Materials for flexible riser

systems: problems and

solutions
Fraser Moore
Co[texip ( UK) Limited, London, UK

Criteria to be satisfied in the selection of materials for unbonded flexible

risers are first outlined. The paper then describes how three main types
of thermoplastic and two classes of steel meet these requirements, and
briefly discusses selection criteria and materials used for ancillary
equipment for flexible riser systems.

Keywords: dynamic flexible riser, unbonded flexible pipe, high density

polyethelene, Rilsan, Coflon, autensic stainless steels, low alloy carbon
steels

Flexible riser systems are now proven technology in the
development of hydrocarbon resources in the North Sea.
The design of these systems can involve many different
engineering skills, from multiphase flow techniques to
complex nonlinear dynamic analysis. These aspects are
of course important in ensuring the integrity of the system,
but the basic elements which make these stages of design
possible are structural design and material selection.
Today, flexible risers may be divided into two types
depending on their construction, i.e., bonded or un-
bonded. These terms are fairly explicit, with the bonded
variety comprising layers of fabric, elastomers and steel
which, when bonded together by adhesives or by the
application of heat and/or pressure, form a single con-
struction. Unbonded pipes have separate steel and plastic
layers which are free to move relative to each other. The
vast majority of flexible risers currently used are of the
unbonded variety. The purpose of this paper is to
highlight the problems and associated solutions relating
to the selection of material for this type of construction.
The nature of flexible risers is such that unique
constraints are placed on the designer when selecting
appropriate materials for both internal and external
environments. However, one advantage to the designer
is that no material need satisfy all conditions, so some of
the problems which are common in rigid pipe design will
not be relevant to flexibles.
It is hoped that this paper will provide an overview of
the problems associated with materials selection for
flexible risers and one manufacturer's solutions to these
problems. The selection process is, of course, dependent
Rough bore structures
These are used whenever gas may be present in the
transported fluid. They are most commonly used for
multiphase oil and gas production, gas export, gas lift,
gas injection and annulus control. The basic structure is
shown in Figure 1 and each layer has the following
functions.
• The inner interlocked steel carcass prevents the
collapse of the pressure plastic sheath. Collapse may be
caused by either hydrostatic pressure (in the case of a
damaged external sheath) or build-up of diffused gases
in the annulus between the plastic layers (in the case of
depressurization of the flexible pipe structure).
• The intermediate pressure plastic sheath ensures that
the pipe remains leakproof during service.
• A spiralled steel layer of'zeta' wires is used to sustain
the radial loads generated by the internal pressure.
Whenever necessary, this layer may be reinforced by a
fiat steel spiral to enable the pressure rating of the
structure to be increased.
• An additional thermoplastic layer may be inserted
between the pressure-resistant layers and the tensile
armour wires. It is applicable to dynamic structures
only and serves as an anti-friction layer.
• Double crosswound armour layers with a long pitch
are incorporated to provide a good resistance to tensile
Thermoplastic sheath

/••/uble
crosswound armours
on the design techniques employed, so these are also Thermoplastic sheath
discussed below. Zeta spiral

cked steel carcass

Flexible riser design
These are two basic designs of unbonded flexible risers
which are commonly used; rough bore and smooth bore.

This paper was originally presented at a meeting on 'Flexible risers'

held 9 January 1989 at University College London, UK. Figure 1 Typical rough bore structure (dynamic riser)

0141-0296/89/040208-09/$03.00
208 Eng. Struct. 1989, Vol. 1 1, October ~ 1989 Butterworth& Co (Publishers) Ltd

loads and torque. A layer of adhesive tape is wound
over the second layer of steel wires to maintain the
armours during manufacture.
• An external plastic sheath is used to protect the metallic
layers of the structure against external corrosion or
abrasion and to bind the underlying armours.
In the case of relatively low pressure requirements, designs
involving only tensile armours to sustain both radial and
tensile loads may be envisaged. The corresponding
armouring angle is modified (increased to 55 °) and the
intermediate thermoplastic layer provides both the pres-
sure containment (seal) and the anti-friction requirements.
Smooth bore structures
Smooth bore structures are used in a variety of applica-
tions which do not involve gas diffusion through the
pressure-containing plastic layer (e.g., water or chemical
injection, dead oil export). The basic structure is shown
in Figure 2 and comprises the following.
• An inner plastic tube which makes the pipe leakproof.
• Spiralled steel layers (zeta spiral or carcass) are used to
sustain the radial loads generated by the internal
pressure. As for rough bore structures, the zeta spiral
may be reinforced by a fiat steel spiral to increase the
pressure rating of the structure.
• An anti-collapse thermoplastic sheath is used to trans-
mit the external pressure onto the underlying steel
carcass or spiral.
• Double crosswound armour layers with a long pitch
are incorporated to provide a good resistance to tensile
loads and torque. A layer of adhesive tape is wound
over the second layer of steel wires to maintain the
armours during manufacture.
• An external plastic sheath is used to protect the metallic
layers of the structure against external corrosion or
abrasion and to bind the underlying armours.
Material selection criteria
The previous description of unbonded flexible risers
described the function of each layer in the structure. The
associated materials must fulfil this function and hence
ensure that the integrity of the flexible pipe is maintained
during its design life. Although this must of course be the
primary criterion of material selection, the manufacturer
Thermoplastic sheath
Double crosswoundarmours
/ Thermoplosticsheoth
~ 7moplassthiecath
Figure2 Typical smooth bore structure (subsea flowline or
dynamic riser)
Materials for flexible riser systems: F. Moore
and designer have many secondary criteria to consider
which could influence the final selection.
The selection criteria may be summarized as follows:
• functional suitability
• long-term integrity
• ease of manufacture and supply
• certification requirements
• client specification
• economic viability
The functional suitability of the material refers to its
ability to fulfil its mechanical requirements in the overall
pipe design while resisting attack from the internal and
external environments. The internal contents of flexible
risers range from seawater to very severe multiphase
fluids. In addition to the natural fluids experienced in oil
production, many additives such as various types of
inhibitors may also be present during the operational life
of the risers. Also a function of the internal conditions
are the temperature and pressure requirements of the
system. The temperatures experienced during normal oil
production are not sufficiently high to cause concern with
respect to the metallic materials; however, the tem-
perature restrictions of the plastic materials provide a
basic design criterion which must be closely adhered to,
especially regarding the long-term plastic ageing effect at
high temperatures. The pressure rating of the system will
dictate not only the thickness of the steel layers but can
also influence the grade of material. Depending on the
nature of the internal fluids (sweet or sour service), higher
grades of steel may be specified in systems where extreme
pressures induce high stresses in the steel layers.
Another functional criterion is of course the ability of
the materials to withstand dynamic service. This is
particularly relevant to the external sheath which is under
the greatest strain during operational service; it is also
at the lowest temperature, so the potential for tearing is
increased.
A further important criterion for flexible riser material
selection is its suitability for installation and retrieval.
Approximately one-eighth of flexible lines installed are
retrieved for re-use, so the requirement for safe installa-
tion and retrieval is essential. The type of environment
experienced during these operations is frequently more
severe than normal operational conditions.
The long-term integrity of a flexible riser is, as with
any other item of offshore equipment, a critical factor in
the selection of materials. The suitability of the material
to operate satisfactorily over a predicted design life is
essential from both safety and production viewpoints.
The steel materials must have long-term characteristics
in three main areas: fatigue, wear and corrosion. The
fatigue aspect of steels is well known and selection of
materials based on a suitable endurance limit is one
possible solution. The wear aspect of steel selection is
based on bench tests and full scale-trials of various
materials and subsequent correlation with the mechanical
properties of the material. Wear is usually the limiting
criterion in the prediction of the system design life for an
unbonded flexible riser. The corrosion of steels is also a
well known phenomenon and the basic techniques used
in the prediction of corrosion rates and protection of the
standard offshore steels also apply to flexible riser
materials. The assessment of the long-term integrity of
Eng. Struct. 1989, Vol. 11, October 209
Materials for flexible riser systems. F. Moore
the plastic material, however, is a complex process
involving many different parameters and field conditions.
The basic components are temperature and fluid content
but other factors, which can be unique to each production
scenario (addition of scale inhibitor, etc.), can also have
a significant effect on the predicted design life.
Efficient and cost-effective manufacturing is another
fundamental consideration. Many materials which can
satisfy all the other requirements cannot be considered
due to their limitations in the manufacturing process.
This may be the suitability for extrusion of certain plastic
materials or the ability of the steel wires to be formed in
the required profiles. Another factor relating to this is
the raw material procurement. Due to the nature of the
unbonded design, the steel materials must be supplied in
sizes and finishes which are not common in industry and
so suppliers can be difficult to find. This is especially true
for high grade stainless steel strip.
The certification requirement of flexible pipes is limited
to a few recommended practices from the various certi-
fying authorities. However, the certification of the
materials used in the pipe construction is similar
to those of rigid pipe or any other material used offshore.
Quality control from source must be applied to all
components of the system.
The client specification of materials is common,
especially for the internal steel carcass. The reasons for
the use of a particular material by the client is usually
based on some practical experience with this material.
The final selection requirement is economic viability.
This is linked to the ease of manufacture and supply, and
is an important material characteristic at the design stage.
However, since safety is the ultimate objective, it cannot
be considered as a primary design consideration and is
usually only considered after the other criteria have been
satisfied.
Flexible pipe materials
As already described, unbonded flexible riser structures
are basically composed of steel and thermoplastic
materials. The steel layers give the mechanical perfor-
mance of the pipe structure, while the internal and
external leakproofness are provided by the plastic layers.
Thermoplastic materials
The different thermoplastic resins selected for manu-
facturing the various plastic sheaths have been the subject
of in-depth analysis with regard to their chemical
properties, in an effort to provide a more accurate
assessment of their suitability at various temperatures
and fluid conditions. Whatever layer they are used for,
these materials have technical limits which can be defined
either by the supplier of the materials, with or without
additional qualification test from the manufacturer, or
the manufacturer, which may have defined its own criteria
for specific applications. These limits must be determined
for each thermoplastic material with respect to:
• temperature
• compatability with typical transported products
• permeability .to gas
• blistering resistance - - considering that all the
materials, within their defined limits, should maintain
210 Eng. Struct. 1989, Vol. 11, October
their integrity without the occurrence of bubbles,
blisters, cracks, tears, etc.
• ageing resistance.
These limits are defined for typical applications, i.e., oil,
water, oil and sour gas and acid.
In general these limits have been evaluated using
various technical sources. The most obvious source is the
supplier's documentation and technical support for the
specific requirement laid down by the manufacturer.
In addition, laboratory test results on material samples
can provide the requisite data when the supplier's support
is not specific to the manufacturer's requirement. These
can be performed in addition to full-scale tests on a pipe
structure, simulating working conditions. The final source
of data is lines retrieved for re-use which have been
operational for up to 10 years. Analysis is performed to
ensure the integrity of the line before starting a second
operational term.
There exist three main types of thermoplastic materials
which fulfil, to varying degrees, the selection criteria
described previously.
High density polyethylene ( HDPE). Polyethylenes are
a family of resins obtained by polymerizing the gas
ethylene, Cz H4. By varying the catalysts and methods of
polymerization, the density and most other properties
can be regulated over wide ranges. Due to the longer
chains in higher density polyethylene, a more rigid
material with greater strength, hardness, chemical resis-
tance and higher softening temperatures is obtained.
The improved properties mean that the material
displays excellent durability in the presence of water or
acid products. However, its relatively low melting point
(compared with the polyamides) at 120°C means that
its operational temperature is rather limited. Figure 3
shows how the sl~ear modulus varies with temperature.
In addition, its resistance to blistering decreases at higher
temperatures and so the recommended temperature limit
in the presence of petroleum products is restricted to
60°C even at low pressure levels. The results of decom-
pression cycles under severe conditions are shown in
Table 1. The samples were submerged in lran crude at
100°C and 100 bars for 100 hours, during which 10 fast
depressurizations were performed. The process was then
I000
500 ~ o n
"G
Q.
tb
[O050105 PAl2
E
.g:
u3
I ] I I I I I I ,I ! I
-6( -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 I00 120 140 160
Temperature (°C)
Figure 3 Shear modulus vs. temperature
 Materials for flexible riser systems: F. Moore
Table I Blistering resistance of thermoplastics

Behaviour according to number of cycles (200 h)

1 5 10 20 50

High density polyethylene3 Good Good Fair (small Poor (cracks, --

blisters) blisters)
Polyamide 113 Good Good Good Good Good
Coflon 4 fluorinated Good Good Good Good Good
polymer
Polyamide 124 Good Good Good Good Good

repeated for methane. The behaviour of the materials was
examined after each 200 hour cycle. It is evident that the
HDPE does not withstand this type of loading as well
as other materials under these conditions.
HDPE is commonly used for internal layers of water
injection risers, but it is most common as an external
sheath for static flowlines and wellhead jumpers, and as
such its permeability to gas is not critical. However,
Figure 4 shows that HDPE has a relatively high per-
meability to methane (CH4) compared with other thermo-
plastics. At the same temperature Coflon is 10 times less
permeable then HDPE.
Polyarnide (PAll or PAl2). This is perhaps better
known as nylon (11 or 12) in its basic form. It is produced
by the polycondensation of the monomer 11--amino-
undecanoic acid, a derivative of castor oil. The basic
plastic produced by this process has good impact
strength, hardness and abrasion resistance. It also has an
exceptionally low water absorption (lower than other
nylons) and hence is more suitable for manufacturing.
The most common thermoplastic used in the manu-
facture of flexible risers is Rilsan (trademark), which is a
specially designed grade of nylon 11 and is more flexible
and suitable for use in dynamic risers. It has an excellent
resistance to blistering, better than many other thermo-
plastics and most elastomeric materials, at the same time
displaying a very good preservation of properties in
temperatures up to 90-100°C. This is evident in Figure
3, where the shear modulus value of approximately
50 MPa is held constant around this temperature.
The blistering characteristics are also shown in Table
1, where even after 50 cycles the resistance is still good.
Further evidence of the resistance to blistering can be
found in Reference 3 where PAll, when tested for
wellhead seal rings, was found to have 'excellent blistering
resistance and exceptional property retention'.
The permeability of Rilsan with respect to other plastics
is also shown in Figure 4. Figure 5 shows that the
permeability to hydrogen sulphide is greater than that to
carbon dioxide or methane. Although Rilsan would
appear to have reasonably high rates of diffusion for these
different gases, it is around 150 to 500 times less than
that found in similar tests performed with various

7--

E
o

PAll
9--

fion

IO ] I I L I ! L I I I I
23 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 28 2.9 3.O .3.1 3.2 3.3
IO3T/K
I 1
I;0 1215 I(~O 75 50
F(°C)
Figure 4 Permeability of thermoplastic materials (CH 4, 100 bars)

Eng. Struct. 1989, Vol. 11, October 211

 Materials for flexible riser systems. F. Moore

rubbers. A further phenomenon noted with these tests The long-term ageing characteristics of these materials
was the relative filtering effect of the gases which were at elevated temperatures have been assessed over a
least abundant in the main pipe bore. This is an important number of years involving tests and field trials under very
phenomenon when considering the possible degradation severe conditions. In general, the degradation of thermo-
of the outer steel layers by attack from sour gases which plastics such as Rilsan involves several possible
are normally least abundant. mechanisms which may be either physical--e.g., dis-
tO -6
solving/removal of plasticizer in crude oil or other
transported fluids--or chemical--e.g., oxidation of the
plastic due to temperature and hydrolysis in the presence
of water at high temperatures. This degradation
phenomenon can be thermally activated (particularly
for the chemical mechanisms which follow an exponential
kinetic law). Therefore, to accelerate the ageing process,
10-7 laboratory tests on samples are generally carried out at
higher temperatures than the actual field conditions.
The results are then extrapolated to cover a wider range
of temperatures. Ageing of Rilsan in flexible risers is likely
to happen at high operating temperatures (mainly with
production of hydrocarbons), and will result in time in
a deterioration of its tensile properties. Viscosity is also
affected by temperature and may be used for assessing
10-8
1,3
the amount of material degradation.
Figure 6 shows the results of extensive test pro-
.<,
grammes performed on Rilsan samples. The graph shows
the variation of both yield and ultimate elongations of the
o~
plasticized polyamide 11 as a function of time and
temperature. Three distinct stages are apparent on each
curve. These are:
10-9
• a sharp initial decrease attributed to the Rilsan
material reaching equilibrium under test conditions
CH4 (temperature, pressure, nature of crude oil, degree of
humidity, etc.);
• a stabilization plateau where the tensile properties of
the material remain constant over a period of time
i0 -I0 I I which depends on the test temperature;
2.5 3.0 3.5 • a second sharp yielding to a state characterized by a
103T/K
L I I I I I very small ultimate elongation and the absence of
I00 75 50 25 plastic deformation. This condition is unsuitable for
T(*c)
Figure 5 Permeability o f Rilsan ( P A l 1 )
flexible riser applications.

120
ULtirnoteelongotion
Yield elongation
I00

8O

-E

6O

4O
3C
140eC I -- 130°C ~k
, ,iii
u

ZO

I I
2O 40 60 80 IOO 120 140 160 180 200
Time (weeks)
Figure 6 Strain vs. time ( P A l l + Iran crude)

212 Eng. Struct. 1989, Vol. 11, October


The criterion used for the quality of the Rilsan is that
the ultimate elongation be at least 45% (30% yield). This
ensures that a satisfactory safety margin is maintained
when compared with the maximum elongation (7.5%)
that the flexible pipe is likely to see at its minimum bend
radius for storage. From these results it is possible to plot,
on log-linear axes, the experimental lifetime of the
material at various temperatures (see Figure 7). Selecting
the most unfavourable test data enables us to determine
a lifetime of 10 years at 100°C in the tested fluid
conditions (oil with 10% water). The expected service life
may be increased to 20 years if the operating temperature
is lowered to 90°C.
As stated above, the short-term use of flexibles with
Rilsan sheaths means that higher temperatures could be
withstood without affecting the integrity of the system.
Recently a test was performed to demonstrate the high
temperature capabilities of Rilsan. It involved a 3 in. line
which was pressurized to 1050 bar (filled with crude oil)
with an internal temperature of 100°C. This was main-
tained for a further 24 hours when the temperature was
then increased by 3°C per hour up to 160°C. This was
held for 24 hours and the temperature was then increased
by 3°C per hour until the line failed. The pressure was
successfully maintained throughout the test until a leak
occurred at 193°C. Although this test may not be
definitive in terms of riser design, it is an indication that
in certain conditions Rilsan could provide a suitable
solution for high temperature production for a limited
design life.
A lifetime of 20 years effectively covers most current
applications in oil production. However, to meet the
specific needs of some oil fields that require resistance at
higher temperatures, a new plasticized formulation for
fluorinated polymers, Coflon, was developed.
Laboratory tests
Agha-dari crude, injected samples
moulded samples
Es-Sider crude, injected sarnples
Arabica-S crude, injected samples
id, + 10% water, injected samples
Bench tests
Agha- Jari crude, extruded samples
id. + I0 % water, extruded samples
2.-( Field tests
ioo Casablanca crude, extruded samples
IIC
~'i2c
/°t
2.5
tSO
14C
2.4
15C DO
- 2'31
I I
0.08 0.5
t c (years)
Figure 7 Fluid t e m p e r a t u r e vs. t i m e
Materials for flexible riser systems: F. Moore
Poly vinylidenefluoride (Cation*) [Coflon is a Coflexip
registered trade mark]. This is a specially designed grade
of PVDF which has remarkable thermal stability at both
processing and service temperatures. A typical maximum
fluid temperature of 130°C can be considered for long-
term life with higher temperatures for short terms (see
Figure 3).
It is essentially used as a pressure sheath when tem-
peratures exceed the allowable for Rilsan. It is known for
its excellent resistance to blistering and cracking as well
as for its compatibility with most of the produced and
injected fluids commonly considered (Table 1).
Its resistance to long-term ageing is also excellent. This
has been tested in a similar way to that of Rilsan using
accelerated ageing techniques and extrapolating the
results for lower temperatures. The results show that
Coflon is not subject to chemical degradation.
One phenomenon worth noting is that Coflon has a
lower melting point than Rilsan although it has a higher
operational temperature. The reason for this is the sudden
decrease in properties of Coflon near its melting point
where Rilsan has a gradual degradation of properties.
Steel materials
At present there exist many different grades and specifi-
cations of steels used in unbonded flexible pipe which are
selected using the guidelines described above. There are,
however, two general classifications of steels which are
most commonly considered: stainless and low carbon
steels.
Stainless steels. The use of high grade stainless steels is
becoming increasingly common in subsea systems, and
flexible risers are no exception. The high resistance to
corrosion offered by this group of steels, coupled with
•
o good mechanical characteristics, means that many prob-
zx lems associated with severe functional conditions can be
<> overcome and hence the long-term integrity of the system
can be maintained or even increased. Within this group
I] of steels there are many variations on the basic theme of a
/
•
significant chromium content instigating an immunity to
• corrosive attack. Additions such as molybednum, nickel,
titanium and others help to improve further the resistance
to corrosion or the mechanical properties of the steels.
Further classification of the basic nature of these
materials yields three common ranges: austenitic, ferritic
and martensitic. The basic production processes and
properties of these different structures are, of course, well
documented, but it is the corrosion resistant chromium-
nickel austenitic steels which are most commonly used
in unbonded flexible pipes. They are primarily used for
the inner interlocked steel carcass. The selection of grade
is based on the corrosiveness of the internal fluid
conveyed as well the operating temperature of the pipe.
The grades most commonly used are AISI 304/304L/316/
316L.
The fundamental problem affecting the selection of
stainless steels is the constituents of the produced oils.
Whereas basic oil is not corrosive (it actually prevents
I I I I corrosion of the system), the presence of CO2, chloride
I 2 5 I0 and water in the system increases the corrosive potential
of the fluid.
Corrosion can be caused by CO2 dissolving in water
Eng. Struct. 1989, Vol. 11, October 213
Materials for flexible riser systems. F. Moore
to lower the pH level of the system. This, combined with
chlorides, can cause severe pitting in the carcass of the
pipe. Corrosion due to H 2 S (sour corrosion) dissolved in
water also results in weight loss and the combination of
all three (HzS, CO2 and chlorides) in water can lead to
a very severe environment for steel. These factors can be
accelerated by high temperatures and flowrates, but in
the presence of oxygen there is a drastic increase in the
corrosivity.
Extensive testing must be performed in conditions as
relevant as possible to determine the suitability of the
material for its function. Numerous tests have been
performed, mainly by IFP and Coflexip's Research
Department, since 1975 to evaluate the behaviour of inner
carcass materials to corrosion. These involved samples
of the basic materials, pre-formed strips and full pipe
sections. The tests were performed in different media
(water, saltwater, NaC1 solution, NACE solution, crude
oil, etc.), all with or without partial pressures of CO2 and
HzS, and at varying temperatures. The results are too
extensive to report in detail here; however, the general
behaviour of the materials indicates that there are very
few instances where grade AISI 316L could not be used
as an inner carcass material and indeed, for most produc-
tion conditions, 304 or 304L would be suitable.
For very aggressive environments higher grades of
stainless steel can be used. Duplex steels were also tested
and in general demonstrated excellent corrosion resis-
tance in severe conditions. Duplex steels have been used
on some flexible pipes, although the cost implications can
be significant.
An important consideration in the selection of the steel
grade for the inner carcass is the function of this layer in
an unbonded flexible pipe. It provides a resistance to
collapse from external pressure and does not have any
other mechanical function in the pipe, so some degree of
degradation could be allowable without affecting the
integrity of the system. This would probably not be the
case in a rigid pipe design, since any pitting or surface
corrosion could be detrimental to the overall integrity of
the system for similar conditions.
Carbon steels. The remaining steel layers of unbonded
flexible pipes are essentially composed of carbon steel
wires. The basic selection criteria are structural strength
and fatigue resistance, since very high loads must be
withstood by wire sizes which are limited by the manu-
facturing processes. Typical ultimate tensile strength
values up to 1500 M P a are currently in use for sweet
crude production. The actual steel grades adopted in
flexible risers systems are mainly derived from the
A F N O R 35.051 specification, and these have been
thoroughly tested in many different conditions in the
laboratory, test sites and in operation.
Table 2 Typical mechanical properties of low alloy carbon steels
Specification Grade Finish
AFNOR FM15 Cold drawn
AFNOR FM35 Cold drawn
AFNOR FM72 Cold drawn
214 Eng. Struct. 1989, Vol. 11, October
There are three main grades used by Coflexip: FM 15,
FM35 and FM72. Typical characteristics of these
materials are shown in Table 2. The selection of a
particular grade is dependent on the local service condi-
tions; F M I 5 and FM72 are widely used, whereas FM35
is a more recent development which, like FM 15, can be
used for zeta wire or tensile armours.
Such steel specifications, or their equivalents, are not
uncommon in industry but the type of finish required is
almost unique. The materials have usually to be cold
drawn in small bars and yet still retain the charactertistics
suitable for the various constraints associated with oil
production.
These steel armours, which provide the flexible pipe
with mechanical resistance, are situated between the
internal and the external thermoplastic sheaths. The
leakproofness of these sheaths prevents corrosion
attacking the armours. However, accidental tears in
the external sheath will mean seawater is in contact with
the steel armours (although this would be very unlikely
in a riser system). This seawater, combined with diffused
gases from the internal fluid, could lead to local corrosion.
Corrosion due to seawater alone can be either uniform
or differential. Both these types are limited by the amount
of aerated seawater in contact with the armours. Stress
corrosion cracking can be caused by this type of cor-
rosion; however, the materials selected undergo very
severe tests as specified by ASTM 1141. Any gas diffusion
through the pressure sheath can lead to CO2 or H2S
being present around the armours.
The forms of corrosion possible in this environment
can be:
• uniform - - caused by diffused gases coming in contact
with the armours. This is limited by the very small
amount of aggressive gases generally found in the
annulus.
• pitting - - this is similar, except small bubbles attack
the steel locally. Tests have been performed to examine
this phenomenon and the results showed that any cor-
rosion either ceased after a few days, or was negligible
(a few micrometres per year).
• sulphide stress cracking (SSC) some steels are
subject to SSC, which is characterized by a brittle
breaking when steel is in the presence of both HzS and
seawater and under tensile strength. Simulation of
severe conditions are specified in NACE TM.01.77
standard.
All steels used by Coflexip for sour service have passed
this test or have an HRC value of less than 22.
Another important criterion for the selection of wires
for flexible risers in their resistance to wear and fatigue.
Extensive testing has been performed on the wear and
Ultimate tensile Suitability for
strength (MPa) sour service
784 Yes
850 Yes
1500 No

fatigue properties of these wires and all show a suitable
resistance to long-term wear and fatigue under the
operating conditions experienced in a riser system.
Flexible riser system equipment
Apart from the basic pipe structures there is, of course,
a considerable amount of ancillary equipment used in a
flexible riser system. Details of the materials and processes
used in the manufacture of this equipment are diverse
and complex and are beyond the scope of this paper.
However, a brief discussion of the materials used in each
application is presented and some details as to the nature
and selection criteria for each is also included.
End fittings
A typical end fitting for an unbonded flexible steel pipe
is shown in Figure 8. It is composed of various crimping
rings and flanges which mechanically fix the layer to a
steel vault which forms the main bore and flange of the
connection. A cap is placed over the various pipe layers
and epoxy resin is applied to hold the tensile armours.
The basic cap and vault are composed of a high strength,
low alloy carbon steel (typically AISI 4130), although no
girth welding is involved in the standard mounting
process so restrictions on the maximum carbon content
may differ from normal flanged connections. The internal
rings are a combination of steel and thermoplastic
materials. The end fitting is usually cathodically pro-
tected, although further protection in the form of painting
or kanigen treatment is provided. The latter resists both
corrosion and abrasion.
Stiffeners
The purpose of a typical dynamic bending stiffener is to
provide an additional resistance to overbending at critical
locations along the riser system (usually at the top and
bottom connections). As such, the material selected must
be resilient under high bending (strain), have a good load-
bearing capacity, be suitable for long-term cyclic loading
Tensilearmours Front crimpingring
\ ]
Cap,~ \ /
Figure 8 End fitting section
Materials for flexible riser systems: F. Moore
and be suitable for moulding. The material most com-
monly used is polyurethane. This fulfils all the above
requirements and can be tailored to a variety of specific
applications.
Buoyancy
In the majority of riser systems, buoyancy - - either in
the form of subsea arches or discrete buoyancy units - -
is required to maintain the system in the desired con-
figuration. There are several different types of buoyancy
foam available on the market but the most widely used
for this application is syntactic foam. It is manufactured
by blending microspheres with rigid resin. The buoyancy
is increased by the addition of larger (macro) spheres and
the system is usually coated in polyurethane film. Syn-
tactic foam buoyancy of this type is suitable for water
depths of up to 3000 m (typical) and has a long-term
resistance to water ingress. It can be moulded into almost
any shape and as such is ideal for use in a riser system.
Final comments
It is hopedthat the reader of this paper will now have a
general overview of the different types of materials used in
flexible riser systems and some of the constraints the
designer and manufacturer have to satisfy.
The selection of materials for flexible risers cannot be
defined by any standard set of rules since each pipe is
'custom' designed for its unique operating conditions
and the selection process must be dictated by these. There
is no global design of flexible pipe which will satisfy the
functional requirements of every field and still offer a
commercially and technically attractive solution.
It is very tempting to compare the various merits of
the materials used in rigid and flexible pipes. However,
although the internal and external environments are
identical, the nature of the designs is different, and specific
requirements for rigid and flexible risers may well differ.
The present-day challenges for flexible risers are mostly
in the field of providing high temperature plastics and a
Rear crimpingring
Front crimpingflange /
/ Epoxyresin / Rearcrimping flange
Flat steel spiral lockingring
Eng. Struct. 1989, Vol. 11, October 215
Materials for flexible riser systems: F. Moore
cost-effective solution to the problem. At the moment
long-term temperatures of around 130°C and short-term
temperatures of possibly 160°C are attainable, but
already questions about possible systems for 200 to 300 °C
are being asked.
Future development of materials will probably be
driven by deepwater developments. With depths of up to
1000m being considered, riser weight will be a critical
factor in future designs. Extensive research and develop-
ment of new materials and designs is being undertaken,
to satisfy the industry's requirements for the foreseeable
future. This is in addition to the work which is being
216 Eng. Struct. 1989, Vol. 11, October
performed to reduce costs and provide a more cost-
effective product.
References
1 Dawans,F., Jarrin, J., Lefevre,T. O. and Pelisson, M. 'Improved
thermoplastic materials for offshoreflexiblepipes', OTC 5231, 1986
2 Mallen,J., Estrier, P. and Amilhau, S. 'The quality and reliabilityof
flexible steel pipes', RINA, January 1989
3 Potts, D. J. 'Explosive decompression resistance of elastomers in
gas duties', Offshore Engineering with Elastomers, June 1985
4 Marion, A. 'Unbonded flexible pipes and riser systems, general
design considerations', Coflexip Internal Document, 1988