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 Heat transfer is one of the most important industrial

processes.
 Throughout any industrial facility, heat must be
added, removed, or moved from one process stream to
another.
 Understanding the basics of the heart of this operation
is key to any engineers’ mastery of the subject.
 There are three basic types of heat transfer:
conduction, convection, and radiation.
 The two most common forms encountered in the
chemical processing industry are conduction and
convection.
 This course will focus on these key types of heat
transfer.
OUTLINE OF COURSE
 Basic modes of heat transfer, conduction, convection
and radiation,
 Heat conduction equation at steady state, heat
conduction in slabs (Plane& composite wall),
cylinders, spheres,
 Heat generation inside solids,
 Unsteady state heat conduction, Biot number, Fourier
number, Heisler charts.
 Critical thickness and optimum thickness of
insulation,
 Extended surfaces, fin performance evaluation,
effectiveness of fins.
 Free and forced convection inside and outside the
tubes as well as over the plates,
 Individual and overall heat transfer coefficients.
 Expressions for calculating individual and overall heat
transfer coefficients
 Heat transfer in laminar flow and turbulent flow,
 Dimensionless numbers in heat transfer,
 Heat transfer coefficients in natural convection and its
applications.
 Condensation and Boiling
 Heat Transfer to boiling liquids, pool boiling and
forced convection boiling,
 Boiling curve and its characteristics.
 Film condensation, dropwise condensing
 Condensation over flat plate,
 Condensation inside and outside the tubes in
horizontal, vertical and inclined position,
 Estimation of film coefficient of heat transfer for
condensing vapours turbulence in condensing film.
 Radiation heat transfer, emissive power,
 Laws of radiation,
 Concepts of black body, gray body,
 Green house effect,, heat flux by radiation, view
factors,
 radiation shield, luminous and non luminous gases.
 Heat Transfer fluids: Steam, organic thermic-fluids
such as Downtherm and others, molten metals,
molten salts, flue gases, calculation of heat transfer
coefficients for the heating fluids and their selection
criteria.
TEXT / REFERENCES:
 Hollman J.P.; Heat Transfer, McGraw Hill, 1993
 Incropera F.P. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer 5th Edition Wiley
India Pvt.Ltd Ltd.,2008
 Cengel Y.A. Heat Transfer: A Practical Approach McGraw-Hill; 2 edition
,2002
 Kern D.Q., Process Heat Transfer, Tata McGraw Hill Book Co., New Delhi,
1990.
 Coulson J.M., Richardson J.R. Chemical Engineering, Vol. I 5th Edition,
Butterworth Heinemann, New Delhi.
 Sukhatme S.P., Text Book on Heat Transfer, Orient Longman Pvt. Ltd.
 Rajput R.K. Heat and Mass Transfer S. Chand & Company Ltd., New
Delhi,2003
 Dutta B.K. Heat Transfer; Principles and Applications PHI Pvt.Ltd New
Delhi ,2006
 Sachdeva R.C. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer 3rd Edition, New
Age International Ltd,2008
 Arora S.C., Heat Transfer and Mass Transfer, Khanna Published, New
Delhi.
 Dawande S.D., Principles of Heat and Mass Transfer, Central Techno
Publications, Nagpur.
 Kumar D.S., Process Heat Transfer, S.K.Kataria & Sons Publishers, New
Delhi.
 Eckert E.R.G. and Drake R.M.; 2nd Edition, Heat Transfer and Mass
Transfer, McGraw Hill Education.
 Kothandaram C.P., Subramanyan S.; Heat Transfer and Mass Transfer,
Databook, 4th Edition, Wiley eastern Ltd., 1989
 McAdams W.H.; Heat Transmission, McGraw Hill Book Co. New York,
1954
 F. Kreith and M.S. Bohn, Principles of Heat Transfer. (5th Edn. ed.),, West
Publishing Co., San Francisco (1993).

Learning objectives
 What is heat transfer?

 The three ways of heat transfers

 Application of heat transfers

 Energy balance

 Nature or properties of heat transfer


 Steady state
 Unsteady state
How ‘Heat’ Moves

Review of past terms:


 Define “Energy”:
The ability to do work or cause
change.
 What is the basic unit of measure for
energy?
Joules.

13
The Nature of Heat
Heat moves in only one direction:
 Under normal conditions and in nature, heat energy will
ALWAYS flow the warmer object to the cooler object.
 Heat energy will flow from one substance to another
until the two substances have the same temperature.

14
How ‘Heat’ Moves

Thermal energy in the form of heat can


move in three ways.
Conduction
Convection
Radiation

15
Conduction
CONDUCTION:
 The transfer of heat from one particle of
matter to another by direct particle to
particle contact.
 Conduction occurs primarily in solids because the
particles are tightly packed together.
 The particles themselves DO NOT change positions.

16
How ‘Heat’ Moves

 Define “Heat”:
Heat is the movement of thermal
energy from a substance at a higher
temperature to another substance
at a lower temperature.

17
Conduction

Example: A metal spoon in a pot of water being


heated on an electric stove.
a. First, the electrical energy is converted to
thermal energy by the stove.
b. The rapidly vibrating particles of the hot
electric coil collide with the particles of the
cool pot.
c. Heat energy is transferred, causing the
particles in the pot to vibrate faster.

18
Conduction
d. The rapidly vibrating particles of the pot now collide with
the particles of the water at the bottom of the pot.
e. The water particles absorb energy and vibrate and flow
more rapidly and its temperature increases.
f. Now, the energetic (hot) particles of water collide with the
particles of the submerged end of the spoon.
g. As the particles of the spoon absorb energy and vibrate
more rapidly. The temperature of the spoon increases.

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Conduction

h. As the particles at this end of the spoon


absorb energy and vibrate faster they collide
with other particles in the spoon. As they
collide, energy is transferred to the other
particles (similar to momentum) and they
begin to vibrate more rapidly.
i. This process of conduction is repeated all
along the metal spoon until the entire metal
spoon becomes hot.

20
Conduction
Brainstorming: What are other
examples of conduction?

Application: Describe the process


of conduction when you place a
hot spoon into a bowl of ice cream.

21
Convection
Convection: the transfer of
thermal energy (heat) through
the bulk movement of matter.
 Convection occurs in FLUIDS (liquids and
gases).
 Convection produces CURRENTS in both
gases and liquids.
 Thermal Energy heat is carried by the particles as they
move from one location to another.

22
Convection
Example: Heating water:
a. When the water at the bottom of the pot
(nearest the burner) is heated, the particles
absorb energy by conduction as they touch
the hot pot.
b. The water particles vibrate more rapidly.
c. The particles also move farther apart and
the hot water becomes less dense than the
surrounding cool water.
d. This causes the heated (hot) water to rise.

23
Convection
e. The surrounding denser cooler water is
forced downward near the burner by the
rising hot water.
f. This process continues to repeat.
g. This FLOW creates a circular motion
known as a convection current .
Application: How do convection
currents form in a room when the heater
is turned on?

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Convection
 The warm air from the heater vent will rise. Why?,
 The warm air is less dense than the surrounding cooler air.
 The cool air is pushed down by the rising warm air.
What is the best location for a heat vent in a room and
why? Near the ceiling or the floor?
Floor:
Because the warm air will rise to the ceiling.
How about the return vent?

25
Convection
Convection currents occur in the
environment as well. They produce:
 Global winds that contribute to Earth’s
weather.
 Ocean and lake currents

26
Convection
Brainstorming: On a hot summer day
the breeze near the beach blows toward
the water. However, later in the day the
breeze reverses direction and blows
toward land and will get increasingly
stronger. Why?

27
Convection
Answer: In the morning the water
may be warmer than the sand causing
the air over the water to rise.
In the afternoon, the sand has
become much hotter than the water
and the air above it rises. The air over
the water rushes in to fill its void
causing a wind.

28
Radiation
 Radiation: the transfer of (thermal)
energy by electromagnetic waves.
 Radiation does not require matter to
transfer thermal energy.
 All the sun’s energy that reaches Earth travels
through millions of kilometers of empty space
(a vacuum).
 All matter can radiate energy.
 You feel the radiation of thermal energy from a
bonfire, a heat lamp and a light bulb.

29
Radiation

 Other examples of the transfer of heat


by Radiation:
a. Charcoal grill.
b. Hot tin roof.
c. Burner on a stove top.
d. ?
e. ?

30
Radiation

Key Point: For radiation to be felt as heat


it must first be absorbed by a material.
Example:Why do blue jeans feel hotter in
the sun than a yellow shirt, even though
they are both exposed to the same
amount of sunlight?
 The blue jean fabric absorbs more radiant
energy from the sun than the yellow shirt
because of its dark color.

31
Conduction, Convection & Radiation

32
Energy from the Sun

33
Convection, Conduction & Radiation

34
The Nature of Heat

What happens when you put ice in a


warm soft drink?
 The heat energy moves from the soft drink
into the ice by conduction (particle to
particle contact) causing the ice to melt.

35
Review
Describe the three kinds of heat transfer.

a. Conduction – transfer of heat energy from one particle


to another by direct contact. (Primarily in solids)
b. Convection – transfer of heat energy in fluids-gases and
liquids) through the bulk movement of matter from one
place to another. (Produces currents)
c. Radiation – transfer of energy through electromagnetic
waves. (Matter is not required!) (Radiant & infrared
radiation from the sun)

36
Radiation Convection
Conduction
 Direct contact • Transfer of • Transfer of
energy by waves energy by bulk
of particles movement of
• Only radiant
 Solids/liquids/ energy that is matter (fluids)
gases absorbed becomes • Currents
thermal energy (wind,water)
 The handle of • Lightbulb • Hot air balloon
a cooking • Fireplace
utensil

37
Contrast:
Conduction •Direct contact of particles
Convection •Solids/liquids/gases
•Solids -good conductors
Radiation •Gases -poor conductors
Conduction

•Transfer of energy
by waves
•Only radiant energy
that is absorbed
becomes thermal
energy •Transfer of energy by
•Shiny/light colors- bulk movement of
reflect matter (fluids)
•Dull/dark colors- •Currents (wind,water)
absorb •Hot air balloon
Radiation
Convection
38
Heat Energy Transfer
Transfer
of
Heat

Conduction Convection Radiation


Conduction Experiment: Four Rods
A student believes that under similar conditions, different
materials transfer heat at different rates.
To test her theory, she heated four rods of the same size, all with
drawing pins attached by wax.
How Conduction Works
As the temperature of a solid is increased, the particles vibrate
more, so they gain more kinetic energy.
Use this animation to study what happens to the kinetic energy of the
particles along the bar, as it is heated from one end...

The increase in kinetic energy is passed onto adjacent particles


through collision, causing them to vibrate more.
In this way, heat is passed from one end of the solid to the other.
Absorption Experiment
Click to start the experiments which investigate how the colour and
texture of a surface affect the absorption of infra red radiation...
Convection - Smoke Chamber
Predict what will happen when a piece of smoking paper is dropped
into the smoke chamber.
Start the experiment to see what happens to the smoke...
Heat Loss from Buildings
Thermal imaging can also be used to identify where heat is
escaping from a building. Areas coloured red and yellow identify
heat being lost (warm areas).
Switch the camera on to find out where heat is being lost...
Heat Loss in the Home
The pie chart shows the major sites of heat loss in a typical home...

1. Which is the greatest source of heat loss?

2. Which is the smallest source of heat loss?

3. Would closing doors behind you when you


leave a room help to reduce heat loss?

4. Why should you not stop all draughts in a house?


Energy Transfer: Size of Object
Click start to investigate how the size of a body affects the rate at
which it transfers heat energy to its surroundings.
The Thermos Flask
Move the cursor over the thermos flask to find out how it prevents
heat loss...
Warm-up
Why are frying-pans and woks usually made of metals but their handles are
made of plastic?
Introduction
How is energy transferred from the cooker to the pan
and then to the food?
Energy transfer by conduction
Energy is transferred by conduction

from the cooker,

through the pan,

to the food.
Conduction (video)
Studying the heat transferred along a metal rod

insulating board

copper rod

wax

What happens to
drawing pins these drawing pins?
Conduction (video)

What kind of rod conducts heat?

Feel the ends of the rods to find out which


rod feels hot first.

wood
iron glass
copper

very hot
water
Conduction (video)

What kind of rod conducts heat fastest?

Heat the ends of the metal


aluminium
copper rods and note which drawing
pin at the other end falls first.
iron

drawing
pins
Conduction (video)

Does water conduct heat?

boiling Gently heat the top part of the water &


find out if the ice melts.
tube

water wire gauze

ice
Conduction (video)

Does air conduct heat?

thermometer
Leave the cardboard for a
while & then take the
temperature readings.

heater

cardboard tube
Conduction (video)

Does air conduct heat?

Leave the cardboard for a while & then take


the temperature readings.
Energy transfer by conduction
In conduction, heat (energy) is transferred from the hot part to the cold part.

Materials conduct heat at different rates.

Metals (e.g. copper and iron) are good conductors of heat.

Non-metals (e.g. wood, water and air) are poor conductors (or good
insulators).
Energy transfer by conduction
In conduction, heat is transferred from the hot part to
the cold part along an object. Conduction is efficient in
conductors but not in insulators.
Energy transfer by conduction
Does the orientation of the rod matter?
Does the orientation of the rod matter?

Phoebe heats two metal rods as shown. Which will be heated up first? Why?

Both of them are heated up at the same rate.

Energy transferred from the hot end to the cold end


by conduction is not affected by the orientation of the
rod.
Conduction and particle motion
particles at
In kinetic theory, cold end
particles in a solid are closely packed, vibrate less

they vibrate to & fro but can't change positions.

particles at hot
end vibrate a lot
Conduction and particle motion
particles at
cold end
The fast vibrating particles bump into
vibrate less
the slower neighbouring particles &

make them vibrate more rapidly

⇒ energy is transferred

particles at hot
(from one particle to the
end vibrate a lot
next & from hot to cold
end of rod)
Conduction and particle motion
(simulation)
Examples of conduction
How to keep warm?

A cotton jacket keeps warm by


trapping air next to the body.
Examples of conduction
How to keep warm?

Polar bears keep warm by


trapping air in the fur.
Examples of conduction (video)
How to keep warm?
Birds keep warm by trapping air
in their feathers.
Examples of conduction
Hot or cold?
Under the same condition, a metal block feels colder than a wooden block even
the 2 objects are at the same temperature.

metal easily conducts energy away from your hand


⇒ you feel cold


In conduction, heat is transferred...
In conduction, heat is transferred in which of the following direction?

A From high-temperature area to low-


temperature area.
B From low-temperature area to high-
temperature area.
C The direction of heat transferred is different in
metals and non-metals.
Which of the following can explain why a tile floor feels colder than a wooden floor?

A The temperature of the tile floor is lower.


B Tile is a better conductor of heat than wood.
C Wood is a better conductor of heat than tile.
D Tile is smoother than wood.
Frying-pans are made of...
Frying-pans are made of metals because they are good _________ of heat,
while handles of frying-pans are made of plastic because they are good
_________ of heat.
conductors

insulators
Heat transfer
 The manner in which heat energy is transferred from a heat source to
particles in a container, such as a can, bottle or pouch

 Movement of heat in and out of a food

 The manner in which heat is transported from a food’s surroundings to


the surface and interior of food
 The driving force for heat transfer is tempt difference

 Is required to destroy microorganisms in many processed foods

 Three mechanisms of heat transfer in foods are


 Conduction
 Convention
 Radiation
Conduction
 When heat moves thru a material or
transferred between food molecules inside the
can via molecular collisions or molecular
motion

 Movement of heat by direct transfer of


molecular energy within solids
 Occurs at molecular level

 It is the transfer and distribution of heat


energy from atom to atom within a substance.

 Such as: thru metal containers or food solid


 E.g. molecules of an egg in a frying pan gain thermal
energy from stove
 Causing them to vibrate more rapidly
 These vibrations are passed along from molecule to molecule in food
 Although no physical movement of food during conductive heat transfer

 Heat transfer in this case is caused by a temperature


gradient (simultaneous existence of hot and cold
areas) between stove, pan and food that directs the
heat from high tempt region to lower tempt region

 Most effective in solids-but it can happen in fluids.


Convection
 Transfer or movement of heated fluid from hot
region to cold region

 When heat is transferred thru a liquid according to


density differences.
 Unique to liquid foods or foods packed in liquid e.g. in
heated air or as a result of agitation e.g. in stirred
liquids

 Transfer of heat by the actual movement of the


warmed matter.

 Heat leaves the coffee cup as the currents of steam and


air rise.

 Transfer of heat energy in a gas or liquid by


movement of currents. (It can also happen is some
solids, like sand.)
Heat moves with the fluid!
 Convection is responsible for making macaroni rise and
fall in a pot of heated water.
 The warmer portions of the water are less dense and therefore,
they rise.
 Meanwhile, the cooler portions of the water fall because they
are denser.
Radiation
 Transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves
 E.g. dielectric (microwave and radiofrequency) and
infrared (radiant) energy

 Transmitted as waves, which penetrate food and


are then absorbed and converted to heat

 Heat is transferred directly between foods without


an intervening medium
Application: Heat transfer in
retort canner
 Combination of types of heat transfer occur in food
processing
 E.g Conduction and convention occur simultaneously
 However one may be important than the other depending on a
particular application

 E.g. In a retort canner,


 Heat is transferred from heating source to food inside
each container of food (can) by conduction and
convention
 Retort processing

 Procedure used to heat sealed cans in


order to destroy bacteria and spores

 It utilizes a chamber with steam valve


jets that allow steam to enter the
chamber for precise time control

 Cans are placed inside this large retort


chamber on a stackable pallets, and
steam is injected in

 The steam transfers heat into each can


place inside the retort

 By injecting steam under pressure,


tempt exceeds boiling point of water
inside each can within the retort
chamber
Heat transfer within a can
 Food in the can is heated up by
both conduction and convection
heat transfers

 When a conduction heat process


begins, the cold point is towards
the centre of the can because heat
would be conducted equally
inward from all sides

 And when conduction plus


convection heat process begin, the
cold point is below the centre of the
can due to the movement of fluid
from the bottom (colder, more dense)
to the top (warmer, less dense) as it
heats up
 Cold point
 Is the last area within a can to heat up, thus important to
be measures to determine if heat has penetrated a
container of food to completely hast all food particles to
the desired temperature
 Time taken for the cold point to heat up and reach the
required temperature determines the overall processing
time and temperature parameters for a particular product
Energy balances
 Amount of heat or mechanical energy entering a process
 = total energy leaving the products and wastes + stored
energy + energy lost to the surroundings

 Conservation of mass (law)


 When a reaction takes place, total mass of reactants is equal to
total mass of products formed plus mass of reactant remaining

 All changes in matter are accompanied by a flow of energy


 Energy exist in many forms
 Chemical, electrical, mechanical, and radiant

 When food materials are acted upon by heated energy,


 some matter may be consumed within system and then
converted into radiant energy
 other portions of matter may generate new matter or
product
 others accumulate within the container boundary
Nature of heat transfer
 i) Steady-state heat transfer
 When there is no accumulation of mass within the system
 The law of mass of conservation asserts that
 Material input thru the system equals material output thru the
system (amount of heat entering = amount leaving (no change in
temp)

 System properties that do not change with time (a constant


temp difference between two materials)

 E.g. at steady state heat transfer process


 Tempt in system remains constant in time, although it may very
form location to location within system
 ii) Unsteady-state heat transfer or transient heat
transfer
 System properties that do change with time

 constant change in temp of food and /or


heating and cooling medium.
 Common in food-processing applns.
 In which the rate of heat transfer changes with time
Steady-state conduction
 Rate at which transferred by conduction
 Determined by temp difference between
 food
 heating or cooling medium
 total resistance to heat transfer

 Resistance to heat transfer


 Expressed as
 Conductance of material known as thermal conductivity
Formular
 Heat transfer under steady-state condn;
Q=kA(θ - θ )
1 2

 Q (Js-1) = rate of heat transfer


 k (Jm-1s-1K-1 or Wm-1K-1) = thermal conductivity
 A (m2) = surface area
 (Θ1- θ2) (0C or K)=temperature difference
 X (m)=thickness of the material
Factors affect thermal
conductivity of food
 Nature of food
 Cell structure
 amount of air trapped between the cells
 moisture content
 moisture content result in reduction in thermal conductivity
Implication of moisture content
in unit
 Drying
operations
 Frying
 Freeze-drying
 Low atmospheric pressure influences thermal
conductivity of food

 Rate of freezing and thawing is determined by the


thermal conductivity of water and ice respectively
Unsteady-state conduction
 During processing
 Temp at a given point within a food
 Depends on rate of
 heating or cooling

 position in the food

 However, tempt changes continuously


Factors influence tempt change
 Tempt of heating medium
 Thermal conductivity of food
 Specific heat of food
Conclusion
 Understanding heat transfer mechanism will help
processors estimate time taken for the cold point to heat
up and reach the required temperature
 Which ultimately helps determine the overall processing
time and temperature parameters for a particular product

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