CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

Drying is one of the methods used to preserve food products for longer
periods. The heat from the sun coupled with the wind has been used to dry food for
preservation for several years.
Drying is the oldest preservation technique of agricultural products and it is
an energy-intensive process. High prices and shortages of fossil fuels have
increased the emphasis on using alternative renewable energy resources. Drying of
agricultural products using renewable energy such as solar energy is
environmentally friendly and has a less environmental impact.
Different types of solar dryers have been designed, developed and tested in
the different regions of the tropics and subtropics. The major two categories of the
dryers are natural convection solar dryers and forced convection solar dryers. In the
natural convection solar dryers, the airflow is established by buoyancy induced
airflow while in forced convection solar dryers the airflow is provided by using fan
operated either by electricity or fossil fuel.
Solar thermal technology is a technology that is rapidly gaining acceptance
as an energy-saving measure in agriculture application. It is preferred to other
alternative sources of energy such as wind and shale because it is abundant,
inexhaustible, and non-polluting. Solar air heaters are simple devices to heat air by
utilizing solar energy and it is employed in many applications requiring low to a
moderate temperature below 80°C, such as crop drying and space heating.

1
1.1 SOLAR ENERGY

The sun is the primal energy producer of our solar system. Because of
continuous nuclear fusion taking place in its core, a tremendous amount of energy
is generated; a small fraction of the energy produced in the sun hits the earth and
makes life possible on our planet. Solar radiation causes all natural cycles and
activities such as rain, wind, ocean currents, photosynthesis and several other
phenomena which are crucial for life. The entire world energy need has been based
from the very beginning on solar energy. All fossil fuels (coal, gas, oil) are
converted form of solar energy. The solar surface temperature of the sun is 6000°C
which corresponds to 70,000 to 80,000 kW/m2 radiation intensity. Earth receives
only a very small portion of this energy. In spite of this, the incoming solar
radiation energy in a year is some 2 × 1017 kWh this is more than 10,000 times the
yearly energy demand of the whole world. The solar radiation intensity outside the
atmosphere is nearly 1,360 W/m2 (solar constant). When the solar radiation
penetrates through the atmosphere some of the radiation is lost so that on a clear
sky sunny day in summer, 800 to 1000 W/m2 (global radiation) can be obtained on
the ground.

1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Crop drying is the most energy consuming process in all processes on the
farm. The purpose of drying is to remove moisture from the agricultural produce so
that it can be processed safely and stored for increased periods of time. Crops are
also dried before storage or during storage, by forced circulation of air, to prevent
spontaneous combustion by inhibiting fermentation. It is estimated that 20% of the
world‘s grain production is lost after harvest because of inefficient handling and
poor implementation of postharvest technology, says Hartman‘s (1991). Grains and
seeds are normally harvested at a moisture level between 18% and 40% depending
2
on the nature of crop. These must be dried to a level of 7% to 11% depending on
application and market need. Once a cereal crop is harvested, it may have to be
stored for a period of time before it can be marketed or used as feed. The length of
time a cereal can be safely stored will depend on the condition it was harvested and
the type of storage facility being utilized. Grains stored at low temperature and
moisture contents can be kept in storage for longer period of time before its quality
will deteriorate. Some of the cereals which are normally stored include maize, rice,
beans.

Solar drying may be classified into direct and indirect solar dryer. Indirect
solar dryers, the air heater contains the grains and solar energy which passes
through a transparent cover and is absorbed by the grains. Essentially, the heat
required for drying is provided by radiation to the upper layers and subsequent
conduction into the grain bed. However, in indirect dryers, solar energy is collected
in a separate solar collector (air heater) and the heated air then passes through the
grain bed, while in the mixed mode type of dryer, the heated air from a separate
solar collector is passed through a grain bed, and at the same time, the drying
cabinet absorbs solar energy directly through the transparent walls or the roof.
Energy is important for the existence and development of humankind and is a key
issue in international politics, the economy, military preparedness, and diplomacy.
To reduce the impact of conventional energy sources on the environment, much
attention should be paid to the development of new energy and renewable energy
resources. Solar energy, which is environment-friendly, is renewable and can serve
as a sustainable energy source. Hence, it will certainly become an important part of
the future energy structure with the increasingly drying up of the terrestrial fossil
fuel. However, the lower energy density and seasonal doing with geographical
dependence are the major challenges in identifying suitable applications using solar

3
energy as the heat source. Consequently, exploring high-efficiency solar energy
concentration technology is necessary and realistic.

Solar energy is environmentally clean, and therefore is recognized as one of

the most promising alternative energy recourses options. In near future, the large-
scale introduction of solar energy systems, directly converting solar radiation into
heat, can be looked forward. However, solar energy is intermittent by its nature;
there is no sun at night. Its total available value is seasonal and is dependent on the
meteorological conditions of the location. Unreliability is the biggest retarding
factor for extensive solar energy utilization. The reliability of solar energy can be
increased by storing its portion when it is in excess of the load and using the stored
energy whenever needed.

Solar drying is a potential decentralized thermal application of solar energy

particularly in developing countries. However, so far, there has been very little
field penetration of solar drying technology. In the initial phase of dissemination,
identification of suitable areas for using solar dryers would be extremely helpful
towards their market penetration. Solar drying is often differentiated from sun
drying by the use of equipment to collect the sun‘s radiation in order to harness the
radiative energy for drying applications. Sun drying is a common farming and
agricultural process in many countries, particularly where the outdoor temperature
reaches 30℃ or higher. In many parts of South East Asia, spice s and herbs are
routinely dried. However, weather conditions often preclude the use of sun drying
because of spoilage due to rehydration during unexpected rainy days. Furthermore,
any direct exposure to the sun during high temperature days might cause case
hardening, where a hard shell develops on the outside of the agricultural products,
trapping moisture inside. Therefore, the employment of solar dryer taps on the
freely available sun energy while ensuring good product quality via judicious

4
control of the radiative heat. Solar energy has been used throughout the world to
dry products. Such is the diversity of solar dryers that commonly solar-dried
products include grains, fruits, meat, vegetables and fish. A typical solar dryer
improves upon the traditional open-air sun system in five important ways. It is
more efficient. Since materials can be dried more quickly, less will be lost to
spoilage immediately after harvest. This is especially true of products that require
immediate drying such as freshly harvested grain with high moisture content. In
this way, a larger percentage of products will be available for human consumption.
Also, less of the harvest will be lost to marauding animals and insects since the
products are in safely enclosed compartments. It is hygienic. Since materials are
dried in a controlled environment, they are less likely to be contaminated by pests,
and can be stored with less likelihood of the growth of toxic fungi. It is healthier.
Drying materials at optimum temperatures and in a shorter amount of time enables
them to retain more of their nutritional value such as vitamin C. An added bonus is
that products will look better, which enhances their marketability and hence
provides better financial returns for the farmers. It is cheap. Using freely available
solar energy instead of conventional fuels to dry products, or using a cheap
supplementary supply of solar heat, so reducing conventional fuel demand can
result in significant cost savings.

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF DRYING SYSTEMS

All drying systems can be classified primarily according to their operating

temperature ranges into two main groups of high temperature dryers and low
temperature dryers. However, dryers are more commonly classified broadly
according to their heating sources into fossil fuel dryers (more commonly known as
conventional dryers) and solar energy dryers. Strictly, all practically realized

5
designs of high temperature dryers are fossil fuel powered, while the low
temperature dryers are either fossil fuel or solar energy based systems.

HIGH-TEMPERATURE DRYERS

High-temperature dryers are necessary when very fast drying is desired.

They are usually employed when the products require a short exposure to the
drying air. Their operating temperatures are such that, if the drying air remains in
contact with the product until equilibrium moisture content is reached, serious over
drying will occur. Thus, the products are only dried to the required moisture
contents and later cooled. High-temperature dryers are usually classified into the
batch dryer and continuous flow dryers. In batch dryers, the products are dried in a
bin and subsequently moved to storage. Thus, they are usually known as batch-in-
bin dryers. Continuous flow dryers are heated columns through which the product
flows under gravity and is exposed to heated air while descending. Because of the
temperature ranges prevalent in high-temperature dryers, most known designs are
electricity or fossil-fuel powered. Only a very few practically-realized designs of
high-temperature drying systems are solar energy heated.

LOW-TEMPERATURE DRYERS

In low-temperature drying systems, the moisture content of the product is

usually brought in equilibrium with the drying air by constant ventilation. Thus,
they do tolerate intermittent or variable heat input. Low-temperature drying enables
products to be dried in bulk and is most suited also for long-term storage systems.
Thus, they are usually known as bulk or storage dryers. Thus, some conventional
dryers and most practically realized designs of solar energy dryers are of the low-
temperature type.

6
1.4 DESIGN METHODOLOGY

TYPES OF SOLAR DRYERS

Solar energy drying systems are classified primarily according to their

heating modes and the manner in which the solar heat is utilized. In broad terms,
they can be classified into two major groups, namely

• Direct (integral) type solar dryers.

• Indirect (distributed) type solar dryers.

Direct solar dryers have the material to be dried placed in an enclosure, with
a transparent cover on it. Heat is generated by absorption of the solar radiation on
the product itself as well as on the internal surfaces of the drying chamber. In
indirect solar dryers, solar radiation is not directly incithe dent on the material to be
dried. Air is heated in a solar collector and then ducted to the drying chamber to
dry the product. Specialized dryers are normally designed with a specific product
in mind and may include hybrid systems where other forms of energy are also
used. Although indirect dryers are less compact when compared to direct solar
dryers, they are generally more efficient. Hybrid solar systems allow for a faster
rate of drying by using other sources of heat energy to supplement solar heat.

The three modes of drying are: (i) open sun, (ii) direct and (iii) indirect in the
presence of solar energy. The working principle of these modes mainly depends
upon the method of solar energy collection and its conversion to useful thermal
energy.

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(I) OPEN SUN DRYING (OSD)

Figure 1.1 Open Sun Drying

Solar energy falls on the uneven product surface. A part of this energy is
reflected back and the remaining part is absorbed by the surface. The absorbed
radiation is converted into thermal energy and the temperature of product stars
increasing. This results in long wavelength radiation loss from the surface of the
product to ambient air through moist air. In addition to long wavelength radiation
loss, there is convective heat loss too due to the blowing wind through the moist air
over the material surface. Evaporation of moisture takes place in the form of
evaporative losses and so the material is dried. Further apart of absorbed thermal
energy is conducted into the interior of the product. This causes a rise in
temperature and formation of water vapor inside the material and then diffuses
towards the surface of the and finally losses thermal energy in the end then diffuses
towards the surface of the and finally losses the thermal energy in the form of
evaporation. In the initial stages, the moisture removal is rapid since the excess
moisture on the surface of the product presents a wet surface to the drying air.
Subsequently, drying depends upon the rate at which the moisture within the

8
product moves to the surface by a diffusion process depending upon the type of the
product.

(II)DIRECT TYPE SOLAR DRYING (DSD)

Figure 1.2 Direct Type Solar Drying

Direct solar drying is also called natural convection cabinet dryer. Direct
solar dryers use only the natural movement of heated air. A part of incidence solar
radiation on the glass cover is reflected back to atmosphere and remaining is
transmitted inside cabin dryer. A direct solar dryer is one in which the material is
directly exposed to the sun‘s rays. This dryer comprises a drying chamber that is
covered by a transparent cover made of glass or plastic. The drying chamber is
usually a shallow, insulated box with air-holes in it to allow air to enter and exit the
box. The product samples are placed on a perforated tray that allows the air to flow
through it and the material. Figure 1.2 shows a schematic of a simple direct dryer.
Solar radiation passes through the transparent cover and is converted to low-grade
heat when it strikes an opaque wall. This low-grade heat is then trapped inside the
box by what is known as the greenhouse effect. Simply stated, the short

9
wavelength solar radiation can penetrate the transparent cover. Once converted to
low-grade heat, the energy radiates.

(III)INDIRECT TYPE SOLAR DRYING (ISD)

This type is not directly exposed to solar radiation to minimize

discolorations and cracking. The drying chamber is used for keeping them in wire
mesh tray. A downward facing absorber is fixed below the drying chamber at a
sufficient distance from the bottom of the drying chamber. A cylindrical reflector is
placed under the absorber fitted with the glass cover on its aperture to minimize
convective heat losses from the absorber. The absorber can be selectively coated.
The inclination of the glass cover is taken as 45℃ from horizontal to receive
maximum radiation. The area of absorber and glass cover are taken equal to the
area of the bottom of the drying chamber. Solar radiation after passing through the
glass cover is reflected by cylindrical reflector toward an absorber. After absorber,
a part of this is lost to ambient through a glass cover and remaining is transferred to
the flowing air above it by convection. The flowing air is thus heated and passes
through the placed in the drying chamber. The exhaust air and moisture is removed
through a vent provided at the top of the drying chamber.

Figure 1.3 Indirect Type Solar Drying

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1.5 EARLY WORK ON SOLAR DRYING IN INDIA

Solar drying was a modification of traditional sun drying technique which is

tried for all agricultural commodities. Initially, the solar dryer was used for
nonagricultural commodities and later, its use was extended to dry agricultural
products. Some literature review of works conducted in solar drying is presented in

Table 1.1 Early work done in solar drying system in India

Year Place Product Dryer type

1954 National Physical Coal Solar heated air
Laboratory(NPL), New Delhi
1955 National Physical Jaggery from Plane glass mirror
Laboratory(NPL), New Delhi sugarcane juice concentrators
and palm juice
1968 Khadi and Village Industries Jaggery from palm Plane glass mirror
Commission(KVIC), nira concentrators
Ahmedabad
1972 Forest Research Timber Solar Kiln
Institute(FRI), Dehradun
1972 Central Arid Zone Research Fruits and Solar cabinet dryer
Institute(CAZRI), Jodhpur vegetables
1978 Annamalai University Paddy Solar paddy dryer
1980 National Industrial Grain Solar grain dryer
Development
Corporation(NIDC)

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 CHAPTER 2
COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

2.1 PARABOLA DISH

Figure 2.1 Parabolic Dish

A parabolic (paraboloidal) reflector is a reflective surface used to collect or
project energy such as light, sound, or radio waves. Its shape is part of a circular
paraboloid, that is, the surface generated by a parabola revolving around its axis.
The parabolic reflector transforms an incoming plane wave traveling along the axis
into a spherical wave converging toward the focus. Conversely, a spherical wave
generated by a point source placed in the focus is reflected in a plane wave
propagating as a collimated beam along the axis.

2.2 ADJUSTABLE STAND

The adjustable stand is made up of the square and flat iron bar. The stand can
adjust in any direction. For the view of the sunlight, the stand can be adjusted to its
focus and the focus point can be achieved.

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2.3 REFLECTOR SHEETS

Figure 2.2 Reflector Sheets

Aluminum foil often referred to with the misnomer tin foil, is aluminum
prepared in thin metal leaves with a thickness less than 0.2 mm thinner gauges
down to 6 micrometers are also commonly used.

APPLICATIONS

The aluminum foil is used as the source to reflect the solar radiation.

2.4 ALUMINIUM

Aluminum is a chemical element with symbol Al and atomic number

13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal in the boron group. By
mass, aluminum makes up about 8% of the Earth’s crust it is the third most
abundant element after oxygen and silicon and the most abundant metal in the
crust, though it is less common in the mantle below. The chief ore of aluminum is
bauxite. Aluminum is remarkable for its low density and its ability to resist
corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminum and its alloys are
vital to the aerospace industry and important in transportation and building

13
industries, such as building facades and window frames. The oxides and sulfates
are the most useful compounds of aluminum. It has a good thermal conductivity
and cheap. Most of the thermal products are made of aluminum.

APPLICATION

Figure 2.3 Aluminium plates

The hot air generator made up of aluminum sheet bar (thickness 8mm)
because the aluminum has a good thermal conductivity and also cheap. The focal
light from the reflector pointed on hot air generator and it’s heated by conduction.
When the air flow, inside the generator air heated by convection.

2.5 SHEET METAL

Figure 2.4 Sheet Metal

14
 Sheet metal is metal formed by an industrial process into thin, flat pieces.
Sheet metal is one of the fundamental forms used in metalworking and it can be cut
and bent into a variety of shapes. Countless everyday objects are fabricated from
sheet metal. Thicknesses can vary significantly extremely thin sheets are
considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm are considered plate.
Sheet metal is available in flat pieces or coiled strips. The coils are formed
by running a continuous sheet of metal through a roll slitter.
ADVANTAGES OF SHEET METAL PARTS
 High strength

 Good dimensional accuracy

 Good surface finish

APPLICATION
The housing of the hot air generator is made up of sheet metal plates. The
housing is adjustable for the generator to focus at the focal point of the parabolic
reflector.

2.6 HEAT RESISTANT SILICONE

Figure 2.5 Heat Resistant Silicone

15
 Glass wool is a heat-resistant material made from fibers of glass arranged
using a binder into a texture similar to wool. The process traps many small pockets
of air between the glass, and these small air pockets result in high thermal
insulation properties. Glass wool is produced in rolls or in slabs, with different
thermal and mechanical properties. It may also be produced as a material that can
be sprayed or applied in place, on the surface to be insulated.

APPLICATION
These heat-resistant silicone sponges (or) glass wool are used as an
insulating material for the hot air generator. This glass wool does not allow the hot
air generated inside the generator by escaping outside the atmosphere. The glass
wool is placed between the housing and the hot air generator.

2.7 BLOWER

Figure 2.6 Axial flow fan

An axial fan is a type of a compressor that increases the pressure of the air
flowing through it. The blades of the axial flow fans force air to move parallel to
the shaft about which the blades rotate. In other words, the flow is axially in and
axially out, linearly, hence their name

.
16
APPLICATION
The axial fan or blower increase the velocity of the air.

2.8 PIPES
Polyvinyl chloride commonly abbreviated PVC, is the world's third-most
widely produced synthetic plastic polymer, after polyethylene and polypropylene.

APPLICATION
The air is passed through the pipes by the blower to the hot air generator.

2.9 FILTER
A particulate air filter is a device composed of fibrous materials which
remove solid particulates such as dust, pollen, mold, and bacteria from the air. Air
filters are used in applications where air quality is important, notably in building
ventilation systems and in engines.

APPLICATION
The air filter is used to remove the foreign materials from entering the
blower and causes damage.

2.10 NOZZLES
A nozzle is a device designed to control the direction or characteristics of a
fluid flow (especially to increase velocity) as it exits (or enters) an enclosed
chamber or pipe.
A nozzle is often a pipe or tube of varying cross sectional area, and it can be
used to direct or modify the flow of a fluid (liquid or gas). Nozzles are frequently
used to control the rate of flow, speed, direction, mass, shape, and the pressure of
17
the stream that emerges from them. In a nozzle, the velocity of fluid increases at
the expense of its pressure energy.

APPLICATION
The nozzle helps to increase the velocity of the air.

2.11 STAND
The stand for the food dryer is made up of sheet metal plates. Sheet metal is
metal formed by an industrial process into thin, flat pieces. Sheet metal is one of
the fundamental forms used in metalworking and it can be cut and bent into a
variety of shapes

2.12 ALUMINIUM SHEET METAL

Aluminum is remarkable for its low density and its ability to resist corrosion
through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminum and its alloys are vital to the
aerospace industry and important in transportation and building industries, such as
building facades and window frames. The oxides and sulfates are the most useful
compounds of aluminum.

APPLICATION
The trays are made up of aluminum in which the grains slide over the trays
which have pores for the entry of hot air around them.

2.13 BALL BEARING

A ball bearing is a type of rolling element bearing that uses balls to
maintain the separation between the bearing races.

18
 The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and support
radial and axial loads.

Figure 2.7 Ball Bearing

APPLICATION
The ball bearings are used to reduce the friction in the shaft and also to
balance the load of the motor. It gives support to the shaft and reduces the
wobbling.

2.14 SHAFT

Figure 2.8 Rotational Shaft

A shaft is a rotating machine element, usually circular in cross-section,

which is used to transmit power from one part to another, or from a machine which

19
produces power to a machine which absorbs power. The various members such as
pulleys and gears are mounted on it.

APPLICATION
Rotating shafts are used to revolve the cam mechanism which gives the
sliding movement to the trays. The shaft is powered by using the motor control.

2.15 SPRINGS

Figure 2.9 Spring

A spring is an elastic object that stores mechanical energy. Springs are

typically made of spring steel. There are many spring designs. In everyday use, the
term often refers to coil springs.

APPLICATION
By the springs the trays return to their position after when the cam pushes
the tray. Here, tension springs are used.

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2.16 AC-MOTOR

Figure 2.10 AC-Motor

An AC motor is an electric motor driven by an alternating current (AC). The
AC motor commonly consists of two basic parts, an outside stator having coils
supplied with alternating current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and an inside
rotor attached to the output shaft producing a second rotating magnetic field. The
rotor magnetic field may be produced by permanent magnets, reluctance saliency,
or DC or AC electrical windings.

APPLICATION
The AC-motor is used to run the shaft which is a 230V, 50Hz power with an
RPM of about 1300. The motor is coupled to the shaft with the help of v-belt to the
pulley. The pulley is mounted to the shaft end with the joint.

2.17 V-BELT PULLEY

V-belt pulleys (also called v belt sheaves) are devices which transmit power
between axles by the use of a v-belt, a mechanical linkage with a trapezoidal cross-
section. Together these devices offer a high-speed power transmission solution that
is resistant to slipping and misalignment.

21
 Figure 2.12 V-Belt

APPLICATION
The pulley helps to transmit the rotational power to the shaft.

2.18 V-BELT
A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts
mechanically, most often parallel. Belts may be used as a source of motion, to
transmit power efficiently or to track relative movement. Belts are looped over
pulleys and may have a twist between the pulleys, and the shafts need not be
parallel.

APPLICATION:
The v-belt is used as the linkage between the pulley and the motor. The
motor runs the shaft with the help of the v-belt drive.

2.19 thermocol
Thermocol is another name for Polystyrene, it's a synthetic aromatic
(benzene derivative) polymer made from the monomer styrene (a monomer is a
molecule that may bind chemically to other molecules to form a polymer. Hence

22
the name Polystyrene). It can be either solid, or foam-like (styrofoam), and because
of its resilience is often used in protective packaging - CD and DVD cases, and
styrofoam peanuts.

APPLICATION
Thermocol or the Styrofoam is a good insulating material. It helps to seal
the container and not let heat to the atmosphere.

2.20 THERMAL WHITE SHEETS

Figure 2.13 Thermal sheets

Thermal paper is a special fine paper that is coated with a material
formulated to change color when exposed to heat. It is used in thermal printers and
particularly in inexpensive or lightweight devices such as adding machines, cash
registers, and credit card terminals.

23
APPLICATION
The thermal sheets are used for insulation purpose and no letting to lose the
heat in the hot air.

2.21 PAINT
Paint is any liquid, liquefiable, or mastic composition that, after application
to a substrate in a thin layer, converts to a solid film. It is most commonly used to
protect, color, or provide texture to objects. Paint can be made or purchased in
many colors and in many different types, such as watercolor, synthetic, etc. Paint is
typically stored, sold, and applied as a liquid, but most types dry into a solid.

APPLICATION:
The black color is mostly used because of its absorbing capability. The
black paint is coated all over the dryer because it helps to absorb the heat from the
hot air and makes the grains to be dried in backup heat. Grey color used to color to
the other components

2.22 FASTENERS
The nut is a type of fastener with a threaded hole. Nuts are almost always
used in conjunction with a mating bolt to fasten multiple parts together.
A bolt is a form of threaded fastener with an external male thread. Bolts are
often used to make a bolted joint.
A screw is an inclined plane wrapped around a nail. Some screw threads are
designed to mate with a complementary thread, known as a female thread (internal
thread), often in the form of a nut or an object that has the internal thread formed
into it.
24
2.23 GREASE AND LUBRICANTS
Grease is a semisolid lubricant. Grease generally consists of a soap
emulsified with mineral or vegetable oil. Greases are applied only to mechanisms
that can be lubricated infrequently and where a lubricating oil would not stay in
position.

25
 CHAPTER-3

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

Food scientists have found that by reducing the moisture content of food to
between 10% and 20%, bacteria, yeast, mold, and enzymes are prevented from
spoiling it. The flavor and most of the nutritional value is preserved and
concentrated.

Drying and preservation of agricultural products have been one of the oldest
uses of solar energy. The traditional method, still widely used throughout the
world, is open sun drying where diverse crops, such as fruits, vegetables, cereals,
grains, tobacco, etc. are spread on the ground and turned regularly until sufficiently
dried so that they can be stored safely. However, there exist many problems
associated with open sun drying. It has been seen that open sun drying has the
following disadvantages. It requires both large amounts of space and long drying
time. The disadvantages of open sun drying need an appropriate technology that
can help in improving the quality of the dried products and in reducing the
wastage. This led to the application of various types of drying devices like the solar
dryer, electric dryers, wood fuel driers and oil burned driers. However, the high
cost of oil and electricity and their scarcity in the rural areas of most third world
countries have made some of these driers very unattractive. Therefore interest has
been focused mainly on the development of solar dryers.

Solar dryers are usually classified according to the mode of air flow into
natural convection and forced convection dryers. Natural convection dryers do not
require a fan to pump the air through the dryer. The low air flow rate and the long
drying time, however, result in low drying capacity. One basic disadvantage of
forced convection dryers lies in their requirement of electrical power to run the fan.
26
Since the rural or remote areas of many developing countries are not connected, the
use of these dryers is limited to electrified urban areas.

3.1 PROBLEMS

In open sun drying

 Time consumption is high for a drying process.

 More space needed.
 Crops are eaten by birds and animals.
 Crops are ruined due to the vehicles.
 Less efficiency as compared with the modern type of dryers.
 A backup heating system is necessary for products to require continuous
drying.

In solar food drying

 Need more space for hot air collector.

 Limited crops are to be feed at one cycle time.
 Skilled personnel is needed to operate and maintain.
 A backup heating system is necessary for products to require continuous
drying.

Figure 3.1 Open sun drying

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 CHAPTER-4

DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

4.1 UNIT-1- PARABOLIC REFLECTOR

Figure 4.1 Design of Parabolic Reflector

DIMENSIONS
PARABOLA DISH ADJUSTABLE STAND
Diameter = 711mm Length = 457.2mm
Focal point = 43.6mm Height = 711.2mm

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4.2 UNIT-2-HOT AIR GENERATOR

Figure 4.2 Design of Hot Air Generator

DIMENSION
COLLECTOR BOX SLEEVE
Length = 127mm Length = 117mm
Height = 203.2mm Height = 21mm
Width = 63.5mm Thickness = 3mm
Thickness = 7mm

NOZZLE
Inlet = 12mm
Outlet = 8mm

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4.3 UNIT-3-FOOD DRYER

Figure 4.3 Design of Food Dryer

DIMENSION
STAND CAM SHAFT
Height = 495mm Shaft length = 560mm
Length = 521mm Shaft dia = 12mm
Inclination angle = depending on Cam length = 38mm
The crop size
Width = 152mm
ALUMINIUM TRAY PULLEY
Length = 230mm Diameter = 202mm
Height = 25mm
Width = 140mm

30
4.4 ASSEMBLY

Figure 4.4 Assembly of solar food dryer

4.5 ANALYSIS

Figure 4.5 Thermal analysis on Hot air generator

31
 CHAPTER-5
CALCULATION

5.1 FOCAL POINT

a = FD * D
where,

a = Focal Point

D = Diameter = 736.6

FD = Focal to Diameter ratio = 0.5

a = FD * D = 0.5 * 736.6

focal point = 381 mm

5.2 HEAT TRANSFER RATE

Fluid temperature Ti = 35℃

Velocity V = 24m/sec
Tube surface temperature = 120℃
Flim temperature Tf = (Tw+Ti)/2
= (120+35)/2
= 77.5 ≈ 80℃
From HMT databook,
Properties of air at 80℃
𝜌 = 1 kg/m3
V = 21.09*10-6 m²/sec
Pr = 0.692

32
 k = 0.03047 w/mK
Heat transfer co-efficient
L = 0.2m
Reynolds number,
Re = UL/V
= (21*0.2)/(21.09*10-6)
= 2.276*105
Nusselt number,
Nu = C*(Re)n *(Pr)0.33
From HMT databook,
n = 0.675
C = 0.092
Nu = 0.092*(2.276*105)0.675* (0.692)0.3033
= 336
Nu = hL/k
336 = (h*0.2)/0.03047
h = 51.2 w/ m² K
Heat transfer rate Q = hA(Tw-Ti)
= 51.2*0.2*(120-35)
= 870 W.

33
 CHAPTER-6
MECHANISM

6.1 UNIT-1 PARABOLIC REFLECTOR

Figure 6.1 Parabolic reflector

The first unit consists of the parabolic reflector with an adjustable stand. The
upper side of the parabolic reflector is pasted with the reflector sheet for good
reflectivity of the sunlight. The amount of reflected sunlight matters most in our
process because the parallel light rays which are incident on the parabolic surface
gets converged to a single point which is known as the focal point of the parabola.
The parabolic reflector is inclined in such an angle so that most of the radiations of
the sun are reflected by the parabolic reflector. To do this type of inclinations from
time to time with the parabolic reflector an adjustable stand is provided. The
adjustable stand provides 360° rotation to the parabolic dish. The light rays which
are reflected by the surface of the parabolic dish gets highly focused at the focal
point. Due to the high focus of solar energy at the focal point, an enormous amount
of heat energy is collected as the time passes which will be utilized by the unit two.

34
As large as the parabolic reflector the more focused the light beam gets and small
size of reflected light falls on the focus point with a high concentration of heat.

6.2 UNIT-2 HOT AIR GENERATOR

Figure 6.2 Hot air generator

The second unit consists of an aluminum box which is mounted at the focal
point of the parabola with the help of a tin cavity which was welded to the bars
which in turn welded to the parabolic dish ends. The material for hot air generator
is taken as aluminum because of the following properties
The other component which is used in the hot air generator is the blower
motor with a nozzle attached to the inlet of the aluminum box. The blower motor
sucks in the atmospheric air into the aluminum box. Inside the aluminum box, thin
strips of aluminum bars are welded one by one in a zigzag manner with a small
amount of gap for air circulation inside the box. These thin strips are provided to
delay the time of travel of atmospheric air inside aluminum box. Due to this air
gets heated from the surface by forced convection process. The surface which is

35
exposed at the focal point of the parabola gets concentrated heat from one point
and this heat is spread to the whole surface by conduction process.

6.3 UNIT-3 FOOD DRYER

The unit three consists of various components such as a motor, motor shaft,
rails, aluminum trays, cams, tension springs. In this unit, we have two types of
intakes such as food intake and hot air intake. The food materials are fed from the
top of the food dryer which is accumulated in one end of the aluminum trays. The
cams are attached to the shaft which gets its power from the motor. The aluminum
plates act as a flat follower for this type of cam. When the shaft rotates, the cam
pushes aluminum trays forward and the tension springs which are attached to the
corners of the aluminum trays resist its motion and pull it backward by doing so the
aluminum trays are subjected to the “to and fro” motion. The food materials which
is accumulated at the one end of the aluminum trays travel to another end by the to
and fro motion. These trays travel in the rails which are laterally mounted in an
inclined angle is depending on the size of the crops. The angle between 3to10
degree. The trays and the rails move in such a way so that the friction between
them is very low.
The second intake is the hot air get from the hot air generator in the bottom
of food dryer. The moisture content from the food materials is absorbed by the hot
air and it is taken to the atmosphere through the exit.

36
 CHAPTER-7
FABRICATION OF PARTS

7.1 UNIT-1 PARABOLIC REFLECTOR

REFLECTOR SHEET

The reflector sheets are cut into small pieces and are pasted to the exposed
side of the parabolic reflector. The reflector sheets which are pasted on the
parabolic dish give the ability to reflect solar energy to the parabolic dish.

ADJUSTABLE STAND
The most important part of the unit one is the rotating stand. In order to get
maximum light rays reflected by the parabolic dish, change of position of
parabolic dish becomes inevitable one.
In order to satisfy both the condition a rotating stand is made with square and
flat mild steel bar and are welded together in which the parabolic dish is mounted
and it provides us a 360 degree view.

Figure 7.1 Welding

37
7.2 UNIT-2 HOT AIR GENERATOR
The aluminum box is made up of various sizes of aluminum bars which are
assembled in required shape and riveted together. Inside the aluminum box, a series
of thin aluminum plates are welded one by one in opposite direction. The
aluminum plates provide a small gap for air circulation. Both inlet and outlet are
covered by copper pipes in which the inlet copper pipe is attached to the blower
unit. The outlet unit which was also covered by the copper pipe is attached to the
hosepipe which leads to unit three. The hot air generator is insulated by a glass
wool and placed inside the housing.

Figure 7.2 Hot Air Generator

38
7.3 UNIT -3 FOOD DRYER
Food dryer is the most important part in the process, the food dryer consists
of the following sub-components
CAMSHAFT
The camshaft consists of a simple rod to which three cams are welded at
some particular distance from each other. One end of the rod is connected to the
pulley wheel which in turn is connected to the motor via a belt. Camshaft acts as
the medium for transferring the required amount of power to the food dryer. The
cam’s motion is regulated in such a way so that the aluminum trays move in zig-
zag motion.
RAILS
Rails are pathways whose one end is connected to the food dryer frame and
the other end is connected laterally with some degree on the other side of the
frame. These rails are L-shaped which provides an easy travel for the aluminum
trays.
TENSION SPRINGS
Tension springs are connected to the two corners of the aluminum trays.
Once the aluminum trays are pushed forward due to the motion of the cam the
tension springs retract the aluminum trays to their original position.

39
 CHAPTER-8
TESTING AND RESULT

8.1 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

SUN LIGHT

ATMOSPHERE PARABOLIC
AIR REFLRCTOR

HOT AIR
BLOWER FOOD DRIER
GENERATOR

AIR OUTLET

Figure 8.1 Block diagram of the solar dryer

40
8.2 DRYING MECHANISM
In the process of drying, heat is necessary to evaporate moisture from the
material and a flow of air helps in carrying away the evaporated moisture. There
are two basic mechanisms involved in the drying process:
1) The migration of moisture from the interior of an individual material to the
surface.
2) The evaporation of moisture from the surface to the surrounding air.
The drying product is a complex heat and mass transfer process which
depends on external variables such as temperature, humidity and velocity of the air
stream and internal variables which depend on parameters like surface
characteristics (rough or smooth surface), chemical composition (sugars, starches,
etc.), physical structure (porosity, density, etc.), and size and shape of product.

8.3 BASIC THEORY (FORMULATIONS)

Some important formulae used are given as follows:
Dryer efficiency(η d) :
Dryer efficiency is the ratio of collection efficiency (ηc) and the system
efficiency (ηs).
(ηc) = Qu/ AcIs
Where, Qu = mCp∆t
Ac = collector surface area
Is = Insulation on tilted surface

Efficiency (ηs) =WL / AcIs

Where W = mass of moisture evaporated.
L = latent heat of evaporation in the dryer temperature.

41
Determination of moisture content
Mwb = (Mi – Md)/ Mi× 100
Where, Mwb = moisture on wet basis
Mi= initial mass of the sample
Md= final mass of the sample

The thermal efficiency of a collector is calculated by using the formula below:

P = [(Ti – Ta) / I]
Where, P = Inlet Fluid Parameter
Ti = Inlet fluid temperature to the collector (ºF)
Ta = Ambient air temperature surrounding the collector (ºF)
I = solar radiation intensity striking the collector (BTU)

8.4 SAMPLE DRYING

The paddy and Potato purchased from a local market. Potatoes were cut
manually into slices of diameter 15 mm and thickness 3 mm and 5 mm. The paddy
was spread evenly in a single layer on eight similar stainless steel wire mesh trays,
three kept inside the drying chamber of forced convection solar dryer and another
one over wooden blocks in open air sun. Solar drying experiments were carried out
simultaneously under both drying conditions on a clear sunny day. The
temperatures of the drying air were measured by calibrated Dimble thermometer (0
to 400℃). The sample weight loss was measured at regular intervals of time, using
a precision Goldtech Brand electronic weighing machine maximum capacity 20 kg
and minimum 0.40 gm. Moisture content (dry basis) was calculated from weight
loss data and dry solid weight of the samples. The dryer contributed to a reduction
in drying time in comparison with open sun drying.

42
 The experimentation was carried out and data were obtained on the
experimental setup shown in Fig.8.2. On the basis of the experimental data, the
results have been reported. Figs. 3 and 4 show the variation of solar radiation
intensity on 24 March 2018 under local climatic conditions of Madurai, India.

Figure 8.2 Variation solar Intensity on 24th March 2018

8.5 SETUP TIME

Set up time can be defined as the amount of time taken to change a machine
from the last part of a production lot to the first good part of the next production
lot.

43
 Table 8.1 Setup time

SI.No Set up Time taken

(minutes)
1 Hot air generator to be heated 20

2 Food dryer container to be heated 40

Total setup time 60

80

70

60

50

Outlet temp
40
Temperature℃

Inlet temp
30 Ambient temp

20

10

0
10:00AM11:00AM12:00PM01:00PM02:00PM03:00PM04:00PM05:00PM

Time of the day (hr)

Chart 8.1 Temperature variation on 24th March 2018

44
8.6 COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY
P = [(Ti – Ta) / I]
Ti = 30℃ = 86℉
Ta = 60℃ = 140℉
I = 221 BTU
P = [(86-140)/221]
P = 0.2

0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2
effiency
0.15
Efficiency(%)

0.1

0.05

0
11:00AM 12:00PM 01:00PM 02:00PM 03:00PM

Time of the day (hr)

Chart 8.2 Collector efficiency

45
8.7 DRYER EFFICIENCY

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1
Efficiency(%)

0.05

0
11:00AM 12:00PM 01:00PM 02:00PM 03:00PM

Time of the day (hr)

Chart 8.3 Dryer efficiency

8.8 MOISTURE CONTENT

After the harvesting of the paddy, the moisture content is to be of 18% to
24%.
For the storage period of the paddy for 3 months the moisture content is to
be of 14%.
For storage period for 9 months, the moisture content is to be of 13%.
For storage period of 1year, the moisture content is to be of 9%.

46
8.9 TESTING
 The paddy is first procured and weight of 3 kg.
 The setup time of the hot air generator and the chamber from 10 am to
11 am. The setup time is because of the hot air to be generated inside
the generator.
 When the setup time is achieved the crops are fed inside the chamber.
 The operation time is of 3 hours.
 The paddy which is then dried are weighed is of 2.6 kg.
Therefore,
For 3 kg of paddy = 26% of moisture content is present
For 2.6 kg of paddy = 13% of moisture content is present
 After drying the paddy has only 13% of moisture content which is
suitable for storage purpose.

8.10 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

After study, we have found that the solar dryer gives more than three-four
times heat inside the chamber than the outside atmosphere temperature. In 3 hours
of continuous drying under the same climatic condition and the same time, it
removed 13% moisture content from inside chamber paddy whereas at the
outside(open sun drying) only 9% moisture content was removed.

47
 CHAPTER-9
ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATION

9.1 ADVANTAGES
 Time consumption is less compared to open sun drying.
 No wastages of crops.
 Space is limited compared with solar dryer.
 Efficiency is high.
 Food is enclosed in the dryer and therefore protected from dust, insects,
birds, and animals.
 The higher temperature deters insects and the faster drying rate reduces
the risk of spoilage by microorganisms.
 The cycle time is decreased when compared with open sun drying and the
existing solar food dryer.

9.2 APPLICATION
 Agriculture crop drying.
 Food processing industries for dehydration of fruits, potatoes, onions and
other vegetables.
 Dairy industries for the production of milk powder, casein etc.
 Seasoning of wood and timber.
 Textile industries for drying of textile materials.

48
 CHAPTER-10
COST ESTIMATION

Table 10.1 Cost estimation

SI.NO COMPONENTS QUANTITY COST

1 Parabolic dish 1 500
2 Aluminum foil 67 m² 200
3 1½’’* 1½’’ Angle iron bar 42m 450
4 Aluminum sheet 54 m² 200
5 Aluminum square plate 0.15 m² 650
6 Sheet metal 24 m² 900
7 Pulley 1 350
8 AC motor 1 1000
9 12 volt DC motor 1 200
10 V-belt 1 300
11 Springs 6 60
12 Shaft 1 300
13 Ball bearing 2 300
14 Cam 3 150
15 Thermocol sheet 3 75
16 White sheet 4 50
17 Hose 1m 50
18 Flat bar 1.5m 400
19 1’’ Square rod 1m 200
20 Fasteners Required 300

49
21 Paint Required 400
22 Thermometer 1 185
23 Grease Required 30
24 Others 4000
Total cost 11,250

50
 CHAPTER-11
CONCLUSION

From the test carried out, the following conclusions were made. The solar
dryer can raise the ambient air temperature to a considerable high value for
increasing the drying rate of agricultural crops. The product inside the dryer
requires fewer attentions, like attack of the product by rain or pest (both human and
animals), compared with those in the open sun drying. Although the dryer was used
to dry Potato, it can be used to dry other crops like yams, cassava, maize, and
plantain etc. There is ease in monitoring when compared to the natural sun drying
technique. In this experiment, we find that how much moisture removed from the
sample which is present in the solar dryer and the sample which is present in the
ordinary air and we compare both of them by mathematical calculation. In this
paper we took paddy, some of the paddy we put inside the dryer and some in the
ordinary air and then compare their moisture removed with respect to time and
temperature. We find that temperature inside the dryer is two times outside the
temperature. As per our experiment the maximum peak temperature inside the
drying chamber is 75°C during mid-day (2 pm) and in an average approximately
60°C-62°C in a full sunny day (10:00 AM to 03:00 PM). In 4 hours continuous
drying in one full sunny day under the same climatic condition and in the same
time the solar dryer removed a maximum of 10% to 13% moisture content from
drying chamber for drying of low moisture content food products.
In future, the sun tracking device can help the parabolic reflector for
automatic motion. The unit-2 is the hot air generator when extended the heat
efficiency can be increased and operating time can be reduced. In large-scale food
drying industries implementation of hybrid methods can be achieved.

51
 CHAPTER-12
BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Çengel, Yunus (2003). Heat Transfer: A practical approach (2nd ed.).

Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-245893-0.
 Heat and mass transfer, Vijayaraghavan
 Singh PP, Singh S, Dhaliwal SS. Multi-shelf domestic solar dryer. Energy
Conversion & Management 2006; 47: 1799
 Ajayi, C., Sunil, K.S., and Deepak, D. 2009. “Design of Solar Dryer with
Turbo ventilator and Fireplace”. International Solar Food Processing
Conference 2009.
 Parabolic Trough Thermal Energy Storage Technology Archived 2013-09-
01 at the Wayback Machine. Parabolic Trough Solar Power Network. April
04, 2007. Accessed December 2007
 Food Dehydrator reviews. www.dehydratorjudge.com.
 Fodor, Eben (2006). "Build a Solar Food Dehydrator" (PDF). Mother Earth
News.
 Robishaw, Sue (1999). "Drying Food with the Sun". Countryside & Small
Stock Journal. 1999

52
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES:

Table 13.1 Programme outcomes

PROGRAMME OUTCOMES
A ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE- Apply knowledge of mathematics,
physics, chemistry, basic engineering (about IC engine) and specialized
mechanical engineering to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
B PROBLEM ANALYSIS-Identify, formulate, research through
research through relevant literature review, and solve engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using principles of
mathematics, science, and mechanical engineering
C DESIGN/ DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS-Design solutions for
mechanical engineering and design system components that meet the
specified needs with public health and safety, cultural, society.
D INVESTIGATION-Design and analyze machine elements,
mechanisms, thermal systems and to manufacture components and
systems using research-based knowledge to provide valid conclusions.
E MODERN TOOL USAGE -Use latest CAD/CAM/CAE software and
sophisticated equipment for analyzing and solving mechanical
engineering problems.
F THE ENGINEER AND SOCIETY- Understand contemporary issues
and provide engineering solutions for solving social problems.
G ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY-Understand the impact
of solutions for mechanical engineering problem in the context of
society and environments.

53
H ETHICS - Understand professional, ethical and moral responsibility
and norms of the engineering practice.
I INDIVIDUAL AND TEAMWORK-Function effectively as an
individual and a whole team members or leaders in diverse teams, and
in multidisciplinary settings.
J COMMUNICATION-Communicate effectively on with the
engineering community and with society with large, make an effective
presentation, receive clear instructions.
K PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND FINANCE-Understand the
engineering and management principle and apply these to one’s own
work and leader in a team.
L LIFELONG LEARNING-Recognize the need for, and have the
preparation and ability to engage the independent and life-long learning
n the broad context of technological change.

54
CO AND PO MAPPING

COURSE OUTCOMES:

After successful completion of this course the students will be able to:

1. Practice the principles of comprehension by applying them to a new problem.

2. Build a team and gather information pertained to the project work.

3. Identify various resources to execute and complete the project on time.

4. Design, analyze and fabricate the components/ processes and better

performances.

5. Review the designed system with respect to different performance criteria.

6. Communicate the technical information effectively in oral presentation along

with the report.

55
CO/PO MAPPING

Table 13.2 CO/PO Mapping

COURSE PROGRAMME OUTCOMES

OUTCOMES
A B C D E F G H I J K L
CO-1 M W M M M M S
CO-2 W S M
CO-3 M S
CO-4 M S W M
CO-5 S M M
CO-6 W S M

Ref: S-Strong M-Medium W-Weak

56
57