80572018 xBase fo SOL.
XBase to SQL
(Comparing XBase Commands to
SQL Equivalents)
Last Modified: January 31, 2001
Ken Mayer, Senior SQA Engineer
BASE, Inc.
NOTE: This document was originally written for Visual dBASE 7.0/7.01, it has been updated for dB2K (release 1) to
include information about new properties, events, etc., and any new controls since the document was first written. If a
control is new it will be noted. In updating this document, the images were left "as is" unless it was felt to be absolutely
necessary to change them
In addition, this document refers to dB2K a lot, but unless itis about a dB2K specific aspect, the text can be used for
Visual dBASE 7.0 through Visual dBASE 7.5.
The Purpose of this Document
This document is provided to assist developers moving from earlier releases of dBASE (dBASE/DOS, Visual dBASE 5.x,
‘tc,) as well as other dialects of XBase move to dB2K. This document will attempt to compare and contrast XBase
‘commands and Local SQL equivalents.
However and very importantly, this is not a suggestion that you should use all of these SQL equivalents in your d82K
development. "Why not", you might ask. Because many of these will return read-only queries, which in most applications
will serve no purpose. Instead, you will want to use the OODML of dB2K for most situations (see other HOW TOs in the
Knowledgebase).
‘Special Note: some of these commands will work fine with Visual (BASE 5.5 and 5.6, but there are no guarantees —- the
‘SQL capabilites of the BDE were greatly enhanced in the 32-bit version of the BDE (4.5 and later releases), so if you try
many of the commands shown here with VaBASE 5.x, you may find yourself getting a lot of "Capability not supported”
errors.
‘There are times when using the local SQL commands may be a faster or more efficient way to do things (not many, but
still.)
NOTE: my primary source of information here is a really good book on SQL: Understanding the New SQL: A Complete
Guide, by Jim Melton and Alan R. Simon, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, San Francisco, 1883, ISBN: 1-55860-245-3. This
book uses an excellent approach to teaching SQL and is well worth the rather high price. (This is in addition to ontine help
but if you need to spend much time working with SQL, | heartily recommend this particular book ~- | have no experience
with any others that are out there...)
In addition to the book mentioned above, there is a "SQL Help" icon in your dB2K folder -- this discusses local SQL
‘commands in greater depth than is discussed here, Most importantly, it discusses these as implemented by the BDE.
Various Explanations
SQL commands, like XBase commands, are not generally case sensitive. In this document they are usually shown in all
‘caps to differentiate them from the data, fields, etc., but you can use them in mixed case, all caps, all lower case, etc.
In the text of this document | usually give "Syntax’ listings. When | do, | use brackets (< and >) around the name of a
value. For example, | might say: SELECT * FROM if you wanted to use the "FISH" table in the samples
folder, you would replace "" with "fish" (without the quotes) ~ the resulting command would look like:
SELECT * FROM fish
When referring to Paradox tables, you may need to include the .DB table extension, and in some cases you may want to,
‘or need to include the extension anyway.
When executing most of these commands, the table does not need to be opened. The examples should be fairly clear,
and most of them have been tested against the samples tables that ship with dB2K,
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Many of the SELECT statement options retum a result query, rather than opening the table directly as you might expect.
This query is opened in dBASE as a temporary table, in the form of an alias with the name of SQL_. Any table
‘opened this way is not updatable (tis read-only). if you are not sure, you can use code along these lines to find out
/Hssue your sevect statenent and then:
4 Cetablenane> $ 08#() )
17 do whatever you want to do -- it's updateabie
alse
1 At 43 read-only
endif
‘The term columns is used to reference the fields in a record, and the term rows is used to reference records in a table
(hese are standard SQL terms).
I you see a pipe ()), it means you have an option for what to use (for example: "* | " will mean that you can use
either the wildcard for “all fields" or a list of specific feldnames separated by commas).
If you see a command option in square brackets ( (], it means that this is optional, and is not required. This is often
shown with the "WHERE" clause, ie.,
SELECT * FROM [WHERE )
In many of the examples below, in order to actually use the samples tables, their BDE aliases are used. The BDE alias is
‘a pointer to a "database", and preceeds the table (for details on BDE Aliases see other HOW TO documents in the
Knowledgebase). As an example, you may want to manipulate the “FISH” table in the OB2KSAMPLE database. To
reference this table, it must be preceeded with the database reference: ":db2ksample:", .e.,
SELECT * FROM :dbaksample: fish
‘Some columns in tables may have spaces or use SQL reserved words as the field names ~ in those cases, you need to
reference them with the table name in front of them with a dot separator, and quotes around the field name. Example:
SELECT nane, fish.
jength cn" FROM :ch2ksanpLe:fish
Finally, a last mention ~ for the most part, you will need to know very litle SQL in dB2K, but for those who want to know
more, its here ... this document does not cover all aspects of SQL. The purpose of this document is to be a comparison of
XBase commands to local SQ. commands and to give a developer a basic understanding of how SQL works in d82k
with local tables. (Many ‘SQL Server’ software packages, such as Interbase, Oracle, and others have much more
advanced SQL engines, the Borland Database Engine will pass along any SQL it does not directly understand to these
engines and return the proper results... if you are using one of these servers you may need to reference the manuals for
‘more details on what is possible...)
Before You Start Reading
If you are one of those who likes to try things as they are shown to you, you will want to make sure that the two database
aliases referenced here are open. These are from the SAMPLES that are installed (by default) with dB2K, although some
of the samples shown here use sample tables from aliases that do not exist (MUGS, from Visual dBASE 7.x) if you have
‘only got dB2K on your computer, and not an earlier version of Visual dBASE 7.x. In the Command Window, type:
open database mugs
‘open database cb?ksanple
You can then enter the commands in the Command Window
You may wish to back up the tables in the sample directories before you tinker with any examples shown in this HOW TO
document, or these tables may get deleted, indexes wiped, etc.
fa command is shown split over multiple lines you will want to enter it as a single statement (no break), and remove the
‘semicolins (;) shown at the end of the breaks ..
If you wish to S90 the results of a command you have entered, you will want to enter the SELECT command as shown,
and then type: BROWSE ~- this will bring the table up in the standard browse mode so you can see the results.
When you issue a SQL SELECT statement, dBASE automatically opens the result (whether itis a result query, or the
actual lable in question) in a new work area. This means that if you do a lot of working with local SQL you may have a lot
of open work areas. In your code, if you wish to use a SQL select to get a result query and then do something with it, you
will want to close that result and retum fo your previous work area. You might want to do something along the following
lines:
carea = altas() // current work area
SELECT * FROM whatever WERE whateveroptions
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// do what you need to retrieve results you are Looking for
use 17 close the query
select ( cArea ) // back to previous work area
When done, you may want to close your tables and result queries by typing:
CLOSE TABL
When you are completely done, you may also wish to issue the command:
CLOSE DATABASES
to make sure you don't leave those open (the next time you start dBASE it will open these for you
XBase Command Equivalents in SQL
(as implemented by the BDE)
This section of the document is aimed at showing direct equivalents to XBase DML commands (XDML) in SQL. There
may be other XOML commands that map closely to SQL commands, but these are the ones | could find an equivalent for.
APPEND/APPEND FROM
You can add rows to a table using the SQL INSERT command.
‘APPEND
‘SQL Syntax:
INSERT INTO ctaplenane> [( )] 5
VALUES (" )
Ifyou leave out the column listing, there must be a value for each field, and fields are fillad in the sequence the fields are
defined in the table structure (i.e, first value is placed in the first field ...)
If you use the column listing, you must specify at least one column and the associated value. If you leave columns out of
the list, they will be empty (null - this means that the empty() function will return true, but isblank() may not).
Example:
17 add a new row to fish table in “so2xSample” database:
INSERT INTO :ds2kSample:#ish (rane, species, fish."length en”);
VALUES (George", “Human", 18 )
You can then browse the table after opening it and you will see the new row:
SELECT * FROM :c82kSanple:Fish
BROWSE
APPEND FROM
SQL Syntax:
INSERT INTO ctablenane> SELECT * | ;
FROM ctablenane> [HERE ]
‘The columns in the select statement must match the columns in the table being inserted into (although the fieldnames do
not have to match, the number of columns, the types and the sizes must match). If you use the field list, the fields must
match as noted
Example:
INSERT INTO :dB2kSanple:#ish SELECT * FROM :db2KSanple:#ish2
‘The above would assume you had made a copy of the fish table in the dB2KSample directory ( "copy table fish to fish2" )
... and perhaps had changed the data in the second table.
Ifyou use the optional "WHERE" clause (this is discussed later in this document in some detall) only the rows in the table
being appended from that meet the condition would be appended, Example:
INSERT INTO :d82KSample: fish SELECT * FROM :a®2KSample:fish2 WHERE Fsh2."Length cn” <= 18
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COUNT
‘The XBase DML command COUNT is used to count the records in a table. You can add qualifiers (COUNT FOR ...) and
s0 on, And you can use a COUNT .... TO ... to save the value to a memory variable,
‘The SQL equivalent is to generate a read-only query that contains a single row with a single column with the number of
rows, optionally it will count just the rows that that match a condition:
SQL Syntax:
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM ctablename> [WHERE )
Examples:
SELECT COUNI(*) FROM :c82kSanple:#ish
Wo:
SELECT COUNI(=) FON :cB2xSanple:4ish MHERE fish."Length cn” <= 16
This will return a result table with a name like "SQL_1" or "SQL_2". You can browse it and see the results - you will end
Up with a single column (or field) named "COUNT___" (note ~ that is three underscore characters ~ it may not look like it
depending on what fonts are being used and such). If you then close all tables or issue "USE" the temporary result table
wil be closed and gone
Ifyou wish to save the value to a memory variable, you could do something like:
area = atias()
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM :cB2KSanple:fish WHERE fish."Length cn"
1 save to a memory variable:
17 close the temporary table:
select (cArea)
There are more ‘calculations’ toward the end of this document.
DELETE/ZAP
‘The dBASE table format (,DBF) uses a "soft delete", The only advantage to using this is that it means that the records are
left in the table in case you need to recall them, The XBase DML is designed to work with this feature, and all local SQL
and OODML commands that work with .OBFs actually map to the soft delete for .DBF tables. NOTE that this only occurs
{for .DBFs ~ this is the only table format that uses the soft delete ~ all other table formats actually delete a row when you
specify that you really want to delete it
Local SQL respects the "SET DELETED" setting, which determines whether or not to display rows that have been
“flagged” as deleted
‘SQL Syntax
DELETE FROK ctablenane> [MHERE ]
WARNING: If you leave off the condition for this command you will empty your table! This is the equivalent of ZAP, except
that DELETE FROM ignores the setting of SET SAFETY and will not ask if you really wish to delete the rows in the table
NOTE: Just like the ZAP command, "DELETE FROM" requires exclusive use of the table. If you are not
sure if you can obtain exclusive use of the table, you may wish to use the following function (by Peter
Rorlick, found in the dUFLP library ..):
‘Function UseExclusive( cTableWane, TTrNewtres )
local Isuccess
H1A§, user wants it tn 0 new work area:
select select()
endif
// open the table with the exclusive parameter:
tse (eTablewane) exclusive
UE defaute:
success = false
U noxt we need to see if we can actually do this:
‘elece tag DunmyXVZ // nonexistart index tag
7 the above Line will throw one of three
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UI ervors:
1/110: “Operation requires exclusive use of table’
W533: "Tag not found: Dusrw2" or
135: “Table 1s not indexed
catch( exception © )
If eccode == 53 // messoge = “Error: Tag not found”
Yi we have succeeded in opening the table exclusively
ISuecess = true
endif
endery
17 table 45 now open one way or another
return ISuecess
Note that if you do this, you will then want to close the table before executing the SQL DELETE command.
Example:
AF Usebxclusive( ":4B2KSanple: ish" )
DELETE FROM :d82KSanple: ish KHERE name TS HULL
else
endif
Examples:
1) detere empty rows
DELETE FROM 1482KSanple:Fish WHERE name TS HULL
U7 detete specific row:
DELETE’ FROM :402KSanple:Fish WERE nane = “George’
17 enpty the table (only do this if you have backed up the table)
DELETE FROM 882KSanpie: Fish
‘As another caveat ~ if you are unfamiliar with the "soft delete" feature of .DBF tables, the data is stil there, but to retrieve
ityou would need to use the XBase RECALL command (details in online help). To completely remove deleted rows of a
table you would need to use the XBase PACK command, or the OODML database object's packTable() method. To view
rows that have been deleted, issue the command SET DELETED OFF, or use the Properties dialog to set this option. To
not see deleted rows, SET DELETED ON (this is the default in dB2K).
DELETE TABLE
‘The XBase DML command DELETE TABLE is used to remove a table and all i's associated files (MDX, .DBT in the case
of a .DBF, in the case of a .DB table, all the myriad assorted files that may be created).
‘The SQL command for this is DROP TABLE.
‘SQL Syntax
ROP TABLE
Example (only do this if you have backed up the table.)
DROP TABLE :. | PRIMARY
Note that the word "PRIMARY" is used for .DB tables with a primary index in place of the shown above (the
.DB table format can create a primary index with no index name, so this keyword is vital). For .DBFs with a primary index,
Use the index name
Examples:
W for a 08:
DROP INDEX sas2Ksaeple:Fish.spectes
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//. or for a .08 (note that this is an example but the
1 Kable does not exist «.. this WiLL return an error
1-§ you try 4 right naw):
INDEX
‘The XBase DML command INDEX, with i's various options, is used to create indexes for your tables. With .DBF tables, it
is used to create either LNDX files or MDX tags.
‘The SQL command for this is CREATE INDEX, Note that with .DBFs this command will create .MDX tags, but no .NDX
files - there is no option for this.
SQL Syntax:
(CREATE INDEX cindexrane> OW 3
(ccolunmt> [,
‘There are some serious drawbacks here if you are used to creating expression indexes -- you cannot do this in SQL. You
‘can create indexes on multiple columns, but not on expressions.
Further, you cannot create PRIMARY indexes with this command ~ the only way to create a PRIMARY index using SQL
is with the CREATE TABLE command (i.e, when you create the table originally) and to the best of my knowledge this only
works for Paradox tables.
Examples’
(CREATE INDEX name2 ON :682KSample: Fish ( mare )
(CREATE INDEX nanespecies ON 14B2KSanple:fish ( mane, species )
REPLACE
‘The REPLACE command is the XBase DML method of programmatically assigning a value to a field, or by using the
ALL" option, of replacing the data for a specific field (or fields) in all rows of a table.
SQL Syntax:
SET = [, =
[ wiene ]
‘The "SET" is where you list the fields and what their new values are to be when the UPDATE has done it's job.
Examples:
(One example might be a need to replace a logical field for all rows in a rowset with “false
UPDATE MyTable SET myLogicalFieid = false
Note: In my non-scientific testing this is faster than the XBase REPLACE ALL command, and substantially faster than the
oom method (which actually requires creating a loop to process a table row by row and storing a new value for each
Ifyou needed to have a condition, let's say a date field based on some value:
@ = aate()
UPDATE MyTable SET myLogicelField = false;
WHERE nybaterelé <= :e
SET FIELDS
‘The XBase DML SET FIELDS command is used to limit the fields displayed or accessed in a table.
‘The SQL. version of this is to use a field list instead of the wildcard for the field names. In addition you can create
calculated fields "on the fly"... see "USE" below.
SET FILTER
‘The XBase DML SET FILTER statement was how a lot of filtering got done.
Filters are done in SQL by using the optional WHERE or HAVING clauses which shows up in many of the commands in
this document. You may find that the WHERE clause is substantially faster than the XBase filter.
‘The operators are important, as the syntax is not exactly the same between XDML and SQL:
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XBase sau
fand/.and. fang
forior. lor
nov not not
Hes le
lempty(jisBlank() is mull
nat emplyinot isBlank() is not null
[stingt+string2
lstringt || string2
(concatenation of strings)
Note that the sequence of the less than or greater than symbols combined with the equal signs is quite important in SQL
(in other words, >= works, => does not),
You can stack conditions up by combining them with and andior or operators just like you can in XBase.
‘The Where clause is the standard filter, and is used as below. The Having clause is used with aggregate calculations
(calculated fields), where these fields have specific values. The Having clause can only be used when there is a
calculated field and there is a Group By clause.
SQL Syntax ~ Where clause:
SELECT + | FROM WHERE 5
‘eondition> [ORDER BY cFelanane(s)>]
Example:
SELECT * FROM :082KSanples: Fish We
SQL Syntax — Having clause:
SELECT FROM 5
kav? BY 5
HAVING ( ) (ORDER 8Y )
Example:
SELECT Lneiten."invoice 14", sun( aty ) AS totalaty FROW :mugs:lineiten ;
GROUP BY Linesten. "invoice id” 5
avINe ( sun(qty) <= 3)
Note that you can combine a WHERE and a HAVING clause ... In addition (from LocalSQL Help): "A HAVING clause
filters data after the aggregation of a GROUP BY clause. For filtering based on row values prior to aggregation, use a
WHERE clause."
Special Options Item List
In XBase, there is the "$" operator, which is used to see if a string is contained in a list of strings (or in an individual string
see below). In SQL, this is done with the "IN" clause:
‘SQL Syntax
SELECT * | fom ctablenane> WHERE 5
“fieldname> IN ( citenl>, «-- )
Example:
Note that the result query that is retumed is editable ...
Special Options String1 In String2
This is different from the previous in that here we are looking for a match in a single string. In XBase, you could check to
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see if a string was contained anywhere in the string (i.e, "somestring” $ fieldname ).
In SQL this takes a bit more work, but with the use of some special wildcard characters, you can get there, The resulting
rowset may be read-only. (NOTE: SQL is case sensitive ...)
SQL Syntax:
SELECT * | FROM ceablenane> IMERE 5
‘flelénane> LIKE "stringeilth-wildeard(s)
‘The two wildcard characters are "%6" and *_" (percent and underscore).
‘The percent sign refers to anything on that side of the character string (see examples), the underscore refers to a single
character. If you are familiar with DOS wildcards for flenames, the percent sign is similar to the asterisk (*), and the
underscore works identically to the question mark (?).
Examples:
// return any ron where the nawe has the Letter ‘a’ tn tt
1 return any row uhere the name begins with 'B*
SELECT * FROM ‘ob2KSanple:fisn WHERE nore LIKE "BY
UI return any row were the none ENDS with "fish
Sevecr * FROM ‘aB2kSaeple:fish MHERE nore LIKE "%fish™
1 return any row where the nane storts with any to
W characters, and then has the Letters "ue" and any
1 other characters ofter «+.
SELECT * FROM :252¢Sanple:F3h WHERE nase LIKE "_uet”
‘And so on. Using a combination of these two characters you can do pretty much anything you need ... see also below
where string functions are discussed -- you can use the string functions on a field name to make these case insensitive
searches ..
SET INDEX/SET ORDER
‘The XBase DML has SET INDEX and SET ORDER, which have similar uses. However, while SET INDEX can open .NDX
files, SQL does not use these at all, and frankly doesn't know what they are.
Using an index in SQL is pretty simple, but you can also bypass the index tags and simply tell BASE to order the data in
whatever fashion you wish
‘SQL Syntax
SELECT * | FHon ctablenane> ;
‘OROER BY [, ...) (ASCIDESC)
Note that you can use more than one fieldname in the list, and you can refer to a calculated field (see below).
‘The ASC" and "DESC" operators are optional - the default sequence is to order a table in ascending sequence (ASC),
but you can order it in descending if you wish (by adding "DESC" to the end of the ORDER BY clause or to the end of the
individual field reference). Interestingly you can sort with a combination of ascending and descending fields using SQL in
‘one command,
Note that if an index tag exists, you can use the index tag name in place of the field name. If the index tag has the same
name as the field name, dBASE will use the index tag. I the index tag name is the same as a field name, SQL will use the
index tag as well.
Examples:
1/ order the custoner table by Last nae:
SELECT * FROM imugs:custoner ORDER BY custorer."Iast rane”
Uf order the custoner table by Last none in descending sequence:
11 case insensitive:
SELECT'* FROM :nugeicustoner ORDER BY UPPER( customer. "Last mane” )
UW auttipte fields (descending state, ascending Last rane)
Sevecr * FROM snugs:custoner ORDER BY custorer, "state 1d” DESC, custoner. “last mane” ASC
1 cateatoted Fretd:
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SELECT cust rane" ||", * | custoner."first mane" AS fullnane, ;
Note that you cannot use the wildcard in conjunction with a calculated field, and the rowset will be read-only because of
the calculated field,
‘SET RELATION
‘The XBase DML uses SET RELATION to determine relationships between tables,
SQL can do related tables, but you will always get, with local tables, a read-only rowset. This can get quite complex. You
need to use the SQL JOIN clause to relate tables, and there are a lot of options (INNER JOIN, OUTER JOIN ...)
‘The only place that this makes a lot of sense is if you are creating a report in dB2K (since the resulting query would be
read-only anyway - reports don't generally write to the tables). The report engine actually doesn't handle some sets of
tables very well (such as parent/child/arandchild or a master table with two (or more) detail tables). Using a SQL JOIN for
these situations makes sense,
For any forms that use multiple tables in dB2K you will want to use the OODML data objects (see other HOW TO
documents in the Knowledgebase).
It you must use SQL Joins, | recommend (and this is the only time | recommend this) that you use the SQL Designer to
model your joins, and then extract the output SQL and simplify it as much as you can (the SQL Designer generates some
fairly lonathy code, some of which may be unnecessary).
‘An example of an outer join used with three tables --a master table with two detall tables is (don't try this at home unless
you actually have tables with these names and fields...)
SELECT + FROM *Restprin.dbé® Testprin
FULL OUTER 20IN "tartdets.dbF" Testaets.
ON (Testprin.LinkField = TestdetdLinkField)
FULL OUTER 30IN "testdet2.db6™ Testaet? ;
ON (Testprin.LinkField = Testdet2,LinkField )
The tables would be linked using a field called "LinkField”, and the table names are "TestPrim" for the primary (parent)
table, and "TestDet1” and "TestDet2" for “Test Detail 1" and "Test Detail
TOTAL
‘The XBase DML TOTAL command creates a new table that contains totals for numeric fields in the original table you are
totalling from.
See the section below on calculations and aggregate functions. The local SQL command for this retums similar results
USE
In XBASE DML, to open a table, you use the "USE" command. In SQL the SELECT statement is how you open a table.
‘The SELECT statement is the one SQL statement you must know if you wish to use dB2K and the OODML properly.
SQL Syntax:
SELECT * | FROM ctablenane> 5
[oRDER BY [, ¢Fieldnane> ...J] 5
[wens
‘The “*" is a wildcard for the fields.
Rather than selecting all felds in the table, you may wish to limit the field list. This can be done by listing each field you
wish separated by commas.
Examples’
SELECT * FROM :ob2¢Sanple fish
SELECT mane, species FROM :d2¢Sample: fish
Ifa field uses a SQL reserved word as the fieldname, or the field has spaces in the fieldname itself, you need to precede
the field with the tablename, a dot, and put the fieldname in quotes, i...
SELECT nae, fish.
jength cn" FROM :ct2KSanple:fish
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Calculated Fields
You can create calculated fields with your SQL SELECT statement but as soon as you do this, your resulting table will be
read-only. In addition, you cannot use the wildcard for “all fields" .
SQL Syntax
SELECT , AS FROW
Assimple example of this might be to multiply the amount of items ordered in the Mugs examples lineitem table by 10 (the
cost of each mug):
SELECT gty, @ty*10 AS ondertotal FROH :mugs:lineiten
‘There are other calculations discussed later in this document that are "buil-in-to-SQL” calculations
NOTE: You cannot use the fieldlist wildcard with a calculated field in the fieldist(i.e., you cannot use ", calcfield")
Save To
Itis possible to save a result query to another table using the optional SAVE TO clause. This can be useful with JOINS
and other complex SELECTs.
Using the calculation above as an example:
SELECT Lineiten. "invoice ic", aty, qty"1@ AS ordertotal FROM :nugs:Linesten ;
NOTE: This will save the table to the local directory, unless you add the BDE Alias to the output tablename.
Once you have the output table, you can open it in an updateable way, but remember that the original. table(s) that this
data has been pulled from will not be updated
Other Options
The SQL statement has many other options, some of which are discussed elsewhere throughout this document
Very importantly, and one of the most powerful aspects of SQL, you can combine many of the options shown throughout
this document into a single SELECT statement, Building such a statement can be a bit tricky, but you can do some pretty
‘complex things with one command using SQL.
Zap
‘See the "DELETE" command earlier in this document.
Misc. SQL Features Not Covered Above
Unique Rows in a Table
Ifyou wish to select all unique rows in a table using XBase, you must define an index tag that uses the UNIQUE operator.
In SQL you can do this much easier, with a couple of drawbacks
‘SQL Syntax
SELECT DISTINCT [, ...] FROM
Problems: this will not allow you to select any fields except those you are checking for “uniqueness”. You can use multiple
Sida nthe SELECT statement, ul the DISTINCT operator wil na comnatin of unique ves fr ta dorset Bo
Example:
17 you wight want to use this to find all unique rows
77 based on the lost nawes of your custoners
SELECT oISTINCT customer, Last mane” FROM snuge:custoner
However, using a subquery, you could use this to actually get all ofthe fields (columns) in the customer table where the
nique value you wanted was found:
SELECT * FROM smugs:custoner WHERE custoner."last mane" IN ;
(SELECT DISTINCT custorer."Iast name” FROM :mugs:custoner) ;
itp dbase,con/KnowledgebaselINTxbase_to_sqlix2sql.him 1019 80572018 xBase fo SOL.
ORDER BY custorer. “Last name
SumiGroup By
You may wish to total a field in a table. By itself this will generate a single-row, single column table that is read-only
may also wish to group that total by some other field ~ this would be used to generate the total for all rows of that
by" field, This calculation will also generate a read-only query.
SQL Syntax:
SELECT SUM( ) FROM
SELECT , SUN ) FROM +
(GROUP BY
This will create a field called: SUM OF where is the name of the field you tell it to "sum".
Examples (using the Mugs database's lineitem table):
1/ total of the qty Fleld ... -- one row, one field query
SELECT SUM( qty) FROM smugs'Lineiten
Uf return a total for each invoice:
Seuser Tineitem, "invoice ig", SUM qty ) FROM mugs:linesten GROUP BY Linetten. “invoice id*
U return a total for each ‘en:
SELECT Lineiten."iten ie", SUM( qty ) FROM :mugs:2ineiten GROUP BY LineSten."iter id!
Other Calculations
In XBase, you have the CALCULATE command, in SQL you can simply add the following into a SELECT statement. The
following include examples...
MAX()
SQL Syntax:
SELECT HAX( ) FROM where
