 OCCUPANCY – purpose for which a building or other
NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE
OF THE PHILIPPINES 2015
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 ALTER or ALTERATION – is any change, addition or
modification in construction or occupancy
 APPROVAL – the proposed work or completed work
conforms to this code in the opinion of the building
official
 APPROVED – the approval by the Building Official as
the result of investigation and tests conducted or by
reason of accepted principles or tests recognized by
authorities
 AUTHORITY HAVING JURISDICTION – organization,
political subdivision, office or individual charged with
the responsibility of administering and enforcing the
provisions of this code
 BUILDING – any structure usually enclosed by walls
and a roof, constructed to provide shelter for an
intended use of occupancy
 BUILDING, EXISTING – building erected prior to the
adoption of this code or one of which a legal building
permit has been issued
 BUILDING OFFICIAL – officer or other designated
authority charged with the administration and
enforcement of this code
 CIVIL ENGINEER – professional engineer licensed to
practice in the field of civil engineering
 CIVIL ENGINEERING – science or profession on which
a knowledge of the mathematical and physical
sciences gained by study and practice is applied with
judgement to utilize natural and man-made
resources and forces […]
 CONSTRUCTION FAILURE – occurs during
construction and they are considered to be either a
collapse or distress of a structural system to such
degree that it cannot safely serve its intended
purpose
 CONTINUOUS STRUCTURAL INSPECTION – structural
inspector is on the site at all times observing the
work requiring structural inspection
 EXISTING GRADE – grade prior to grading
 FAILURE – defined as an unacceptable difference
between expected and observed performance
 FORENSIC ENGINEERING – application of arts and
science of engineering in jurisprudence system
 GENERAL COLLAPSE – immediate, deliberate
demolition of an entire structure by a triggering
event
 LIMITED LOCAL COLLAPSE – failure of a structural
member without affecting the adjacent members
structures or part thereof, is used or intended to be
used
 PERIODIC STRUCTURAL INSPECTION – inspections
are made on a periodic basis
 PREFABRICATED ASSEMBLY – structural unit, the
integral parts of which have been built up or
assembled prior to incorporation in the building
 PROGRESSIVE COLLAPSE – spread of an initial local
failure from element to element
 ROBUSTNESS – insensibility of a structure to local
failure
 SITE – any lot or parcel of land or contiguous
combination thereof, under the same ownership,
where grading is performed or permitted
 SLOPE – inclined ground surface
 STRUCTURE – which is built or constructed, an
edifice or building of any kind, or any piece of work
artificially built up or composed of parts joined
together in some definite manner
 STRUCTURAL ENGINEER – registered civil engineer
with special qualifications in the practice of
structural engineering
 STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING – discipline of civil
engineering dealing with analysis and design of
structures that support or resist loads insuring safety
of the structures against natural forces
 STRUCTURAL FAILURE – reduction of capability of a
structural system or component to such a degree
that it cannot safely serve its intended purpose.
Categories: (1) Catastrophic Failure with Loss of Life,
(2) Catastrophic Failure in which No Human Lives are
Endangered, (3) Failure Resulting in Extensive
Property Damage, and (4) Failure Resulting in
Reduced Serviceability
 STRUCTURAL INSPECTION – visual observation by a
structural inspector of a particular type of
construction work […] for the purpose of ensuring its
general compliance to the approved plans and
specifications
 STRUCTURAL OBSERVATION – visual observation of
the structural system as provided for in Section
107.9.2
 TERRACE – relatively level step constructed in the
face of a graded slope surface for drainage and
maintenance purposes
WIND LOADS (NSCP CHAPTER 2)
 Main Wind Force Resisting System (MWFRS) –
assemblage of structural elements assigned to
provide support and stability for the overall
structure.
Definition of Terms
 BASIC WIND SPEED, V – three-second gust speed at
10m above the ground in Exposure C
 ENCLOSED BUILDING – building that does not comply
with the requirements for open or partially enclosed
buildings
 BUILDING ENVELOPE – cladding, roofing, exterior
walls, glazing, door assemblies, window assemblies,
skylight assemblies, and other components enclosing
the buildings
 FLEXIBLE BUILDING AND OTHER STRUCTURES –
slender buildings and other structures that have a
fundamental natural frequency less than 1 Hz
 BUILDING, LOW RISE – enclosed or partially enclosed
building that comply with: (1) Mean roof height less
than or equal to 18 m, (2) Mean roof height does not
exceed least horizontal dimension
 OPEN BUILDING – building having each wall at least
80% open
 PARTIALLY ENCLOSED BUILDING – building that
complies (1) total area of opening in a wall that
receives positive external pressure exceeds the sum
of areas of openings by more than 10% (2) total area
of openings in a wall that receives positive external
pressure exceeds 0.37 m2
 REGULAR-SHAPED BUILDING OR OTHER STRUCTURE
– having no unusual geometrical irregularity in
spatial form
 RIGID BUILDING AND OTHER STRUCTURES –
fundamental frequency greater than or equal to 1 Hz
 SIMPLE DIAPHRAGM BUILDING – both windward and
leeward wind loads transmitted by roof and
vertically spanning wall assemblies, through
continuous floor and roof diaphragms
 TORSIONALLY REGULAR UNDER WIND LOAD
BUILDING – principal axis proportioned so that the
maximum displacement under Case 2, does not
exceed maximum displacement at the same location
under Case 1
 COMPONENTS AND CLADDING – elements of the
building envelope that do not qualify as part of
MWFRS
 DESIGN FORCE, F – equivalent static force to be used
in determination of wind loads for other structures
 DESIGN PRESSURE, p – equivalent static pressure to
be used in the determination of wind loads for
buildings
 DIAPHRAGM – is a roof, floor, or other membrane or
bracing system acting to transfer lateral forces to the
vertical
 DIRECTIONAL PROCEDURE – determining wind loads
on building and other structures for specific wind
directions
 EAVE HEIGHT, he – distance from the ground surface
adjacent to the building to the roof eave line at a
particular wall.
 EFFECTIVE WIND AREA, A – area used to determine
GCp
 ENVELOPE PROCEDURE – determining wind load
cases on building; pseudo-external pressure
coefficients
 ESCARPMENT – a cliff or steep slope generally
separating two levels or gently sloping areas
 FREE ROOF – roof with configuration in an open
building with no enclosing walls underneath the roof
surface
 GLAZING – glass or transparent or translucent plastic
sheet used in windows, doors, skylights or curtain
walls
 IMPACT RESISTANT GLAZING – shown by testing to
withstand the impact test missiles
 HILL – land surface characterized by strong relief in
any horizontal direction
 IMPACT PROTECTIVE SYSTEM – construction that has
been shown by testing to withstand impact of test
missiles and that is applied over exterior glazing
 MEAN ROOF HEIGHT, h – average of the roof eave
height to the highest point on the roof surface
 OPENINGS – apertures or holes in the building
envelope that allow air to flow through the building
envelope
 RECOGNIZED LITERATURE – published research
findings and technical papers that are approved
 WIND TUNNEL PROCEDURE – determining wind
loads on buildings and other structures, in which
pressures and/or forces and moments are determine
for each wind direction considered from a model of
the building and its surroundings
INTRODUCTION TO WIND AND
EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
Loads on Structures
1. Dead Loads – structure’s own weight; weight of any
permanent non-structural partitions, built-in
cupboards, floor surfacing materials and other
finishes
2. Live Loads – all movable objects in a structure such
as people; may come and go with the result that its
intensity will vary considerably
3. Wind Loads – wind acts both on the main structure
and on the individual cladding units
4. Snow Loads – magnitude of snow load will depend
upon the latitude and altitude of the site
5. Earthquake Loads – on any structure is basically due
to inertial property of the structure itself
6. Thermal Loads – all building materials expand or
contract with temperature change.
7. Settlement Loads – if one part of a building settles
more than another part, then stresses are set up in
the structures
 8. Dynamic Loads – include impact aerodynamics loads,
are complex. In essence, the magnitude of the load
can be greatly increased by its dynamic effect
Wind Loads
 Air in motion
 Caused by difference in pressure
 Stronger pressure difference = stronger wind
 Hurricane – Atlantic and Northeast Pacific
 Cyclone – South Pacific and Indian Ocean
 Typhoon – Northwest Pacific
 Wind’s velocity varies with height
o Near the earth’s surface, friction causes the
wind to be slower
o Return period “mean recurrence interval”
(MRI), statistical measure of how often an
event of a certain size is likely to happen
 Cladding Pressure
o The design of cladding for lateral loads is of
major concern to architects and engineers
GROUP REPORTING
TAY BRIDGE (Ex-Breezy)
 Thomas Bouch – designer
 88 feet above high-water level
 June 1 1878 – first opening
 December 28, 1879 – collapsed into the Firth of Tay
at Dundee (6 carriages, 75 souls)
 William Henry Barlow – designed the new double-
track bridge
 William Arrol & Co. – builder
 18 meters (59 ft) – upstream of, and parallel to, the
original bridge
DAMPERS (Quaker Oats)
 Dampers – absorbs energy going into the building
from the shaking ground during an earthquake
 Types of Dampers
o Yielding Dampers – energy absorbed by
metallic components by yield
o Viscoelastic Dampers – energy is absorbed
by utilizing the controlled shearing of solids
o Tuned Mass Dampers – active mass damper
(AMD) or harmonic absorber
o Viscous Dampers – hydraulic devices that
dissipate the kinetic energy of seismic
events and cushion the impact between
structures
o Seismic Dampers – used in damping the
oscillations of a building during an
earthquake
 Earthquake Testing or Seismic Testing – performed
to stimulate earthquake conditions and test
equipment survivability.
BASE ISOLATION SYSTEM (Fault in our Crust)
 It mitigates the effect of an earthquake by essentially
isolating the structure from potentially dangerous
ground motions
 Types of Base Isolation Techniques
o Roller and Ball Bearings
o Sliding Bearing
o Springs
o Elastromeric Bearing Pads
 Advantages
o Efficient in terms of cost, effectiveness,
construction
o Reduced seismic demand of structure
thereby reducing the cost of structure
o Lesser displacements during earthquake
o Improves safety of structure
o Damage is only concentrated in isolation
system in case of large unexpected seismic
activities
 Disadvantage
o Can’t be done on every structure
o Less efficient for high rise buildings
o Can’t be applied partially to the structure
o Implementation often required highly
skilled labors and engineers
SEISMIC INVISIBILITY CLOAK (Dr. Quake Quake)
 To create protective barriers that divert earthquake
energy away sensitive facilities
 Prototype of Seismic Invisibility Cloak
o Performed by Sebastian Guenneau and
Menard
o 2013 in France
o Institut Fresnet
 Advantages
o Cancels out potentially hazardous
earthquake shockwaves
o Other than seismic waves, can also alter
liquid waves
o High valued facilities like nuclear plants or
airports may be protected
o Possibility to convert seismic waves to
electricity
 Disadvantages
o Earthquake’s frequency should be identified
first for it to efficiently work
o Reflected waves could end up doing more
damage to buildings nearby
o Process of producing the material is
complex
o Device is underdeveloped
o Slight discrepancy will cause the device to
malfunction
o Used for military purposes
 Applications
o Works by reflecting energy
 o Involves modifying the ground around the
building, which diverts the seismic waves
away from the building
AKASHI KAIKYO BRIDGE (Shaky’s)
 Also known as Akashi Strait Bridge or Pearl Bridge
 Kobe (Honshu) to Iwaya (Awaji Island) crossing
Akashi Strait
 1991 m (6532 ft)
 April 5, 1998 – opened
 Satoshi Kashima – designer
 Matsuo Bridge Company – builder
 1995 Shiun Maru Disaster
 Killing 168 people; 2 Ferries sank
 May 1988 – Construction began
 297 m (975 ft) – two main supporting towers
 Kobe Earthquake 1995
 20 tuned-mass dampers
 Dual-hinged stiffening girder system
 Can withstand 290 kph wind and 8.5 magnitude
earthquakes
BURJ KHALIFA
 1.5 m diameter x 43 m long piles
 Cathodic Protection System – minimize any
detrimental effects from corrosive chemicals
 26,000 glass panels; 300 cladding specialists
 World War II airplane engine used for dynamic wind
and water testing
 Curtain Wall – 7 football field; 25 american football
fields
 Buttressed Core
 Spinal wall system
o Central Core – provides the torsional
resistance
o Corridor Walls – extends from the central
core to the near end of the wing
o Perimeter Columns and Flat Plate Floor –
completes the construction system
o Outrigger Walls – links perimeter columns
to the interior wall system
o Wings Set Back – organized with the tower’s
grid
 Built to withstand 7.0 magnitude earthquakes
 Adopted Online Alerting of Structural Integrity and
Safety (OASIS) earthquake detection system
 Will Baker (Bill Baker) the design of the tower is to
confuse the wind force
IDEERS (Snorlax and Friends)
 Introducing and Demonstrating Earthquake
Engineering Research in Schools
 Founded in Bristol University
 Held yearly in Taipei, Taiwan National Research on
Earthquake Engineering (NCREE) and the Taiwan
Applied Research Laboratories (NARLABS)
LUZON EARTHQUAKE (Hayaan Mo Sila)
 1992, 7.7 magnitude one of the biggest earthquake
in that decade
 Philippine Fault and Digdig Fault
 Epicenter: Near the town of Rizal, northeast of
Cabanatuan City
 Fatalities 1660, Injured 3512, Missing 752
 Hyatt Hotel
 Soft-story buildings – susceptible to earthquake
damage of large, unreinforced openings on the
ground floors and typically wood-frame construction
 Torsional Irregularity – result of a large eccentricity
between the centers of mass and stiffness in a story
 Liquefaction – phenomenon where soil substantially
loses strength and stiffness due to the application of
stress.
 Mitigating Measures:
o Quake-Proof Lead Rubber Bearing – can
withstand up to 7.5 magnitude
o Grand Flex Mole Technology – new
chemical grouting technique
o Induced Partial Saturation – improves
earthquake-included liquefaction resistance
of loose sands
FUJINUMA DAM (7 in ni Troi)
 Type of Dam: Embankment Dam

 Location: Southern Fukushima Prefecture
 Maximum Height: 18.5 meters

 Reservoir Capacity: 1.5 million cubic meters
 Also called: Fujinuma-ike

 Construction Began: 1937

 Construction Completed: 1949

 Two embankment dams retaining the reservoir:
o 18.5 m-High Main Dam
 Crest Length: 133.0 meters
 Crest Width: 6.0 meters 

o 6.0 m-High Auxiliary Dam

 Date of Failure: March 11, 2011
 TOHOKU EARTHQUAKE 

o Magnitude: 9.0-9.1 in Richter’s Scale
o When: March 11,2011 14:46 (JST)
o Epicenter: 70 kilometres (43 mi) East of the
Oshika Peninsula of Tō hoku 

o Tohoku Tsunami 

 Occurred 200km off the coast and
took 10-15 minutes to reach the
shore 

 Tsunami reached North and South
American and stretched all the way
From Alaska to Chile 

 Triggered warnings in over 50
countries 

 Highest waves were recorded at
38.9 meters 

  CAUSES OF FAILURE 
  Exposure Categories
o Weak foundation 
 o Exposure B:
o Non-homogeneous fill 
  Mean roof height ≤ 9m
o Not heavily compacted  Surface Roughness B,
o Very strong seismic shaking 
 upwind distance ≥ 450m
o High reservoir water level 
  Mean roof height > 9m
o Occurred soon after the earthquake 
  Surface Roughness B,
 Failure in Main dam – Water overtap the dam. 
 upwind distance > 790m
o Exposure C: Apply for all cases in which B
 Failure in Saddle dam - Rapid Drawdown: water in
and D do not apply
the reservoir to quickly decrease, leaving the
o Exposure D:
hydraulic pressure within the soil of the saddle dam.
 Surface Roughness D
 Possible Rehabilitation:
 Upwind distance > 1500m
o Adding Downstream berms
 Wind Speed Up over Hills, Ridges and Escarpments
o Increasing freeboard
o H ≥ 4.5m Exposure C and Exposure D
o Enlarging a Dam
o H = 18m Exposure B
o Replacing improper soil
 Topographic Factor
o Enhancing drainage system
o Site conditions and locations do not meet
o Reinforcing with Geogrid
all requirements Kzt = 1.0
 Gust Effects
NSCP GENERAL CONCEPTS 
o Gust effect factor for a rigid building is 0.85
Wind Loads on Buildings – MWFRS
 Occupancy Category
o Part I – building of all heights; Enclosed and
1. Essential Facilities – Power and
Partially enclosed rigid buildings
communication centers, Hospitals, Public
 q = qz – windward walls
School Buildings, Control towers
 q = qh – leeward walls, side walls,
2. Hazardous Facilities – housing or supporting
roof
toxic or explosive chemicals or substance
 qi = qz – positive internal pressure
3. Special Occupancy – Educational buildings,
evaluation in partially enclosed
institutional buildings, Religious Facilities
buildings
4. Standard Occupancy Structures – not listed
 qi = qh – windward walls, side
in all other categories
walls, roofs of enclosed buildings
5. Miscellaneous Structures – private garages,
for negative internal pressure
carports, sheds and fences over 1.5m high
 Pressure Coefficients
 Directional procedure for
 Surface Roughness Categories buildings of all heights
o Surface Roughness B: Urban and suburban  Envelope procedure for
areas; closely spaced obstructions low-rise buildings having a
o Surface Roughness C: Open terrain with height less than or equal
scattered obstructions; flat open country, to 18 m
grasslands  Types of Roofs
o Surface Roughness D: Flat unobstructed  Gable, Hip Roof
areas and water surfaces  Monoslope Roof
 Category A used to be for heavily  Mansard Roof
built-up urban areas and was later  Domed Roof
removed  Arched Roof
 Pitched Free Roof
 Troughed Free Roof
o Part II – Diaphragm buildings with h = 48m
 Class I Buildings
 Mean roof height ≤ 18m
 0.2 ≤ L/B ≤ 5.0
 Class II Buildings
 18 m ≤ h ≤ 48 m
 0.5 ≤ L/B ≤ 2.0