2.1 The Tangent and Velocity Problems: (This Lecture Corresponds To Section 2.1 of Stewart's Calculus.)

PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE 2.
1 T ANGENT AND V ELOCITY P ROBLEMS 38
2.1 The Tangent and Velocity Problems

(This lecture corresponds to Section 2.1 of Stewart’s Calculus.)
1. Quote. If I were again beginning my studies, I would follow the advice of Plato and start with math-
ematics.
Galileo Galilei, Italian philosopher and astronomer, 1564-1642.
2. The Tangent Problem. Find an equation of the tangent line ` to a curve with equation y = f (x) at
a given point P .
3. Three Questions.
(a) What is the tangent line ` to a curve with equation y = f (x) at a given point P ?
(b) If a curve with equation y = f (x) and a point P on the curve are given, does the tangent `
exist?
(c) If a curve with equation y = f (x) and a point P = (x0 , f (x0 )) are given and if the tangent line `
exists then an equation of ` is given by
y f (x0 ) = m(x x0 ) .
How do we calculate the slope m?
4. Hint. Find the slopes of the secant lines to the parabola y = x2 through the points (1, 1) and:
(a) (2, 4)
PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE 2.1 T ANGENT AND V ELOCITY P ROBLEMS 39
(b) (1.5, 1.52 )
(c) (1.1, 1.12 )
(d) (1.001, 1.0012 )
5. BIG Question. What if the second point is VERY, VERY close to the point (1, 1)?
6. Velocity Problem. By definition
distance traveled
avarage velocity =
time elapsed
What if the period of time elapsed is very small?
7. Example. The position of the car is given by the values in the table.
t 0 1 2 3 4 5
s 0 10 32 70 119 178
where t is in seconds and s is in feet.

Find the average velocity for the time beginning when t = 2 and lasting
(a) 3 seconds
(b) 2 seconds
(c) 1 second
8. Question. What is the meaning of the number that we see on the car speedometer as we travel in
city traffic?
9. Answer. The number represents the instantaneous velocity.

10. Additional Notes

PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE 2.2 T HE L IMIT OF A F UNCTION 42
2.2 The Limit of a Function

1. Quote. “Black holes are where God divided by zero.”

Steven Wright, American comedian, 1955-
x2 x 2
2. Problem. Let f (x) = .
x 2
(a) Determine the domain of f .
(b) Complete the table

x f (x) x f (x)
1 3
1.9 2.1
1.99 2.01
1.999 2.001
1.9999 2.0001
3. Definition. We write
lim f (x) = L
x!a
and say
”the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L”
if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) by taking x to be
sufficiently close to a (on either side of a) but not equal to a.
4. Example. Guess the value of

sin x
lim .
x!0 x
5. Problem. What can we say about

|x|
lim ?
x!0 x
6. Definition. We write
lim f (x) = L
x!a+
and say
”the right-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L”
if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) by taking x to be
sufficiently close to a and x greater than a.
7. Example. Sketch the graph of the function

8
>
> x+1 if x 1
>
>
< x2 if x 2 ( 1, 0)
f (x) = 1 if x=0
>
>
> x2
> if x 2 (0, 1]
:
x+1 if x>1
Find
(a) lim f (x)

x! 1
(b) lim f (x)

x! 1+
(c) lim f (x)

x!0
(d) lim+ f (x)

x!0
(e) lim f (x)

x!0
8. Fact.
lim f (x) = L () ( lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L)
x!a x!a x!a+
1
9. Problem. Sketch the graph of f (x) = .
(x + 1)2
10. Definition. Let f be a function defined on both sides of a, except possibly at a itself. Then
lim f (x) = 1
x!a
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large (as large as we please) by taking x
sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.
11. Examples. Sketch the graph of the following function.

x+3
g(x) =
x 1
12. Read Example 10 in text regarding f (x) = tan (x)
13. Definition. The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if at least one of
the following statements is true:
lim f (x) = 1 lim f (x) = 1 lim f (x) = 1

x!a x!a x!a+
lim f (x) = 1 lim f (x) = 1 lim f (x) = 1
x!a x!a x!a+

PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE 2.3 C ALCULATING L IMITS 47
2.3 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws

1. Quote. “Laws are like sausages. It’s better not to see them being made.”
Otto von Bismarck , German statesman, 1815 - 1898)
p
t+9 3
2. Example. Guess the value of lim .
t!0 t
3. Limit Laws. Suppose that c is a constant and the limits

lim f (x) and lim g(x)
x!a x!a
exist. Then
(a) lim (f (x) + g(x)) = lim f (x) + lim g(x)
x!a x!a x!a
(b) lim (f (x) g(x)) = lim f (x) lim g(x)
x!a x!a x!a
(c) lim (c · f (x)) = c · lim f (x)
x!a x!a
(d) lim (f (x) · g(x)) = lim f (x) · lim g(x)
x!a x!a x!a
f (x) limx!a f (x)
(e) lim = if limx!a g(x) 6= 0.
x!a g(x) limx!a g(x)
(f) lim [f (x)]p/q = [ lim f (x)]p/q
x!a x!a
4. Two Special Limit Laws.

(a) lim c = c
x!a
(b) lim x = a
x!a
5. Example. Evaluate lim (x3 + 3x2 4x + 5).

x!2
6. Direct Substitution Property. If f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is in the domain of

f , then
lim f (x) = f (a) .
x!a
7. Examples. Find the following limits.

x+1
(a) lim
x! 1 x3 + 1
p
t+9 3
(b) lim
t!0 t
f (x + h) f (x)
(c) lim if f (x) = x2
h!0 h
x2
8. Example. Find lim
x!0 |x|
Reminder.
lim f (x) = L () ( lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L)
x!a x!a x!a+
9. Theorem. If f (x)  g(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and the limits of f and g both exist
as x approaches a, then
lim f (x)  lim g(x) .
x!a x!a
10. Squeeze Theorem. If f (x)  g(x)  h(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and
lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L

x!a x!a
then
lim g(x) = L .
x!a
11. Example. Show that  ✓ ◆

1 1
lim x2 sin + cos =0.
x!0 x x

PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE 2.4 T HE P RECISE D EFINITION OF L IMIT 52
2.4 The Precise Definition of Limit

1. Quote.
“There’s a delta for every epsilon,

It’s a fact that you can always count upon.
There’s a delta for every epsilon
And now and again,
There’s also an N.”
(Tom Lehrer, American singer-songwriter, satirist, pianist, and mathematician, 1928 - .)

2. The ✏, Game. Consider the function f (x) = 3x 1 and the point x = 1. There are two players in
this game: Player A and Player B. The game is played as follows. Player A chooses a number, say ✏.
The object of Player B is to find a number so that all values in the interval (1 , 1 + ) have image
in the interval (f (1) ✏, f (1) + ✏). The winner is determined as follows:
1) If Player A can pick a number ✏ such that Player B cannot find such a then Player A wins.
2) If Player B can find a for any ✏ given by Player A then Player B wins.
Who wins Player A or Player B?

3. Definition. Let f be a function defined on some open interval that contains the number a, except
possibly at a iself. Then we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L, and we write
lim f (x) = L
x!a
if for every number " > 0 there is a > 0 such that
|f (x) L| < " whenever 0 < |x a| < .
[link to applet]
4. Example. Prove the statement using the ✏, definition.
lim (2 5x) = 13
x!3
5. To Be Continued ... ... in Math 242.

PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE 2.5 C ONTINUITY 56
2.5 Continuity
1. Quote. “If I were asked to name, in one word, the pole star round which the mathematical firmament
revolves, the central idea which pervades the whole corpus of mathematical doctrine, I should point
to Continuity as contained in our notions of space, and say, it is this, it is this! ”
(JJ Sylvester, English mathematician, 1814-1897)
2. Example. What is the difference between the two graphs?
3. Definition. A function f is continuous at a number a if
lim f (x) = f (a) .

x!a
4. Note.
(a) a belongs to the domain of f
(b) lim f (x) exists
x!a
(c) lim f (x) = f (a)
x!a
5. Definition. If
(1) f is defined on an open interval containing a, except perhaps at a, and
(2) f is not continuous at a
we say that f is discontinuous at a.
6. Example. Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?

(a) 8
< x2 4
f (x) = if x 6= 2
: x 5
2
if x=2
(b) ( 1
if x 6= 2
g(x) = x 2
5 if x=2
(c) ⇢
1 if x 2 [1, 2)
h(x) =
2 if x 2 [2, 3)
7. Definition. A function f is continuous from the right at a number a if
lim f (x) = f (a)

x!a+
and f is continuous from the left at a if
lim f (x) = f (a) .

x!a
8. Definiton. A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in that

interval. We understand continuous at the endpoint to mean continuous from the right or continuous
from the left.
9. Example. Find the number c that makes f (x) continuous for every x.
8 4
> x 1
<
3
if x 6= 1
f (x) = x 1
>
:
c if x = 1
10. Fact. The following types of functions are continuous on their domains:
(a) polynomials
(b) rational functions
(c) root functions
(d) trigonometric functions
(e) inverse trigonometric functions
(f) exponential functions
(g) logarithmic functions
11. More Facts. If f and g are continuous at a and c is a constant, then the following functions are also
continuous at a:
f
f + g, f g, cf, f g, if g(a) 6= 0 .
g
12. Example. For which a, b 2 R is the function

8 p
>
> 1 x 1
>
> if x 2 (0, 1]
>
> ax
<
f (x) = 1 if x=0
>
>
>
> 4
>
> bx + bx
: if x 2 ( 1, 0)
x2 + x
continuous on ( 1, 1]?
13. Theorem. If f is continuous at b and lim g(x) = b then

x!a
lim f (g(x)) = f ( lim g(x)) = f (b) .

x!a x!a
14. Example. Evaluate p

1 x 1
lim e x .
x!0
15. Theorem. If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a), then the composite function f g given
by (f g)(x) = f (g(x)) is continuous at a.
16. Intermediate Value Theorem. Suppose that f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and let N
be any number between f (a) and f (b), where f (a) 6= f (b). Then there exists a number c in (a, b) such
that f (c) = N .
p
17. Example. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to prove that 2 exists, i.e., prove that there is c 2 R
such that c2 = 2.
18. Example. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that the equation
ex = 2 x
has at least one real solution.


PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE 2.6 L IMITS AT I NFINITY 64
2.6 Limits at Infinity: Horizontal Asymptotes
1. Quote. “Infinity is a floorless room without walls or ceiling. ”

(Anonymous)
2. Definition. Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, 1). Then
lim f (x) = L
x!1
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x sufficiently large.
3. Problem. Sketch the graphs of the following functions
1
(a) f (x) =
x
(b) g(x) = ex
(c) h(x) = tan 1

x
1
(d) i(x) =
1 + x2
4. Definition. The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if either
lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L .

x!1 x! 1
5. Fact. If r > 0 is a rational number, then

1
lim =0.
x!1 xr
If r > 0 is a rational number such that xr is defined for all x then
1
lim =0.
x! 1 xr
6. Example. Evaluate
(a)
3x3 4x2 1
lim
x!1 6x3 + x + 2
(b) p
3x2 5 1
lim
x! 1 2x + 5
(c) p p
lim ( x2 + ax x2 + bx)
x! 1
7. Problem. Find the following limits.

(a) lim x2
x!1
x2 + 2x 1
(b) lim
x!1 x3 + 3
x4 + 5x3 1
(c) lim
x!1 x2 + x + 1
(d) lim ex
x!1
ex
(e) lim
x!1 x2
8. Additional Notes
PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE R P ROBLEM S OLVING, R ATES OF C HANGE 68
Review: Problem Solving and Rates of Change

(This lecture corresponds to Chapter 2 of the Companion Guide available on Canvas website.)
1. Quote. ”If you can’t solve a problem, then there is an easier problem you can solve: find it.”
(George Polya , Hungarian Mathematician, 1887- 1985)
2. Polya’s Approach to Problem Solving:
Polya developed a four-step approach to problem solving. The steps are:
(a) Define the problem.

(b) Devise a plan for solving the problem.
(c) Carry out the plan.
(d) Test and evaluate the results.
3. A 10-ft wall stands 5 ft from a building. Suppose a ladder is placed on the ground so that it leans
against the building and touches the top of the 10-ft wall as indicated in the picture. How much does
the length of the ladder need to be adjusted by if the distance from the base of the ladder to the wall
increases from 5 ft to 7 ft?
4. Average Rate of Change.

The average rate of change of a function f over the interval [x1 , x2 ] is defined as
f (x2 ) f (x1 )
.
x2 x1
Notice that this can be interpreted as the slope of the secant line through the points (x1 , f (x1 )) and
(x2 , f (x2 )).
5. Example. If a cylindrical tank holds 100,000 gallons of water, which can be drained from the bottom
of the tank in an hour, then Torricelli’s Law gives the volume V of water remaining in the tank after
t minutes as ✓ ◆2
t
V = 100, 000 1 0  t  60 .
60
Find the average rate at which the water is flowing out of the tank between:
(a) 0 and 10 minutes,

(b) 40 and 50 minutes.
What is the average rate at which the water is flowing out of the tank over the entire 60 minute time
period?
6. Additional Notes
PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE 2.7 D ERIVATIVES AND R ATES OF C HANGE 71
2.7 Derivatives and Rates of Change

1. Quote. ”The real voyage of discovery consists not in seeking new landscapes, but in having new eyes.”
(Marcel Proust, French author, 1871- 1922)
2. Definition. The tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P (a, f (a)) is the line through P
with slope
f (x) f (a)
m = lim
x!a x a
provided that this limit exists.
f (x) f (a)
3. Note. If lim exists then
x!a x a
f (x) f (a) f (a + h) f (a)
lim = lim
x!a x a h!0 h
4. Example.
(a) Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = x3 at the point
i. x = 1
ii. x = 2
(b) Find the equation of the tangent line at each of the points above.
5. Example.
(a) Find the slope of the tangent to the curve
1
y=p
x
at the point where x = a.
(b) Find the equation of the tangent line at the point (1, 1).
6. The Most Important Definition in This Course.
Definition of Derivative. The derivative of a function f at a number a, denoted by f 0 (a), is
f (a + h) f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
h!0 h
if this limit exists.
f (x) f (a) f (x) f (a) f (a + h) f (a)

7. Note. If lim exists then f 0 (a) = lim = lim
x!a x a x!a x a h!0 h
8. Example. Find the derivative of the function

1
y=
x 1
at the point where x = 3.
9. Example. The following limit represents the derivative of some function f at some number a. State
f and a.
2h+3 8
lim
h!0 h
10. Example. Let f (x) = |x|. Does f 0 (0) exist?
11. Must Know! An equation of the tangent line to y = f (x) at (a, f (a)) is given by
y f (a) = f 0 (a)(x a) .
1
12. Example. Find the equation of the tangent line to f (x) = at the point where x = 3.
x 1
13. Compare the derivatives at each of the points on the graph.

14. Reminder. By definition

displacement
average velocity =
time
15. More Precisely... Suppose an object moves along a straight line according to an equation of motion
s = f (t), where s is the displacement of the object from the origin at time t.
The average velocity of the object in the time interval from t = a to t = a + h is given by
f (a + h) f (a)
average velocity = .
h
16. BIG Question. What if h is small?
17. Definition. We define the velocity (or instantaneous velocity) v(a) at time t = a as
f (a + h) f (a)
v(a) = lim .
h!0 h
18. Example. If an arrow is shot upward on the moon with a velocity of 58 m/s, its height (in meters)
after t seconds is given by
H = 58t 0.83t2 .
(a) Find the velocity of the arrow when t = a.

(b) When will the arrow hit the moon?
(c) With what velocity will the arrow hit the moon?
19. Rates of Change. Let f be a function defined on an interval I and let x1 , x2 2 I. Then the incre-
ment of x is defined as
x = x2 x1
and the corresponding change in y is
y = f (x2 ) f (x1 ) .
The average rate of change of y with respect to x over the interval [x1 , x2 ] is defined as
y f (x2 ) f (x1 )
= .
x x2 x1
20. Must Know! The instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x is defined as
y f (x2 ) f (x1 )
lim = lim .
x!0 x x2 !x1 x2 x1
21. Example. If a cylindrical tank holds 100,000 gallons of water, which can be drained from the bottom
of the tank in an hour, then Torricelli’s Law gives the volume V of water remaining in the tank after
t minutes as ✓ ◆2
t
V = 100, 000 1 0  t  60 .
60
Find the rate at which the water is flowing out of the tank (the instantaneous rate of change of V
with respect to t) as a function of t. What are the units?
22. Example. The quantity (in pounds) of a gourmet ground coffee that is sold by a coffee company at a
price of p dollars per pound is Q = f (p).
(a) What is the meaning of the derivative f 0 (8)? What are the units?
(b) Is f 0 (8) positive or negative? Explain.


PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE 2.8 T HE D ERIVATIVE AS A F UNCTION 80
2.8 The Derivative as a Function

1. Quote. “I turn away with fear and horror from this lamentable sore of continuous functions without
derivatives.”
(Charles Hermite, French mathematician, 1822-1901.)
2. Reminder. The derivative of a function f at a number a, denote by f 0 (a), is
f (a + h) f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
h!0 h
if this limit exists.
3. Find the derivative of the function f (x) = x2 at
(i) x = 0,
(ii) x = 1,
(iii) x = 2,
(iv) x = 10.
4. Problem. If a function f : I ! R is given, find the set J ⇢ I such that f 0 (x) exists for each x 2 J.
If J 6= ; then this new function f 0 : J ! R is called the derivative of f .
5. Example. Let p
2 3
f (x) = x 3 = x2 .
(i) Determine the domain of f .
(ii) Determine the formula for f 0 (x). What is the domain of f 0 ?

(iii) Sketch graphs of f and f 0 .

6. The graph of f is given. Sketch the graph of f 0 .
7. Notation. For y = f (x) it is common to write:

dy df d
f 0 (x) = y 0 = = = f (x) = Df (x) = Dx f (x)
dx dx dx
Also,
dy dy
f 0 (a) = = .
dx x=a dx x=a
8. Definition. A function is differentiable at a if f 0 (a) exists. It is differentiable on an open

interval (a, b) [or (a, 1) or ( 1, a) or ( 1, 1)] if it is differentiable at every number in the interval.
9. Two Questions.
(i) Is every continuous function differentiable?
(ii) Is every differentiable function continuous?
10. Three Cases. A function f is not differentiable at a number a from its domain if:
(i) The graph of f has a corner at the point (a, f (a));
(ii) f is not continuous at a;
(iii) The graph of f has a vertical tangent line when x = a.

11. Higher Derivatives. Suppose that f is a differentiable function. The second derivative of f is
the derivative of f 0 .
Notation.
(f 0 )0 = f 00
(y 0 )0 = y 00
✓ ◆
d dy d2 y
= 2
dx dx dx
12. Example. Find f 00 (x) if f (x) = x2 .
13. Acceleration. The instantaneous rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called the
acceleration of the object.
a(t) = v 0 (t) = s00 (t).
14. Example. The figure shows the graphs of three functions. One is the position function of a particle,
one is its velocity, and one is its acceleration. Identify each curve.

Part 3
Differentiation Rules
87
PART 3: D IFFERENTIATION R ULES L ECTURE 3.1 D ERIVATIVES : P OLYNOMIALS AND E XP 88
3.1 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions

1. Quote. “Young man, in mathematics you don’t understand things, you just get used to them.” (John
von Neumann, Hungarian mathematician and polymath, 1903-1957)
2. Reminder. The derivative of a function f is the function f 0 defined by
f (x + h) f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h!0 h
for all x for which this limit exists. Recall that we also use the notation d
dx (f (x)) = f 0 (x) for the
derivative.
3. Must Know!
(a) Derivative of a Constant.

d
(c) = 0
dx
(b) We have already seen that the following are true:

d d 2 d 3
(x) = 1, (x ) = 2x, (x ) = 3x2 .
dx dx dx
You may be able to see a pattern. In fact, we have the following rule.
The Power Rule. If n is any real number, then

d n
(x ) = nxn 1
dx
(c) Constant Multiple Rule. If c is a constant and f is a differentiable function, then

d d
(cf (x)) = c · f (x)
dx dx
(d) Sum Rule. If f and g are differentiable functions, then

d d d
(f (x) + g(x)) = f (x) + g(x)
dx dx dx
(e) The Derivative of a Polynomial. If

p(x) = an xn + an 1x
n 1
+ . . . + a1 x + a0
where n is a nonnegative integer and an 6= 0 then
p0 (x) = nan xn 1
+ (n 1)an 1x
n 2
+ . . . + a1 .
4. Example. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y = 2x3 7x2 + 3x + 4 at the point (1, 2).
5. Example. Find an equation for the straight line that passes through the point (0, 2) and it is tangent
to the curve y = x3 .
6. Fact. If f (x) = ax , a > 0, a 6= 1, is an exponential function then
ah 1
f 0 (0) = lim
h!0 h
exists.
7. Fact It is straightforward to show that if f (x) = ax then
f 0 (x) = f 0 (0) · ax .
8. Must Know! e is is the number such that

eh 1
lim =1.
h!0 h
e ⇡ 2.71828
9. Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function. If f (x) = ex is the natural exponential function
then
f 0 (x) = f (x) .
Thus
d x
(e ) = ex .
dx
10. Example. Differentiate the function

2
f (x) = 2x3 + 3x 3 ex+2 .
11. Example. At what point on the curve y = ex is the tangent line parallel to the line y = 2x?

PART 3: D IFFERENTIATION R ULES L ECTURE 3.2 T HE P RODUCT AND Q UOTIENT R ULES 94
3.2 The Product and Quotient Rules
1. Quote. ”Five out of four people have trouble with fractions.”
(Steven Wright, American comedian, 1955-)
p
2. Problem. Suppose we have two functions f (x) = x2 and g(x) = ex and we want to compute the
3
derivative of their product

d p3
( x2 ex ).
dx
How do we do this?
3. Product Rule. If f and g are both differentiable, then
d d d
[f (x)g(x)] = f (x) [g(x)] + g(x) [f (x)] .
dx dx dx
In Newton’s notation this is written as (f g)0 = f · g 0 + g · f 0 .
4. Examples.
p
(a) Differentiate f (x) = x2 · ex .
3
(b) Differentiate g(x) = (x + 1)(2x2 x + 1).
5. Quotient Rule. If f and g are differentiable, then
 d d
d f (x) g(x) [f (x)] f (x) [g(x)]
= dx dx .
dx g(x) [g(x)]2
✓ ◆0
f g · f 0 f · g0
In Newton’s notation this is written as = .
g g2
6. Examples.
2t2 1
(a) Differentiate y = .
t3 + 1
(b) Differentiate f (x) = e x

.
(c) If f (3) = 4, g(3) = 2, f 0 (3) = 6, and g 0 (3) = 5, find the following numbers.
i. (f + g)0 (3)
ii. (f g)0 (3)
✓ ◆0
f
iii. (3)
g
✓ ◆0
f
iv. (3)
f g
7. Additional Notes
PART 3: D IFFERENTIATION R ULES L ECTURE 3.3 D ERIVATIVES OF T RIG F UNCTIONS 98
3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

1. Quote. ”Trigonometry is the mathematics of sound and music.”

(Frank Wattenberg, American mathematician, 1952-)
2. Problem. What is the derivative of sin x?
3. Must Know!
(a)
d
(sin x) = cos x
dx
(b)
d
(cos x) = sin x
dx
(c)
d
(tan x) = sec2 x
dx
(d)
d
(sec x) = sec x tan x
dx
(e)
d
(csc x) = csc x cot x
dx
(f)
d
(cot x) = csc2 x
dx
4. Problem. Prove that

d
(sin x) = cos x .
dx
5. Trigonometric Limits. Above we used the very important results

sin ✓ cos ✓ 1
lim =1 and lim = 0.
✓!0 ✓ ✓!0 ✓
We now prove these results.
6. Examples.
1 + tan x
(a) Differentiate y = .
x cot x
(b) Find the points on the curve

cos x
y=
2 + sin x
at which the tangent is horizontal.
7. A ladder 10 ft long rests against a vertical wall. Let ✓ be the angle between the top of the ladder
and the wall and let x be the distance from the bottom of the ladder to the wall. If the bottom of the
ladder slides away from the wall, how fast does x change with respect to ✓ when ✓ = ⇡/3?
8. Examples. Evaluate
sin 2x
(a) lim
x!0 x
sin 2✓
(b) lim
✓!0 cos ✓ 1
9. Additional Notes
PART 3: D IFFERENTIATION R ULES L ECTURE 3.4 C HAIN R ULE 103
3.4 Chain Rule

1. Puzzle. A duck before two ducks, a duck behind two ducks, and a duck in the middle. How many
ducks are there?
2. Reminder. The composition of the functions f and g is defined by
(f g)(x) = f (g(x)) .
3. Example. Let f (u) = sin u and g(x) = 1 + x2 . Find F = f g.
4. Chain Rule. If f and g are both differentiable and F = f g is the composite function defined by
F (x) = f (g(x)), then F is differentiable and F 0 is given by
F 0 (x) = f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x) .
In Leibniz notation, if y = f (u) and u = g(x) are both differentiable functions, then
dy dy du
= · .
dx du dx
5. Examples.
(a) Let f (u) = sin u and g(x) = 1 + x2 and let F = f g. Find the derivative of F .
dy
(b) Find y 0 = . if
dx
i. y = (2 5x)3
ii. y = (x + sin x)5 (1 + ex )2
iii. Express the derivative dy/dx in terms of x if
(4x 1)2
y = u5 and u = .
x
6. Examples. Find f 0 .
(a) p
f (x) = 2 + 5x2
(b)
f (x) = (tan (x2 ))3
(c)
f (x) = ecos x
7. Must Know!
d x
(a ) = ax ln a .
dx
8. Examples.
(a) A pebble droppped into a lake creates an expanding circular ripple. Suppose that the radius of
the circle is increasing at the rate of 2 in./s. At what rate is its area increasing when its radius
is 10 in.?
(b) Suppose that f (0) = 0 and f 0 (0) = 1. Calculate the derivative of f (f (f (x))) at x = 0.
(c) Under certain circumstances a rumor spreads according to the equation

1
p(t) = kt
1 + ae
where p(t) is the proportion of the population that knows the rumor at time t and a and k are
positive constants.
i. Find lim p(t).
t!1
ii. Find the rate of spread of the rumor.
9. Additional Notes

2.1 The Tangent and Velocity Problems: (This Lecture Corresponds To Section 2.1 of Stewart's Calculus.)

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2.1 The Tangent and Velocity Problems: (This Lecture Corresponds To Section 2.1 of Stewart's Calculus.)

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PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE 2.

1 T ANGENT AND V ELOCITY P ROBLEMS 38

2.1 The Tangent and Velocity Problems

How do we calculate the slope m?

(b) (1.5, 1.52 )

(c) (1.1, 1.12 )

(d) (1.001, 1.0012 )

6. Velocity Problem. By definition

What if the period of time elapsed is very small?

where t is in seconds and s is in feet.

9. Answer. The number represents the instantaneous velocity.

10. Additional Notes

2.2 The Limit of a Function

1. Quote. “Black holes are where God divided by zero.”

(b) Complete the table

”the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L”

4. Example. Guess the value of

5. Problem. What can we say about

”the right-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L”

7. Example. Sketch the graph of the function

(a) lim f (x)

(b) lim f (x)

(c) lim f (x)

(d) lim+ f (x)

(e) lim f (x)

11. Examples. Sketch the graph of the following function.

12. Read Example 10 in text regarding f (x) = tan (x)

lim f (x) = 1 lim f (x) = 1 lim f (x) = 1

14. Additional Notes

2.3 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws

3. Limit Laws. Suppose that c is a constant and the limits

4. Two Special Limit Laws.

5. Example. Evaluate lim (x3 + 3x2 4x + 5).

6. Direct Substitution Property. If f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is in the domain of

7. Examples. Find the following limits.

lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L

11. Example. Show that  ✓ ◆

12. Additional Notes

2.4 The Precise Definition of Limit

“There’s a delta for every epsilon,

(Tom Lehrer, American singer-songwriter, satirist, pianist, and mathematician, 1928 - .)

Who wins Player A or Player B?

if for every number " > 0 there is a > 0 such that

|f (x) L| < " whenever 0 < |x a| < .

4. Example. Prove the statement using the ✏, definition.

5. To Be Continued ... ... in Math 242.

2. Example. What is the difference between the two graphs?

3. Definition. A function f is continuous at a number a if

lim f (x) = f (a) .

6. Example. Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?

7. Definition. A function f is continuous from the right at a number a if

lim f (x) = f (a)

and f is continuous from the left at a if

lim f (x) = f (a) .

8. Definiton. A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in that

12. Example. For which a, b 2 R is the function

13. Theorem. If f is continuous at b and lim g(x) = b then

lim f (g(x)) = f ( lim g(x)) = f (b) .

14. Example. Evaluate p

has at least one real solution.

19. Additional Notes

2.6 Limits at Infinity: Horizontal Asymptotes