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Hesse

Modular Pick-and-Place Devices

Handling
Pneumatics

Stefan Hesse

Modular
Pick-and-Place Devices

Blue Digest
on Automation
Blue Digest on Automation

© 2000 by Festo AG & Co.

Ruiter Strasse 82
D-73734 Esslingen
Tel. (0711) 347-0
Fax (0711) 347-2155

All texts, representations, illustrations and drawings included in this book are
the intellectual property of Festo AG & Co., and are protected by copyright law.
All rights reserved, including translation rights. No part of this publication may
be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechani-
cal, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission of Festo AG.
 The phrase “handling technology” is derived from the word “hand” – and as we
Foreword all know, the human hand is capable of a very great number of things. If we
attempt within the context of industrial production to replace the human hand
with technical devices, we expect first and foremost movements which are fast,
repeatable and accurate. Flexibility is a quite separate matter. For tasks such as
sealing bottles or assembling ballpoint pens, for example, flexibility is not requi-
red. Tasks of this kind are the territory of pick-and-place devices. The main appli-
cation of these devices is workpiece handling in component manufacture and
assembly, rather than the handling of tools. Despite the fact that programmable
robots are now commonplace in production operations, with numbers growing
day by day, these have in no way taken the place of pick-and-place devices. In
terms of units, there are still more pick-and-place devices sold than robots. The
simple reason for this is that, today and in the future, there are and will still be
many handling operations for which programmable handling devices are clearly
over-qualified.

Pick-and-place technology is unfortunately rather poorly represented in tech-

nical literature. This is the reason why this book has been produced. It is intend-
ed to illustrated the modern devices and methods which can be used today to
produce solutions for simple handling tasks. Modular construction is naturally
an important factor, as are in particular pneumatic actuators, reflecting the fact
that, notwithstanding the gain in functionality, the devices which allow the
mechanisation of handling operations should also be inexpensive. This book is
therefore addressed at practical users who are looking for ideas and solutions
which will allow production processes to be raised to a new level of efficiency.

Stefan Hesse

5
 1 Workpiece handling as an auxiliary process ................................................................. 9
Table of contents 1.1 Tasks of handling technology ......................................................................................... 9
1.2 Basic principle of pick-and-place devices ............................................................... 11
1.3 Area of application ........................................................................................................... 17

2 Modular design ......................................................................................................................... 20

2.1 Pneumatic automation components ......................................................................... 20
2.2 Pick-and-place devices in cyclic operation ............................................................. 22
2.3 Advantages of modern design ..................................................................................... 25
2.4 General design of basic units ....................................................................................... 29
2.4.1 Function of a linear unit .................................................................................... 29
2.4.2 Function of a rotary unit .................................................................................... 34
2.4.3 Machine frames from modular components ............................................. 39
2.4.4 Determination, overdetermination and synchronisation .................... 41
2.5 Motion patterns ................................................................................................................. 43
2.6 End-position cushioning ................................................................................................ 46

3 Positioning technology ......................................................................................................... 52

3.1 Freedom of programming .............................................................................................. 52
3.2 Servopneumatic positioning axes .............................................................................. 55
3.3 Electromechanical positioning axes .......................................................................... 56
3.4 Assessment and selection ............................................................................................. 57

4 Use of pick-and-place devices ........................................................................................... 60

4.1 Modular handling systems ............................................................................................ 60
4.1.1 Use of rotary units ............................................................................................... 60
4.1.2 From a single-axis to a multi-axis system .................................................. 64
4.2 Pick-and-place units for assembly work ................................................................. 67
4.2.1 Man or machine? .................................................................................................. 67
4.2.2 Assembly with pneumatics .............................................................................. 68
4.2.3 Peripheral helpers ................................................................................................ 72
4.3 Feeding machines with pick-and-place units ........................................................ 74
4.3.1 Automatic feed is replacing manual work ................................................. 74
4.3.2 Reaching into the machine ............................................................................... 79

5 Gripper technology .................................................................................................................. 81

5.1 Grippers and gripped objects as a system ............................................................. 81
5.2 Precision and special grippers ..................................................................................... 83
5.3 Miniature grippers ............................................................................................................ 86
5.4 Magnetic grippers ............................................................................................................. 87

6 Criteria, characteristic values and components ......................................................... 89

6.1 Don’t just dream – combine! ........................................................................................ 89
6.2 Assessment and selection ............................................................................................. 90
6.3 Guides and smoothness of operation ...................................................................... 94
6.4 And, finally, ... ..................................................................................................................... 95

Literature ........................................................................................................................................... 96
Glossary ............................................................................................................................................ 98

Appendix: Typical configurations of pick-and-place devices

produced with Festo’s modular system .............................................................................. 102

7
 Each age generates its own future and takes pleasure in the latest technical ad-
1 vances. In fact, every advance builds on previous achievements, and the origins
Workpiece handling as of any development generally lie much further back in the past than most people
an auxiliary process imagine. For example, the great physicist Heinrich Helmholtz (1821–1894) had
this to say in a lecture given in 1854:

“We are now no longer trying to build machines which are able to imitate the
thousand different types of work which a human being can carry out; on the con-
trary, our objective is to build machines which can carry out one type of work
and replace thousands of human beings.”

Helmholtz’s thinking was far ahead of his time. His words essentially contrast
the “universal” (universal robots) and the “special” (special machines). Pick-
and-place devices clearly come under the heading of “special machines”, and we
shall be discussing these in detail. Pick-and-place devices and simpler related
devices are not mini robots but are a separate class of device of great impor-
tance within production technology. With the development of industrial produc-
tion, workpiece gradually also learned to move.

Products manufactured in millions have motivated the trend away from manual
1.1 handling assisted by mechanical devices and towards fully-automated handling.
Tasks of handling Early examples of products of this kind were sewing needles, followed later by
technology light bulbs and automobiles.
Fig. 1-1 shows the device for stamping the eyes of needles produced by the
mechanical engineer Kaiser of Iserlohn in 1871. Kaiser’s idea was to produce two
needles joined eye to eye as an automation-compatible semi-finished product.
This was divided into two needles later, after stamping and perforation. This
method allowed the production sequence to be automated. The cam for the
stamp ram was driven by a transmission, as you can see. Pictorial symbols for
the graphic representation of feed functions were defined for the first time 40
years ago in the VDI Standard 3239. The effect of this was to help place more
emphasis on workpiece handling within the context of planning work.

Fig. 1-1:
A 19th century feed system
used to stamp the eyes of
needles. The symbols
indicate: Stack magazine –
feeding – holding – shaping –
outward transfer.

1 Workpiece handling as an auxiliary process 9

 “Workpiece handling” means all the operations used to produce a flow of mate-
rials and workpieces in the vicinity of production equipment. Workpieces are
positioned in the right orientation and quantity at a particular time at the point
of processing, are clamped, processed, released again and transferred outwards.

Early examples of feed technology can also be found in devices used with coin-
stamping presses, automatic lathes (turning from bar material), and the produc-
tion of munitions. For simple handling operations, pick-and-place devices are
more than adequate, even in the age of the robot. Devices of this kind continue
to be used ten to twenty times more frequently than industrial robots. For cer-
tain applications, an industrial robot is over-qualified or only designed for a spe-
cial application, such as paint-spraying. Technical development and the expansi-
on of the range of possible applications have meant that pick-and-place devices
have become more like programmable industrial robots. There are, for example,
already NC-compatible two-axis pick-and-place devices. The critical factors are
the motion pattern required for technological reasons and various other parame-
ters. Fig. 1-2 provides a general overview of these. In mechanical and electrical
engineering in general, production work can be said to be made up of the follo-
wing:
–- One third machining,
– One third assembly, and
– One third, handling, conveying and storage.

Fig. 1-2:
Approximate classification
system for technical/indus-
trial handling operations
Positioning of tool Welding
Tool handling
Adhesive bonding

Handling
From initial to end With geometrical
operations
position without or technological
path conditions path conditions

Paletting Joining
Depalleting Workpiece Feeding
handling

10 1 Workpiece handling as an auxiliary process


1.2
Basic principle of pick-
and-place devices
Fig. 1-3:
Types of motion for pick-and-
place operations
1 Transfer motion
2 Vertical motion
3 Clamping
4 Release
This class of device includes two-axis motion units with a fixed sequence, used
to handle objects, in particular workpieces of small and medium size and mass.
Pick-and-place devices have fixed motion sequences, paths or angles which
can be changed only by replacing components or re-adjusting these.
There are a number of other terms which mean the same thing as “pick-and-
place device”, such as “loader”, “feeder”, “non-servo robot” or “fixed-sequence
robot” (Japan). Because of the hard impact which devices of this kind used to
produce at end positions, American engineers have also christened them “bang-
bang robots”. “Pick-and-place device” is nonetheless a good term, reflecting the
fact that an object is lifted and set down at a defined point. A typical motion
sequence for a pick-and-place device is shown in Fig. 1-3. The following motion
operations take place:
– Workpiece gripping (pick-up)
– Workpiece movement (transfer)
– Opening of gripper, setdown of workpiece (placing).
1
2
4 2
3
2
We can distinguish between compact and modular devices. These latter are
made up from standard modules, allowing application-specific requirements to
be taken into account. Fig. 1-4 shows an interesting compact unit with electrical
rotary drives. The parallelogram gear unit converts a rotary motion into a pus-
hing action. The drive in the base unit turns the entire assembly. This actual
example does not feature a vertical motion, but this could be incorporated if
desired.
A general problem, and one which often results in a more or less good compro-
mise, is the feed of a power supply and any signal lines required for the final
actuating element. The solution is generally tubing arcs or coils or power supply
chains.
1 Workpiece handling as an auxiliary process 11
Fig. 1-4:
Compact pick-and-place devi-
ce with parallelogram arm
(Bühler Automation)
1
a) General view
b) Handling sequence

1 Parallelogram arm
2
2 Parallel-jaw gripper
3 Rotary platform
4 Motor housing and base 3
unit H

H Maximum stroke

a) b)

A typical configuration for handling devices made up of modular components is

shown in Fig. 1-5. Panels are picked from a stack and transferred to a conveyor.
Two linear axes are sufficient for this. In this example, rodless pneumatic cylin-
ders, linked by a cross-member, are used for the horizontal motion. In the case
of light small panels, one of the cylinders can be replaced by a linear guide, for
example, a roller strip. The suction-cup spider travels in an open rectangular
motion cycle.

Fig. 1-5:
Modular pick-and-place
device with pneumatic linear
axes

1 Standard cylinder
2 Cross-member
3 Rodless cylinder
4 Suction cup
5 Rack with free support
6 Conveyor system
7 Workpiece

12 1 Workpiece handling as an auxiliary process

 One way of distinguishing between pick-and-place devices is on the basis of the
type of power supply which they use. Nothing will work without a power supply.
But what types of power are used?

Electrical energy

Electromechanical devices use spindles or control cams to generate motions

which may be linear or circular. In the case of multi-axis devices, the resulting
motion is the product of several individual motions. A separate cam is used for
each motion, with the possibility of fitting two cams in one housing. Fig. 1-6
shows the principle of a device of this kind. The cam supplies information (on
the desired path) and is also the energy carrier. Devices of this kind are very fast
(less than 1 second per motion cycle!). They are used only in mass production
operations (the types used are disc, slot or globoid cams). An example of a com-
pact device for a lift/turn cycle is shown in Fig. 1-7.

Fig. 1-6:
Schematic view of trans-
mission for electrically-driven
pick-and-place device with
cam-controlled linear motions

The motor drives a cam which acts via a roller-tipped star wheel to produce
a jolt-free backwards and forwards motion. The lifting motion is produced by a
disc cam. The gripper is pneumatically driven. The modular design also allows
the creation of application-specific devices such as a twin-arm configuration or a
lifting column with an additional stabilising support or supplementary guide for
cases involving the handling of large masses.

Fig. 1-7:
Lift/turn loader (Ferguson)

1 Swivel arm
2 Gripper
3 Lift/turn unit
4 Cam control system
5 Geared motor

1 Workpiece handling as an auxiliary process 13

 We sometimes hear people say that cam-controlled devices are old-fashioned.
This is not correct, as practical examples show. Device of this kind are very quiet
in operation, the motion sequence is free of drift and the speed very high. Given
the right cam shape, it is possible to achieve a speed curve free of jolts and
impacts. This design is, however, subject to limits with regard to adjustment of
its stroke. It is often possible to adjust only the stroke position and not the path
which is stored in the cam. Suitability for use thus depends on the intended
application.

Some quite unusual kinematic characteristics have been produced for special
applications. Fig. 1-8 shows how an elliptical pick-and-place cycle can be
produced with a single drive by deriving a second motion from the first. The
motion nonetheless concludes with a short straight-line approach to the end
position. The drive wheel powers a pinion which is fitted with a plain guide for
the handling arm. This arm, however, has no fixed pivot point relative to the
machine frame. It is connected to a non-driven straight slide. This kinematic lin-
kage causes the end point of the handling arm to describe the path shown.

Fig. 1-8:
An unusual pick-and-place
device, shown in kinematic 3 2
Z Z
form
1 6
1 Pinion
2 Handling arm 4
3 Plain guide
4 Drive wheel
5 Linear guide X
6 Motion path of end point
of arm 5
X

Electrically driven linear modules all have a fixed base frame. Motion can be
transmitted to the slide or handling arm via a spindle, chain or toothed belt. In
the case of direct electrical drives, this can be achieved without a tractive device.
Rotary and linear drives of this kind are, however, expensive and have up to now
been used only rarely. On the other hand, they offer high accuracy and speed in
positioning applications Slide-type devices are available as yoke and base-frame
versions, which each account for around half of the linear drives on the market
in the case of pneumatic linear units.

Pneumatic energy

Pneumatic linear units are of direct-drive type, and thus produce a motion with-
out intermediate gearing. This also applies to rotary vane motors. Often, how-
ever, rack-and-pinion gearing is used to convert the linear pushing action of
opposed pistons into a rotary motion. This rotary drive is thus free of backlash in
its end positions.

14 1 Workpiece handling as an auxiliary process

 As a general principle, the following pneumatic components can be used to crea-
te pick-and-place devices:

– Pneumatic cylinders with or without guide units

– Linear units with parallel cylinders (twins)
– Rodless linear units
– Rotary and swivel drives
– Swivel/linear units
– Mechanical and suction grippers
– Pneumatic motors.

A fast-running pneumatic motor can, for example, provide a viable solution for
spindle drives in environments with explosion hazard. They can be used, for
example, as lifting drives for balancers. Pneumatic motors are also used for fric-
tion-wheel drives, for example to feed flat workpieces or panels. These motors
require little installation space and produce high feed speeds.

As we know, pneumatic devices are fast. Production engineers are, however,

interested in something else, namely the cycle time which can be achieved, for
example in a feed application. Is the cycle time a question of black magic? No!
There is always a choice of variants, as shown in the example in Fig. 1-9.

Fig. 1-9:
An example of machine feed

1 Cross-gantry axes
2 Machine tool
3 Intermediate storage
4 Blanks pallet
5 Finished-workpiece pallet
6 Manual rotary axis with
double gripper

Let us assume we have a cross-gantry. The axes in the X and Y directions are
positioning axes or, if only a small number of positions are required, can also be
linear units with intermediate stops. As a variant, it should also be possible to
have a lifting/rotary axis fitted with a double gripper in the Z direction. Blanks
and finished workpieces can be palleted optionally either separately or together.
As a further option, a buffer store of workpieces can be maintained in the vicini-
ty of the clamping point. If we now document operational variants for these opti-

1 Workpiece handling as an auxiliary process 15

 ons, we obtain the sequences of actions shown in Fig. 1-10. It is not immediately
obvious which is the best solution. It is necessary to add together the individual
processing times and the auxiliary process time.

Auxiliary process time is the time for which the machine stands still and no
processing of the workpiece can take place due to the fact that the workpiece
is being changed over.

The objective must be to make the machine ready to resume work as quickly as
possible. Production engineers speak of "machining-to-machining time”.
Intelligent organisation of machine operation can help minimise the cycle time.
Once the desired variant has been identified, it is possible to formulate the
requirements to be placed on the automation components. There are of course
certain parameters for which allowance must be made. Variants 3 and 5, for
example, assume that the finished workpieces can be placed back onto the stor-
age positions on the blanks pallet, despite the geometric changes to the work-
pieces which have resulted from machining.

16 1 Workpiece handling as an auxiliary process

Fig. 1-10:
Illustration of the influence Lösungsvariante Ablaufgrafik Zeitbedarf
of the gripper, storage device
and motion sequence on the
1 Single gripper picks blank,
machine processing time tB
and the handling cycle time buffer at W, finished work-
tH. pieces set down on
separate pallet
M Machine
W Waiting position of hand- 1L – 2F – 3R – 4L – 5F – 6L – 7R
ling device or buffer
position close to clamping
point
R Blank workpiece handling 2 Single gripper picks blank,
F Finished workpiece
handling
finished workpieces set
L Idle motion down immediately on
separate pallet
1L – 2F – 3L – 4R – 5L

3 Single gripper, finished

workpieces set back down
on blanks pallet
1L – 2F – 3L – 4R – 5L

4 Double gripper, separate

blanks and finished work-
pieces pallets
1L – 2FR – 3F – 4L – 5R

5 Double gripper, finished

workpieces set back down
on blanks pallet
1R – 2FR – 3F – 4L – 5R

The first thing that must be said is that the main applications of this technology
1.3 are limited to small workpieces. There are of course manufacturers who form the
Area of application exception to this rule by producing heavy-duty modules able to carry loads of
several tonnes. In the fields of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering,
precision engineering and automobile construction, however, it is estimated that
80% of workpieces weigh less than 5 kg. This fact explains the vast number of
commercially-available linear and rotary modules which are designed to work
with workpieces of this size.

1 Workpiece handling as an auxiliary process 17

 A very large number of pick-and-place devices are used in the assembly of small
workpieces. Applications range from plug-in assembly to the oiling of mechani-
cal clocks and watches. Further examples include feed devices for IC test ma-
chines and devices to pick up finished products for packing, fit covers to pallets
and handle chipboard panels in furniture production (Fig. 1-11), and new appli-
cations are being found every day. Chipboard panels are heavy and their hand-
ling requires numerous suction grippers, which should preferably be operated
with a low vacuum. Due to the porous structure of the material, a high vacuum
will lead to air being drawn through the material, resulting in a loss of grip, even
with thick panels.

Fig. 1-11:
Destacking chipboard panels

1 Suction gripper
2 Lifting cylinder
3 Rodless cylinder
4 Panel stack
5 Support
6 Protection against torsion
7 Machining system
8 Panel carriage
9 Pneumatic or hydraulic
cylinder
10 Cable displacement
encoder

Must we now regard fast handling systems as “genies in a bottle”? By this, we

mean a situation with a potential for danger if it is opened up. Any form of auto-
mation is in a sense a threat to the human workers currently employed in pro-
duction and management. Some worried people are now asking whether auto-
matic handing is also a threat to jobs. Handling systems are indeed much superi-
or to human workers in terms of their capacity for work, which is of course the
reason why they are used. Developments of this kind as the result of technical
progress are of course not new – for example, cinema musicians became unem-
ployed when silent films were replaced by the talkies. Brakemen riding the
caboose at the rear of freight trains were no longer required when railroad com-
panies introduced full pneumatic braking systems.

How do human beings cope with this? Human beings are part of the overall
system, and this must be controlled in such a way that people's existence is not
threatened. If fewer workers are required at the “base”, they must be trained for
higher-level work. If there is not enough work for everyone, we must reduce

18 1 Workpiece handling as an auxiliary process

working hours (hours worked per year, hours worked per week, hours worked in
a lifetime). When agriculture was mechanised, many redundant farm workers
took up employment in factories. Workers who are now no longer required in
these factories are moving into the service sector. In short, there are no easy
answers. Progress and structural change are embedded in a social system,
which has the responsibility of achieving an overall balance. It would be wrong
to forbid electricity simply because this can be used for an electrical chair; it
would be just as wrong to pass legislation limiting the number of industrial
robots, as has once been suggested.

1 Workpiece handling as an auxiliary process 19

 Handling systems are in many cases necessary, indeed vital, accessories for the
2 implementation of fully-automated production processes. In general terms, an
Modular design automated production system can be said to consist of a processing or assembly
system plus a handling system, disregarding for the moment the testing and
packaging functions which come after this. Often, handling and conveyor
systems account for half of total investment. If it is necessary to plan systems of
this kind under severe time pressure, this will inevitably involve the use of
standard peripheral components, industrial robots and motion modules. The
objective with regard to material flow is to guide workpieces in such a way that
they reach

– the right place

– in the right condition
– in the right orientation and position
– in the right quality and
– at the right time.

Modular equipment and control systems make it possible to achieve this.

Industrial pneumatics began to develop from around 1960 onwards, resulting in

2.1 the creation of components such as pneumatic cylinders as standard compo-
Pneumatic automation nents and as parts of modular systems. Before this, power cylinders were produ-
components ced on an individual basis as appropriate to a given application. As Fig. 2-1
shows, pneumatic drives play a leading role in the production process, even
occupying first place in terms of importance in handling operations.

Fig. 2-1:
Small-product processes and
Machine tool
ranking in terms of energy
consumption

1 Electrics Pneumatics Elektrics Pneumatikcs Elektrics

2 Pneumatics Elektrics Hydraulics Elektrics Pneumatics
3 Hydraulics Hydraulics Pneumatics Hydraulics Hydraulics

Pneumatic drives are distinguished by their simple and compact design. We

should not, however, forget that the efficiency of these drives is significantly
worse (up to 20% worse) than in the case of electrical drives, which achieve
much better results, depending on their transmission type and ratio, despite the
multiple energy conversion process involved. The “directness” of pneumatic
drives is often the decisive argument in their favour, particularly in cases where
small single-acting cylinders with low air consumption are used and a powerful

20 2 Modular design
 system for the generation of pneumatic energy is already available. A further
factor today is that high-quality guide systems and pneumatic actuators have
been combined to form handling modules.

Handling modules are series-produced devices which provide motions. They

can be combined in accordance with the needs of an application to form multi-
axis devices. Their travel is limited by adjustable components. Only position-
ing axes allow travel motions to be programmed freely.

If modules are to be combined, they must be compatible. This is not merely a

question of matching hole patterns or finding suitable adapters – compatibility
means much more than this. Fig. 2-2 shows the various factors involved, such as
cost-effectiveness or control-system interfaces. A further factor is that there are
also other differences between pneumatic and electrical modules. Some of these
are listed in Table 2-1.

Fig. 2-2:
Modules must be compatible
and meet a variety of needs. Technological Geometrical

Functional
Technical

Control-related

Economic

Table 2-1:
Some of the differences Property Pneumatic Electrical
between pneumatic and elec-
trical modules (* applies only
Max. duty cycle (linear unit) Approx. 60% Approx. 40%
to electrical or servopneu- Max. duty cycle (rotary unit) Approx. 95% Approx. 5%
matic positioning axes).
Potential acceleration Higher Lower
Max. linear travel Approx. 800 mm 3000 mm
Max. travel speed High Less high
Repetition accuracy, linear ‹ ± 0.05 mm ‹ ± 0.05 mm
Repetition accuracy, rotary Approx. 0.02° Approx. 0.02°
Max. intermediate positions, linear Up to 4 Any number*
Max. intermediate positions, rotary Up to 2 Any number*

2 Modular design 21

2.2
Pick-and-place devices
in cyclic operation
Compressed air is an interesting medium. It is able to transport energy and also
signals over large distances. For various reasons, however, it cannot always be
used as a “direct drive”; it is sometimes necessary to convert motions, for exam-
ple from linear to rotary and vice-versa, as shown in Fig. 2-3. All the possible
variants can be found in handling technology.

Fig. 2-3:
The principles of motion
conversion

1 Rotary into linear

2 Rotary into rotary
3 Linear into rotary
4 Linear into linear

If motions are required in sections, suitable function providers must be selected

in accordance with requirements. Fig. 2-4 shows the theoretical choices, Each
variant is also characterised by the number of positions which can be approa-
ched. This number runs from 3 to infinity, the latter requiring the drive to be
combined with a displacement or angle encoder. Servopneumatic axes, for
example, are used with great success as cross-gantries for the high-speed fitting
of electronic components to printed circuit boards.

Fig. 2-4:
Travel in defined motion steps

1 Multi-position cylinder
combination
2 Intermediate stops
3 Drum stop
4 Position controller

22 2 Modular design
 These technical options allow the creation of pick-and-place devices which
provide a range of motion patterns. Some of these are shown in Fig. 2-5. The
motions consist of advance and return phases or closed loops. Additional
stopping points are possible. Roughly a quarter of the rotary units on the market
allow the use of intermediate stops. The proportion of linear units which allow
this is smaller. The exceptions are linear units with stop-drum attachments
providing, for example, 13 positions. The stop screws in the drum can be ad-
justed precisely, and the rotation of the drum is indexed pneumatically (rotary
drive). The drum itself mounted on a shock absorber, allowing a cushioned
approach to each position. With this large number of intermediate positions,
however, it is worth considering whether a positioning axis would be a better
solution.

Fig. 2-5:
Motion patterns of two-axis
pick-and-place devices

1 Travel path
2 Stopping (waiting) point

On the other hand, it sometimes happens that users are unaware of a simple
way of solving a problem and therefore do not use this. Fig. 2-6 shows an appli-
cation where it is necessary to break up a 4x4 stack of pipes to feed a machine
tool. Each pipe must be moved stepwise towards the output position. In order to
do this, power cylinders can be combined to form a multi-position drive. A slight
inclination of the stack magazine away from the horizontal prevents pipes from
slipping into the next gap.

Fig. 2-6:
Breaking up a stack of pipes

1 Cylinder ejector ram

2 Proximity sensor
3 Workpiece
4 Driven roller conveyor
5 Multi-position lifting
cylinder
6 Loading frame
7 Linear guide
8 Mounting kit
9 Multi-position cylinder

2 Modular design 23
 In order to produce the 4 positions, 2 cylinders with different stroke lengths can
be combined. The resulting cylinder positions are shown in Fig. 2-7. Each piston
travels only from one end position to the other. Since the complete cylinders
move, mobile line connections must be provided. Off-the-shelf mounting kits
are available for the coupling of the cylinders, which eliminates the need for
improvisation.

Fig. 2-7:
Pneumatic cylinders
combined to form a 4-position
drive

We are also concerned with forces, and here, too, adaptation may be required.
What are the possibilities? Fig. 2-8 shows the principles of 4 variants. In addi-
tional to lever transmissions, inclined wedges are also used, particularly in
clamping systems. These provide increased force at the expense of stroke
(travel). So-called force cylinders are commercially available; these comprise
pneumatic pistons with integrated wedge components.

Fig. 2-8:
Boosting pneumatically-
generated motion forces

1 Series connection
of cylinders
2 Parallel connection
of cylinders
3 Pneumohydraulic trans-
mission
4 Mechanical transmission

24 2 Modular design
 Even if we select only the simplest standard cycle, there are still variants, as
2.3 shown in Fig. 2-9. Variables include the home position (advanced, retracted) and
Advantages of modern the intermediate stops, in accordance with technical requirements. The result is
design either a full cycle or a half cycle with an intermediate stop. In all cases, modular
components allow all the variants to be assembled and controlled easily.

Fig. 2-9:
Standard cycles may be
variable.

H Home position
(initial position)
Z Intermediate stop
(waiting time)

The dynamic characteristics of a handling device are influenced by the moving

masses involved. Attempts are made to keep these as low as possible. The main
source of mass is travelling drive motors. In the case of the handling unit in
Fig. 2-9, for example, the vertical drive must be constantly moved backwards
and forwards. The dead weight to be moved may even be larger than the pay-
load. Clever inventors have accordingly come up with traversing drives. These
are drives where the motors for all axes are fixed to the machine frame and do
not move. Fig. 2-10 shows a handling device in which the required electric
motors (5-phase stepping motors) are fixed in position. The motion for the
vertical stroke is transmitted to the slide via a slotted shaft.

Fig. 2-10:
Linear positioner
of boom-type design
(Berger Lahr/Positek)

2 Modular design 25
 Is it possible to do this with pneumatic drives? It must first be said that the pro-
blem is greater with electric motors, since these are heavier than pneumatic
cylinders. But it is also possible with pneumatics, as Fig. 2-11 shows. A
swivel/linear drive is used in this case, with an additional slide and rack-and-
pinion drive running on a round-section guide parallel to the piston rod.

Fig. 2-11:
Variant of a swivel/linear
drive (Festo) built up to form
a low-mass pick-and-place
device for small workpieces

1 Guide
2 Slide
3 Lifting tube with teeth
4 Suction cup
5 Drive pinion
6 Swivel/linear unit
7 Base clamping plate

The ability of a pick-and-place device to move is often specified as a degree of

freedom. What is this? To be exact, it is a question of the degree of freedom of
the transmission system. In view of the fact that this can be problematic, the
preferred way of quoting degrees of freedom even for robots is as the “Number
of moving axes”.

The degree of freedom F of a transmission system within a kinematic chain is

the number of driven axes which can move independently of one other. The
maximum degree of freedom for a workpiece is F = 6; in the case of a kinema-
tic chain, however, this number may be more.

Any technological task always requires a certain degree of freedom. This can be
provided in its entirety by a programmable handling device, or else certain moti-
ons can be assigned to peripheral devices. Fig. 2-12 illustrates in schematic form
a fact which is important in connection with use of pick-and-place devices:

The golden rule of handling technology is that degrees of freedom can be re-
distributed from one device to another. Any function which is omitted from a
handling device must be provided in the periphery.

26 2 Modular design
 If, for example, the periphery includes workpiece magazines on a sliding or
cross-table, the requirements placed on the handling device become less, and
it may be possible to use a cheaper pick-and-place device. The principle is to
relocate motion axes in such a way that they can be implemented in the
cheapest possible way. This decision naturally depends heavily on the degree
of flexibility which will be required in the future.

Fig. 2-12:
Degrees of freedom F can be
relocated from the handling
device to the periphery and
vice-versa.

Robot Periphery Robot Periphery

We can explain this with the following practical example: Thin disks are to be
removed from a workpiece carrier magazine and set down on a workpiece carrier
every time at the same place (Fig. 2-13). The handling device has the degree of
freedom F = 2, while the slide table has F = 1. A positioning axis is sufficient in
this case to cover the two-dimensional pattern of the pallet. The slide table is
indexed line by line against external intermediate stops. In view of the fact that a
very short stroke (10 to 30 mm) is sufficient to remove the disks from the maga-
zine, a lifting axis was not used and instead a lifting-piston suction cup was cho-
sen. When the vacuum is switched off, the lifting piston is advanced by spring
force. Once the suction cup has established contact with the workpiece and
vacuum has built up, the workpiece is held in position and the lifting piston tra-
vels smartly back into its initial position without the need for a special control
system. The workpiece is held in place until the vacuum is switched off.

2 Modular design 27
Fig. 2-13:
Covering two-dimensional
patterns with a pick-and-
place device

1 Transfer system
2 Workpiece carrier
3 Rotary unit 90°
4 Magazine
5 Linear unit with inter-
mediate stops (not visible)
6 Roller strip
7 Positioning axis
8 Lifting suction cup
9 Swivel arm

The reason for the popularity which modular handling devices have achieved is
the high performance which they offer and the fact that they are available imme-
diately as stock items. This ability to construct even complex installations in a
short time is something which the automation engineers of 20 years ago could
only dream of. Today, on the other hand, a comprehensive arsenal of modular
components is available.

There is also a not inconsiderable demand for automation in the periphery of

robot workstations, and not just for the sorting, feeding and magazining of
workpieces. Pick-and-place devices are now also used to “fetch and carry” for
industrial robots.

Example: In the production of composite plastic/metal workpieces, the robot

operates the machine by removing finished workpieces but also by fitting the
inserts into the injection-moulding machine. In the periphery, the metal work-
pieces are sorted and separated. There is thus a clear division between the
handling operations resulting from a changeover of moulding tools and the
constant actions to feed the metal workpieces.

To sum up – what’s so interesting about modules? We can list the advantages in

brief as follows:
– Fast short cycle times
– No redundant function providers, since devices can be assembled as required
for a given task
– Clear and tidy configuration
– Unlimited range of applications, both inside and outside machine construction
– Relatively unaffected by machining chips
– Different series available, offering various performance levels
– Well-proven reliable function units
– Good availability of spare parts
– Both electrical and servopneumatic axes are available for positioning
operations.

28 2 Modular design
 A body can be brought into any desired position in 3 dimensions by 3 shifts and
2.4 3 rotations. Translation and rotation are thus basic motions, and we shall there-
General design of basic fore use a selected example to explain typical devices which provide these
units functions. From the kinematic point of view, by the way, a screw motion can be
taken as a generalised representation of these motions. If the “screw pitch” is
zero, we have the special case of a rotary joint, while if the pitch is infinite, we
obtain the special case of a sliding joint.

Modern linear units provide much more than just a to-and-fro motion of a rod.
2.4.1 We shall take the Festo HMP linear module as an example. The sub-systems are
Function of a linear unit shown in simplified form in Fig. 2-14. We see the following:

Drive system (Fig. 2-14a)

A differential piston runs in a double-walled cylinder. The compressed air supply
can thus be fed from one end.

Guide system (Fig. 2-14b)

The drive and guide are separate. A tube runs on backlash-free ball-bearing
guides. This guide system ensures minimal deformation under load and has a
high load-bearing capacity. The piston rod and guide are linked by a coupling
(self-aligning rod coupler). This avoids lateral forces at the pneumatic cylinder;
forces of this kind may result from even very small spacing and parallelism
errors.

Stop system (Fig. 2-14c)

This serves to define both the travel distance and stroke position. Easily-adjust-
able stop discs are provided for this purpose. In the interests of long service life
and smooth running, hydraulic shock absorbers are fitted, against which the
threaded spindle strikes when the position in question is reached. The shock
absorbers also have the task of keeping the settling times in the end positions
short and preventing rebounding. It is not necessary to re-adjust the shock
absorbers after the stop discs are re-positioned.

Sensor system (Fig. 2-14d)

The controller requires acknowledgement signals when a certain position is rea-
ched. In order to obtain these, electronic proximity sensors can be inserted into
slots provide for this purpose. The switches are tripped magnetically.

Intermediate stop system (Fig. 2-14e)

Linear units for pick-and-place operation are in many cases today able to accept
intermediate stops. In our example, up to 3 wing-shaped stop cams can be fitted
to the threaded spindle. These stops are activated by a pneumatic rotary unit
mounted on the inner wall of the housing. Depending on the rotary position of
the intermediate stop (i.e. the position of the spindle), the stop is either over-
travelled or stops the motion (Fig. 2-15).

2 Modular design 29
 Locking system (Fig. 2-14f )
In some applications, it is advantageous to be able to lock the motion unit. A rod
clamping unit can be installed for this purpose. This consists of a clamping unit
and a clamping rod which travels in and out. The principle is shown in Fig. 2-16.
The unit is designed to provide clamping by means of a spring in the case of a
compressed air supply failure. The effect of the spring is to force the clamp jaws
apart, causing these to act as wedges and lock the clamping rod in place.

Since even with a maximum equipment level, all these sub-systems are inte-
grated, the result is a very compact unit of attractive design.

Fig. 2-14:
Sub-systems of a modern
linear unit (Festo)

a) Drive system
b) Guide system
c) Stop system
d) Sensor system
e) Intermediate stop system Stroke
f ) Locking system

1 Double-walled power
cylinder
2 Compensating coupling
3 Flange plate
4 Roller bearing
5 Guide profile, guide tube
6 Stop/shock absorber
7 Yoke stop
8 Stop disc
9 Threaded rod
10 Sensor
11 Rod rotary unit
12 Intermediate stop
13 Clamping unit
14 Clamp rod
15 Housing

Fig. 2-15:
Example of an intermediate
stop (HBM; Festo)

1 Zwischenanschlag
2 Gewindestange
3 Gabelanschlag

Stroke

30 2 Modular design
Fig. 2-16:
Principle of locking device
(Festo)

1 Button for manual release

of clamping
2 Pneumatic piston
3 Clamp piece
4 Clamp rod

There are also other stop systems, as a further example will show. The stop
system shown in Fig. 2-17 is a linear unit with a rodless power cylinder and
external intermediate stops. This could be a gantry configuration or axis 1 of a
small multi-axis handling device close to the ground. Any desired number of
intermediate stops can be fitted, as long as sufficient space and travel are avail-
able. In the example shown, the intermediate stop (Fig. 2-18) can be set up to be
operative from the left or right.

Fig. 2-17:
Stop system for a linear unit

1 End stop
2 Intermediate stop
3 Rodless power cylinder Stroke
with integrated guide
4 Shock absorber
5 Slide

Fig. 2-18:
Example of an intermediate
stop system

1 Short stroke cylinder

2 Stop slide
3 Shock absorber
4 Shock absorber mounting
5 End stop block
6 Fine adjusting screw
7 Slide

Stroke

2 Modular design 31
 There are, however, limits to how close together intermediate stops can be
fitted, even with a flat cylinder as a drive. The smallest spacing is governed by
the width of a stop. If closer spacing is required, a second track for intermediate
stops must be provided.
This can be seen in Fig. 2-19. In this way, the number of different motion
sequences can be considerably expanded. This requirement is, however, unusual
in pick-and-place applications. It is nonetheless advantageous to have high
accuracy for all positions.

Fig. 2-19:
Example of a twin-track stop
system
Stroke
1 Shock absorber
2 Intermediate stop

How are the motion units now controlled?

For technical reasons, the linear unit shown in Fig. 2-14 allows only motion
cycles between the end stop (E) and intermediate stop (Z). The unit must there-
fore return to its end position in each case. Since the motions occur at high
speed, this is not necessarily a disadvantage if there are no technological
reasons against this. Fig. 2-20 shows the sequence for a sample cycle. 4/2-way
or 5/2-way valves can be used to good effect for control purposes.

Fig. 2-20:
Sample cycle for motions bet-
ween end stop (E) and inter-
mediate stops (Z)

a) Motion sequence
b) 4/2-way or 5/2-way valve

A, B Lines to cylinder

32 2 Modular design
 The stop system shown in Fig. 2-18 also permits a cycle in which the slide moves
from one stop to the next. The slide remains under pressure when it halts at the
intermediate stop. If it is now desired to have the slide travel to the next stop,
the pressure of the slide against the stop must first be released, since otherwise
it will not be possible to withdraw the intermediate stop. There are two ways of
doing this:

– No-pressure conditions can be established on both sides of the piston of the

rodless cylinder by using the open mid-position of a 5/3-way valve
(Fig. 2-21). A disadvantage is that the air is then lost, i.e. the throttling is
inoperative during further travel.

Fig. 2-21:
Sample cycle for travel from
one intermediate stop to
another

– System pressure is built up on both sides of the piston. Due to the fact that
the piston areas on both sides are the same, the resulting pressure on the
intermediate stop is zero. This can be controlled by a 5/3-way valve or a
combination of two 3/2-way valves (Fig. 2-22).

Fig. 2-22:
Control of travel from one
intermediate stop to another
using one 5/3-way valve or
two 3/2-way valves

A, B Cylinder supply lines

2 Modular design 33
 There are of course also other stop systems. Instead of extending slides, it is
possible, for example, to use a swivelling intermediate stop. In the solution
shown in Fig. 2-23, the slide travel can be shortened by activating the rotary unit
and swivelling a “length piece” into position. The length in question can be
precisely adjusted. The rotary unit travels together with the slide. In view of the
fact that the air supply line also travels, this solution is practical only for short
travel distances.

Fig. 2-23:
Swivel stop

1 Slide unit
2 Rotary unit
3 Swivel arm
4 Fine adjusting screw
5 Stop
6 Shock absorber
7 Bracket

Stroke

Rotary units are no less important than linear units. Production automation
2.4.2 systems chiefly require angles of rotation of 360° or smaller, more rarely up to
Function of a rotary 375°. Roughly half of commercially-available rotary units have ratings up to
unit 5 Nm. Very frequently motion is only between end positions, with cushioning at
these positions as standard. The most important designs with pneumatic drive
are shown in Fig. 2-24.
These are:

Rotary-vane type, double-acting, for angles from 0 to 270°. A mechanical free-

wheel can be added to allow indexing in angle steps.

Toothed piston system: The piston motion is converted into a rotary motion by a
rack-and-pinion gear unit.

Rotary cylinder, double-acting. The piston motion is converted into a rotary

motion by a slot cam in the skirt of the piston. The cylinder is equipped with per-
manently-installed rollers. The output drive shaft also has a cam/roller system
but with an opposite pitch. The two angles of rotation thus accumulate.

Twin-piston rotary drive for angles from 0 to 360°. The linear motion is once
again converted into a rotary motion by a rack-and-pinion mechanism.

34 2 Modular design
Fig. 2-24:
Principles of a number
of rotary drives

a) Rotary vane
b) Toothed piston
c) Rotary cylinder
d) Twin toothed piston

It is important with the rack-and-pinion systems that these should be free of

backlash in the various positions. Even a small amount of backlash in systems
with rotary arms can lead to large arc position errors. External locking compo-
nents can of course be fitted (bushing + pin, wedge slot + slide), but this makes
the installation more expensive. There are 4 ways of achieving freedom from
backlash:

Conical toothing and axial shift between the pinion and rack, for example by
spring force.

Radial pressure on meshed components. If spring force is used to press the rack
onto the pinion, this requires appropriate freedom of movement for the rack.

Bracing of the gear rack.

In devices with double toothed pistons (Fig. 2-24d), the motion sequence is
organised in such as way that only one toothed piston is in its end position at
any given time. The other toothed piston can move freely against the pinion and
tension this.

Division of gear rack into two parallel parts braced against the pinion.

Fig. 2-25 shows an example of this last case. This provides freedom from back-
lash only at a defined position, which is sufficient. The centre clamp piece is fit-
ted loose. On impacting a shock absorber (stop), the system tensions and
clamps the pinion. This also works with intermediate stops. The illustration does
not show all the necessary design details.

2 Modular design 35
Fig. 2-25:
Divided gear rack to compen-
sate for backlash (Montech)

1 Rotary axis
2 Centre section of gear rack
3 Toothed piston
4 Shock absorber
5 Pinion
6 Stop lug

Some pneumatic rotary drives can also be equipped with intermediate stops.
Pick-and-place applications seldom require more than 2 additional stop points.
Fig. 2-26 shows a rotary unit which offers a centre position in addition to its two
end positions. The stops required for this are fitted to an auxiliary piston
system. The centre stop is activated by advancing this piston. A 3/2-way valve is
used for control purposes, and a 5/3-way valve to drive the toothed piston. The
centre position can be adjusted precisely. The centre stop takes the form of a
supplementary module for a 2-position rotary unit.

Fig. 2-26:
Pneumatic rotary drive with
additional centre position
(Festo)
5 1
a) Operating principle 2
b) Control
3
1 Actuator
2 Piston to activate stop
function
3 Toothed piston 4
4 Pinion

a) b)

36 2 Modular design
 With the following solutions, too, stop pistons play a decisive part. The rotary
drive shown in Fig. 2-27 provides a total of 4 positions: each piston is single-
acting, the toothed pistons are coupled via the pinion. The diameters are
dimensioned in such a way that sufficient holding force remains in the inter-
mediate positions.

Fig. 2-27:
Principle of a pneumatic
4-position rotary drive

1 Toothed piston
2 Stop piston

p Compressed air

If there is a requirement for the diameter of the stop piston to be no larger than
that of the toothed piston, the necessary piston area must be divided between
two pistons. This case is shown in Fig. 2-28. The stop piston unit can be fitted on
one side (giving 3 positions) or both sides. Retrofitting is also possible. If units
are fitted on both sides, however, the result is quite bulky. Large interference
edges may in particular impair usefulness as a rotary gripper axis.

Fig. 2-28:
Rotary unit with 2 inter-
mediate stops (Montech)

2 Modular design 37
 Motion units can, however, take unconventional forms, as we shall see in con-
clusion. Design rules, as we know, change with time. What was good yesterday
can perhaps be done better (or at least differently) tomorrow when new
components emerge. This is true for pneumatics when we consider pneumatic
muscles.

Pneumatic muscles imitate the principle of contraction used by natural muscles.

They are membrane contraction systems which behave in a similar way to
pressure hoses. Fig. 2-29 shows an historical example of a rubber-segment
muscle developed by McKibben (USA) in the 1950s as an actuator for a
prosthetic arm. The muscle consists of a rubber tube to the walls of which non-
elastic threads are attached along the sheath line.

Fig. 2-29:
Prosthetic arm with rubber-
segment muscle as designed
by McKibben (USA)

Rubber muscle

Prosthetic hand
Cables

Since muscles of this kind can develop only tractive forces, two actuators are
required in order to obtain a strong return action. Living beings have similar
muscles, for example to stretch and bend their arms. Given a suitable configu-
ration, a handling arm can be created, as shown in principle in Fig. 2-30. The
angle of rotation can be controlled by means of the air pressure. For precise
motions, however, an external displacement encoder is required. Festo is now
offering a “Fluidic Muscle” of this kind. This operates on familiar principles but
has been made suitable for industrial use with the most modern materials and
production methods.

38 2 Modular design
Fig. 2-30:
Rotary drive for a handling
device with pneumatic
muscles

1 Arm with gripper

2 Tractive device for power
transmission
3 Pneumatic muscle
4 Controlled compressed air

Modular motion units are like ants without an anthill. We need a number of
auxiliary components in order to be able to produce any kind of assembly.
2.4.3
These are used to create frames.
Machine frames from
modular components
Frames are the basic modules of machines and form the first link in a kine-
matic chain on which motion units are then mounted.

The most important sub-systems of frames are:

• Base components (profile columns, base plates and brackets)

• Basic kits (base, foot, connector and adapter brackets for the mounting and
connection of columns, plates and motion modules, including bolts and cap
nuts).
• Component kits (direct, parallel and right-angle dovetail connectors for
mounting linear modules)
• Fine-adjustment kits (aids for the precise adjustment of linear modules on
connector brackets)
• Adapter kits (for mounting components on mini-slides and drives)
• Installation components (cable/tubing conduits, distribution boxes, cable
ducts, connector components, etc.).

For the actual frame itself, the foundation of a handling unit which absorbs
forces and discharges these into the floor, high-strength precision aluminium
profiles have proved very suitable. These have a natural or black anodised finish
and are scratch-resistant and corrosion-protected. The reason for the rapid
growth in the popularity of these systems is that even complex structures can be
produced without machining. Profile slots can be used in a variety of ways, for
example to lay cables and tubing, or to secure structural components and
control devices. The manufacturers of profile systems generally offer all kinds of
accessories such as hardware fittings, base feet and brackets.

2 Modular design 39
 To interconnect profiles, various systems are used, some of which require
machining. Fig. 2-31 shows some of these. Dovetail clamp systems have the
advantage that they require no machining and that adjustments can be made
even after frame assembly is complete, for example alignment to a workpiece
machining station.

Fig. 2-31:
Examples of typical
connection systems

a) Profile connection
b Slot-nut connection
c) Fixing with centring bars
or bushings
d) Screw/pin connection
e) Dovetail clamp connection

Dovetail clamp connections are very strong, vibration-proof and suitable for both
static and dynamic use. Fig. 2-32 shows how the design of this connection
converts tightening force into clamping force.

Fig. 2-32:
Forces in a dovetail clamp
connection

1 Module, frame profile

2 Clamp piece
3 Clamp bolt

FS Clamping force

40 2 Modular design

Fig. 2-33:
Linear unit with installation
components (Festo)
2.4.4
Determination, over-
determination and
synchronisation
The purpose of an installation system is to feed energy (electrical or pneumatic)
and signal to moving components. Telescopic tubes help avoid tangles of tubing
but have not been a roaring success (they are expensive and prone to trouble).
Drag chains, on the other hand, have proved valuable with linear units, particu-
larly with large unit or long-stroke linear modules. Fig. 2-33 shows a conduit
system which has a side opening and can accept all the necessary cables and
pneumatic tubing. This system can be used in conjunction with junction boxes
with a number of optional inlet openings, together with cable ducts and hard-
ware fittings.
The advantages of this solution are:
– Fast dismantling and refitting during servicing work
– Quieter in operation than drag chains
– Compact design
– Good protective function.
What is over-determination? You will hear this term from time to time used in
kinematics to describe joint pairings (guides) which have been dimensioned
using too many variables, resulting in the provision of guide properties which
are not actually needed. The guides of linear units, for example parallel rod
guides, are often over-determined. Their operation is guaranteed only within
special dimensional tolerances, otherwise they may stick. We need not, however,
worry about these, since they can in themselves be used without problems. The
difficulty is when these are coupled to other guided components within a
mechanical structure. If the axes are not in perfect alignment, which is theo-
retically always the case to a greater or lesser extent, the result will be increased
loading of bearings, plain guides and seals, leading to greatly reduced service
life. Compensating devices must therefore be used for coupling, as shown in
Fig. 2-34. It will often be sufficient if working cylinders are suspension-mounted
2 Modular design 41
 instead of being bolted into place. Clevis foot mountings with spherical bearings
are available for this purpose.

Fig. 2-34:
Avoid over-determination
of structures.

a) Rigid axis connection

is over-determined
b) Couplings to compensate
for radial and angular
alignment errors,
e.g. ±4° and ±1 mm

1 Pneumatic cylinder
or piston rod
2 Fixed sleeve coupling
3 Clevis foot mounting
4 Elastomer component
5 Compensating coupling
(self-aligning rod coupler)
6 Connected rod
Another problem is the synchronisation of drives, for example with parallel linear
units, which is necessary to create cross-gantry configurations. Fig. 2-35 shows
the principle involved. In the configuration shown in Fig. 2-35a, it would be
possible to use two separate electrical drives, but it would then be necessary to
use displacement encoders to continuously monitor and compensate for any
positional difference resulting from slippage or variations in coefficients of
friction. In the interests of simplicity, it is better to use a torsionally-rigid shaft to
transmit motion from one side to the other. In the case of pneumatic linear units,
synchronised motion can be obtained by using a linking bridge.

Fig. 2-35:
Synchronisation of linear
motions 1 2 3 4 6 4

a) Electrical drive
b) Pneumatic drive
c) Drive with supporting
guide axis
5 2 7 5
1 Synchronising shaft a) b) c)
2 Guiding drive axis
3 Drive motor
4 Linking bridge
5 Slide
6 Non-driven guide unit
7 Drive axis

The purpose of the configuration shown in Fig. 2-35c is not the synchronisation
of motions. In this case, the drive axis (electrical or pneumatic) is combined with
a non-driven guide axis. This variant is frequently selected when high torsional
rigidity is required and high moments of force need to be absorbed.

42 2 Modular design
 Technical progress and the short life of products have forced the development of
2.5 modular working and handling units. In order to speed up the sequence, typical
Motion patterns in the special-machine sector, of design followed by construction and testing, it
was essential to sub-divide desired motion sequences into sub-functions which
can be provided by inexpensive and proven function units. This has meant a shift
in emphasis away from conventional design and towards combination
(planning). In the same way, control-system modules were also developed.
Modular components were also the prerequisite for the development of CAD
software, for simulation before physical manufacture and product documen-
tation. Industrial robot technology and modular handling components have led
to major changes in special-machine production.

Motion units govern configuration and are selected in the main on the basis of
the motion pattern desired for the handling task in question. There is sometimes
confusion as to how we can describe motion forms. Fig. 2-36 accordingly shows
typical motions as symbols. All these motions will be encountered in handling
technology. A conveyor belt, for example, may execute a step motion, i.e. a
motion with a rest (intermediate stop). A screw motion with rest is also used.

Example: A bolt is inserted and tightened to a defined torque. Once this is

reached, the bolt is halted and then turned back by a defined angle. This auto-
matically produces a defined play between the connected parts which is un-
affected by any thickness tolerances.

Alternating-direction motions without rest are, on the other hand, typically used
in pick-and-place tasks.

Fig. 2-36:
Symbols for the major types
of motion Type of motion Linear Rotary Screw

without rest

step motion
Gleichsinn

Pilgerschritt

without rest

with rest

without rest
Wechselsinn

with rest

2 Modular design 43
 Handling tasks generally require several axes. If we assume 3 axes (k = 3), any
of which can be a linear or rotary axis (number of elements n) and can be aligned
in any one of 3 dimensions, we find the following number V of configuration vari-
ants:

V = nk = (2 x 3)3 = 216 variants.

We certainly do not need to consider all 216 of these, since some kinematic
chains are not usable for handling purposes, for example because they do not
cover any working area or have a separate identity in kinematic terms only in
their designation. However, the choice of practical possibilities is still large, and
the more commonly used configurations are shown in Fig. 2-37 in schematic
form. These can all be assembled from modular components. We can state the
following as proportions of total applications: Variant 2 approx. 50%, variant 2/1
approx. 10 to 15%, variant 4 approx. 3%, variant 6 approx. 15 to 20%, variant
6/2 approx. 5%, variant 11/1 around 5% and variant 11/2 approx. 2%.
Depending on the modular system concerned, the process of assembly can be
carried out either directly or using adapters and more or less conveniently (in
terms of time and adaptation required and the range of sizes and grippers
available).

Fig. 2-37:
Some combination variants
for linear(L) and rotary units
(D)

a Linear unit
b Cross-travel unit
c Rotary or swivel unit

A Axis

44 2 Modular design
 We will of course first consider whether compact units which offer precisely the
desired motion pattern are available commercially. The difficulty is that we must
always consider the whole task. The selection of variant will be strongly influen-
ced by the gripper system required. To illustrate this, Fig. 2-38a shows a number
of configuration variants for grippers. Double grippers, for example, may
produce time advantages in assembly and feed operations. This of course calls
for a rotary axis, which in turn increases the moving mass and thus influences
the choice of the size of the associated unit (performance data). Modular assem-
bly has the further advantage over compact units that the individual units can be
selected and combined on the basis of the required performance.

Fig. 2-38:
Configuration variants
for grippers

a) Disc, turret and crown

turret configurations
b) Grippers combined to form
transfer gripper device

1 Mounting disc
2 Swivel unit
3 Disc segment
4 Parallel-jaw gripper
5 Twin linear unit
6 Short-stroke unit
7 Mounting plate
8 Workpiece
9 Distributor

M Assembly operation

Fig. 2-38b also shows an application of a parallel gripper configuration, which

thus becomes a transfer gripper device. This is used for an indexed assembly
sequence involving several stations. The grippers execute a open rectangular
cycle to transport the base workpieces step by step from one station to the next.
The handling unit can be assembled almost entirely from a modular system. If
we assume that the assembly operations involve press-fitting and screwing,
which are also possible by pneumatic means, we see that it is possible to
produce this whole small production device using only one type of energy
supply.

The next example is a machine feed device. If, with variant 4 from Fig. 2-37, the
main axis is placed horizontally, or variant 11/1 is used, this allows a simple
double-arm loader to be created from modular units. As Fig. 2-39, shows, the
motion modules are located at the top of the machine tool. The rotary unit must
provide 3 positions. The mid-position is used to park the double arm during the
motion. The feed sequence is simple:

2 Modular design 45
 – Gripper G1 in magazine position, G2 in rotary chuck position,
– Linear motion: Gripping of blank with G1, gripping of finished workpiece
with G2,
– Linear stroke: Lifting-out of workpieces
– Swivel: G1 to chuck, G2 to output channel
– Linear motion: Pushing in workpieces
– Open grippers, return stroke motion
– Swivel to park position
– Finally, start of workpiece machining.

Despite the complexity of this sequence, all that is required is two linear end
positions and three swivel-arm positions.

Fig. 2-39:
Feeding an automatic lathe
with a double-arm loader

1 Swivel/linear unit
2 Workpiece
3 Output channel
4 Feed channel
5 Three-jaw gripper
6 Double arm
7 Machine tool

Every motion must be stopped in a controlled way, even under varying load
2.6 conditions. Hard impacts against fixed stops are prevented by shock absorbers.
End-position cushio- These should act in a way similar to a human hand which catches a ball and
ning adapts to the speed and mass of the moving object concerned, bringing this to a
smooth and even halt. Deceleration should not begin abruptly, and the end of
the stopping process should be reached without rebounds or a long settling
period. The technical devices which can be used for cushioning have varying
characteristics. Typical curves are shown in the overview in Fig. 2-40.

46 2 Modular design
Fig. 2-40:
Deceleration force curve
for various braking devices
1
1 Pneumatic end-position
cushioning (air buffering)
2 Coil or rubber spring

Kraft
Force
3 Shock absorber with pro- 2
gressive action
4 Industrial shock absorber
5 Hydraulic cushioning cylin- 3
der
4

Bremsweg
Deceleration distance

Springs and buffers provide a braking effect with a steeply rising characteristic
and tend to store energy more than they absorb it. This leads to rebound effects
and to considerable component load.

Hydraulic cushioning cylinders of the simplest design have an effect which

begins very abruptly. This peak resistance at the start of the stroke then reduces
rapidly, which means that most of the energy is absorbed in the initial phase.
This leads to braking forces which are higher than necessary.

Pneumatic end-position cushioning cylinders achieve their maximum braking

force at the end of their stroke, which means that most of the kinetic energy is
absorbed at this point. This may lead to considerable component load, depen-
ding on the mass and speed involved.

Industrial shock absorbers are based on the concept of absorbing the entire
energy with a constant rate of retardation and no jolts or rebound. The load
placed on machine components is low, due among other things to the “soft”
interception of the mass at the start of the stroke.

Fig. 2-41 shows a comparison of two typical shock absorbers. The area below
the force/displacement curve represents the work required by the braking
operation (Fig. 2-41a). If we assume that the areas are of the same size, then we
can see in Fig. 2-41b that the industrial shock absorber achieves a braking time
approx. 60% shorter than that of a simple hydraulic shock absorber. Industrial
shock absorbers are therefore also frequently used in handling technology.

2 Modular design 47
Fig. 2-41:
Comparison of simple
hydraulic shock absorber 1
and industrial shock
absorber 2 1 2

Geschwindigkeit
Kraft
a) Force/displacement 2
characteristic
b) Speed/time characteristic 1

t1 t2
Bremsweg Bremszeit
a) b)

Shock absorbers with a progressive characteristic have been developed in a

new series (YSRW) by Festo for its HMP and HMPL motion units. These shock
absorbers have a soft initial action. Fig. 2-42 shows a comparison between the
characteristics of the YSRW and the previous type of standard shock absorber
(self-adjusting, hydraulic, with return spring). It can be seen that, due to the pro-
gressive from of the force/displacement characteristic, the increase in braking
force per displacement element dF/ds is significantly smaller. The new shock
absorber thus operates with lower cushioning forces compared with the
previous type of shock absorber (while providing the same performance with the
higher cushioning forces permissible under full load) and also has a greater
reserve against “bottoming-out”. At the same time, the progressive shock
absorber reduces initiated oscillations.

Fig. 2-42:
Force characteristics for
different shock absorbers
(Festo)
Shock absorber Shock absorber

YSR-…-C YSRW
Force

Distance

48 2 Modular design
 Shock absorbers can generally also be used as stops, as in the case of the
power cylinder in Fig. 2-43. The shock absorbers are fitted externally in this case.
In selecting shock absorbers, ensure that the following values are not exceeded:

– Maximum permissible energy absorption

– Maximum permissible residual energy
– Maximum impact force at end position.

In order to do this, it is necessary to know the conditions present at the time of

impact, namely the force, equivalent mass and impact velocity. With these
values, we can use graphs to select a suitable shock absorber. A further check
must be made to see that the selected shock absorber can handle the desired
volume of cushioning work per hour, since the absorbed energy has to be
discharged to the atmosphere as heat.

Fig. 2-43:
Linear unit with shock
absorbers

1 Piston rod
2 Yoke plate
3 Stop and fine adjusting
screw
4 Shock absorber
5 Pneumatic cylinder

Example: Let us assume a working cylinder which is use to move a mass m with
a force F horizontal to the end stop (shock absorber activated; Fig. 2-44). In a
series of working steps, we find the characteristic data which we need to select
a shock absorber. There are also computer programs which do this. We can then
see from the technical documentation which shock absorber is suitable. We
must then of course also check whether this can be accommodated within the
mechanical configuration so as to be easily accessible.

2 Modular design 49
Fig. 2-44:
Example showing the
principles of the method used
Kinetic energy
to select shock absorbers
W = v2m/2
Work resulting from drive force WA
WA = F s

Total cushioning work WGes

WGes = W + WA

Equivalent mass mE
mE = 2 WGes/v2

Cushioning work per hour Wh

Performance tables and graphs Wh = WGes m

Cushioning
type + size

If the operating conditions are different from those assumed in Fig. 2-44
(inclined position, swivel lever or rotating disc), the formulae must be modified
accordingly. Suitable software is available for this. Fig. 2-45 shows the screen
mask for the program in question.

Fig. 2-45:
Screen mask for “Shock
absorber selection” program

50 2 Modular design
Fig. 2-46:
Smart Soft Stop system
(Festo)

1 Linear potentiometer
2 End-position controller
3 Adjustable end stop
4 Proportional 5/3-way valve

There are, however, other ways to achieve a fast but controlled approach to end
positions. Let us assume that a linear module is being used as a gantry slide and
that assembly workpieces need to be brought from peripheral buffer locations
into the working zone. The time taken for the feed motions, which are not always
short, affects the cycle time which must be allowed for the assembly station as a
whole. A major factor is to approach the end position quickly but gently. A
dynamically sophisticated solution is shown in Fig. 2-46 and includes an end-
position controller. This not only provides smoother operation but also saves
time. The end-position shock-absorbers, which would otherwise be heavily
loaded, can be eliminated. With a moving mass of, for example, 30 kg, the time
required to travel a distance of 1200 mm is no more than 1 second. The peak
speed for 3 m/s is attained only briefly. The controller requires inputs for a
number of system parameters such as moving mass and the geometrical data
for the pneumatic cylinder. The controller then learns the travel distance, guaran-
teeing a precise end position even if the mass and load cycle change. The
repetition accuracy is 0.01 mm.

2 Modular design 51
 Yesterday’s technology is the foundation of today’s. Nowhere is this more true
3 than in mechanical engineering and pneumatics. Since the time of Heron of
Positioning technology Alexandria (around 75 AD), pneumatics has been part of an engineer’s training.
Today, a supply of compressed air is available in every factory, and pneumatic
drives are simple and inexpensive, giving faster motions and very precise posi-
tioning in the case of motions against fixed stops. But how can we obtain precise
positioning at “halfway” points, despite the compressibility of air? When should
we choose electromechanical positioning axes instead?

For many handling tasks, industrial robots are unnecessary, since a simple pick-
3.1 and-place unit can offer sufficient functionality. This fact has encouraged the
Freedom of pro- developers of motion units to provide not just an unchanging back and forth
gramming motion between two stops but also a facility to approach any desired positions
under program control. Axes of this kind are often referred to as positioning
axes. If we combine axes of this kind to form handling units, these will often
provide solutions which are technically fully adequate and cost-effective.
Desired positions can be reached by two methods:

– Open-loop control
– Closed-loop control.

An open-loop-controlled axis (Fig. 3-1a) executes a specified path or angle with-

out checking whether the target position has actually been reached accurately.
For example, a stepping motor receives a command to turn its rotor through an
angle of 2592 degrees. In the case of a spindle connected to the motor without
intermediate gearing and with a pitch of 3 mm, this will means that the axis slide
travels a distance of 2592 x 3/360 = 21.6 mm. Positioning errors are not detec-
ted and thus also not corrected. If, on the other hand, the axis is operated with a
closed-loop control (Fig. 3-1b), the programmed setpoint and the instantaneous
actual value are constantly compared with each other. The axis stops when these
two values agree. In order to do this, we need a displacement encoder and a
comparator. This configuration is also known as a closed-loop position control
circuit. In order to make the axis control process more dynamic, it is also possi-
ble to measure the electrical current consumption and speed and include these
values in the closed-loop control process. We then have inner, middle and outer
closed-loop control circuits and therefore speak of a cascade control. In princi-
ple, any number of positions may be approached within the range of motion of
an axis, and these positions may lie very close together.

52 3 Positioning technology
Fig. 3-1:
Control of positioning axes

a) Open path of action

b) Closed-loop control

1 Stepping motor
2 Slide
3 Positioning axis
4 Programmer and controller
5 Displacement encoder
6 Servo motor

Accuracy depends on the step size of the encoder, i.e. its resolution. The size of
the smallest position change which can be detected governs how accurately a
position can be reached. A critical factor for users is repetition accuracy, which is
the difference between positions reached at different times in response to the
same control commands.

How can we measure distances or angles? There are many ways of doing this
and of creating measuring systems. The most important difference is between
absolute and relative (incremental) systems. Absolute systems always provide a
distance value relative to a measuring-system zero point. Relative systems, on
the other hand, add or subtract distance quanta (increments) to or from a
previously-reached position. The distance to a zero or reference point thus
results from a computing operation. The principles of the most important dis-
placement encoders are shown in Fig. 3-2. Many systems are available in both
linear and round designs.

Fig. 3-2:
The major designs of dis-
placement encoders

1 Code rule
2 Graduated scale,
incremental encoder 1. Absolut digital 2. Incremental
3 Potentiometer, e.g. conduc-
tive-plastic potentiometer
4 Resolver

3. Absolute analogue 4. Phase-cyclical

3 Positioning technology 53
 If we are dealing with a rotary drive, which always incorporates intermediate
gearing, we can sense a gear wheel and use the teeth of this as increments.
Fig. 3-3 shows an example of this. The teeth are scanned by a proximity sensor.
The spindle pitch and gearing ratio can be used to calculate the distance resolu-
tion which can be achieved. It is, however, not possible to detect the direction of
rotation. Further refinement is required in order to do this.

Fig. 3-3:
Sensing of a gear wheel to
generate distance increments

1 Inductive sensor
2 Mounting bracket
3 Gear wheel

In the case of brushless DC motors, it is also possible to use the signals from the
rotor position encoder, which supplies data for coil switching, as the basis for
position detection. The speed, too, can be derived from this.

Conductive-plastic potentiometers for displacement encoding no longer have

anything in common with the scratchy volume controls of old radios. These
components today achieve a service life of up to 100 million strokes and have
turned into high-quality measuring systems.

Magnetostrictive displacement encoders operate by non-contact means and are

also interesting in terms of physics. We use the transit time of an ultrasonic
pulse to determine the position of a slide. The principle is shown in Fig. 3-4. The
ultrasonic pulse emerges from an end surface into a “guide wire”, over which a
permanent-magnet system is moved by the piston (or slide). The acoustic pro-
perties of the magnetised point change, causing reflection of the pulse. The
measurement of distance is thus reduced to a measurement of time (distance
between two pulses), which as we known can be achieved easily by digital
means.

54 3 Positioning technology
Fig. 3-4:
Magnetostrictive distance
measurement

1 Tube
2 Acoustic waveguide
3 Position encoder
4 Permanent magnet
5 Displacement during
positioning

A further factor is the way the measuring system is fitted. Some motions units
have integrated measuring systems not visible from the outside, while other
have external systems. Measuring systems can, however, also be fitted to any
suitable mechanical component of a machine.

Linear servopneumatic axes have been on the market since around 1985. In
3.2 contrast to hydraulics, which operates with virtually incompressible fluids, air
Servopneumatic can easily be compressed and thus has no precisely definable volume. It was
positioning axes therefore believed for a long time that freely-programmable pneumatic axes
were not feasible. However, this has changed. Development was triggered by the
demands, among other things, of assembly systems, which require very fast and
accurate positioning with small to medium load capacities.

A servopneumatic positioning axis consists of the following components:

– Pneumatic cylinder, e.g. rodless

– Displacement encoder
– Proportional valve
– Parking brake if necessary
– Axis controller.

Usable results can then be achieved only by carefully matching the individual
components one to another and exploiting microcomputer technology and
appropriate closed-loop-control strategies. The principle of a closed-loop servo-
pneumatic position controller is shown in Fig. 3-5.

3 Positioning technology 55
Fig. 3-5:
Principle of closed-loop
servopneumatic position
control

1 Brake
2 Proportional valve
3 Controller and programmer
4 Displacement encoder
system

Actual
value

Setpoint
NC input

These axes typically require at least a two-stage chain of action in order to

produce a linear motion with defined properties using a spindle or endless
3.3
toothed belt. Pneumatic drives, on the other hand, are single-stage and are thus
Electromechanical
referred to as direct drives. An electromechanical positioning axis consists of:
positioning axes
– A motion axis with motor, motor flange and coupling
– An integrated or external displacement encoder
– A power electronics unit or servo amplifier, depending on the type of motor,
designed for a single axis or multiple axes
– Pre-assembled sets of cables.

Common types are spindle and toothed-belt drives, the principles of which are
shown in Fig. 3-6.

Positioning axes can be equipped with various types of motors. Stepping motors
are ideal drive units for handling systems requiring motor ratings < 1 kW. The
motor is the link between digital data and an incremental motion. Very precise
positioning is possible with a resolution of, for example, 500 or 1000 steps per
revolution. Motors are accelerated in accordance with specified ramp functions.

As an alternative, servo motors can also be fitted. These are electric motors
incorporated into a closed-loop control circuit. In order to do this, the desired
target variables (rotary speed, position or angle) must be monitored. This ensu-
res close conformity to setpoints and a highly-dynamic response to setpoint
changes.

56 3 Positioning technology
Fig. 3-6:
Design of electromechanical
positioning axes

a) Axis with spindle drive,

maximum speed 1.7 m/s;
strokes up to 2 m;
positioning accuracy
± 0.02 mm
b) Axis with toothed-belt
drive, maximum speed
5 m/s; strokes up to 5 m;
positioning accuracy
± 0.1 mm

Positioning axes with spindle drive are the preferred choice in cases requiring
maximum accuracy and high axial thrust forces. Toothed-belt drives are a good
choice when especially fast approaches are required to positions over long
distances.

Every user reaches a point in his/her deliberations when a final choice must be
3.4 made of a certain positioning axis. First and foremost, this must fulfil the given
Assessment technical requirements. If there are several variants which do this, then cost
and selection becomes a criterion. As a general principle, for a given level of dynamic charac-
teristics, servopneumatic positioning axes are considerably cheaper than elec-
trical positioning axes. Servopneumatic axes are triggered by 5/3-way propor-
tional valves with an actuating time of 5 milliseconds, ensuring a highly dynamic
system. Pneumatic axes can achieve acceleration values of up to 10 g.

What variants are available from the Festo modular positioning system?
Fig. 3-7 provides an answer in overview.

The decisive factors in the selection of a positioning axis are mass, speed of
travel, repetition accuracy and effective stroke length. An initial selection can, for
example, be made on the basis of dimensioning graphs which provide an initial
result in a small number of easily understandable steps. As a first approxima-
tion, it is also possible to compare the requirement profile of the application and
the performance profile of a given item. Fig. 3-8 shows the general correlation

3 Positioning technology 57
 between these. Fields a to k represent the performance profile of a typical func-
tion provider. The marked fields correspond to the technical data in the 3x3 table
below.

Fig. 3-7:
Electromechanical Pneumatic
Modular positioning system
(Festo)

Antrieb und Führung

Internal guidance External guidance
Spindle or toothed-belt drive
Stepping or servo motor Internal guidance External guidance

Absolute digital Incremental Absolute – analog Phase cyclic

Wegmessung

Integrated or fitted externally

Axis controller Single-axis controller Muliti-axis controller

Steuerung

Fig. 3-8:
Typical performance profiles
of selected positioning axes
Level Linear speed Load capacity Repetition accuracy
and guides High 0,5…5 m/s 100…500 N ±0,05…±0,0005 mm

a) Toothed-belt drive with

Medium 0,02…0,5 m/s 20…100 N ±0,1…±0,05 mm
Vee guide Low Less than 0,02 m/s Less than 20 N ±0,5…±0,1 mm
b) Toothed-belt drive with
recirculating-ball guide
c) Ball screw drive with Vee
guide
d) Servopneumatic drive
with plain-bearing guide
e) Vertical chain drive
with Vee guide
f ) Electromechanical tooth-
ed-belt drive with heavy-
duty guide
g) Electromechanical axis
with spindle drive
h) Electromechanical axis
with toothed-belt drive
i) Servopneumatic axis
with heavy-duty guide
k) Roller-ring threaded drive
with Vee guide

58 3 Positioning technology
 In individual cases, however, we must check whether the application falls within
the performance profile. This applies first and foremost to forces and torque and
the points at which these act. The individual loads as shown in Fig. 3-9 are used
to determine the combined load, which is then compared with the specifications
of permissible forces and torque. The data of the graphs in the application
guidelines relates to the coordinate origin on the slide. If the actual values
exceed the permissible operating conditions, we must consider whether we can
reduces the forces and torque, for example by moving points of action closer to
the centre of gravity, or whether higher-performance guides must be used.
Additional guides which provide support, such as a castor guide consisting of a
support rail and castors, can also provide a remedy.

Fig. 3-9:
Torque and force loads acting
on linear units

1 Coordinate origin
2 Guide slide or carriage
3 Profile rail

F Force
M Torque

Dynamic loads can become high with multi-axis configurations, since in these
cases the load represents a continuously changing motion system. For this
reason, linear modules are sometimes combined to form a parallel unit. Fig. 3-10
shows what is meant by this. This has a gantry unit as a base axis which not only
develop higher motion forces but has significantly less sag in the case of large
spans. The combination slide is connected free of backlash to the piston of the
rodless cylinder. The roller guide is an integral component of the assembly and is
able to absorb high maximum torque values.

Fig. 3-10:
Combination of pneumatic
axes to form a twin unit
(Univer)

Finally, we note that the uniform design of the mechanical interfaces in this
system (profile housings) means that electrical and pneumatic motion axes can
be combined, as can positioning and end-position axes. If, however, two types
of power are used within a system, each supply must be routed and controlled
separately, which is a disadvantage.

3 Positioning technology 59
 In handling technology, too, the rule is – first simplify the processes, and then
4 automate. Equipment which is selected too hastily rarely provides an optimum
Use of pick-and-place solution. But how are we to automate? Must we use an industrial robot?
devices Or will a pick-and-place unit do?

Sometimes not even a two-axis handling device is required. There are many
handling operations which can be carried out with simple equipment, naturally
using standard industrial pneumatic components. These simple devices should
not be underestimated – the simpler, the better. What is not present cannot go
wrong. In this article, we shall look at some examples of this kind of solution.

Rotary units turn objects through a certain angle and can be used in many dif-
4.1 ferent ways. For some purposes, a rotary unit can be assembled from linear
Modular handling cylinders. Fig. 4-1 shows an example of this. The workpieces are fed in at right
systems angles to the plane of the illustration and are then ejected to the left or right.
In order to achieve this, three positions are required for the ejector plate. The
4.1.1 centre position is produced by spring force when the two cylinders are switched
Use of rotary units to no-pressure conditions. The achievable positioning accuracy is sufficient for
this application. Distribution functions of this kind are common in logistics ope-
rations. The requirements in this case can, however, also be met by a rotary drive
if this can approach three positions.

Fig. 4-1:
Linear cylinders combined
to form a rotary unit

1 Workpiece, package
2 Ejector plate
3 Grooved ball bearing
as roller
4 Single-acting cylinder
5 Conveyor belt

The solution sketched in Fig. 4-2 shows how a workpiece flow can be distributed
as desired. The plates are transported on conveyor belts which terminate in a
tilting plate.
Depending on the situation in the workstations, the plates are distributed
equally or, if one workstation is malfunctioning, in one direction only. The rotary
drive simplifies the mechanical configuration and is inexpensive. Turning devices
can also be created in this way to accept flat workpieces in-line on a conveyor
belt and turn these through 180°. The workpiece carrier would need to be of
slip-in design in this case.

60 4 Use of pick-and-place devices

Fig. 4-2:
Distribution of a workpiece
flow

1 Rotary unit
2 Workstation
3 Conveyor belt
4 Workpiece
5 Feed line
6 Diversion line or second
workstation

In order to use a rotary drive, we must know what its load rating is. This can be
found from load graphs available for every module version. These graphs show
the mass moment of inertia, angle of rotation and rotation time. The mass
moment of inertia of the components fitted to the rotary unit must be calculated
separately. Fig. 4-3 show a sample case. It should be noted that only the adapter
disc is directly on the rotary axis, assuming that it is not an integral part of the
rotary drive. For all masses not on this axis, we assume point masses at a
distance equal to the centre of gravity and reduce the moment of inertia to the
rotary drive axis. Only then is it permissible to add moments of inertia together.
This procedure is known as the Steiner method.

The total moment of inertia is thus as follows:

Jtotal = JZ1 (disc) + JZ2 (arm) + JZ3 (gripper) + JZ4 (workpiece)

Jtotal = JZ1 + JS2 + m2 . r22 + JS3 + m3 . r12 + JS4 + m4 . r12

Using the value for Jtotal, we can now use a performance graph, for example
with a curve for an angle of 180°, to see what rotation time is possible and
permissible. In our example, we would also have to check whether the gravita-
tional forces resulting from the masses are permissible, i.e. whether in the case
in question they remain below the axis load shown on the Z axis.

For the calculation of mass moments of inertia, by the way, Festo offers a con-
venient program which coves various basic bodies and standard Festo com-
ponents. Once the dimensions and details of materials and eccentricity have
been input, the moment of inertia and total mass are calculated.

4 Use of pick-and-place devices 61

Fig. 4-3:
Rotary unit with swivel arm
and gripper as example of
calculation of mass moment
of inertia J

1 Rotary drive
2 Adapter disc
3 Swivel arm m1
4 Gripper
5 Workpiece

ÚSteel = 7850 kg/m3

ÚAluminium = 2700 kg/m3

Full cylinder
JZ1 =  · D4 · L · Ú/32 kgm2

Block
JS = h · b3 · a · Ú/12 kgm2

Point mass, reduced

JZ = JS + mr2 kgm2

The values can be stored and printed out. Fig. 4-4 shows the screen mask used
in this program.
Fig. 4-4:
Screen mask for program
“Calculation of mass
moments of inertia”

62 4 Use of pick-and-place devices

 The rotary arm unit shown in Fig. 4-5 roughly corresponds to the conditions
shown in Fig. 4-3. An interesting feature is the hollow shaft through which
vacuum can be fed (or compressed air if a venturi nozzle is used to generate the
vacuum).

Fig. 4-5:
Rotary arm unit – a Festo
classic

And now another example from the field of process technology. Rotary units can
also be used to good effect to control free-flowing bulk materials. An example is
shown in Fig. 4-6. The trick is to place the channels in the driver drum correctly.
In terms of a handling function, we are concerned here with the branching of a
flow of material, with dividing a flow into sub-flows. In the case of flammable
materials, by the way, a pneumatic drive is an advantage in terms of explosion
protection. This solution could also be used to distribute small metallic and non-
tangling plastic workpieces to various points by means of suction air. Many
variants of vacuum feed units (dosing units) are commercially available.

Fig. 4-6:
Diversion of flows of materials

1 Feed channel
2 Rotary unit for 180° angle
of rotation
3 Distributor channels
4 Driver drum

4 Use of pick-and-place devices 63

 Before we conclude our study of rotary units, let us look at a distributor of the
type used, for example, on automatic assembly lines. This separates individual
workpieces from the mass flow. We can also call this marshalling into singles.
Fig. 4-7 shows a double distributor for a twin-track workpiece flow. The two
distributor slides are coupled via toothed segments to ensure synchronous
operation. We could of course also use two rotary-vane units, which would make
the mechanical design simpler but would take up more room.

Fig. 4-7:
Double distributor for the
marshalling of assembly
components

1 Rotary-vane unit
2 Toothed segment
3 Feed magazine
4 Axis
5 Channel to assembly
machine
6 Workpiece
7 Rotary slide

There are numerous handling operations which can be carried out equally well
by complicated and simple means. This will be demonstrated by some examples.
4.1.2
It is often necessary within packing plants to divide a flow of workpieces. Special
From a single axis
conveyor belts are available for this, equipped with top deflector plates which
to a handling unit
are actuated by cams under the belt in such a way that the transported work-
pieces are moved sideways. The system in Fig. 4-8 uses a guide moved by a
cylinder combination in the form of a 3-position actuator. This can move in a
fixed sequence or, under external control signals, also in a chaotic sequence.
The higher speed of the outward belt section provides the necessary separation
of the stream of workpieces before the distribution movement.

In stamping mills and with certain special machines, it is necessary to achieve

step transport of strip material. Fig. 4-9 shows a feed device consisting of a rod-
less pneumatic cylinder and two parallel-jaw grippers. There are of course
special feed devices commercially available, but in individual cases and with
special machines a custom-built solution can save space. The feed motion is
limited by precisely-adjustable external shock absorber stops. The gripper jaws
are open on the return stroke. No provision has been made for tongs to hold the
strip material during this phase. It is assumed that during the return stroke the
material is still held by the stamping or cutting tool. The device is controlled by

64 4 Use of pick-and-place devices

Fig. 4-8:
Belt distributor for low
conveyor speeds

1 Feed belt
2 Workpiece (product)
3 Guide edge
4 Rotary arm
5 Mounting kit
6 Pneumatic cylinder
7 Optical sensor

a cam on the central shaft (vertical shaft). The best time for the advance motion
can be selected by adjusting the control cam.

Fig. 4-9:
Strip material feed using
parallel-jaw grippers
Return stroke

1 Tool, press
2 Strip material
3 Parallel-jaw gripper
4 Upper plate
5 Pneumatic linear unit
6 External stop
7 Control cam in press drive
open

Rotary units can also be used to create high-performance single-axis units. The
example in Fig. 4-10 shows a transfer device which picks up plates by means of
suction cups and transfer this from one conveyor section to another. The cou-
pling rods are able to swing through between the roller-conveyor sections.
Suction cups pick up the flat workpiece. There is plenty of time for the transfer
operation. The rotary drive is required to turn slowly and evenly. The angle of
rotation is less than 180°. It is not easy to produce slow speeds with compres-
sed air. It is therefore not sufficient in this case to use a one-way flow control
valve for the cylinder exhaust air. A better solution is to use two double one-way
flow control valves (Fig. 4-11). The control behaviour is better in this case, since
the supply and exhaust air flows can both be adjusted. The slower pressure
build-up delays the start and reduces the impact at the end positions.

4 Use of pick-and-place devices 65

Fig. 4-10:
Transfer device for flat
workpieces

1 Coupling gear
2 Transported workpiece
3 Roller conveyor section
4 Suction cups
5 Rotary unit

If a single rotary unit cannot deliver sufficient torque, one rotary unit can be fit-
ted on either side of the coupling gear. This creates a positive mechanical link
between the units.

Fig. 4-11:
Double one-way flow control
valve

Finally, Fig. 4-12 shows a handling unit with 4 motion axes. Only axis A1, how-
ever, needs to be a positioning axis. All the other axes travel only between
cushioned end stops. The handling object is a compact disc (CD). This is picked
up by suction cups, raised, swung through an angle of more than 90° and
brought to the magazine. After setting the CD down in the magazine slot, the
axis A1 withdraws the suction cups slightly. The arm then returns to its pick-up
position.

As can be seen, a large part of the handling device can be made up of familiar
components. An industrial robot is not necessary.

66 4 Use of pick-and-place devices

Fig. 4-12:
Magazining of CDs

1 Linear unit
2 Short-stroke cylinder
3 Positioning axis
4 Rotary arm
5 Rotary unit
6 CD
7 Suction cup
8 Feed line
9 Magazine
10 Stopper cylinder

Technical progress is bringing “intelligent pneumatics” ever closer to the realm

4.2. of electronics. This is opening up new applications and is making pneumatics
Pick-and-place units more and more interesting as an means of automating assembly operations.
for assembly work Pneumatic units are the preferred choice, particularly in applications needing
fast linear motions and where accuracy requirements are not too stringent.
Economic factors of course also play a major role. Moreover, the wide range of
accessories available for pneumatics makes planning easier and supports rapid
installation.

There are many reasons to automate assembly work. The emphasis is of course
4.2.1 generally on rationalisation, but there are also cases, for example, of modules
Man or machine? which are so small that they cannot be assembled efficiently (or at all) by hand.
In the cases of complex assembly operations, very short production runs and
modules of a non-automation-friendly design, on the other hand, manual
assembly is still the only answer. Fig. 4-13 shows in general terms the situations
which may be encountered in practice. Automation of difficult operations always
involves a higher technical risk and higher implementation costs.

Fig. 4-13:
Degrees of difficulty
of assembly operations Difficult for machine Difficult for both
Difficult

Easy for humans

Easy for both Easy for machine

Machine

Difficult for humans

Easy

Easy Difficult

Humans

4 Use of pick-and-place devices 67

 We therefore need to take account of a large number of factors. In the case of
mass products, the process speed which can be achieved is very important. In
this respect, the leader is still the cam-controlled assembly machine. The control
cams of these machines not only drive the motion units but also store distance
and angle data (program memory). Motion characteristics can be stored very
precisely in the shape of the cam, in a durable and drift-free form. This is a big
advantage. Transmission systems generally run in an oil bath and are thus very
quiet. Motions can be transmitted directly via linkages or angle levers to motion
units. Designers have greater freedom if freely-routable tension/compression
components are used to transmit motion. This is shown in simplified form in
Fig. 4-14. From the point of view of working speed, pneumatic drives are in
second place. A fast SCARA robot can, however, even today manage a motion
sequence (pick-and-place cycle) of 25 mm up, 150 mm across and 25 mm down
in an impressive 0.32 s.

Fig. 4-14:
Motion transmission from
control cam to motion module
using tension/compression
components

1 Slide
2 Frame
3 Gripper
4 Tension/compression com-
ponent
5 Roller/stem block
6 Control cam

Industrial pneumatic components are often used in assembly systems, mainly

4.2.2 for the following purposes:
Assembly with
pneumatics – Drives for joining units (presses, feed devices, etc.)
– Drives for metering and indexing devices and mechanisms
– Drives for grippers and clamping devices
– Suction air components for grippers for holding and clamping functions
– Stopper cylinders
– Motion units for rotary, swivel and lift/turn functions
– Linear motions against a fixed or intermediate stop, and free positioning with
servopneumatic motion units.

68 4 Use of pick-and-place devices

 The use of pneumatics will be illustrated by a number of examples.

A work module consists of a drive and guide. This module can be used for many
tasks for which a robot would be overqualified. Fig, 4-15 shows a rotary
indexing machine in which pins are pressed into a receiver workpiece. In the
previous station the numerous holes for the pins are drilled. The drilling unit is
accordingly mounted on a slide, which travels from one end position to another,
powered by a pneumatic cylinder.

Fig. 4-15:
Drilling and assembly
on a rotary indexing table

1 Pin feed
2 Complete module
3 Rotary indexing table
4 Receiver workpiece
5 Double press-fitting device
6 Drill feed unit
7 Slide
8 Pneumatic cylinder

Normally machining and assembly operations should not be carried out on the
same machine due to the chips which the former generates. Given efficient chip
extraction and less demanding requirements, however, this is possible. The
advantage is that the centre of the unit for the insertion and pressing operation
exactly coincides with the centre of the drilled holes.

The assembly unit shown in Fig. 4-16 has been created from rotary modules.
Receiver workpieces for an assembly operation are brought from a magazine to
the workpiece carrier of an assembly transfer system. With a crank drive, the
speed of a derived linear motion follows a sinusoidal function, which is advan-
tageous during the approach to the end positions, where the speed of the slide
falls away to zero.

4 Use of pick-and-place devices 69

Fig. 4-16:
Setting down a receiver
workpiece (Festo)

a) View of station
b) Motion conditions with
crank drive
c) Handling function diagram

1 Rotary drive
2 Pusher Receiver workpiece
3 Slide
4 Column frame
5 Workpiece carrier Workpiece carrier Set-down
6 Double-belt conveyor
7 Gripper
8 Connecting rod
9 Receiver workpiece
10 Feed chute
In view of the fact that travel time is a major criterion in assembly operations, it
s Distance may be advantageous to use a rodless pneumatic linear drive equipped with a
v Speed
high-speed “Smart Soft Stop” system. We have already seen the principle
involved in Fig. 2-44. The cushioning action is controlled by software, with elec-
tronic control of the approach to the end position. This system is available as an
equipment package consisting of a matched cylinder/valve/potentiometer com-
bination and allows the travel time from position A to position B to be reduced
by up to 30%. It should be noted that optimum system behaviour is obtained
only within the cylinder stroke. The travel distance must be limited within the
cylinder stroke by fixed stops (Fig. 4-17). The handling device shown in the illus-
tration accepts a printed circuit board, turns this and brings in to the other end
position with a fast stroke.

Fig. 4-17:
Transfer units for PCBs
1
1 Workpiece (PCB)
2 Gripper jaw 2
3 Parallel-jaw gripper
4 Adapter plate 3
5 Rotary unit 4
6 Pneumatic linear drive
5 6 7
7 Fixed stop

Travel
Cylinder stroke

Fig. 4-18 shows a further example, of an assembly station for a plastic cap. Two
pneumatic components are sufficient. A parallel-jaw gripper is used as a barrier
metering device. Each separated-out cap falls into a carrier and is gripped by
vacuum. The swivel motion through 90° is a derived motion produced purely

70 4 Use of pick-and-place devices

 mechanically by a guide radius for the press head. After the press-fitting operati-
on, the vacuum line is switched to blast air to assist the detachment of the cap
from the press head.

Fig. 4-18:
Assembly of caps

a) Transfer of assembly
component from magazine
b) Push-in assembly

1 Magazine
2 Assembly workpiece
3 Press head
4 Gripper as metering device
5 Metering pusher
6 Piston rod
7 Vacuum line
8 Transfer chain with work-
piece carriers
9 Receiver workpiece
10 Press head guide
11 Pneumatic cylinder

It is often necessary at the end of an assembly line to re-orientate modules or

products, e.g. to achieve the density required for packaging or palleting.
Fig. 4-19 shows a way of achieving this. A swivel drive is used as the active
component. No further packaging workpieces must run on during the swivelling
operation. This is achieved by means of a spring-loaded roller arm. There is no
need for special control measures for this holdback device. The outfeed
conveyor consists of twin belts between which the swivel arm can sink slightly
during the transfer operation.

Fig. 4-19:
Setting up packaging
workpieces as a preparation
for packaging

1 Infeed and outfeed zones

2 Packaging workpiece
3 Holdback device
4 Rotary module
5 Conveyor belt

4 Use of pick-and-place devices 71

 Assembly with a pick-and-place unit or robot can generally be carried out
4.2.3 efficiently only if the components for assembly are presented in the right way.
Peripheral helpers This will be illustrated by an example. This involves the fitting of shaft retaining
circlips. The clips are first fed from a magazine by a pusher (Fig. 4-20). A three-
finger gripper is then activated to open the circlip out to the external diameter of
the shaft in a servopneumatic spreader station. The handling device transfers
the ring in this spread state. A wedge is inserted in the ring gap to maintain the
spread. The assembly robot can now bring the circlip into the assembly position
and release the holding mechanism. The circlip now snaps into its slot. The
degree of spread can be taken almost to the limit of plastic deformation by a
pressure regulator but must under no circumstances reach this limit. This
sophisticated spreading operation will be used only for the assembly of safety-
critical modules.

Fig. 4-20:
Feeding shaft retaining
circlips

1 Industrial robot
2 Fitting head
3 Magazine for circlips
4 Feed pusher
5 Three-finger gripper
6 Gripper finger
7 Lifting plate
8 Spreading-force regulator

Another kind of assembly workpiece feed device is shown in Fig. 4-21. The work-
pieces are contained in box magazines which are fed head-down into the feed
magazine. They are emptied in stages. After passing through the machine, the
empty magazine pallets are pushed into a collector magazine, in which they are
formed into a stack. As the magazine pallet is divided into rows and columns, a
corresponding number of feed tracks are arranged one behind the other.

72 4 Use of pick-and-place devices

 These examples of applications show that the necessary auxiliary motions can
be produced to good advantage using pneumatic components.

Fig. 4-21:
Magazine feed

1 Pressure weight
2 Magazine shaft
3 Magazine pallet
4 Assembly workpiece
5 Guide wheel
6 Magazine plate
7 Empty pallet
8 Holdback device
9 Ratchet pusher

Finally, let us consider an example of the feed and assembly of small flat work-
pieces. As Fig. 4-22 shows, the workpieces are stored in an inclined gravity
magazine. A pneumatically-driven metering device separates the workpieces,
which are then swivelled into the feed position. This is achieved by a rotary-vane
module. Once they reach a horizontal position, the workpieces are pushed into
the working zone (at right angles to the plane of the illustration) by a pneumatic
linear unit. In certain cases, this motion may form the assembly operation itself.

Fig. 4-22:
Feeding flat workpieces

a) Separation operation
b) Pushing away

1 Gravity magazine
2 Rotary-vane drive
3 Swivel device
4 Insertion device
5 Flat or miniature cylinder
6 Workpiece

4 Use of pick-and-place devices 73

 Workpiece handling is a core problem in automated production systems. What
4.3 makes it difficult is the great variety of shapes, sizes, masses and degrees of
Feeding machines with robustness of workpieces coupled with the frequent need to set these down
pick-and-place units accurately in confined spaces. In general terms, it is necessary to carry out two
tasks:

– Automatic manipulation of workpieces and

– the integration of this procedure into the control system for the fed machine,
including sensor monitoring of all actions.

A typical example of this is the “iron hands” which were installed at the start of
the 1950s in the metalworking industry on sequences of presses. Today, a large
number of automatic and manually-controlled loading and feed devices are
available, covering a certain spectrum of applications.

Even today, there are some machines and systems which are fed by hand. This
4.3.1 may sound surprising in view of the present state of technical development.
Automatic feed is There are, however, many reasons for this in individual cases:
replacing manual work
– Workers can carry out visual inspections, which means that they cannot be
eliminated even with automatic feed.
– The material in question is difficult to handle and would cause an unaccept-
able level of malfunctions if handled automatically.
– There is a frequent need to change workpiece types; this change would also
affect handling equipment.
– No skilled technical personnel is available to set up and maintain feed
devices. Fed machines are unsuitable for conversion to automatic feed.
– There has simply been no attempt made to use automation components for
the feed operation.

The difficulties involved naturally also form the starting point for discussions of
automation applications. It is without doubt true that attempts to achieve 100%
automation are being more and more successful, including cases involving the
retrofitting of existing machines.
There are many examples of ways in which conventional machines have been
successfully upgraded by fitting a handling device. This is of course meaningful
only if an automatic machining cycle can be achieved for the fed machine. It may
be necessary first to create a mechanical interface as the basis for installation of
a handling device. Fig. 4-23 shows the example of a lathe which has been fitted
in “piggyback” fashion with a handling device. This approaches only 2 positions
– the chuck and the magazine.

74 4 Use of pick-and-place devices

Fig. 4-23:
Lathe retrofitted
with feed device

1 Rotary unit
2 Workpiece
3 Lathe
4 Pick-and-place device
drive
5 Roller conveyor
6 Finished-workpiece
magazine
7 Lifting cylinder
8 Lifting unit
9 Short-stroke handling axis
10 Gripper

The workpiece is inserted into the clamping device by a short-stroke unit. The
pickup and setdown positions are identical. In order to ensure that the setdown
component actually passes into the finished-workpiece magazine, this is briefly
raised. The pick-and-place device can then access the next workpiece blank. The
overall motion capacity required has thus been divided between the periphery
and the pick-and-place device.

Fig. 4-24 shows the feed of a machine tool by means of an overhead swivel
motion. This operation is advisable only for relatively light workpieces. During
transfer, the swivel arm plunges between the indexed conveyor belts, passing on
either the inside or outside. The conveyor belt system must be configured to
allow this. The feed device in this example is a direct local replacement for the
human operator previously used.

Fig. 4-24:
Setting down panels with an
overhead swivel motion

1 Optical sensor
2 Lifting table
3 Swivel unit
4 Machine tool
5 Indexed conveyor belt

4 Use of pick-and-place devices 75

 The rotary loader shown in Fig. 4-25 is also made up of pneumatic components.
The rotary unit must be capable of approaching 3 positions. The task in this
example is to insert a blank workpiece into a clamping device such as a chuck.
The finished workpiece is then brought to the output chute. During the ma-
chining operation, the swivel arm moves to a place where it will not be in the
way, such as the setdown position. Swivel arms have the fundamental advantage
that they require only a narrow handling channel and can remove themselves
quickly a long distance from the actual operations zone.

Fig. 4-25:
Rotary loader

1 Centring gripper
2 Machine tool
3 Feed magazine
4 Blank workpiece
5 Arm
6 Rotary unit
7 Lifting unit
8 Output chute
9 Finished workpiece

A typical feature of machine tools is that a new blank workpiece can be input
only after the previous finished workpiece has been removed. The times taken
for these operations add up if the handling device is of single-arm design and
does not have a double gripper. Idle motions can be avoided by using a double-
arm system. An example is shown in Fig. 4-26. Only the clamping device of the
machine tool is visible. After clamping by their end faces, workpieces are
machined on both sides by rotary tools, for example in facing, centring and
countersinking operations. The two gripper units are mounted on a common
slide separated by a distance A. There is no need for a pick-and-place device to
pick up the blank workpiece – this function can be provided by the gripper,
which has one fixed finger and one moving finger.

76 4 Use of pick-and-place devices

Fig. 4-26:
Loading device on a counter-
sinking and centring machine

1 Slide
2 Linear unit
3 Vertical unit
4 Gripper
5 Machine tool clamping
device
6 Roller outfeed conveyor
7 Finished workpiece
8 Blank workpiece
9 Feed zone

By the way, roller conveyor magazines should be given a multi-stage configur-

ation as shown in Fig. 4-27. The moving workpieces are slightly braked at each
stage and are able to align themselves. This prevents misalignment which could
lead to malfunctions.

Fig. 4-27:
Multi-stage roller conveyor

In the case of machines with continuous throughput, the problem is occasionally

encountered that a pick-and-place device is not able to deliver the required per-
formance. One way out would be alternate feed from 2 magazines (Fig. 4-28).
The machine tool has an infeed conveyor belt onto which the workpieces need
to be placed. This method, too, avoids idle motions, since while one workpiece
is being set down, the other vertical unit operates in parallel to prepare the next
workpiece. The cost of motion units is however modest - just 3 linear units are

4 Use of pick-and-place devices 77

 required. With larger workpieces, the distances and thus the linear strokes are
also larger. The use of a Smart Soft Stop linear axis for the horizontal motion
could then bring further time savings.

Fig. 4-28:
Feeding a machine
from 2 magazines

1 Lifting unit
2 Slide
3 Smart Soft Stop linear unit
4 Workpiece
5 Infeed conveyor belt
6 Magazine

Several arms are also used in the feed concept shown in Fig. 4-29. The main aim
here is, however, not to save time but to find a way of feeding the presses at all.
The space available in presses for feed devices is limited due to the fact that the
rest position of the upper press tool is directly above the lower press tool. A feed
channel thus cannot be used for gantry units. In the example, therefore, the feed
operation is divided between 2 handling devices.

Fig. 4-29:
Press feed with distributed
handling actions

1 Lifting unit
2 Gantry unit with rodless
pneumatic cylinder
3 Shaping tool
4 Rotary unit
5 Double gripper
6 Gripper
7 Swivel arm
8 Swivel/lifting unit
9 Workpiece carrier
magazine for blank
and finished workpieces

78 4 Use of pick-and-place devices

 The tool is fed by a swivel-arm pick-and-place device. A gantry unit brings the
workpiece to this device from the magazine. The finished workpiece is now retur-
ned to the double gripper, which swivels through 180° and immediately feeds
the next blank workpiece. During the shaping operation, the gantry unit runs to
the magazine, sets down the finished workpiece and picks up a new blank work-
piece. The two pick-and-place units thus work “hand in hand”.

Removal devices are used in the main with injection-moulding and die-casting
4.3.2 machines. The workpiece to be removed is created inside the machine and will
Reaching into the often require careful handling - it may even be necessary to ensure that it is set
machine down in a way which prevents distortion as the workpiece cools. There is also
the occasional need to set workpiece down within moulding turning devices.
Workpieces of this are generally removed using simple handling devices, which
may be gantry variants made up of standard modules, removal arms integrated
into machines or specially-designed handling devices. Fig. 4-30 shows an
example.

Fig. 4-30:
Removal device for mouldings

1 Injection moulding
2 Gripper
3 Rotary unit
4 Swivel arm
5 Frame
6 Pneumatic cylinder

It can be seen that 2 actuators are sufficient to remove the workpieces. The
number of motion axes is reduced to the absolute minimum necessary. A two-
axis device does not of course provide a three-dimensional working area but
only a two-dimensional working surface. In this example, this is a double-
curvature surface on which both the pickup and setdown positions must be
located.

The ejector shown in Fig. 4-31 is of equally simple design. An ejector yoke is set
in motion once the slide with the lower tool has travelled out of the operations
zone. A pneumatic swivel/lifting module is used here as a compact drive unit.

4 Use of pick-and-place devices 79

Fig. 4-31:
Workpiece ejector

1 Ejector yoke
2 Sliding lower tool
3 Guide
4 Swivel/lifting module
5 Slide
6 Workpiece
7 Gravity chute

Machining operations often involve work on both ends of turned components.

This means unclamping the workpiece, turning it round and re-clamping it. There
are of course grippers which can use specially-designed (rotary) jaws to turn a
workpiece, but in machining cells peripheral turning stations are generally used.
These can be used for different-sized workpieces without conversion. Fig. 4-32
shows an example of this, using pneumatic drives .

Fig. 4-32:
180° turning station

1 Swivel/lifting module
2 Workpiece
3 Rotatable clamp jaws
4 Pneumatic cylinder
5 Clamping jaws
6 Short-stroke cylinder

I to IV Turning operations

The robot first sets the workpiece down on a platform, where it is clamped.
The platform then lowers away and the workpiece can be turned. Following this,
the platform returns and the clamp jaws retract. The workpiece is now freely
accessible and can be picked up again.

80 4 Use of pick-and-place devices

 Grippers are the technical equivalent of human hands and are used to automate
5 the production, assembly, testing and packing of components. Efficient grippers
Gripper technology are very important, in fact crucial. Since grippers produce an effect, they can be
referred to as effectors – and since they are installed at the end of a mechanical
structure, they are also called end effectors.

Automation in modern production means that there is less and less manual
work. Human hands, able with their intricate joints to execute well over 1,000
different gripping motions, are for example no longer suitable for micro-assemb-
ly operations. The trend towards the miniaturisation of products, components
and handling devices is plain for everyone to see. Standard suction cups, for
example, start with a diameter of 1.2 mm and a length of 1.6 mm. These develop
a holding force of 0.03 N. This is of course very low. Mechanical grippers are
accordingly also being miniaturised.

The design of grippers is governed by the load required to achieve a secure hol-
5.1 ding function. The forces and torque values during a handling sequence may
Grippers and gripped vary as a function of location, direction of motion and time. Vibration may also
objects as a system be involved. Grippers and gripped objects must therefore always be considered
as systems. Force transmission is governed by the following factors:

– Physical arrangement of the gripper in relation to the handling device

– Resulting force, influenced by mass, inertia and centrifugal force, among other
things
– Geometry of gripped object or gripping areas
– Design of gripper jaws with regard to the force components absorbed by posi-
tive-locking and force-locking connections
– Surface properties of workpieces and gripper jaws
– Environmental influences such as dust, drilling emulsion, temperature and
vibration.

Fig. 5-1 shows a number of gripping situations in schematic form. The degree of
freedom F is specified in terms of the rotary and thrust axes secured by force-
locking connections. Workpieces can shift only in these directions and only if the
forces operative during handling exceed the capacity of the frictional pairings at
the gripper jaws.

5 Gripper technology 81
Fig. 5-1:
Positive locking or force-
locking? – Some examples
of combinations

1 Gripper jaw
2 Workpiece

F Degree of freedom

It should be noted that it is not automatically possible to increase clamping for-

ces, since this may lead to damage to sensitive and thin-walled workpieces. We
should accordingly use positive locking to hold workpieces in the direction in
which the highest force is operative. Workpieces made of brittle material cannot
tolerate edge pressure and must be gripped over large surfaces (Fig. 5-2). Light
flat workpieces can even be held without direct contact, using for example
microscopic water droplets to form a layer of ice which holds the workpieces.
The resulting holding force is 50 to 100 times greater than with comparable suc-
tion cups. Another solution is to use the aerodynamic paradox (right of Fig. 5-2).
An air-jet gripper of this kind is very simple and contains no moving parts.
Outflowing air creates a slight vacuum between the gripper plate and the upper
face of the workpiece.

Fig. 5-2:
Gripping discs (examples)

1 Workpiece
2 Gripper jaw
3 Parallel-jaw gripper

p Compressed air

Point contact Area contact Contactless

82 5 Gripper technology
 Especially in assembly systems, grippers are required which close precisely even
5.2 if the fingers are long and whose guides allow gripper jaws to move with the
Precision and special required smoothness. Precision grippers of this kind have backlash-free roller
grippers guides. Fig. 5-3 shows a simplified view of a gripper of this kind. The jaws of the
parallel gripper are driven by pneumatic pistons. To ensure that the jaws close
precisely centrally, the two pistons are linked by a rack-and-pinion mechanism.
The gripping force can be adjusted via the operating pressure. In practical opera-
tion, with 6 bar operating pressure and a piston diameter of 12 mm, this force is
approximately 56 N (with L = 20 mm). Built-in pressure springs provide a certain
back-up function for the gripping force in the case of a supply pressure drop or
failure.

Fig. 5-3:
Miniature precision gripper
(Festo)

1 Gripper jaw
2 Roller guide
3 Driver pin
4 Slide
5 Sealing ring
6 Piston
7 Pinion
8 Pressure spring
9 Gripper housing

D Piston diameter (12, 16 or

20 mm)
H Total stroke (5, 10 or 15
mm depending on size)
L Operating distance

The gripping forces which are developed depend on the mode of operation
(single- or double-acting) and the gripping method (internal or external). Fig. 5-4
shows the superposition of the individual effective forces as a function of the
type of application.

Fig. 5-4:
Forces acting on a miniature
precision gripper (Festo)

1 Gripper jaw
2 Workpiece
3 Pneumatic piston
4 Pressure spring

FG Gripping force
FF Spring force
FP Piston pressure force

5 Gripper technology 83
 There are a number of special grippers which have been designed for special
handling objects and processes. Attempts are also often made to combine grip-
ping operations with other actions. Fig. 5-5, for example, shows the design prin-
ciple of a vacuum gripper system for corrugated-paper cartons. The flat cut
workpieces are picked up from a stack by suction cups. The outer cups then swi-
vel inwards, folding the 4 sides into a carton. Swivel suction cups are installed
for this purpose on all 4 sides of the base plate. The sequence is as follows:

– Separation of a flat cut workpieces from the stack

– Folding-up of all 4 sides
– Setdown of folded carton in a carrier on the packing line.

Fig. 5-5:
Gripper system for large
folded cartons

1 Gripper frame
2 Pneumatic cylinder
3 Cut corrugated cardboard
4 Vacuum line
5 Swivel suction cup
6 Suction cup
7 Erected cardboard carton
8 Base plate with rotary joint

Here is another example: Fast cyclical handling of narrow strip material can be
achieved by using 2 gripper units. Fig. 5-6 shows the configuration for this. While
one gripper unit advances the material, the other unit returns with its gripper
open. This sequence is particularly useful with large feed distances and short
cycle times. The diagram shows that each motion of a gripper unit is a mirror
image of the motion of the other unit. In order to prevent slippage, the gripper
jaws can be provided with an anti-slip coating, for example an elastomer gripper
cushion with a nap pattern, or else the gripper surface can be roughened by
micro-grooves. Gripper cushions are vital particularly with strip material with a
sensitive surface. In comparison, with steel, these cushions give a coefficient of
friction of roughly 0.5, which is a very good value.

84 5 Gripper technology
Fig. 5-6:
Pneumatically-driven strip
feed device

a) Overall layout
b) Cyclical feed diagram
Open
Closed
1 Strip Adv.
2 Gripper Return

3 Lateral guide roller Open

Closed
4 Base plate Adv.
Return
G Gripper
L Linear unit a) b)
t Time

In metal forming, presses are used which produce a workpiece in several stages.
This requires workpieces to be transported from one tool to the next. Large
multi-stage presses incorporate a transfer gripper device. In the case of smaller
presses or special solutions, a multiple gripper device can be created by using
standard pneumatic components, as shown in Fig. 5-7. In this case, several indi-
vidual grippers have been mounted on a transfer rail. It is occasionally possible
to do without the lateral lifting axis if wide-opening angled grippers are used.
The individual press tools are designed to present a continuous even surface
after the working stroke, which means that it will not generally be necessary to
lift the workpieces. If, however, this were required, it would be necessary to
install a vertical lifting axis as axis 1.

Fig. 5-7:
Two-axis transfer gripper
device

1 Press
2 Workpiece
3 Lower part of tool
4 Gripper
5 Transfer rail
6 Linear unit
7 Short-stroke unit

5 Gripper technology 85
 Miniature grippers are used in electrical engineering, electronics, precision
5.3 engineering, laboratory automation, the optical industry and in the construction
Miniature grippers of medical equipment. In a survey 10 years ago to find out why robots were not
being used in the electrical engineering/electronic industries, grippers were the
2nd most commonly cited reason - in other words, the grippers available at that
time were largely unsuitable for automatic handling tasks. In the meantime, in
line with the general trend, many products and components have become smal-
ler, which has not made them any easier to handle. Very small workpieces,
however, behave in a different way to large ones. Properties become important
which with larger workpieces would be of no consequence. Electrostatic charges,
for example, can make a workpiece “stick” to a gripper. This has allowed new
types of grippers to be developed, operating for example on the principle of
adhesion. Mechanical grippers, however, have also advanced into the miniature
world. Fig. 5-8 shows the design of a miniature angled gripper. Gripping force is
produced by a single-acting pneumatic piston and a wedge device.

Fig. 5-8:
Miniature angled gripper
(Festo)

a) Section through gripper

b) Mounting variant

1 Housing
2 Piston with 8 mm diameter
3 Gripper jaw
4 Cylindrical pin
5 Pressure spring
6 Gripper finger
7 Workpiece
8 Plastic jaw guide
9 Mounting flange with inte-
gral pressure spring

H Height compensator

With an operating pressure of 6 bar, gripping forces of around 5.5 N are produ-
ced with a piston diameter of 8 mm. As a comparison: A vacuum suction cup
with a diameter of 11 mm develops a holding force of approx. 1.2 N. There are
various supplementary components to allow mounting of the small grippers as
shown in Fig. 5-9b. These comprise mounting flanges and locking nuts. This also
allows turret grippers to be created easily for assembly applications (Fig. 5-9a).
A height compensator with a certain degree of compliance in the longitudinal
direction of the gripper is integrated into mounting flange and provides 5 mm
compensation in the case of a gripper with 8 mm piston diameter.

86 5 Gripper technology
Fig. 5-9:
Configuration variants for
miniature angled grippers
(Festo)

a) Turret gripper
b) Gripper variants

1 Gripper finger
2 Gripper jaw
3 Gripper housing
4 Mounting flange
5 Disk turret
6 Mounting bracket
7 Rotary unit

Significantly higher gripper forces can be achieved with micro grippers if the
gripper and finger drive are separate. The drive can then be installed remotely
and can be of suitable size. The gripper is then driven not by a small piston but
by a thrust rod with a tapered end. A configuration of this kind is shown in
Fig. 5-10. The thrust rod can, by the way, also be routed through the hollow
piston rod of a small linear unit. The suction cup can also in this case have a dia-
meter of, for example, 12 mm.

Fig. 5-10:
Gripper with remote drive

1 Pneumatic cylinder
2 Return spring
3 Coupling
4 Thrust rod
5 Gripper jaw
6 Gripper finger
7 Workpiece

p Compressed air

Magnetic grippers are of very simple design and are a popular choice for the
5.4 handling of ferromagnetic materials, particularly flat sheet-metal workpieces. A
Magnetic grippers push-off force is, however, generally required in order to detach workpieces from
the magnet. A further possible disadvantage is that workpieces may “stick” due
to residual magnetism. Without a push-off force, the only possibility is for the
workpiece fed by the magnetic gripper to be accepted immediately by a clamp-
ing device and “torn off ” the magnet (an in-line tear-off will require a greater
force than a lateral displacement). In order to avoid the need for this, there are
various possible solutions which have the aim of shifting the magnetic field. This
can be achieved by changing the position of the magnet relative to the work-

5 Gripper technology 87
 piece, which is of course the same as increasing the air gap. The ideal way to
achieve this shift motion is by using a pneumatic cylinder. Fig. 5-11 shows a
possible configuration. It is possible to assist the detachment of the workpiece
from the gripper even further by providing air jets in the base of the cylinder
(Fig. 5-11c). If there is no objecting to the workpiece “jumping” as the gripper
approaches (which leads to a loss of positioning accuracy), then there is no need
for the cylinder to be double-acting. The downwards stroke of the piston can
then be produced by spring force in this case. The magnetic gripper illustrated
shows that pneumatics can form the basis for a very simple technical solution.

Fig. 5-11:
Magnetic gripper with pneu-
matic magnetic field shift
p
a) Section through magnetic
gripper 1
b) Cylinder base as shaped
carrier
2 p
c) Shift of magnet combined
with simultaneous air jet p
d) Handling sequence 3 5 6
1 Piston 4
4
2 Permanent magnet
3 Cylinder base
4 Workpiece a) b) c)
5 Shaped cylinder base
6 Jet bore
1
p Compressed air supply 2
p

4 p

Anfahren Halten Bewegen Positionieren Lösen

d)

Another possibility would be a derivative which uses an electromagnet in place

of a permanent magnet. As the piston fitted with an electromagnetic coil moves
downwards, the coil docks against electric base contacts; only then is it activa-
ted. This allows the holding force to be varied by electrical means, almost com-
pletely avoiding the problem of residual magnetism.

88 5 Gripper technology
 The basis for all decisions is an assessment of solution variants, designs and
6 components. Not everything which can be combined to form a handling unit is
Criteria, code numbers actually worthwhile. On the other hand, we know from the principle of synergy
and components that the whole can be greater than the sum of the parts. What makes matters
difficult is that there are several solutions to most tasks. This last chapter will
therefore concentrate on combination, assessment and selection.

The advantages of a combination method were first recognised by Archimedes

(approx. 287-212 BC). In order to arrive at new designs of war machines more
6.1 easily, he made up some concentric wooden discs on which the names of groups
Don’t just dream – of design features were written (Fig. 6-1). By turning the discs around relative to
combine! each other, the features could be combined in different ways, generating ideas
for new approaches.

Fig. 6-1:
Combination discs made by
Archimedes of Syracuse e le d 4 -w
he he
-w
su p po r t Inc
2

el
al
ed
nt li
ne
zo

ioned
ns
ds
i
o r t H or

ro
Bier

Te

u p po r t S u
pe
e

S ki d
op
upp

wis
ted r
s

p
al

po
ic rt f
rame Ver t
g

n
s li e l le r
Ro
Yok

In the case of present-day modular handling systems, manufacturers also gene-

rally offer aids which indicate the compatibility of the modular components.
Recommendations are also given as to which interface adapters are available.
Adapters also in principle allow components from different modular systems to
be combined. This is, however, not done very often in practice. In order to avoid
errors during combination work, a graphic combination diagram or similar show
be prepared. A common way of solving technical problems is the morphological
method. Fig. 6-2 shows a simplified example based on a two-dimensional mor-
phological system for a pick-and-place device. Attempts should be made for the
problem elements to find and include as many solution elements as possible.
Taking into account compatibility factors, we can then define solutions by linking
solution elements from top to bottom. This example is intended only as an illust-
ration of a systematic problem-solving method. There are of course many other
methods, such as solution trees, solution catalogues or combination tables. The
result will generally be several different solutions. It is therefore necessary as a
next step to assess the variants.

6 Criteria, code numbers and components 89

Fig. 6-2:
Demonstration example
of a two-dimensional morpho-
logical system Solution elements

Problem elements
Pushing
Spindle Piston Belt

Coupling
Bracket Pulley Plate Adapater

Turning
Piston Pinion Rotary vane

Couplin
Croiwn whee Adapter Arm Bracket
Parallel gripper
Gripping
Sheats Suction Double gripper

Testing
Light Magnet Air jet Induction

Solution

The target variant can be found through systematic study of equipment-specific

6.2 features, particularly kinematic and dynamic behaviour. The selection process
Assessment concludes with a comparison of requirement and performance profiles. To do
and selection this, we need assessment criteria for alternative solutions. It is not easy to find
the right solutions. These must be independent of each other, complete, as
quantitative as possible and always formulated positively, for example not as
“Noise generation” but rather “Silent operation” if this is what we mean.
The criterion groups are:

– Physical/technical function
– Feasibility of manufacture
– Cost-effectiveness
– Man/machine relationships.

90 6 Criteria, code numbers and components

 The assessment process is the totality of all the steps in which assessment
criteria are used to select the most suitable of a number of solution variants.

Table 6-1 shows a number of the factors, features and criteria which are im-
portant for the assessment process. Depending on the application in question,
suitable criteria will be selected or additional ones formulated.

Table 6-1: Acceptable installation-position error and characteristics

Some factors and criteria for
the assessment of solutions
and components
Accessories Innovation potential
Adjustment and programming Integratability
facilities Interchangeability
Availability of software Manufacturer certification
Available size steps Overload resistance
Controller links Performance parameters
Convertability Quality standard
Corrosion protection Resistance to vibration
Cost-effectiveness Rigidity
Documentation Safety standard
Ease of adjustment Sealing
Ease of installation Silent operation
Ease of operation Suitability for clean rooms
Electromagnetic compatibility Surface protection
Facilities for fitting sensors System reserves
Facility for fitting valves Temperature resistance
Facility for user adjustment Testability
of backlash Torque handling capacity
Freedom from drift Troubleshooting programme
Freedom from maintenance Working life, service life
Guidance accuracy

Performance parameters

Acceleration Interfaces Price/performance

Cushioning -Control technology parameters
Dead weight -Electrical Range of inversion
Deformation -Mechanical Required working
Efficiency -Pneumatic space/area, stroke
Failure rate Load capacity Speed
Forces and moments Maintenance cycle Speed profile
Friction Position deviation Start/stop charac-
teristics
Thrust

6 Criteria, code numbers and components 91

 In the assessment process, it is not possible to make a clear division between
technical and economic factors, since many of the latter which relate to the pro-
duction costs must be described in technical terms. One possibility (out of
many) is a graphic representation of the technical/economic comparison in an s
graph. Fig. 6-3 shows the method involved.

Fig. 6-3:
The s graph can help with the sideal
selection of components.

1 Ideal line
2 Development line
(assumed progression)

Economic value
si Strength of problem
solution as overall value

Technical value

The economic value is a composite value for the qualities of the economic
features, while the technical value is a composite of the technical features,
particularly those relating to function, control and operation. The “strength” s of
a solution variant i is identified by the point si. The best components (solutions)
will therefore be located at top right of the graph. A healthy development of
alternative solutions will run close to the ideal line and will come closer to the
ideal value sideal in steps. Important technical factors include deformation,
oscillatory characteristics and guide properties.

A number of errors may result from the elasticity of mechanical components.

Mechanical assemblies, handling devices and axis modules are subject during
use to static and dynamic forces and moments. These may be external, such as
process forces and variable working loads, or internal, such as dead weight or
the effects of temperature. These produce deformations which are opposed by a
certain resistance. This resistance is referred to as rigidity.

Deformations lead to a shift in the gripping point (tool centre point TCP), which
impairs positioning accuracy. Accurate positioning therefore demands handling
units with high rigidity. Deformation depends in particular on load, the distance
between supports or cantilever distance, and the cross-section of the guide pro-
file. Fig. 4 illustrates deformations through the examples of loaded and un-
loaded handling devices. The representation is simplified, since, even without a
weight load, weight forces are present which can cause deformations.
Deformations may occur on one or more axes to different degrees, depending on
the configuration of the assembly. Gantry axes behave differently from less-rigid
telescopically-advancing designs. In the case of gantry axes, the distance bet-
ween supports is a decisive factor.

92 6 Criteria, code numbers and components

Fig. 6-4:
Deformations cause a shift in
the tool centre point TCP with
linear units

a) Telescopic advance
unloaded unloaded
b) Travelling on gantry beam
TCP TCP

loaded loaded

In order to assess the achievable cycle time, we must also study the oscillatory
characteristics. In most cases, free vibration will be present. After strong retarda-
tion, this will cease after a short time due to bearing friction and internal friction.
The amplitude and frequency of the vibration will depend on the speed, load and
cantilever extension involved.

In order to characterise oscillatory behaviour, amplitude and settling time are

combined and considered as “overshoot behaviour”. If a target position is
approached with a high rate of retardation, oscillation will be induced in the
system and the target will be overshot (Fig. 6-5). The overshoot amplitude OA is
the greatest deviation of the gripper in a certain direction when approaching a
target position. The settling time T is a component of the function execution
time. This is the time which the handling device requires until the amplitude of
the gripper oscillations after the target position is reached no longer exceeds a
defined amount, the permissible position spread P. These remarks also apply
analogously to rotary units.

Fig. 6-5:
Overshoot behaviour in a
displacement/time graph
Travel distance

Travel time with rated load

Time

6 Criteria, code numbers and components 93

 A linear unit consists of a guide, a slide, a drive, a transducer (optional) and a
6.3 controller. All these components should be perfectly matched to each other.
Guides and smooth- Users expect modules of this kind to deliver a service life of 100 million motion
ness of operation cycles. For handling systems, a repetition accuracy of ±0.5 to ±0.1 mm is gener-
ally sufficient with stroke lengths of 100 to 1000 mm. Automated assembly oper-
ations may have more stringent requirements. The differences in the prices of
linear units are due to the various types of positioning (fixed end stops, end and
intermediate stops, free positioning) and the quality of the guide system used
(Fig. 6-6). The “performance” in the graph means a combination of load capacity,
rigidity and guide accuracy.

Fig. 6-6:
Trend of price/performance
ratio for linear guides

1 Linear ball bearing

2 Profile rail guide
3 Precision guide
Price

Performance

The technical requirements placed on linear motions vary widely according to

whether the applications in question involve:

– Handling axes
– Machine tools or production machinery
– High-precision systems.

In view of the very wide range of attachments and fittings use in handling
systems, we must pay special attention to the permissible axis-specific force and
moment loads. The rigidity of a linear guide depends on the design of the sup-
porting body, the support rail, the bearings (type, number, contact points) and
the initial stress of the system. Regarding the choice of guides with ball or roller
bearings, we should note the following:
Ball bearings are suitable for low to medium loads where only medium system
rigidity is required. These bearings are low-friction and can thus achieve high
speeds, which is very useful in handling systems. Roller-bearing guides, on the
other hand, provide high precision, rigidity and load capacity. They are thus
especially suitable for use in machine tools and special machinery.

94 6 Criteria, code numbers and components

 Handling technology has been the subject of enormous development in the last
6.4 30 years. Modular devices and industrial robots have replaced human beings at
And, finally... many points in the production process, and there is no sign that this develop-
ment is about to come to halt. In the field of pick-and-place technology, a large
number of manufacturers are currently offering a total of 3,500 linear units,
together with around 900 rotary units and over 650 grippers. The market for
handling components is growing faster than the market for industrial robots.
What is the reason for this astonishing development?

We find the following explanations:

– Modular handling units do not include any unwanted functions.

– Modular devices offer the performance of a special machine but with the
reliability of standard units.
– Handling components are series-produced and are thus cheaper, thoroughly
tested and of high quality.
– Most modules are available from stock with no waiting.
– Many modular systems are now so extensive that they can provide even highly
complex assemblies.
– A wide choice of size steps means that components can be selected to match
given loads.
– CAD-compatible files are available to save time in planning work.
– Handling modules can be re-used if a particular application is no longer
required.
– The integration of electronic components makes it easier to link handling
systems to controllers.

There are also disadvantages, which are however less important. These include
the following:

– Every connection between components represents a spring/mass system and

makes the assembly “soft”.
– Interfaces are not standardised, which makes it difficult to combine compo-
nents from different systems.
– The very large number of different systems and variants is confusing for users.

Notwithstanding this, pick-and-place technology has a great future ahead of it.

New and improved automation components will appear and help to further auto-
mate workpiece manufacture, assembly and other related areas.

6 Criteria, code numbers and components 95

 Ameling, W.; Backe, W. et alia: Flexible Handhabungsgeräte im Maschinenbau
Literature (Flexible Handling Devices in Mechanical Engineering). Published by VCH,
Weinheim 1996

Deppert, W.; Stoll, K.: Pneumatik-Anwendungen (Pneumatic Applications).

Published by Vogel Verlag, Würzburg 1990

Gerhard, E.: Entwickeln und Konstruieren mit System (Systematic Development

And Design). Published by expert Verlag, Renningen 1998

Hesse, S.: Greiferanwendungen (Gripper Applications). From the series "Blue

Digest on Automation” published by Festo Esslingen 1997

Hesse, S.: Lexikon Greifertechnik (Lexicon of Gripper Technology). Published by

Festo Esslingen, 1997

Hesse, S.: Greifer-Praxis (Grippers in Practice). Published by Vogel Verlag,

Würzburg 1991

Hesse, S.: Montagemaschinen (Assembly Machines). Published by Vogel Verlag,

Würzburg 1993

Hesse, S.: Handhabungsmaschinen (Handling Machines). Published by Vogel

Verlag, Würzburg 1993

Hesse, S.: Praxiswissen Handhabungstechnik in 36 Lektionen (Practical Handling

Technology In 36 Lessons). Published by expert Verlag, Renningen 1996

Hesse, S.; Schmidt, H.: Rationalisieren mit Balancern und Hubeinheiten

(Rationalization Using Balancers And Lifting Units). Published by expert verlag,
Renningen 1998.

Hesse, S.; Nörthemann, K.-H.; Krahn, H.; Strzys, P.: Vorrichtungen zur
Herstellung von Gußstücken und Spritzgußteilen (Equipment For The Production
Of Castings And Injection Mouldings). Published by expert verlag, Renningen
1998.

Hesse, S.: Industrieroboterpraxis - Automatisierte Handhabung in der Fertigung

(Industrial Robots In Practice - Automated Handling In Production Processes).
Published by Vieweg Verlag, Wiesbaden 1998

Hesse, S.: Atlas der modernen Handhabungstechnik (Atlas of Modern Handling

Technology). Published by Vieweg Verlag, Wiesbaden 1993

Hesse, S.: Industrieroboterpraxis - Automatisierte Handhabung in der Fertigung

(Industrial Robot Practice: Automated Handling in Production Facilities).
Published in German by Vieweg Verlag, Wiesbaden 1998

96 Literature
Krahn, H.; Nörthemann, K.-H.; Hesse, S.; Eh, D.: Konstruktionselemente 3 -
Beispielsammlung für die Montage- und Zuführtechnik (Design Elements 3 - An
Anthology Of Examples For Assembly And Feed Systems). Published by Vogel
Verlag, Würzburg, 1999

Linde, H.; Hill, B.: Erfolgreich erfinden - Widerspruchsorientierte

Innovationsstrategie für Entwickler und Konstrukteure (Successful Invention - A
Contradiction-Oriented Innovation Strategy For Developers And Designers).
Published by Hoppenstedt Verlag, Darmstadt, 1993

Lotter, B.: Wirtschaftliche Montage (Economic Assembly). Published by VDI

Verlag, Düsseldorf 1992

Nist, G.; et alia: Steuern und Regeln im Maschinenbau (Open- And Closed-Loop
Control In Mechanical Engineering). Published by Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel,
Haan-Gruiten 1989

Seegräber, L.: Greifsysteme für Montage, Handhabung und Industrieroboter

(Gripper Systems For Assembly, Handling And Industrial Robots). Published by
expert Verlag, Ehningen 1993

Seitz, G.; Hesse, S.: Robotik - Grundwissen für die berufliche Bildung (Robotics-
Fundamentals For Vocational Training). Published by Vieweg Verlag, Wiesbaden
1996

Literature 97
 4-position drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Glossary 4-position rotary drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
of technical terms
A Air-jet gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Alternate feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Assessment criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Auxiliary process time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

B Basic units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Belt distributor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Blank workpiece handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Boom-type design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

C Cam/roller system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Cascade control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Centring bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Clamping unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Closed-loop control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Code rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Combination slide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Combination variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Compact device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Conductive-plastic potentiometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Conduit system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Control cams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 68
Cross-gantry configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Cushioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Cycle time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

D Deceleration force curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Degree of freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Degree of freedom of the transmission system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Destacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Directness of pneumatic drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Distributor slides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Double distributor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Double-arm loader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Double-arm system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Dovetail clamp systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Drum stop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

E Ejector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
End effectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
End-position controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
End-position cushioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

98 Glossary of technical terms

F Feed device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Finished workpiece handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Fluidic muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Force cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Force locking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Freedom from backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

G Guide system .............................................................. 29

H Handling cycle time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Handling function diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Handling modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Home position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

I Incremental encoder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Industrial shock absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Installation components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Intermediate stop system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Intermediate stop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 33

K Kinematic chains ........................................................... 44

L Lift/turn loader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Lifting-piston suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Linear guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Linear positioner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Linear units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Loading device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Locking device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

M Machine feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Magazine feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Magnetic grippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Magnetostrictive distance measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Mass moment of inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Miniature angled gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Miniature grippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Morphological system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Motion patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 43
Multiple gripper device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Multi-position drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Multi-stage roller conveyor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

O One-way flow control valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Over-determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Overhead swivel motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Overshoot amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Glossary of technical terms 99

 P Parallel gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Parallelogram arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Performance profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Periphery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 28
Pick-and-place cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Pick-and-place devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Positioning axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Positioning system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Positive locking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Potentiometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Precision gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Press feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Profile connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Prosthetic arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

R Rebound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Removal devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Resolver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Rigidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Rotary arm unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Rotary cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Rotary loader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Rotary unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34, 60
Rotary vane motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Rotary-vane module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Rotary-vane type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Rotor position encoder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

S Select shock absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Separation operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Servopneumatic axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Servopneumatic position control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Settling time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
S-graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Shock absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Slot-nut connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Smart Soft Stop system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51, 70
Spindle drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Standard cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Steiner method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Stepping motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Stop system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Stopper cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Strip feed device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Strip material feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Suction-cup spider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Swivel arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Swivel stop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Swivel/linear drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

100 Glossary of technical terms

 Swivel-arm pick-and-place device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Synchronisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

T Tension/compression components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Three-finger gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Toothed piston system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Toothed-belt drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Transfer device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Transfer gripper device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Transfer unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Turning station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Turret gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Twin unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Twin-piston rotary drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Two-dimensional patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

W Workpiece carrier magazine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Workpiece ejector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Workpiece handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Glossary of technical terms 101

Appendix:
Typical configurations
of pick-and-place
devices produced with
Festo’s modular system

Pick-and-place device
of boom-arm design
(HMP/HMP/DRQD/HGR)

1 Adapter kits
2 Profile column
3 Adapter kits
4 Adapter kits
5 Accessories 7
6 Cover cap
7 Linear modules
9
8 Adapter kits
9 Linear modules 4
10 Adapter kits
11 Rotary drive
12 Adapter kits 8
13 Radial gripper 3
14 Distribution box 6
15 Conduit
16 Fitting 5
17 Lock nut 15
18 Adapter plate
19 Multiple distributor for
16
inputs and outputs
14
18
17

2
10

11
19

12

1
13

102 Appendix
Pick-and-place device
of boom-arm design

1 Adapter kits
2 Profile column
3 Cover cap
4 Adapter bracket/base
bracket, adapter kits 6
5 Adapter kits
6 Linear module
7 Adapter kits
8 Mini slide 5
9 Adapter kits
10 Parallel gripper
7

4
8 3
2

10
1

Appendix 103
Pick-and-place device
of gantry design

1 Adapter kits
2 Profile column
3 Adapter kits 4
4 Profile column
5 Cover cap
6 Adapter kits
5
7 Linear drive
8 Guide axis
9 Adapter kits
10 Linear modules 2
11 Adapter kits
3
12 Parallel gripper
6
8

1
10

11

12

104 Appendix
Pick-and-place device
of gantry design
4
1 Adapter kits
2 Profile column
3 Cover cap
4 Adapter kits 5
5 Linear drive
6 Shock absorber
7 (Shock absorber bracket)
8 Adapter plate 3
9 Mini slide
10 Adapter kits
11 Parallel gripper

8 2

10

11

Appendix 105