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A Modern Approach to Classical Mechanics Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com
Foundations of classical
mechanics
by 187.232.150.6 on 05/05/18. For personal use only.
Before establishing the laws, Newton introduces the definitions of mass,

force, and quantity of motion. We shall take these as our starting point.
Again we also mention Mach’s criticisms of Newton’s formulation, from
his book, “The Science of Mechanics” (see Bibliography). Then we
present the Newton’s laws in the form used usually in classical mechanics
and derive rather general consequences.
2.1 Mass, quantity of motion, and force

Newton’s definitions (The Principia, Definitions)
Definition I:
The quantity of matter is the measure of the same arising

from its density and bulk conjointly.
... It is this quantity that I mean hereafter everywhere under

the name of body or mass. And the same is known by the
weight of each body, for it is proportional to the weight, as
I have found by experiments on pendulums, very accurately
made, which shall be shown hereafter.
15
16 2. FOUNDATIONS OF CLASSICAL MECHANICS
Definition II:
The quantity of motion is the measure of the same, arising

from the velocity and quantity of matter conjointly.
The motion of the whole is the sum of motions of all parts;

...
Definition III:
The vis insita, or innate force of matter, is a power of re-

sisting, by which every body, as much as in it lies, continues
in its present state, whether it be of rest, or of moving uni-

formly forward in a right line.
Definition IV:
An impressed force is an action exerted upon a body, in order

to change its state, either of rest, or of moving uniformly
forward in a right line.
Mach criticized Definition I as being a sham, and Definition III as

being superfluous in view of Definition IV. Mach was not alone in dislik-
ing Newton’s concept of mass: Hertz, too, in his “Principles of Mecha-
nics”, is of the opinion that Newton must have been embarrassed about
his enforced definition of mass as a product of volume times density.
Newton did not distinguish between the mass appearing in Definition
I and the mass referred to in Definition II. The equivalence of this two
masses is not evident; we will discuss this later (Section 6.2). The mod-
ern terms for these masses are gravitational mass and inertial mass
respectively.
Nowadays, the ‘quantity of motion’ is called momentum. Also, all
three concepts — ‘mass’, ‘momentum’, and ‘force’ — are more precisely
defined in physics than in popular usage, not least because they are
related by mathematical equations. As to the history of these concepts,
we refer to the books by M. Jammer, “Concepts of mass” and “Concepts
of force” (see Bibliography).
2.2. NEWTON’S LAWS 17
2.2 Newton’s laws

The laws per se are not Newton’s main achievement. Some of them
were stated (in a different form) already previously. For example in
Christiaan HUYGENS’ “Horologium oscillatorium”1 one can find three
‘hypotheses’, not so different from Newton’s laws, as a basis for Huygens’
analysis of motion caused by gravity2 . However it is Newton’s merit at
least having derived from his three laws a universal theory of motion.
The laws (The Principia, Axioms, or Laws of Motion)

Law I:
Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform mo-

tion in a right line, unless it is compelled to change that state

by forces impressed upon it.
Law II:
The change of motion is ever proportional to the motive force

impressed; and is made in the direction of the right line in
which that force is impressed.
Law III:
To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or

the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always
equal, and directed to contrary parts.
These laws are followed by several ‘Corollaries’. The first Corollary is

the
Superposition Principle of Forces3 (‘parallelogram law of forces’):
1
Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695), Dutch mathematician and scientist. He in-
vented the pendulum clock about 1656 and published later his “Horologium oscillato-
rium” (The Pendulum Clock), Paris 1673.We mention also his “Traité de la Lumière”,
Leiden 1690, on the wave theory of light. This book contains also hie earlier “Discours
de la cause de la pesanteur” (Discourse about gravity).
2
D. Speiser, “Die Grundlegung der Mechanik in Huygens’ Horologium Oscillato-
rium und in Newtons Principia”, in ”Die Anfänge der Mechanik” ed. K. Hutter,
Springer Berlin 1989.
3
We have formulated the principle in modern language.
If forces are applied to the same point of a body, the effect

will be same as a force which is equal to their vectorial sum.
The first law encapsulates what was known about the motion of
a single mass at the time. Galileo had already concluded empirically
that a particle moving without the influence of a force tries to preserve
its velocity4 . Descartes expanded Gaileo’s conclusion by stating that a
body (in the absence of a force) only moves in a straight line and never
along a curve5 .
Regarding the first law, ARISTOTLE6 believed that in absence of
a motive power all bodies (on earth) would come to rest. As to the sec-
ond law, Newton’s great achievement was to recognize that the ‘change
in (the quantity of) motion’, the acceleration, is proportional to the

force. It is true however, that already in 1604, Galileo — after at first
incorrectly relating velocity to the distance — recognized the relevance
of acceleration, the increase of velocity with time, in the free fall7 . New-
ton’s second law is the basis of dynamics.
In view of the definitions preceding the laws in Newton’s book, Mach
criticized the first law and the second law, in particular, as an ‘unnec-
essary tautology’. He subsequently replaced ‘Newton’s list of statements
by a much simpler, more systematic, and more satisfactory one’. But
Mach’s laws, in contrast to the ‘unsystematic’ ones of Newton, are not
easily comprehensible to those unfamiliar with the discussion preceding
them in his book. One could get the (false) impression that Mach was
not exactly an admirer of Newton’s accomplishments. Mach, it seems,
was aware of the impression he would give, for after discussing the laws,
he states that the repetitions and tautologies sprang from opposition by
Newton’s contemporaries, as well as from Newton’s own unclarity with
regards to the significance of the new — nevertheless, that these short-
comings ‘cannot cast the faintest shadow on his intellectual greatness’.
Remarks
4
1612 in a letter on sunspots to the merchant of Augsburg Marcus Welser.
5
Descartes, Principia Philosophiae, second part, § 39.
6
Aristotle (384-322 BC), Greek philosopher.
Here we refer to his “Physics” (Φυσικησ Aκρoασεωσ). The title is — for us —
somewhat misleading. The book is philosophical, i.e. insight is obtained by thinking
(only) with a little bit of experience, but not based on experiments!
7
Stillman Drake, “Galileo at work”, Chapter 6 (see Bibliography).
2.3. ANALYTICAL MECHANICS 19
i) In the classical antiquity, as well as much later, it was believed that

motion in the absence of forces is circular (Aristotle8 , Ptolemy9 ).
ii) It may seem that force is defined by the second law. But a force
can be determined by comparison with another force that serves
as a reference (in a static measurement); then the second law is
more than a mere definition of force.
2.3 Analytical mechanics

Newton’s book is hard to read even in its English translation. Its math-
ematics is hidden in the text, there are nearly no formulas displayed,

and it is of a kind not familiar to us anymore. Newton derived the con-
sequences of his verbally presented laws using the so-called geometrical
method, i.e. he relied heavily on geometric arguments, mainly exploit-
ing proportions between the quantities considered and often referring to
figures. Since EUCLID’s10 “Elements” this was still the main method
of mathematical reasoning since antiquity. But somehow infinitesimals
and their properties had to enter. Newton achieved this by the eleven
lemmas on vanishing small quantities he proposed right at the begin-
ning of his first book. Only then he started to investigate particular
8
Aristotle, “Physics”, Chapter 8: ‘Only circular motion can be infinite and con-
tinuous.’ A prejudice not really scrutinized until Renaissance times.
9
Claudius PTOLEMY (about 90-168), Greco-Egyptian astronomer and mathe-
matician, famous for his “Mαϑηµατ ικη Συντ αξις”. Better known is the Arabic
name “Almagest”. It is a comprehensive astronomic treatise and handbook. The
observed motion of the sun, the planets, and the moon is modeled to take place on
cycles around the earth. On these circles move epicycles to account for the observed
orbit. (Epicycles are smaller cycles whose center move on bigger ones.) Also the “Al-
magest” was esteemed for its description of the planetary system until Renaissance
times.
10
Euclid of Alexandria (about 323-328 BC), Greek mathematician, ‘father of geom-
etry’. His “Elements” are presumably the most influential book in the fields of Math-
ematics and Physics. Its style was exemplarily for many scientific books, in particular
for the “Principia”. The Elements consist of 13 books. There are different versions
due to the fact that it survived through the Byzantine and Arabic tradition, like so
many other antique treasures. Many slightly differing copies have been made since
antiquity. There exist numerous translations, amongst them several in English. A
rather recent English one is that by R. Catesby Taliaferro from 1939.
systems11 .
The application of analysis began rather shortly after the appearance
of the “Principia”. The French clergyman P. VARIGNON12 was the
first one writing 1700 Newton’s law for rectilinear motion in the form
ddx/dt2 = y, where ddx = d2 x and y represents the force. Thus he
established analytical mechanics. Using the new mathematical language
Varignon published numerous articles on the motion of a body in the
Memoires de l’Academie Royale (Paris) from 1700 until 1711.
The breakthrough of the analytic presentation of Newton’s mechan-

ics came with L. EULER13 . In his two volume book “Mechanica sive
motus scientia analytice exposita” (Mechanics or the science of motion
analytically presented; St. Petersburg 1736) he systematically discussed
the motion of a point mass (see below).

The rather final analytical form was given to mechanics by J.-L.
LAGRANGE14 in his famous “Mécanique Analytique” (Analytical Me-
chanics; Paris 1788). There is not a single figure in this book!
It is this language which was used henceforward in classical mechan-
ics.
2.3.1 The basic equations of mechanics

Interpreting the laws and definitions in modern terms, and casting them
in mathematical language, we can write down the basic equations of
mechanics. The position, velocity, acceleration, and force appearing in
these equations are vectors in Euclidean space15 (Section 1.4.3); they
can be represented in terms of Cartesian components (cf. Appendix A).
For a single particle (or body) at position r = (x, y, z) , with velocity
v = ṙ = (ẋ, ẏ, ż) and acceleration r̈ = (ẍ, ÿ, z̈), the basic equations are
as follows:
11
A work that facilitates the access to the “Principia” is S. Chandrasekhar’s “New-
ton’s Principia for the Common Reader” (see Bibliography).
12
Pierre Varignon (1654-1722), mathematician. Varignon learned about the infin-
itesimal calculus from private instructions given by Johann Bernoulli to l’Hôpital.
13
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783), Swiss mathematician and physicist.
14
Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736-1813), French mathematician and physicist.
15
The distinguished role of Euclidean space in Newton’s mechanics can be traced
back to the first law.
2.3. ANALYTICAL MECHANICS 21
• The momentum p = (p1 , p2 , p3 ) of a body is the product of its

mass m and its velocity v:
p = mv. (2.1)
• A force F is represented by a vector in configuration space, F =

(F1 , F2 , F3 ). If two forces F1 and F2 are applied to a point on a
body, then the total force F is the vectorial sum of both forces:
F = F1 + F2 (2.2)
(superposition principle of forces).

• The first two laws of Newton relate the change of momentum

(‘quantity of motion’) of a body with the force applied to it; these
are summarized in an equation that we call Newton’s equation
of motion16 :
ṗ = F (2.3)
(p = const, if F = 0 (1st law)). If the mass m is time independent,

then the change in velocity, i.e. the acceleration d2 r/dt2 = r̈, is
a measure of the force:
mr̈ = F. (2.4)
Written in components, we have
mẍ = F1
mÿ = F2 (2.5)
mz̈ = F3 .
16
One may suppose that there is an unjustified arbitrariness in translating ‘the
change of motion is proportional to the force’ of Newton’s second law into an equal
sign between the change of momentum and the force. From Newton’s reference to
Galileo’s discovery ‘that the descent of bodies observed the duplicate ratio of time’ as
being in accord with the first and the second law (The Principia, Scholium at the end
of “Axioms, or Laws of Motion”) one can infer the equality. Further, the continuing
application of the second law in the “Principia” to the motion in various central
forces leads to same results as the analytical treatment. Moreover, in Varignon’s
communications to the academy and in Euler’s “Mechanica...” the equality (apart
from a constant) between the time derivative of the momentum and the force appears.
• The third law relates the forces that two bodies exert on each
other:
F21 = −F12 , (2.6)
where Fik is the force applied by body k to body i (action =
reaction).
The superposition principle for forces represents the starting point

for statics, a subject of great importance in engineering. We present a
short introduction to statics in Section 11.2.
2.3.2 Point masses and forces

In the following, we apply Newton’s definitions and laws to so-called

point masses. By definition, point masses are mathematical points
having mass; they have no structure, like a body. Therefore, the only
possibility for a point mass to change, is to move. Since motion can oc-
cur in three independent directions, the number of degrees of freedom
of a point mass is three. At first, the concept of point mass is assumed
to apply to real situations, when the bodies or particles involved are of
sizes negligible with respect to the typical length scales (e.g. the dis-
tances between the bodies) of the systems considered — the particles are
taken to be mathematical points. Thereby the internal structure and
the internal degrees of freedom17 of the particles are ignored. Then,
starting from the concept of point mass, by a natural extension, the
motion of extended bodies lies within the scope of the mechanics of
point masses (see, for instance, the treatment of rigid bodies in Chapter
11).
If a force is present at every point r in (some part of) configuration
space, then the particle is said to be in a force field F = F(r). Here,
it is explicitly assumed that the force only depends on the position18 r.
17
Roughly speaking, the internal degrees of freedom are the independent possibili-
ties of a body to change its appearance; for example, the three independent rotations
of a non-spherically symmetric body (see Chapter 11). We focus on the internal
degrees of freedom later.
18
If the field of force has been determined by static methods, then one must keep
in mind that by inserting this force into the equation of motion (2.3) or (2.4), it has
been tacitly assumed, that the force does still not depend on t and/or v, when time
varies or velocities are involved. In particular, this restriction may be problematic in
relativistic mechanics when dealing with large velocities of the particle.
2.4. CONSTANTS OF MOTION 23
In general, the force may also depend on the time t and velocity of the
particle v. A simple example is a particle experiencing the force F as
well as an additional frictional force proportional to the velocity (E)
mr̈ = −λṙ + F.
In the general case, when F = F(r, v, t), the equation of motion (2.3)
or (2.4) (in coordinate representation a system of three coupled second
order ordinary differential equations) can only be solved numerically. If,
however, F has particular simplifying properties, then the equations of

motion possess general features that make them more amenable to ana-
lytical solution. In the following, we make two restrictive assumptions:
i) We consider only a point mass with constant mass; then, since

d(mṙ)/dt = mr̈, the equation of motion reduces19 to (2.4).
ii) The force field F depends only on position20 r: F = F(r).
2.4 Constants of motion

Above we have introduced the basic concepts and relations of classical
mechanics. But before we proceed to consider particular mechanical
systems in the next chapter, we will point out some general features of
the relations between the fundamental quantities.
2.4.1 Constants of motion and conserved quantities

The solution of the second order ordinary differential equations (2.5), in
vector form mr̈ = F(r), for given initial values of position and velocity,
r0 := r(t = 0) and ṙ0 := ṙ(t = 0), (2.7)
is the orbit r = r(t) of the particle in ‘ordinary’ three-dimensional

space, i.e. configuration space. Introducing the velocity v = ṙ as an
19
In the case of variable mass, one obtains from (2.3) the equation
dm
ṙ + mr̈ = F.
dt
To solve this equation, dm/dt has to be known (E). An easy case is in one dimension,
when dm/dt = const and F does only depend on v.
20
In Electrodynamics the Lorentz force depends on ṙ (compare Section 5.5).
additional variable, the second order differential equation (2.4) can be

transformed to an autonomous system21 of two first order equations:
ṙ = v
v̇ = F/m. (2.8)
It often turns out to be convenient to write the dynamical variables

r and v together as a vector (r, v) in the six-dimensional phase space
and to consider (v, F (r) /m) as the components of a six-dimensional

vector function dependent on (r, v).
Given the initial values r0 and v0 , the system of differential equa-
tions (2.8) possesses a unique solution if F fulfills certain conditions.
We assume that F is well-behaved. Consequently, every trajectory22
(r (t) , v (t)) in phase space depends in a unique manner on the initial

values:
r = R(r0 , v0 ; t)
v = V(r0 , v0 ; t). (2.9)
(This is not true for the orbit in configuration space! See, for instance,
Figs. 15.9 and 15.10.) The explicit forms of the functions R and V
are to be calculated by solving the equations of motion. The following
statements address the existence and general properties of the solutions.
Since F is assumed to be independent of time t and velocity ṙ, the
equations of motion (2.4) are ordinary differential equations involving
only second derivatives with respect to time. Therefore, they are in-
variant under the time reversal transformation
t → −t,
because replacing d/dt by −d/dt leaves the second time derivative d2 /dt2
in (2.4) unchanged. This means that the motion in configuration space
is reversible: for the solutions of (2.4), the orbits are the same23 irre-
21
Autonomous means that the equations do not explicitly depend on time t.
22
Paths in configuration space are termed ‘orbits’, and paths in phase space are
termed ‘trajectories’.
23
A simple example of an equation that is not invariant under time reversal is
d2 x dx
+γ = 0,
dx2 dt
spective of the direction of time. In (2.8) time reversal leads to
ṙ = −v,
v̇ = −F/m;
only the direction of the velocity and the acceleration is changed. Un-
der time reversal, in phase space, the particle moves along the same
trajectory but in the opposite direction.
Therefore, under time reversal, if the particle is at (r(t), v(t)) in phase

space at time t, then after evolving for time −t it arrives at the point
(r0 , v0 ), so that
r0 = R (r(t), v(t); −t)

v0 = V (r(t), v(t); −t) . (2.10)
This is just the inverse of equations (2.9).

When written in Cartesian components, Eqs. (2.10) represent six
equations, where the components of r and v together with t appear in
the functions R and V on the right hand side. These equations show
that the functions R and V are constant in time along a trajectory
(r (t) , v (t)) in phase space, with the constants being the initial values
r0 and v0 . These fix a trajectory for all time. The initial values r0 and
v0 are a set of six independent24 constants of the motion, which can
be written as25
Kj (r(t), v(t), t) = kj = const, j = 1, . . . , 6; (2.11)
whose solutions are

x ∝ e−γt .
(See also the damped oscillator, Subsection 3.4.1.) Looking into the past, the solution
grows exponentially, whereas in the future the solution becomes vanishingly small.
24
Since r0 as well as v0 can be chosen independently!
25
The initial values r0 and v0 are particular examples of the constants kj in these
relations.
all the total time derivatives vanish:

d ∂Kj dr ∂Kj dv ∂Kj
Kj (r(t), v(t)) = + + = 0. (2.12)
dt ∂r dt ∂v dt ∂t
In general, not all of the functions Kj can be calculated explicitly; in-
deed, there are few cases when this is possible. Now, if any one of the
relations (2.11), e.g. K1 , is used to express time t in terms of r(t) and
v(t), i.e.
t = f (r(t), v(t)) ,
then in the remaining five relations, the explicit time dependence can be
eliminated, giving five time independent constants of the motion. These
are the conserved quantities
Ij (r(t), v(t)) = ij = const, j = 1, . . . , 5. (2.13)
They depend on time only through the dynamical variables r(t) and
v(t), i.e. ∂Ij /∂t = 0, such that
d ∂Ij dr ∂Ij dv
Ij (r(t), v(t)) = + = 0. (2.14)
dt ∂r dt ∂v dt
A constant of the motion, or a conserved quantity, is also called a (time
dependent or time independent) first integral or integral of the mo-
tion.
Each relation (2.13) represents a five-dimensional hypersurface in
six-dimensional phase space. The trajectory of the particle lies in each
of these hypersurfaces; it is therefore the curve of intersection of all five
hypersurfaces26 . The orbit is the projection of the trajectory in phase
space onto configuration space (Note: the uniqueness of the phase space
motion is lost in the projection). Thus, knowledge of all the conserved
quantities implies possession of the unique solution, even though solu-
tions of the ordinary differential equations were not calculated.
Unfortunately, one cannot, on the basis of just these statements
about the existence of a solution, deduce how the conserved quantities
26
The situation is a generalization of the one in three-dimensional space, where
the intersection of two (independent) surfaces (i.e. two-dimensional manifolds) is a
curve (a one-dimensional manifold). A concrete example of such an intersection is
shown in Fig. 4.3.
are to be determined — unless one knows the solution of the equations.

This problem is insurmountable for most systems. However, for each
known constant of the motion, the number of equations to be solved is
decreased by one. It is advantageous to find as many constants of the
motion as possible before attempting to solve the ordinary differential
equations. For a conservative system (see below), there is always an
explicitly known conserved quantity: namely, the total energy. In this
case, four conserved quantities or five constants of the motion remain
to be determined27 . If the force in a conservative system is a central

force (see below), then there are further explicit conserved quantities.
A system is said to be integrable, if there is a sufficient number of first
integrals for the solution to be known without solving the equations of
motion (2.8) directly (again, see Section 14.1).
2.4.2 Conservation of energy
The first of the favorable cases mentioned in the previous paragraph is

the following. Suppose we multiply equations (2.4) by ṙ,
d
mṙr̈ = (mṙ2 /2) = Fṙ,
dt
and integrate both sides over time from t0 = 0 to t1 :
t1 r1
1 1 dr
mv12 − mv02 = F dt = Fdr, (2.15)
2 2 dt
0 r0 ,C
where r0 = r(0), r1 = r(t1 ), v0 = v(0), v1 = v(t1 ), and C is the path of

the particle between t0 and t1 . The quantity
T = mv2 /2 = mṙ2 /2 (2.16)
27
Later we see that because of the structure of Eqs. (2.8), three conserved quan-
tities with certain properties are sufficient to give a complete solution (see Section
14.1).
is the kinetic energy28 of the particle with velocity v, and the integral
r1
F(r)dr
r0 ,C
is the work done by the force F in moving the particle along path C
from r0 to r1 . The difference in the kinetic energies at t = 0 and t = t1
is therefore equal to the work done by the force in that period.
Let us consider this work more closely. In general, the amount of

work done in moving a particle from r0 to r1 depends on the path C
taken. If the integral does not depend on the path, i.e.
r1 r1
Fdr =: Fdr, ∀C, (2.17)

r0 ,C r0
then the force field F is conservative. In particular, for two arbitrary

paths C1 and C2 with common starting and end points r1 and r2 (see
sketch), this implies that
r1 r1 r1 r0
0= Fdr − Fdr = Fdr + Fdr = Fdr.
r0 ,C1 r0 ,C2 r0 ,C1 r1 ,C2 C1 +C2
28
Leibniz observed that the quantity mṙ2 is conserved in many mechanical
processes. He called this quantity vis viva (living force) and proposed the prin-
ciple of its conservation in several publications (see e.g. Specimen Dynamicum, Part
I, Acta Eruditorum 1695). Until the beginning of the 20th century one can find books
using this term.
Generally there was a long lasting confusion between the concepts which we call
today energy, force, and momentum.
Since the paths are arbitrary, one obtains the condition:
The force field F is conservative, if and only if for every

closed path C
Fdr = 0. (2.18)
C
Using Stokes’ theorem


Fdr = (∇ × F) df
C O
(with ∇ = (∂/∂x, ∂/∂y, ∂/∂z)), where O is an arbitrary surface bounded

by the closed curve C and df is the vector normal to a surface element,

we see that the integral condition (2.18) is equivalent to the differential
condition,
∇ × F = 0, (2.19)
for the force to be conservative.
A mathematical consequence of (2.19) is that there exists a scalar
function V (r), such that29
F(r) = −∇V (r); (2.20)
V (r) is the potential of the force field F(r). Integrating F along some
path between r0 and r1
r1 r1 r1
Fdr = − ∇V dr = − dV = V (r0 ) − V (r1 ), (2.21)
r0 r0 r0
results in the difference of the values of V at those points; in this context,

the potential V (r) is referred to as the potential energy at position
r. Combining with Eq. (2.15), we now have
1 1
mv12 + V (r1 ) = mv02 + V (r0 ) = const =: E; (2.22)
2 2
i.e. the sum of the kinetic and the potential energy is the total energy
E. Since r0 and r1 are two arbitrary points, conservation of energy
follows:
29
The minus sign is chosen by convention.
For a conservative force, the sum of kinetic and potential

energy, the total energy E, is constant in time:
m 2
E = T (v) + V (r) = ṙ + V (r) = const. (2.23)
2
The total energy E is conserved. The system is said to be
conservative.
Finding this first integral constitutes an important step towards ob-

taining the solution: the number of equations remaining to be solved is
reduced. This the calculational advantage. Perhaps even more impor-
tantly, the conserved quantity has a physical meaning that is recogniz-
able in many different systems — it is always energy, or a quantity quite

analogous to energy. Conservation laws immediately offer a qualitative
understanding of features of the particle motion. For instance, in many
different physical situations, an increase in particle velocity can be in-
terpreted as an increase in kinetic energy at the expense of potential
energy.
Remarks
i) For one-dimensional motion, the force field is always conservative

since F (x) always has a potential

V (x) = − F (x′ )dx′ (2.24)
(since F (x) = −dV (x)/dx). From the conservation law (2.22), one
can directly deduce (see next chapter) the solution of the equation
of motion in the following form:
x
1
t − t0 = ± dx′ .
2 (E − V (x′ )) /m
0
For a one-dimensional system, there are two constants of motion

(x0 and v0 ) and thus only one conserved quantity; this we already
have. Therefore, every one-dimensional system is integrable (solv-
able). We discuss this further in Section 3.2.
ii) Another special case of energy conservation occurs in three dimen-

sions, when a special property of the force ensures that the three
components (2.5) of the equation of motion are not coupled:
mẍ = F1 (x)
mÿ = F2 (y) (2.25)
mz̈ = F3 (z).
The three-dimensional system separates into three one-dimensional

systems. In the light of remark (i), the problem can always be
solved: for each coordinate, there is a conserved energy Ei , i =
1, 2, 3. The total energy is
E = E1 + E2 + E3 , (2.26)
and the potential V (r) is simply the sum of three parts:

 x 
y z
V (r) = −  F1 (x′ )dx′ + F2 (y ′ )dy′ + F3 (z ′ )dz ′ 
= V1 (x) + V2 (y) + V3 (z).
2.4.3 Angular momentum and its conservation

There is a further class of systems where a useful conserved quantity
appears. The vector product of the equation of motion (2.4) with the
radius vector r,
d
r × mr̈ = (r × mṙ)
dt
= r × F,
gives
d
L = N, (2.27)
dt
where we have defined the angular momentum L, to be
L = r × mṙ = r × mv = r × p (2.28)
and the torque or the moment of the force N about the origin, to
be
N = r × F. (2.29)
The angular momentum L is given in Cartesian components (cf. Eq.

(A.7)) by
L1 = m (y ż − z ẏ)
L2 = m (z ẋ − xż) (2.30)
L3 = m (xẏ − y ẋ) .
Similar relations hold for the components of the torque N. The equa-
tion for the angular momentum (2.27) is analogous to the equation

for the linear momentum dp/dt = F. However, one should observe
that both quantities30 in (2.27) are referred to the origin31 (E). Since
|N| = rF sin α, where α is the angle between the radius vector r and the
force F, the torque produced by a force, which is parallel to r, vanishes,
and is maximal when the force is perpendicular to r.
Central forces
An important special case occurs when the force produces a torque that
vanishes at every point. That means that at every point, the force is
directed towards (or outwards from) the center about which the torque
is defined; it is parallel (or antiparallel) to the radius vector r. Such a
central force has the form
r
F(r) = f(r) . (2.31)
r
Since F is parallel to r, the torque vanishes,
N = r × F = 0, (2.32)
and from (2.27), the law of conservation of angular momentum

follows:
In a central force field, the angular momentum of a particle is

conserved,
L = L(r, v) = const. (2.33)

30
That the quantities defined in Eqs. (2.28) and (2.29) are vectors depends strongly
on the three-dimensionality of space.
31
Here, the origin is taken as an example of a point of reference. In practice,
the point of reference is some special point of the system — for example, a point of
symmetry of the potential, which for convenience, is taken as the origin.
In fact, this provides three conserved quantities, so the number of equa-

tions remaining to be solved is considerably reduced.
From its definition (2.28), we recognize that the angular momentum
at any instant is perpendicular to the orbit r(t):
rL = 0, ∀t. (2.34)
Therefore, if the angular momentum is constant in time, the orbit re-
mains in a plane perpendicular to the fixed direction of L; the motion
is therefore effectively two-dimensional.

Every central force field is conservative. It follows from (2.31) that
∇ × F = 0. For a central force field, there exists therefore a potential
V such that F is the gradient of that potential (cf. Eq. (2.20)). The
potential can be calculated readily. Multiplying (2.31) by r, one obtains

∂ d
f (r)r = −r∇V (r) = −r V (r) = −r V (r), (2.35)
∂r dr
where the last step used the fact that since f = f(r), the potential V
can depend only on r = |r|. The potential of a central force is spherically
symmetric. Thus the relation between f and V is
d
f(r) = − V (r) (2.36)
dr
or r
V (r) = − f r′ dr′ . (2.37)
In the case of a particle subjected to a central force, we immediately

have four conserved quantities: energy and angular momentum (three
components). These are sufficient to solve the problem at hand: Eqs.
(2.4) or (2.8) are integrable, i.e. reducible to simple integrals (see Section
14.1).
Problems and examples

1. Variable mass: Rocket motion ([Sommerfeld], [Corben/
Stehle]).
Consider the one-dimensional motion of a rocket, perpendicular
to the surface of the earth, acted upon by the force of gravity
F = −mg. The rate of loss of mass due to loss of fuel,
dm/dt = −µ,
as well as the velocity −w of the gases ejected (−w is the velocity

with respect to the rocket!) are constant. The total change of
momentum with respect to the earth consists of the change in
momentum of the rocket,
d (mv) /dt = mv̇ − µv,
and the change in momentum of the ejected gases, µ(v − w). The
only force present is the gravitational force, therefore we have the

equation of motion:
mv̇ − µv + µ(v − w) = mv̇ − µw = −mg.

Discuss this equation and solve it (m = m0 − µt).
2. Discuss and solve the equation for one-dimensional motion of a

particle in the presence of a frictional force, assuming that the
resistance due to friction is proportional to
a) v; b) v2 .
3. Show that a shift in the origin
r′ = r + s with d2 s/dt2 = 0,
does not change the form of the equation dL/dt = N.
4. For a central force F(r) = f(r)r/r, calculate the expressions ∇F,

∇ × F and V (r).
5. Determine the angular momentum of a particle moving with con-

stant velocity v
a) Along a straight line;

b) In a circular orbit.

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A Modern Approach to Classical Mechanics Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

Before establishing the laws, Newton introduces the deﬁnitions of mass,

2.1 Mass, quantity of motion, and force

The quantity of matter is the measure of the same arising

... It is this quantity that I mean hereafter everywhere under

The quantity of motion is the measure of the same, arising

The motion of the whole is the sum of motions of all parts;

The vis insita, or innate force of matter, is a power of re-

in its present state, whether it be of rest, or of moving uni-

An impressed force is an action exerted upon a body, in order

Mach criticized Deﬁnition I as being a sham, and Deﬁnition III as

2.2 Newton’s laws

The laws (The Principia, Axioms, or Laws of Motion)

Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform mo-

tion in a right line, unless it is compelled to change that state

The change of motion is ever proportional to the motive force

To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or

These laws are followed by several ‘Corollaries’. The ﬁrst Corollary is

If forces are applied to the same point of a body, the effect

in (the quantity of) motion’, the acceleration, is proportional to the

i) In the classical antiquity, as well as much later, it was believed that

2.3 Analytical mechanics

ematics is hidden in the text, there are nearly no formulas displayed,

The breakthrough of the analytic presentation of Newton’s mechan-

the motion of a point mass (see below).

2.3.1 The basic equations of mechanics

• The momentum p = (p1 , p2 , p3 ) of a body is the product of its

• A force F is represented by a vector in conﬁguration space, F =

(superposition principle of forces).

• The ﬁrst two laws of Newton relate the change of momentum

(p = const, if F = 0 (1st law)). If the mass m is time independent,

Written in components, we have

The superposition principle for forces represents the starting point

short introduction to statics in Section 11.2.

2.3.2 Point masses and forces

In the following, we apply Newton’s deﬁnitions and laws to so-called

however, F has particular simplifying properties, then the equations of

i) We consider only a point mass with constant mass; then, since

2.4 Constants of motion

2.4.1 Constants of motion and conserved quantities

r0 := r(t = 0) and ṙ0 := ṙ(t = 0), (2.7)

is the orbit r = r(t) of the particle in ‘ordinary’ three-dimensional

additional variable, the second order diﬀerential equation (2.4) can be

It often turns out to be convenient to write the dynamical variables

and to consider (v, F (r) /m) as the components of a six-dimensional

(r (t) , v (t)) in phase space depends in a unique manner on the initial

spective of the direction of time. In (2.8) time reversal leads to

Therefore, under time reversal, if the particle is at (r(t), v(t)) in phase

r0 = R (r(t), v(t); −t)

This is just the inverse of equations (2.9).

Kj (r(t), v(t), t) = kj = const, j = 1, . . . , 6; (2.11)

whose solutions are

all the total time derivatives vanish:

Ij (r(t), v(t)) = ij = const, j = 1, . . . , 5. (2.13)

are to be determined — unless one knows the solution of the equations.

to be determined27 . If the force in a conservative system is a central

motion (2.8) directly (again, see Section 14.1).

2.4.2 Conservation of energy

The ﬁrst of the favorable cases mentioned in the previous paragraph is

and integrate both sides over time from t0 = 0 to t1 :

where r0 = r(0), r1 = r(t1 ), v0 = v(0), v1 = v(t1 ), and C is the path of

T = mv2 /2 = mṙ2 /2 (2.16)