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Unit 6 Converting Equipment 57

Unit 6
Converting Equipment,
Electric Cables

6.1. Transformers
Transformers may be of the dry type, encapsulated or liquid filled type.
The temperature rise of the winding of transformers above the ambient
temperatures when measured by resistance during continuous operation at the
maximum rating is not to exceed:
a For dry type transformers, air cooled:
insulation of Class A - 50°C
insulation of Class E - 60°C
insulation of Class B - 70°C
insulation of Class F - 90°C
insulation of Class H - 110°C
b For liquid filled transformers
50°C – where air provides cooling of the fluid
65°C – where water provides cooling of the fluid
When a transformer is connected to a supply system with harmonic
distortion, the rating of the transformer is to allow for the increased heating effect
of the harmonic loading. Special attention is to be given to transformers connected
for the purpose of reducing harmonic distortion.
Transformers, except those for motor starting, are double wound. Liquid
fillings for transformers are to be non-toxic and of a type which does not readily
support combustion. Liquid filled transformers are to have a pressure relief-device
with an alarm and there is to be a suitable means provided to contain any liquid
which may escape from the transformer due to the operation of the relief device or
damage to the tank.
All transformers are to be capable of withstanding for two seconds,
without damage, the thermal and mechanical effects of a short-circuit at the
terminals of any winding. When forced cooling is used, whether air or liquid,
there is to be monitoring of the cooling medium and transformer winding
temperatures with an alarm should these exceed present limits. There are to be
arrangements so that the load may be reduced to a level commensurate with the
cooling available. The following tests are to be carried out on all transformers at
the manufacturer’s works, and a certificate of tests issued by the manufacturer:
a. measurement of winding resistance, voltage ratio, impedance voltage,
short circuit impedance, insulation resistance, load loss, no load loss
and current;
b. dielectric tests;
c. temperature rise test on one transformer of each size and type.
58 English for Marine Electrical Engineering 3

6.2. Semiconductor equipment


Semiconductor static power converter equipment is to be rated for the
required duty having regard to peak loads, system transients and overvoltage.
Converter equipment may be air or liquid cooled and it is to be arranged so that it
cannot remain loaded unless effective cooling is maintained. Alternatively the
load may be automatically reduced to a level commensurate with the cooling
available. Liquid cooled converter equipment is to be provided with leakage
alarms and there is to be a suitable means provided to contain any liquid which
may leak from the system. Where the semi-conductors and other current carrying
parts are in direct contact with the cooling liquid, provision is to be made for
monitoring the liquid to ensure it has a satisfactory resistivity. Where forced
cooling is used there is to be temperature monitoring of the heated cooling
medium with an alarm and shutdown when the temperature exceeds a preset
value. Cooling fluids are to be non-toxic and of low flammability.
Converter equipment is to be so arranged that the semiconductor devices,
fuses, control and firing circuit boards may be readily removed from the
equipment for repair or replacement. Test and monitoring facilities are to be
provided to permit identification of control circuit faults and faulty components.
Protection devices fitted for convertor equipment protection are to ensure
that, under fault conditions, the protective action of circuit breakers, fuses or
control systems is such that there is no further damage to the convertor or the
installation.
Converter equipment, including any associated transformers, reactors,
capacitors and filters, if provided, is to be so arranged that the harmonic
distortion, and voltage spikes, introduced into the ship electrical system are within
limits or restricted to a lower level necessary to ensure that it causes no
malfunction of equipment connected to the electrical installation. Overvoltage
spikes or oscillations caused by commutation or other phenomena, are not to
result in the supply voltage waveform deviating from a superimposed equivalent
sine wave by more than 10 percent of the maximum value of the equivalent sine
wave.
When converter equipment is operated in parallel, load sharing is to be
such that under normal operating conditions overloading of any unit does not
occur and the combination of paralleled equipment is stable throughout the
operating range. When converter equipment has parallel circuits there is to be
provision to ensure that the load is distributed uniformly between the parallel
paths.
Transformers, reactors and other circuit devices associated with convertor
equipment are to be suitable for the distorted voltage and current waveforms to
which they may be subjected.
Unit 6 Converting Equipment 59

6.3. Electric Cables


For the purpose of this section, pipes, conduits, trunking or any other system for
the additional mechanical protection of cables are hereafter referred to under the
generic name ‘protective casings’.

6.3.1. Testing
Routine tests consist of at least:
a) measurement of electrical resistance of conductors;
b) high voltage test;
c) insulation resistance measurement;
d) for high voltage cables, partial discharge tests are to be made in accordance
with the requirements of the relevant publications. Particular, special and type
tests are to be made, when required, in accordance with the requirements of the
relevant publications.

6.3.2. Voltage Rating


The rated voltage of any electric cables is to be not lower than the nominal
voltage of the circuit for which it is used. The maximum sustained voltage of the
circuit is not to exceed the maximum voltage for which the cable has been
designed. Electric cables used in unearthed systems are to be suitably rated to
withstand the additional stress imposed on the insulation due to an earth fault.

6.3.3. Operating temperature


The maximum rated conductor temperature of the insulating material for normal
operation is to be at least 10°C higher than the maximum ambient temperature
liable to be produced in the space where the cable is installed. The maximum rated
conductor temperatures for normal and short circuit operation, for the insulating
materials is not to exceed the values stated in the table below.

Type of insulating compound Maximum rated conductor


temperature, °C
Normal operation Short circuit
Thermoplasics: 60 150
- Based upon polyvinyl chloride
or co-polymer of vynil
chloride and vynil acetate
- Based upon polyethylene 60 130

Elastomeric or thermosettings:
- Based upon ethylene 85 250
propylene rubber or similar
60 English for Marine Electrical Engineering 3

- Based upon chemically 85 250


crosslinked polyethylene
- Based upon silicon rubber 95 To be submitted

Mineral: 95 To be submitted

6.3.4. Construction
Electric cables are to be at least of a flame-retard type. Where electric cables are
installed in locations exposed to the weather, in damp and in wet situations, in
machinery compartments, refrigerated spaces or exposed to harmful vapours
including oil vapour they are to have the conductor insulating materials enclosed
in an impervious sheath of material appropriate to the expected ambient
conditions.
Electric cables, where it is required that their construction includes
metallic sheaths, armouring or braids, are to be provided with overall impervious
sheath or other means to protect the metallic elements against corrosion. Where
single core electric cables are used in circuits rated in excess of 20 Amps and are
armoured the armour is to be of a non-magnetic material.
Electric cables are to be constructed such that they are capable of
withstanding the mechanical and thermal effects of the maximum short circuit
current which can flow in any part of the circuit in which they are installed, taking
into consideration not only the time/current characteristics of the circuit protective
device but also the peak value of the prospective short circuit current. Where
electric cables are to be used in circuits with a maximum short circuit current in
excess of 70 kA, evidence is to be submitted for consideration when required
demonstrating that the cable construction can withstand the effects of the short
circuit current. All high voltage electric cables are to be readily identified by
suitable marking.

6.3.5. Conductor size


The maximum continuous load carried by a cable is not to exceed its continuous
current rating. It is to be chosen such that the maximum rated conductor
temperature for normal operation for the insulation is not exceeded. The cross
sectional area of the conductors is to be sufficient to ensure that, under short
circuit conditions, the maximum rated conductor temperature for short circuit
operation is not exceeded, taking into consideration the time current
characteristics of the circuit protective device and the peak value of the
prospective short circuit current.

6.3.6. Correction factors for cable current rating


Where more than six electric cables, which may be expected to operate
simultaneously at their full rated capacity, are laid close together in a cable bunch
Unit 6 Converting Equipment 61

in such a way that there is an absence of free air circulation around them, a
correction factor of 0,85 is to be applied. Signal cables may be exempted from this
requirement. The ratings are based on an ambient temperature of 45°C.

6.3.7. Installation of electric cables


Electric cable runs are to be as far as practicable fixed in straight lines and in
accessible positions. The minimum internal radius of bend for the installation of
fixed electric cables is to be chosen according to the construction and size. The
installation of electric cables across expansion joints in any structure is to be
avoided. Where this is not practicable, a loop of electric cable of length sufficient
to accommodate the expansion of the joint is to be provided. The internal radius
of the loop is to be at least 12 times the external diameter of the cable.
Electric cables for essential and emergency services are to be arranged, so
far as is practicable, to avoid galleys, machinery spaces and other enclosed spaces
of high fire risk except as is necessary for the service being supplied. Such cables
are also, where practicable, to be routed clear of bulkheads to preclude their being
rendered unserviceable by heating of the bulkheads that may be caused by a fire in
an adjacent space. Electric cables having a protective covering which may damage
the covering of other cables are not to be bunched with those other cables.
Electric cables are to be as far as practicable installed remote from sources
of heat. Where installation of cables near sources of heat cannot be avoided and
where there is consequently a risk of damage to the cables by heat, suitable
shields, insulation or other precautions are to be installed.
Where electric cables are installed in bunches, provision is to be made to
limit the propagation of fire, which may be achieved by the use of suitably located
fire stops. Alternative arrangements are to be considered. Electric cables are not to
be coated or painted with materials which may adversely affect their sheath or
their fire performance.
Where electric cables are installed in refrigerated spaces they are not to be
covered with thermal insulation but may be placed directly on the face of the
refrigeration chamber, provided that precautions are taken to prevent the electric
cables being used as casual means of suspension. All metal coverings of electric
cables are to be earthed in accordance with the specifications.
High voltage cables may be installed as follows:
a) in the open, e.g. on carrier plating, when they are to be provided with a
continuous metallic sheath or armour which is effectively bonded to earth
to reduce danger to personnel. The metallic sheath or armour may be
omitted provided that the cable sheathing material has a longitudinal
electric resistance high enough to prevent sheath currents which may be
hazarduous to personnel;
b) contained in earthed metallic protective casings when the cables may be as
in (a) or the armour or metal sheath may be omitted. In the later case care
62 English for Marine Electrical Engineering 3

is to be taken to ensure that protective casings are electrically continuous


and that short lengths of cable are not left unprotected.
High voltage electric cables are not to be run in the open through accommodation
spaces. High voltage electric cables are to be segregated as far as is practicable
from electric cables operating at lower voltages.
Electrical cables are to be as far as practicable installed remote from
sources of mechanical damage. With the exception of those for portable
appliances and those installed in protective casings the electric cables are to be
fixed securely in accordance with the requirements. The a.c. wiring is to be
carried out using multicore cables wherever practicable where it is necessary to
install single core electric cables for alternating current circuits in excess of 20
Amps the requirements are to be complied with.

6.3.8. Mechanical protection of cables


Electric cables exposed to risk of mechanical damage are to be protected by
suitable protective casings unless the protective covering (e.g. armour or sheath)
is sufficient to withstand the possible cause of damage. Electric cables installed in
spaces where there is exceptional risk of mechanical damage such as holds,
storage spaces, cargo spaces, etc., are to be suitably protected by metallic
protective casings, even when armoured, unless the ship’s structure affords
adequate protection. Non-metallic protective casings and fixings are to be flame
retard. Metal protective casings are to be efficiently protected against corrosion
and effectively earthed.

6.3.9. Securing of cables


Electric cables are to be effectively supported and secured, without being
damaged, by means of flame retard clips, saddles or straps.
The distance between supports are to be chosen according to the type of
cable and the probability of vibration and are not to exceed 400mm. for a
horizontal cable run, fixings are to be provided to restrain the cable movement
where the cables are laid on cable supports in the form of trays or plates, separate
support brackets, hangers or ladder rack fixings. The spacings between the fixing
points may be up to 900mm provided that there are supports with maximum
spacing as specified above. This relaxation is not to be applied to cable runs on
deck or in the areas which can be subjected to forces of seawater impingement.
Supports and accessories are to be robust and are to be of corrosion-resistant
material or suitably corrosion inhibited.
When electric cables are fixed by means of clips or straps manufactured
from a material other than metal the material is to be flame retard and the fixings
are to be supplemented by suitable metal clips or straps spaced at regular
distances, each not exceeding 2 m. Single core electric cables are to be firmly
Unit 6 Converting Equipment 63

fixed, using supports of strength adequate to withstand forces corresponding to the


values of the peak prospective short circuit current.

6.3.10. Penetration of bulkheads and decks by cables


Where electric cables pass through watertight, fire insulated or gas tight bulkheads
or decks separating dangerous zones or spaces from non-dangerous zones or
spaces, the arrangements are to be such as to ensure the integrity of the bulkhead
or deck is not impaired. The arrangements chosen are to ensure that the cables are
not adversely affected.
Where cables pass through non-watertight bulkheads or structural steel,
the holes are to be bushed with suitable material. If the steel is at least 6 mm thick,
adequately rounded edges may be accepted as the equivalent of bushing. Electric
cables passing through decks are to be protected by deck tubes or ducts. Where
cables pass through thermal insulation they are to do so at right angles, in tubes
sealed at both ends.

6.3.11. Single core electric cables for alternating current


When installed in protective casings, electric cables belonging to the same circuit
are to be installed in the same casing, unless the casing is of non-magnetic
material. Cable clips are to include electric cables of all phases of a circuit unless
the clips are of non-magnetic material. Single core cables of the same circuit are
to be in contact with one another, as far as possible. In any event the distance
between adjacent electric cables is not to be greater than one cable diameter.
If single-core cables of current rating greater than 250 A are installed near
a steel bulkhead, the clearance between the cables and the bulkhead is to be at
least 50mm unless the cables belonging to the same a.c. circuit are installed in
trefoil formation.
Magnetic material is not to be used between single core cables of a group.
Where cables pass through steel plates, all the conductors of the same circuit are
to pass through a plate or gland, so made that there is no magnetic material
between the cables, and the clearance between the cables and the magnetic
material is not to be less than 75mm, unless the cables belonging to the same a.c.
circuit are installed in trefoil formation.
High voltage electric cables are to be installed such that precautions are
taken to limit circulating currents in the sheath or armour to safe values and the
electric cables are to be transposed at intervals of about 16m.

6.3.12. Electric cable ends


The ends of all conductors of cross-sectional areas greater than 4 mm² are to be
fitted with compression type sockets or mechanical clamps. Soldered sockets may
be used in conjunction with non corrosive fluxes provided that the maximum
64 English for Marine Electrical Engineering 3

conductor temperature at the joint, under short circuit conditions, does not exceed
160°C.
High voltage cables of the radial field type, i.e. having a conducting layer
to control the electric field within the insulation, are to have terminations which
provide electrical stress control. Electric cables having hygroscopic insulation
(e.g. mineral insulated) are to have their ends sealed against ingress of moisture.
Cable sockets and connecting terminals are to be of such design and
dimensions that the maximum current likely to flow through them will not
produce heat which would damage the insulation. The temperatures produced are
not to exceed those permitted for the cables insulating material. The fixing of
conductors in terminals at joints and at tappings is to be capable of withstanding
the thermal and mechanical effects of short circuit currents.

6.3.13. Joints and branch circuits in cable systems


If a joint is necessary it is to be carried out so that all conductors are adequately
secured, insulated and protected from atmospheric action. The flame retard
properties or fire resisting properties of the cable are to be retained, the continuity
of metallic sheath, braid or armour is to be maintained and the current carrying
capacity of the cable is not to be impaired.
Tappings (branch circuits) are to be made in suitable boxes of such a design that
conductors remain suitably insulated, protected from atmospheric action and fitted
with terminals or busbars of dimensions appropriate to the current rating.

TASK 1 Match the temperatures with the type of insulation:

Insulation type Temperature Matching


a) insulation of Class A 1) 90°C
b) insulation of Class B 2) 50°C
c) insulation of Class H 3) 70°C
d) insulation of Class F 4) 110°C
e) insulation of Class E 5) 60°C

TASK 2 Fill in the missing information from the following table:

Type of insulating compound Maximum rated conductor


temperature, °C
Normal operation Short circuit
………………..:
- Based upon polyvinyl chloride 60 -
or co-polymer of vynil
chloride and vynil acetate
Unit 6 Converting Equipment 65

- 60 130

Elastomeric or thermosettings:
- Based upon ethylene - 250
propylene rubber or similar
- Based upon chemically 85 -
crosslinked polyethylene
- 95 To be submitted

Mineral: 95 -

TASK 3 Scan the text Electric cables starting with 6.3.4. and find out the
meaning of the following digits:
70 kA
0,85
45°C
12 times
400mm
900mm
2m
250 A
50mm
75mm
160°C
4 mm²

6.4. Vocabulary
armour ~ înveliş metalic
braid ~ şnur, împletitură, a împleti cablu
busbar ~ bară colectoare
bushing ~ izolator de intrare
cable bunch ~ manşon de cablu
cable run ~ traseu de cablu
cable socket ~ papuc de cablu
capacitor ~ condensator
carrier plating ~ bordajul navei
clearance ~ joc, spaţiu
clip ~ colier, bridă
compression type socket ~ papuc/priză cu compresie
conduit ~ conductor, tub protector
connecting terminal ~ bornă de legătură
66 English for Marine Electrical Engineering 3

converter equipment ~ echipamente de convertizor


co-polymer ~ copolimer
corrosion inhibiting ~ anticoroziv
crosslinked polyethylene ~ polietilenă reticulară
cross-sectional area ~ suprafaţa secţiunii transversale
deck tube ~ tubulatură de punte
distorted voltage ~ tensiune deformată
double wound ~ bifilar
dry type ~ tip uscat
duct ~ tub, conductor
elastomeric ~ elastomeric
electrical stress control ~ control tensiune electrică
encapsulated ~ încapsulat
ethylene propylene rubber ~ cauciuc etilenă-propilenă
exempted ~ scutit, exceptat
expansion joint ~ îmbinare elastică/glisantă
external diameter ~ diametru extern
fire stop ~ ignifug
fixing ~ fixare, prindere
flame retard ~ ignifug
flammability ~ inflamabil
gland ~ garnitură de etanşare
hanger ~ suport
harmonic distortion ~ deformare/ distorsiune armonică
harmonic loading ~ încărcare armonică
hygroscopic insulation ~ izolare higroscopică
impaired ~ cu defect
impervious ~ impermeabil, etanş
impingement ~ lovire, izbire
ingress of moisture ~ pătrundere/infiltrare a umezelii
internal radius of bend ~ raza internă de îndoire
joint ~ loc de legare a cablurilor
ladder rack fixing ~ prindere pe stativ
loop of electric cable ~ buclă a cablului electric
mechanical clamp ~ prindere mecanică
monitoring facilities ~ mijloace de monitorizare
multicore cable ~ cablu cu mai multe conductoare
non-metallic protective casing ~ tubulatură de protecţie nemetalică
overvoltage ~ supratensiune
parallel paths ~ trasee paralele
peak load ~ sarcină maximă
plate ~ armătură
Unit 6 Converting Equipment 67

polyethylene ~ polietilenă
polyvinyl chloride (p.v.c.) ~ clorură de polivinil
preclude ~ a exclude, a înlătura, a preveni
pressure relief-device ~ dispozitiv de reducere a presiunii
protective casing ~ tubulatură/ carcasă protectoare
radial field type ~ de tip radial
rating ~ valoare nominală, putere nominală, dimensionare, regim nominal
reactor ~ reactor
relaxation ~ micşorare, slăbire
resistivity ~ rezistivitate
restrain ~ a opri, a restrânge
rounded edge ~ margine rotunjită
routed ~ desfăşurat pe traseu
saddle ~ support, garnitură
semiconductor ~ semiconductor
sheath ~ înveliş, husă,
sheath current ~ undă electromagnetică prin fir
sheathing material ~ material de protecţie
short length ~ desfăşurare redusă
silicon rubber ~ cauciuc de silicon
sine wave current ~ current sinusoidal
single core electric cable ~ cablu cu un singur conductor
soldered socket ~ papuc/priză sudată
strap ~ clemă
support bracket ~ colţar de sprijin
tapping ~ priză, legătură de racordare
thermal insulation ~ itolaţie termică
thermoplastic ~ termoizolator
thermosetting ~ plastifiabil prin încălzire
transformer ~ transformator
tray ~ placă, bază
trefoil formation ~ formaţiune trifilară
trunking ~ magistrală
voltage spike ~ tensiune tranzitorie
vynil acetate ~ acetate de vinil
vynil chloride ~ clorură de vinil
winding ~ bobinaj; înfăşurare
withstanding ~ care contracarează/ opune rezistenţă
68 English for Marine Electrical Engineering 3

6.5. Engineering - General Vocabulary

Working tools
bench vice ~ menghină de banc
box spanner ~ cheie tubulară
center punch ~ punctuator
chain block ~ palanc cu lanţ
chipping hammer ~ marţagon
chisel ~ daltă
crow bar ~ rangă cu gheare
cutting punch ~ preducea
eyebolt ~ ochet
file (flat, round and half-round) ~ pilă (plată, rotundă şi semirotundă)
file (for white metal) ~ şabăr (pentru material antifricţiune)
file brush ~ perie pentru pile
file handle ~ mâner de pilă
flash light ~ lanternă de buzunar
hacksaw frame with hacksaw ~ fierăstrău pentru metale şi pânză
hand hammer ~ ciocan de mână
lead hammer ~ ciocan de plumb
leg vice ~ menghină de mână
monkey wrench ~ cheie reglabilă
packing knife ~ cuţit pentru garniture
packing tools (hook, screw and stick) ~ instrumente pentru garnituri (cârlig,
tirbuşon şi spatulă)
parallel vice ~ menghină paralelă
pipe wrench ~ cheie pentru tubulaturi
pliers ~ patent
portable electric drill with chuck ~ maşină electrică de găurit portabilă cu
mandrină
portable electric grinder ~ polizor electric portabil
scissors for metal ~ foarfecă pentru metal
scissors for packing ~ foarfecă pentru garniture
scraper ~ răzuitoare
screw driver (cross head type) ~ şurubelniţă cap cruce
screw driver ~ şurubelniţă
screwjack with ratchet ~ cric cu şurub şi crichet
shackle ~ cheie de tachelaj
sledge hammer ~ baros
spanner ~ cheie fixă
straight shank drill ~ burghiu cu coadă cilindrică
tap and round die with case ~ trusă de taroyi şi filiere
Unit 6 Converting Equipment 69

torch lamp (kerosene) ~ lampă de benzină


valve handle spanner ~ cheie pentru manevrat valvule
wedge ~ pană
wire rope sling ~ legătură din parâmă metalică
wooden hammer ~ ciocan de lemn

6.6. Prepositions of time


In English certain prepositions are used for different moments or periods of time.

On Friday day
Wednesday morning day + morning/afternoon/evening/night
the sixteenth of March date
Christmas Day special day

In spring season
2003 year
August month
the morning parts of the day

At three o’clock time


Christmas festival
lunchtime mealtimes
the moment/present now
the weekend
night/midnight

Periods for four weeks general period


in three days period starting from now
two months ago period finished

Some prepositions need explanation not to be confused:


until  not before
The ship will not leave until 2 o’clock.
by  any point before or at a certain time
I start my watch by 2 o’clock.

since  shows the moment in the past the action started, looking back to that point
I haven’t seen him since I left the port.
from  shows the moment the action started
The shops are open from 10 o’clock.
70 English for Marine Electrical Engineering 3

for + a period of time  how long something goes on


I’ve been waiting the shipping for ages.
during + noun  when something happens
The deck is wet. It must have rained during the night.

during + noun  in a certain period of time


I learned many new things during my voyage.
while + subject + verb  in a certain period of time (while is placed at the
beginning of a subordinate clause).
I learned many new things while I was on voyage.

TASK 4
Exercise 1 Complete the gaps using in, at or on.
1. ………………. July
2. ………………9.00
3. ……………….Fridays
4. ……………the afternoon
5. ………….the weekend
6. ……………2006
7. ………………the evening
8. ………………Christmas
9. ………………..the last day of the week
10. …………….December 25th

Exercise 2 Are the underlined words correct or not? If they are incorrect, change
them.
1. I’ll wait by he arrives, and then I’ll go.
2. Have you seen her since we last met?
3. I have known her during a very long time.
4. They remained calm throughout the negotiations.
5. We fixed the appointment during next Tuesday.
6. I’m seeing him for about a week’s time.
7. She met her uncle for the first time during the war.
8. I hope to get to your house by 7.00 at the latest.

Exercise 3 Complete the text with at, on or in.


There’s one bus from London which gets here (1)….. ten o’clock. (2)….. the
morning and then another which gets in (3)….. four o’clock (4)….. the afternoon.
That’s (5)….. weekdays, but (6)….. the weekend the timetable is a bit different.
(7)…..Saturday there are still two buses but the second one arrives (8)….. five
Unit 6 Converting Equipment 71

thirty; (9)….. Sunday there is just one bus (10)….. two o’clock. And (11)….. the
winter, the service doesn’t run at all (12)….. Sundays.

Exercise 4 Cross out the incorrect answer.


1 The teacher told us to finish our homework by/until Monday.
2 We can’t leave by/until the others get back.
3 I’ve been in the army for/since I was eighteen.
4 They’ve worked here for/since/during six months.
5 I visit my uncle every week for/since/during the winter.
6 I was at university for/since/during four years.
7 She’s going back to France in/after three months’ time.
8 He left the office during/throughout the lunch break.
9 It was hot during/throughout August; we didn’t have one day under 30 degrees.
10 I booked a table in the restaurant by/for next Saturday. I hope that’s OK.

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