figure 8.4. It is worth noting that the division plate has
been heavily stiffened. Although the theoretical maxima
pressure difference between the two legs may only be quite
small, turbulent conditions may arise when water is flowing
through one leg and not through the other# and these may tend
to cause flutter of the division plate tine to whirls and
eddies forming behind it.

It should also be noted from Pig.$ e4 that a single

division plate has been used and this is welded to a steel
casting shaped to form the yea between the two legs. This
method of construction avoids the difficulties of obtaining
water tightness which arise with a bifurcation formed of two
separate parts Joined together down the centre.

For very high pressure work the manufacture of these

special piece becomes Increasingly difficult for the larger
sixes. Extra reinforcement. must be provided to make up for
the weakening of the pipe shell caused by cutting for branches.
In such cases, these difficulties may be largely overcome by
adopting a globular shape at the ,junction. Although the tie'
meter of the globe necessary iitll be greater than that of the
cylindrical pipe, the hoop stress in the globe is less than
that in e, cylinder end, thinner metal may be used. The .legs of
the branches can be arranged to leave the globe radially and
comparatively light non-pressure. fairing can be provided inside
the globe to str am line the floe of water.
 140

8.3.1 The necessity of provision of air inlet valves is

explained in paragraph 8.1(b)(ii) of Chapter VIII. If the
pipe shell is thin, air must be admitted into the pipe to
prevent an excessive reduction of the internal pressure and
the subsequent co lapse of the pipe throughout a considerable
length because of the . etternal atmospheric pressure. The
strength of the pipe shell under this differential pressure
will depend on the lengthy-to.diameter ratio, the thickness-to-
diameter ratio, and the modulus of elasticity of the steel.
The presence of stiffner ring will add to the strength of
the shell. The collapsing pressure of steel pipe shells with
and without stiffnor rings has been studied and experimentally
determined by various investigators and the resulting formulas
are given etasehwere29 .

To obtain the collapsing pressure of steel pipes more

x•10
conveniently a chart has been prepared3o (Fig. ) . based on
the following instability formulas.

For cylindrical shells without stiftner rings,

p' W 50.2 x 106 - (t/D) 3 ..0..(5.80)

and# for cylindrical shells with stiffner rings $

(t/A)5/ 2 ... ..
p' =73.4x10 Lp

Where
p' = collapsing
g pressure for the pipe shell in psi
t = thickness of shell, in inches
 141.

D = inside diameter of pipe # In inches,

and L = spacing of the stiffner rings, in inches,

To determine the collapsing pressure of a pipe shell

with stiffner rings, the t/D ratio and the L/D ratio, Brut
first be computed' after which the value of the collapsing
pressure may be obtained from Fig .5.10. if there are no
stiffner rings, or if the L/D ratio is l arge , the value of
the collapsink pressure is given by the horizontal lines on
the right-hand side of the chart.

Application of a suitable factor of safety, N to p'

will give P2, the allowable pressure on the inside of the
pipe. Thus

I- pI - p2 ....,(5.81s)

or p2 ~ p.~ ....(581b)

in which pig the atmospheric pressure on the outside of the

pipe, may be obtained from Fig.S.11. Selection of a value
of N depends on the judgement of the designer,, who must also
consider the probable frequency of the assumed operation which
causes a reduction of the internal pressure.

8.3.2 Limiting Ratios For Which No Valve Is Required:

In as much as the largest value of p' that can be

exerted on an exposed penstock is limited to atmospheric
pressure, the limiting value of the t/D ratio for a pipe shell
without stiffner rings and the t/D ratio and the L/D ratio
 144

for a pipe shell with stiffner rings may be readily obtained

from Fig. *5.14 For oxample, for a pipe shell without stiffner
rings, with Nat, at sea lee1, the value of t/D must not be
less than 0.0067. For i = 2 at sea level, the t/D = 0.003,
thea required L/D ratio for the stiffner ring spacing must
not be greater than 1.3.

8.3.3 y4raulic Conditions At The Valve Location

The hydraulic flow conditions that will exist inside
the pipe at the at.r-inlet valve location with the valve open
may then be determined from the following considerations. The
minimum allowable internal pressure at the air-inlet valve is
P2; therefor, the pressure head at the air-inlet valve is
p2.31 (p2 - p1) . The water velocities in the pipe line leav-
ing and approaching the air-inlet valve location, designated
2, respectively, may then be computed by means of
the Bernoulli energy equation. If V, V2, or V1 and ~'2 are
in opposite directions, an air-inlet valve is required to
supply enough air to the pipe interior to occupy the space
created by the breaking of the water colum; that is,

in which,
Q is the quantity of air, in oft/sec, that must be
supplied to the pipe interior at the pressure p2g W is the
weight of air flowing through the air-inlet valve, in lbs.
per second; v2 is the specific volume of air in eft per lb.
at pressure p2; and
 143

Ap V1 .. V2 .....(5.83a)

It should be noted that, if V2 is opposite in

direction from V1

A4 = V1 + V2 .....{5.8~b~

8.3.l Flow Of Air Through Inlet Valves:

The air drawn through the Inlet valve will undergo a

volumetric change as it passes from atmospheric pressure, p1:
to the lover pressure, p2, inside the pipe. Ordi.narily,this
takes place so rapidly that there is little interchange of
beat between the water and the air. Therefore, the air flow
through the valve may be considered as an adiabatic expan-
sion, that is,

1t4 p1 --144 p2 2 .....(5.8)+)

in which v1 is the specific volume of air, in cubic feet

per pound, at pressure p1; and is the ratio, for air,
of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific
heat at constant volume.

The weight of air per second flowing through an air-

Inlet valve is then given by the expressions31 for p2 >

0*53 P1!

C '.'Y) [i_22 ) a) / ''

T =C 2g(it4a+p.~ )v,
2 P,
.....(5.85a)

144
and, for p2 ' 0.53p1,

w $)) r+, Pi
.....(5.85b)
in which c is the coefficient of discharge for the air-inlet
valve; d Is the inside diameter of the valve, in inches, and
g is the gravitational acceleration. Substituting equations
(5.82) & (5.8) in equations (5.85) , the ratio of the air-
inlet valve diameter to the pipe diameter is, for p2 ©.53p1.
j/1
(rl)/r]]
A =
D / 28E 1 p)1v
c '~ (-r` ? I- ( P2
'1 p4

and for p2 0.53 p1,

1/(2r) ..2 21(r-1)
A = 2g(141 p1)v1 r+1 / r+1
/ c p~

.....(5.86b)
Equations 5.86 may be further simplified by using an
average value for the term 2g (114p1)v1 j as its
numerical value is nearly constant regardless. of a4tituze,
air temperature,, or humidity.. The assumed average conditions
will, be taken at +0° latitude, an elevation of 100 ft above
sea level, an air temperature of ?50F, and 20% hwnidity, for
which g = 32.f55 ft. per see. per Se,. v1 = 13.969 cu.ft.per lb.
and Th14 p1 = 201+0 lb per sq.fte These values for g, p1 and I
together with a value of ' = 1.)+05 for air., may be substituted
in equations 5.86 to give for p2 7 0.53 p1
 p {x, 288
=o./[ 1 )

and, for p2 ': 0.53 Pi,

a.35b

Determination of the ratio d/i3 from equations 5.87a

and 5.87b is facilitated by a chart- Pig.5.12, which is
entered with the calculated values of p2/p1 and 6 V/c
A value of O.5 to 0.6 is believed to, be reasonable for the
value of ct for ordinary design of air inlet valves.


GRIND END FLUSH

WITH PIPE —
~ I1 DRILL ROUND EDGE TO 6
1 RADIUS
INSIDE OF PENSTOCK-

'I STD. HEX HD. COPPER GASKET

8

*PIPE TAP

_INSTALLATION OF A PIEZOMETER CONNECTION IN SHELL

OF PENSTOCK FOR TURBINE PERFORMANCE TASTE

COVER BOLT

kSKE k DIA
DRILLED'
NOZZLE HOLES
HINGE PIN

LED I~ --W----
R HINGE
DRILLED HOLES
TO MATCH HOLES
OR TAPS IN NOZZLE
=loo Ll h If 1 TAP THROUGH __ _ _ 27 _-.0.0. _ _ _ ,,
• 3/4-IOTHREADS i3 R ` 2
FOR PUSH OFF
BOLT T _ I ~' - -20 I D.-- ►I I ,1: 3 e ib

FACE ~T i-
nr,t s par 3 d en K - - - - 36' Developed D/O .--- - .1"
Type.. CCover 8ar 4 NOZZLE PLATE STEEL

i
ti
, , Drill for and orop,dt 2- . coitoi ,rrs
L.

HINGE PIN
COVER
PLATE STEEL COLD ROLLED STEEL

7+1

3/4 d is o Thrcads +- P- ~• `
PUSH OFF BOLT

DETAIL I

FIG. 8.2_20-INCH MANHOLES



\I
10
\

9/16 P. L. / ' /
t _
\\
I

-
ee SHOP BUTT WELD

+ 3/4 SHOP RIVET

• 3/4 FIELD RIVET

IG.8.3_TYPICAL BEND IN RIVETED PIPE LINE

0 2

I
7h

5TIFFNEAS
I
'r—
_•—l-1
- L. -- ----------- - -
SECTIONAL ELEVATION
OF GUSSET—AA
2 3 4
4 5
2
Ile

AP105

7JPL
\F 718 !}

S
SH

FIG. 8.4TYPICAL WELDED BIFURCATION

 140

CHAPTER - 1X

91 Exposed penstocks are supported or anchored at

suitable intervals. The advantages of such penstocks are
detailed out In Chapter 1. Local conditions and manufap-
turing facilities will finally decide the type of penstock.
Exposed penstocks are favoured as the initial cost is less
and maintenance during operation is comparatively easier.

9.2 Hydraulics of penstocks and selection of suitable

diameter plays an important mole in the over all design of
Water conductor system of a hydro-electric project. Friction
losses in penstock is calculated by well known cobey formula.
The chart in fig. 2.1 gives the friction loss In steel pipes.
Some authors propose other formulae (like Rannings etc.)
which are less accurate.

Water hammer effects on penstock design have been

reviewed critically in Chapter II. A chart showing maximum
pressure rise with uniform gate m tion complete closure is'
given In Pig. 2.2. Means of reducing water hammer effect
have been indicated.

9.3 Selection of the most economical penstock diameter

is one of the more t portant phases of hydra-electric design.
There are two methods of obtaining the economical diameter
of a penstock. Empirical approach relies on simple formula
and experience curve. The rational method employs the
laborious method of working out cost for several diameters.
 147

Effect of variable diameter and number of penstock lines

on cost of the installation has been explained with graphs.
The final economical diameter to be proposed should be
finalised after carefully examining the site conditions,
in addition to the economical studies.

9.li. Exposed penstocks are usually of steel construction.

Various types of steel pipes have been detailed out. Banded
pipe and multi-layer construction are increasingly being
used for high bead Installations. Fabricated steel pipes
have a wide application and i 8 suitable for pipes of the
smallest to the largest sizes encountered.

9.5 The design aspects of exposed penstocks have been

discussed under the heading t

is Penstocks supported on piers and anchors

ii) Penstocks with ring girder supports
and Ili) Banded and multi-layer construction.

Hoop stresses and the longitudinal stresses developed

under viricus conditions have been worked out. The design of
large pipe lines bled on Sc'hoyer analysis is widely acknowle-
dged and adopted. Design stresses mentioned in Table 5.1 as
per L S.B,R. are .recoumended for steel penstocks • Vibration
of penstocks has been analysed based on observations on many
existing installation.

9.6 Supports and anchors are considered to be an integral

part of the whole penstock assembly supports of rigid or
flexible type are explained with neat sketches. Forces to
be considered in the design of anchor block have been
mentioned in Chapter VI.

9.7 Processes involved in fabrication and installation

have been detailed out in Chapter VII,

9..$ Penstock accessories like man holes$ air inlet

valves etc. have been explained with neat sketches. The
design aspects of air inlet valve for exposed penstock
are enumerated in pare 8.3 of Chapter VIII.


1. Engineering monographs No.3 USBR - "Welded Steel

Penstock" P4.Bier. Sept. 1960.
2. "The flow or water in Riveted steeland Analogous
pipes" Technical Bulletin No.150, U.S.Department
of Agriculture, by Fred Scobey, January 1930.
3, t)sonyi, Emil, "Water Power Development"
4. . "Symposium on Water Winter", published in dune 1933,
under the Joint auspices of A.S.M.E., Hydraulic and
A.S.C.E. Power Division.
5. "Water Hammer Analysis", Chapter Vt, Bulletin 5,
Penstock analysts and etiffner design "Boulder
Can Project" • ,nal Reports, 1940,
6. "Comparison and limitations of water hammer Theories"
by R.S. Quick, Me canjc al Engineering, May 1927.
?. U.S.B.R. Design Supplement No.?, Pt. 2, Engineering
Design - Design and Construction Manual..
8. "Civil Engineering and Public Works Review" Vol .t5,
November 1950.
9. "Economical diameter for Penstocks" by G.S.Sarkaria
Water Power, Tothil Press Ltd. London, September 198.
10. "Penstock Sized Quickly" by G.S.Sarkaria, Engineering
News Record, August 15, 1957.
11. "Steel Penstock Selection" by A.E.Nieder off, Western
Construction News, April 1, 191.3.
12. "Welded Steel Penstocks Design and Construction" by
P. '.Bier, Engineering Monograph No.3, SUBR, July 1949.
13. " Electric Enginring Pra ctice" by G.J.B wn,
Son Ltd. London, Glasgow, 1958, Vol. 1.
14. "Power Penstocks" By P.3*Bier, Water Power, Tothill
Press Ltd. London, June, July, August 1958.
15. "Symposium on Penstocks"$ Proceedings Symposium
Series No.1,.. A»S.C.E., March 1961.
16. "Quicker Design of Penstocks" by Dr.Eng.Harald. Tult,
Water Powe r, Augus t 1956.
17. "Pressure pipe lines for Hydro-Electric Works" by
E.J.K.Ohapman, Civil Engineering and Public Works
Review, October 1950.
 JLp9 V

18. "Sharavathi Valley Hydro-PO'aer Project-Report Vol.1,

November 1956"
19. "Banded Pipes for Penstocks" by Giovanni Mattioli,
Water Power, April 1962.
20. Davis C. "Handbook of Applied Hydraulics" Mc-►Draw
Hill 3ook Co., New 'fork.
21 . Creager, W. & Justin, J. "Hydro-Electric Handbook"
John Wiley & Sons Inc.
22. "Hydraulic Structures" by A.Schokiitsch Vol* 11#
Published by A.S.M.E., New York.
23. "sign of Large Pipelines" by Herman Echo er,
Transactions ASCE Vol.98, 1933.
"Tests of Cylindrical Shells" University of Illinois
Bulletin No .331, Septembe r 23, 19+1.
"Applied Elasticity" by John Prescott Longman' e,
Green and Co. London 192'4
26. "Anchor Block For Sharavathi" Inc ian Journal of Power
and River Valley Development, V18n7 July 1968.
27. Brown Guthrie "Water Power Engineering" Vol . I.
2 3 . Paper to Institution of Civil Engineers $ on March,1939 •
29. "Collapse by Instability of thin cylindrical shells
under external Pressure" by Dwight F.Windenburg and
Charles Trilling, Transactions AS € 1931* p.819.
30. "Air Inlet valves for steel pipelines" by John
Parmakian, Transactions ASCE 1950.
31. "Mechanical Engineers Handbook" by Lionel S.Marks, Mc.Gra
Hill Book Co., Inc., New IG .
32. "New Design Criteria for U.S.B.B.Pensto+ ks" by Harold
G. Arthur and John J.Walker, Proceedings ASCE, Power
Division, January 1970.
33. Boulder Canyon Project, Final Reports Part V(4) .
31+. "The Vibration of Penstocks"
P W by Prof miki Kito,
Ke io Unive rs i ty r kyo, Pe, .October 1959 •