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the United States that linguistics has nothing to offer to the teaching of language, the efforts remain
that the two disciplines are related and interrelated.
Two of the grammars are used to analyze the English language. They are Structural Grammar
and Transformational Grammar. Structuralists are concerned with “stimulus-response” relationship
that governs the human language. They believe that language is acquired through a set of habits
through ample practice and repetition of the nine basic patterns in which all English sentences
are subjected to such patterns. Chomsky2 launched his approach to linguistics with a heavy attack
on the Structural Grammar. Formally, Generative Grammar of Chomsky is defined as a finite set
of rules that can be applied to generate exactly those sentences that are grammatical in a given
language. Lynch, Larry3 says that Transformationalists view grammar as a theory of language
structure rather than a description of actual sentences. They also add that grammar is a device for
producing the structure, not of a particular language, but of the ability to produce and understand
sentences in any and all languages.
This paper discusses the different assumptions and implications of Transformational Grammar
to foreign language teaching methodology.
Key Words: Transformational generative grammar, generative Grammar, language teaching.
Introduction
Since the beginning of the attempts for teaching English as a second language (TESL)
in the early 1940s, different methods have been used in order to achieve the best learning
outcome. Unfortunately, scholars have reached no agreement on the most effective (TESL)
methodology. There is no single method of language teaching that has been considered
as superior to others4.
Structuralism emphasizes on the process of segmenting and classifying the physical
features of utterances which Noam Chomsky later called surface structure with little
reference to the abstract underlying structures (Chomsky’s Deep structure) of language
or their meaning. It is this emphasis which the Chomskyan approach to language strongly
attacked; for generative linguistics. Structuralism is based on a body of original collected
language data known as a corpus. This corpus represents native spoken or written
language. It is broken down by the grammarians who describe and classify it in terms of
form, position and function, for example, in the sentence.
The shouting boys are swimming in the pool.
Shouting is: − a verb by form.
− an adjective by position.
− a modifier by function.
The assumptions of the structuralism have been criticized and challenged by the
transformationalists, who assume that language is a system acquired not on "stimulus-
response" basis, but through a developmental process directed by innate guiding principles.
Transformational Grammar rejects the description of a corpus and focuses on discovery
procedures as the aim of linguistic science. Grammar is considered as sets of rules which,
when followed, can generate all the grammatical sentences of language. The number of all
the grammatical sentences possible in language is infinite. Transformationalists evolve the
finite set of rules responsible for the creation of the infinite number of sentences possible
in a language.
To conclude, structuralists consider the language as a system acquired on “stimulus-
response” basis and it is a mechanical skill. On the other hand, transformationalists
consider language as a developmental process of two levels; the surface structure which
determines the pronunciation of individual lexical items and their sequence in a sentence,
and the deep structure which determines the underlying meaning of a sentence. Politzer5
states that “deep structures can lead only to one specific surface realization. However, the
reverse is not true.”
1) Chomsky, Noam, Linguistic Theory, Northeast Conference on Research and Language learning,
Northeast University, 1966.
2) Chomsky, Noam, Syntactic Structure, The Hague: Mouton and Co, 1957.
3) Lynch, Larry, Grammar Teaching: Implicit or Explicit, http://EzineArticles.com/?,2007.
4) Light, Richard, “The Current Scene in Second Language Teaching: A Brief Background”, Teaching
English as a Second Language: Perspectives and Practices, Vol. 1, 1978.
5) Politzer, Robert, Linguistics and Applied Linguistics: Aims and Methods, Heinle and Heinle
Enterprises, 1972, p.57.
CAN TRANSFORMATIONAL GENERATIVE GRAMMAR 303
BE USED FOR PEDAGOGICAL PURPOSES?
Transformational Grammar Advantage on the Structural Grammar:
As stated previously, Structural Grammar analyses the sentences under the nine
basis patterns. Accordingly, all English sentences are subjected into the following basic
sentence patterns6.
Pattern 1: N Be Adj
Example: Food is good.
Pattern 2: N Be UN (uninflected word)
Example: The girl is here.
Pattern 3: N1 Be N1
Example: My brother is a doctor.
Pattern 4: N In. V (intransitive)
Example: He runs
Pattern 5: N1 Tr. V (transitive) N2
Example: The girl bought a dress.
Pattern 6: N1 Tr.V N2 N3
Example: The mother bought the girl a dress.
Pattern 7: N1 Tr.V N2 N2
Example: The player chose Harry captain.
Pattern 8: N LV (linking verb) Adj.
Example: The acrobat seems young.
Pattern 9: N1 LV N1
Example: My brother remained an outstanding student.
The above sentences are condensed examples of the basic patterns. They can be
expanded by adding new elements or forms to each of them. Thus, the sentence of pattern
4 (N In. V) can be expanded into a sentence like “He runs quickly”, and similarly with
other sentences.
These patterns are to be taught through grammatical explanation regardless of the
prominent method based on this theory is the aural-oral or audio-lingual method, which
gives emphasis to the oral skills and differ the reading and writing skills to a later stage
of instruction.
Structuralists assume that language is a system which can be acquired as a set of
habits through ample practice and repetition of patterns, with emphasis on those areas that
contrast between the native language and the target language7.
6) Abushihab, Ibrahim “Text Processing and Topic Unity” in Atlas for Studies and Research, vol. 3, No.
1, 2008, p.3.
7) Harris, David, “The Future of ESOL: Continuity or Generation Gap? In Teaching English as a
Second Language: Perspective and Practices-Background and Approaches, vol. 1, The University
of the State of New York, The State Education Department, Bureau of Bilingual Education, Albany,
N.Y. 1978.
304 / Assist Prof. İbrahim ABUSHİBAB EKEV AKADEMİ DERGİSİ
structural rule:
S NP + VP
means that a sentence can be rewritten as a noun phrase + a verb phrase. The
phrase structural rules can also be represented by a tree diagram.
For example, the phrase structural rules:
S NP + VP
NP Art + N
VP V+N
can be tree diagrammed as follows:
S
NP VP
Art N V N
b) Transformational Rules:
These are a set of rules applied to the deep structure to generate the surface structure
as a string of morphemes. They are indicated by double-arrow from left to right (=>)
meaning that the deep structure at the left of the arrow can be transformed into the surface
structure on the right of the arrow. For example, the affix rule
af + v => v + af
means that an affix preceding a verb in the deep structure is suffixed to that verb in the
surface structure, e.g.
en + write => write + en (written)
c) Morphophonemic Rules:
When applied to a sentence, the transformational rules change the deep structure into
a series of morphemes which can be grouped into units which belong to each other and
spelled out from the lexicon to generate the final surface structure of the sentences, i.e.
the form in which we say.
For example,
N + pres + have + en + go => N + have + pres + go + en
It is the morphophonemic rules which tell us how to group related units together and
spell them out. Thus we have
N + (have + pres) + (v + en)
spelled out into: “Ali has arrived”.
Suppose we want to generate the following sentence: Has Ali written the letter?
CAN TRANSFORMATIONAL GENERATIVE GRAMMAR 307
BE USED FOR PEDAGOGICAL PURPOSES?
The deep structure of this sentence is:
Ali has written the letter.
The phrase structural rules of this sentence give us the following tree diagram:
S
NP Aux VP
N Tn have en v NP
art N
Although the teacher and the linguist view language from two different angles, the
linguist’s view of language determines the language teacher’s formulation of the basic
tasks involved in foreign language teaching. The linguist’s answer to the question, “what
is language?” will influence the language teacher’s response to the question, “What skills
and knowledge are necessary for language proficiency?
The teachers who follow the principles of Transformational Grammar ought to ensure
that the pupils actually use the Transformational Grammar for the purpose of generating
sentences. The best way for the pupil to generate sentences is preparing exercises in
which specific questions are used to have the student supply specific sentence elements.
As the grammar becomes more complex, new questions can be added to the exercises.
The role of the student is to create (generate) utterances which are new as the following
exercises:
Stage One:
One of the phrase structural rules in Transformational Grammar is the following:
S NP VP
NP Det + N
VP V
Teacher Students
Who? (N) The boy
What does he do? (V) The boy writes
Stage Two:
S NP VP
NP (Det) (Adj.) N
VP V
Teacher Students
Who? (N) The boy
What a kind of a boy? (Adj + N) The clever boy
What does he do? (V) The clever boy writes
Stage Three:
S NP VP
NP (Det) (Adj) N
VP VP (NP)
Teacher Students
Who (Det + N) A girl
What kind? (Adj + N) A beautiful girl
What does she do? (V) A beautiful girl sings
What (NP) A beautiful girl sings a song
What kind (Adj N) A beautiful girl sing a new song
19) Politzer, Robert , op. cit.
CAN TRANSFORMATIONAL GENERATIVE GRAMMAR 311
BE USED FOR PEDAGOGICAL PURPOSES?
Stage four:
S NP VP
NP (Det) (Adj) N
VP VP (NP) (Adverbial)
Teacher Students
Who (Det + N) My brother
What does he do? (V) My brother writes
What? (N) My brother write a letter
What kind? (Det Adj N) My brother writes a long letter
Where (Adv) My brother writes a long letter in class.
One of the students may take the role of the teacher to create learner centered
atmosphere in the classroom.
Teachers of English may also prepare the following exercises that are based on
Transformational Grammar for their students:
1- Phrase structural rules can be considered kernel. In presenting of a foreign language,
sentences representing kernels ought to be taught first. Examples:
a- The flower is small (Det N Be Adj).
b- The student is my friend (Det N Be Det N).
c- The man is over there (Det N Be Adv.)
d- The man laughed (Det N V (intra.)).
2- “There” transformation
Example:
“A man is over there” is transformed into” There is a man over there.”
3- Expansion of verb section by applying auxiliary:
Example:
“The man laughed.” is expanded as follows:
− The man could laugh.
− The man has laughed.
− The man is laughing.
− The man could have laughed.
4- Interrogative Transformation:
Examples:
The man is here. Is the man here?
The man hits the ball Does the man hit the ball?
5- Expansion of verb section by adding adverb.
Example:
The man hit the ball The man hit the ball accurately
312 / Assist Prof. İbrahim ABUSHİBAB EKEV AKADEMİ DERGİSİ
6- Negative Transformation:
Example:
The man can hit the ball. The man cannot hit the ball.
Ali speaks English Ali doesn’t speak English.
7- Passive Transformation:
Example:
The boy buys a bicycle A bicycle is bought.
There is no methodological aspect of Transformational Grammar that can be converted
into teaching procedures. Nevertheless, Transformational Grammar has given numerous
implicit assumptions about language teaching.
Conclusion
Structural Grammar is based on collected language data which is called corpus. The
corpus represents spoken and written sentences done by the native speakers. The corpus is
analyzed and broken down by the grammarians who classify it in terms of form, position
and function.
Politzer19 states that sentences can be considered as grammatically identical if they
share the same grammatical meaning. The identical grammatical meaning shared by
several sentences is the grammatical patterns which they represent. Structuralists found
the syntactical arrangements in corpus by listing the nine basic patterns. Sentences in a
text are analyzed under such patterns and all English sentences are subjected into these
patterns.
Unlike Structuralism, Transformationalists distinguish between competence which
they define as the ideal speaker-hearer’s knowledge of the language, and performance
which is the actual use of language. The aim of Transformational Grammar is to show
how it is possible for speakers to produce grammatical sentences. Transformational
Grammar is interested in competence and this interest marks the clearest difference
between Structuralism and Transformational Grammar. Structuralism is text based and
only interested in language that has actually occurred. Transformational Grammar does
not use text since it is more interested in what produced the text than the text itself.
Transformational Grammar has an advantage on the Structural Grammar in interpreting
sentences of the same basic patterns, but of different meanings. For example, structuralists
fail to distinguish between the following sentences:
John is eager to please.
John is easy to please.
because they both belong to the same patterns:
N + Be + Adj + Inf.
Transformational Grammar is not concerned with English teaching methodology.
There are no teaching procedures of Transformational Grammar that can be converted
into teaching procedures, but it gives implicit assumptions about language teaching. We
can deal with such assumptions to derive some teaching English methodology.