See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/318456661

Physico-mechanical properties of asphalt concrete incorporated with

encapsulated cigarette butts

Article  in  Construction and Building Materials · October 2017

DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.07.091

CITATIONS READS

3 240

10 authors, including:

Abbas Mohajerani
RMIT University
67 PUBLICATIONS   390 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Moisture content limits of iron ore fines to prevent liquefaction during transport: Review and experimental study View project

Recyling waste in asphalt concrete View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Abbas Mohajerani on 13 September 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Construction and Building Materials 153 (2017) 69–80

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Physico-mechanical properties of asphalt concrete incorporated with

encapsulated cigarette butts
Abbas Mohajerani ⇑, Yasin Tanriverdi, Bao Thach Nguyen, Kee Kong Wong, Harin Nishamal Dissanayake,
Lachlan Johnson, Damian Whitfield, Guy Thomson, Eilaf Alqattan, Ahmad Rezaei
School of Engineering, Civil & Infrastructure Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia

h i g h l i g h t s

 Encapsulation of cigarette butts (CBs) with bitumen or paraffin wax has been studied.
 Inclusion of encapsulated CBs (ECB) in asphalt concrete (AC) has been investigated.
 Physico-mechanical properties of AC with different % of ECB have been discussed.
3
 AC with 10 and 15 kg/m of ECBs with bitumen satisfied all the traffic requirements.
3
 AC with 10 kg/m of ECBs with paraffin satisfied the light traffic requirements.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Discarded cigarette butts (CBs) are among the most common types of litter found around the world. As a
Received 16 April 2017 possible solution to this problem, this study investigated the possibility of encapsulating CBs with differ-
Received in revised form 24 June 2017 ent classes of bitumen and paraffin wax, and incorporating them into asphalt concrete (AC) for pavement
Accepted 10 July 2017
construction. The idea behind encapsulation involves restricting the interaction of CBs with fluids and
thus preventing chemical translocation. This paper presents and discusses the results of two investiga-
tions. The first involved assessing the effects of incorporating different amounts of CBs (10 kg/m3,
Keywords:
15 kg/m3 and 25 kg/m3) encapsulated with different classes of bitumen (C170, C320, C600) into an AC
Asphalt concrete
Pavement materials
mix manufactured with Class 170 bitumen. The second involved assessing the effects of incorporating
Bitumen 10 kg/m3 of CBs encapsulated with paraffin wax into AC mixes that were manufactured with different
Paraffin wax classes of bitumen (C170, and C320). All samples, including the control AC samples (no CBs), were tested
Cigarette butts for mechanical and volumetric properties, including stability, flow, resilient modulus, bulk density, max-
Encapsulation imum density, air voids, and voids in mineral aggregates. For the first investigation, involving encapsu-
lation of CBs with bitumen, using 10 kg/m3 and 15 kg/m3 of CBs in an asphalt mix gave results that
satisfied the requirements for light, medium and heavy traffic conditions. For the second investigation,
involving encapsulation of CBs with paraffin wax, the changes in mechanical and volumetric properties
for 10 kg/m3 CBs only satisfied the light traffic conditions for road pavements. The reduction in bulk den-
sity of AC caused by incorporating encapsulated CBs, increases the porosity, particularly when encapsu-
lating in higher grade bitumen, which, in turn, lowers its thermal conductivity. This helps reduce the
Urban Heat Island effect in urban environments.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction roads and pavements. It consists of up to 96% coarse and fine

1.1. Recycling waste in asphalt concrete
Asphalt concrete (AC), which is also known as asphalt or dense
graded asphalt [4,56], is commonly used in the construction of
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: abbas.mohajerani@rmit.edu.au (A. Mohajerani).
aggregates with the rest being filler and a bitumen binder [5].
Asphalt is usually mixed, spread and compacted whilst hot, and
is therefore classified as a Hot Mix Asphalt [56]. It has a continuous
distribution of aggregate particle size and filler, and low design air
void content, ranging from 3 to 7% [46]. Rutting due to excessive
permanent deformation, cracking due to fatigue, ravelling due to
oxidation and hardening of the binder are common modes of fail-
ure for AC [5]. Therefore, attempts to improve the performance of

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.07.091
0950-0618/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
70 A. Mohajerani et al. / Construction and Building Materials 153 (2017) 69–80
AC are constantly being investigated [1]. The reuse and recycling of
waste materials in asphalt mixes are gaining traction in the indus-
try, and, despite complying with the required standards, are yet to
achieve widespread adoption [42,43].
Crumb rubber from car tyres has been used internationally in
asphalt mixes for many years [36], and has been successfully recy-
cled into high strength concrete slabs. Experiments have confirmed
that it improves the fire resistance in structural high strength con-
crete slabs by reducing the spalling damage caused by fire [26].
Recycled glass has also been investigated for use in AC. Pioneer
Road Services [40] confirmed that using recycled glass in asphalt
helped reduce the time for an asphalt surface to dry after it rains
because the glass particles provide an impervious barrier. Another
practice; namely, the incorporation of pulverised computer circuit
boards, has been shown to increase the strength of AC [24]. A more
interesting waste recycling practice involves the containment of
nuclear and hazardous wastes. For example, bitumen has been
used as an encapsulation medium for radioactive waste products
in France, a technique that has been successfully practised for
many decades [10].
Despite the potential benefits, several concerns arise when
attempting to incorporate waste materials into Hot Mix Asphalt
(HMA). Studies have shown that the inclusion of waste materials
into HMA can affect the volumetric and mechanical properties of
the mix [39,55,57]. However, according to a study by Kriech [29],
traditional AC comprising aggregate, bitumen binder and filler
has been shown to be a very benign material with little or no lea-
chate properties of concern. Whilst little research has been under-
taken to examine the leachate properties of asphalt mixes
containing waste products, the findings suggest that the presence
of bitumen in the mix restricts their interaction with water and
reduces the translocation of the chemical disposition [7,13,45].
This indicates that bitumen is an excellent material to encapsulate
waste materials, such as used CBs.
Bitumen is a highly viscous fluid derived from the distillation of
crude oil with pre-existing natural wax [21,30]. The factors that
influence the effect of wax on bitumen are the bitumen’s chemical
composition and rheological behaviour, the exposed temperature,
and content, and the composition and crystallinity of the wax
[15,58]. A study by Fazaeli et al. [21] involved analysing the influ-
ence of Fischer-Tropsch paraffin (FT-paraffin) wax on bitumen. The
results indicated that the performance of bitumen at high temper-
atures improved under the influence of FT-paraffin, resulting in the
asphalt mixture having increased resistance to permanent defor-
mation. As FT-paraffin is a flow improver, the viscosity of bitumen
at high temperatures is reduced. Consequently, the mixing and
compaction temperature of the asphalt mixture decreases, result-
ing in lower energy consumption and emissions [14,15]. According
to Fazaeli et al. [21], FT-paraffin has minimal influence on bitumen
at intermediate and low temperatures.
To avoid the possible detrimental effects from paraffin wax, it is
best that the wax content in bitumen is limited and should not
exceed 3% [14]. In contrast, according to Wong and Li [58], in Main-
land China, three different grades (A, B and C) are used to classify
bitumen, with C comprising up to 4.5% paraffin wax but with the
restriction that it can only be used for roads with lower traffic than
A and B. The effects of wax on the bitumen quality and mixture
performance have been reported differently. The debate on waxy
bitumen is further complicated by the lack of a precise definition
for wax, the different types of wax, and the poor precision of the
test methods [31,58].
1.2. Cigarette butts
Cigarette butts (CBs) are one of the most common types of litter
found around the world [2,9]. According to estimations from
Euromonitor International [19], over 5.7 trillion cigarettes were
consumed worldwide in 2013; and, each year, an estimated 4.5
trillion butts from the annual cigarette consumption are deposited
somewhere in the environment [17]. This is equivalent to an esti-
mated mass of approximately 1.2 million tonnes of CBs each year
[32].
Although Euromonitor International [18] expects the global
cigarette market to fall by 8% between 2015 and 2050, the con-
sumption of cigarettes is expected to increase by more than 50%
by 2025, mainly due to an increase in the world population
[32,34,35]. This would suggest that billions of cigarettes will still
be on the market in the future, and will lead to a continuation of
a large number of CBs being deposited in the environment. In Aus-
tralia alone, excluding illegal cigarettes on the black market, 16.2
billion cigarettes were consumed in 2015 [18,20], of which,
approximately, 7 billion resulted in littered CBs [9,28].
The impact on the environment is exacerbated by the ubiqui-
tous nature of CBs and long decomposition times. Plastic filaments,
which are manufactured from synthetic fibres (cellulose acetate)
derived from wood pulp, comprise 95% of CBs, and it is estimated
that the decomposition of CBs varies from a couple of months to
many years depending on the environmental factors [8,23,41,44].
Research indicates that the breakdown is at a reduced rate
when the CBs are exposed to marine or freshwater conditions
[9]. According to EPA Victoria [16]; it takes up to 12 months for
CBs to break down in freshwater and 5 years in seawater. This is
a major environmental concern, especially considering that 85%
of the litter found in waterfront precincts is cigarette litter [54].
Cigarette filters are designed to absorb and trap particular smoke
components, including tar and toxic chemicals [27].
The difficulty of dealing with cigarette butt waste is a global
issue that is faced by municipal authorities and community groups
throughout the world. Unfortunately, the research into applica-
tions for its reuse remains in their infancy [25], and commercially
viable reuse is urgently required to ameliorate the ongoing effect
arising from CB waste.
Given the low chemical reactivity of asphalt [29], and the large
volume used in road and pavement construction, the addition of
small quantities of waste materials, such as CBs, may result in
viable applications in construction of flexible pavements while rid-
ding the environment of this waste material. This paper presents
and discusses the results of two investigations. The first involved
assessing the effects of incorporating different amounts of CBs
(10 kg/m3, 15 kg/m3 and 25 kg/m3) into an AC mix manufactured
with Class 170 bitumen after encapsulating them with different
classes of bitumen (C170, C320, C600). The second part of the
investigation involved assessing the effects of incorporating
10 kg/m3 of CBs encapsulated with paraffin wax into AC mixes
manufactured with different classes of bitumen (C170, and C320).
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Asphalt concrete incorporated with bitumen encapsulated CBs
2.1.1. Encapsulation of CBs
Prior to mixing the CBs with AC, the CBs were exposed to heat in an oven at
105 °C for a period of 24 h (Fig. 1). This process dried the CBs and eliminated the
moisture trapped inside them.
After drying, the second stage involved encapsulating the CBs by saturating
them in hot bitumen (heated to 150 °C). As the characteristics of the bitumen con-
stitute an important factor in the encapsulation of CBs, different classes of bitumen
were used to compare and contrast their impact on AC. The classes of bitumen used
were C170, C320 and C600 (Table 1). The C170 bitumen was provided by the Alex
Fraser Group, and the C320 and C600 classes were provided by the Shell Company
Pty Ltd of Australia.
Fig. 2 below displays the CBs that were encapsulated and left to cool on baking
paper. It was found that soaking the CBs over a 5-min period allowed the hot bitu-
men to fully penetrate and be absorbed into the CBs.
 A. Mohajerani et al. / Construction and Building Materials 153 (2017) 69–80 71

Table 2
Distribution and bulk density of the aggregates used in the control mix.

Material Source Percent Added Bulk particle density (t/

Type (%) m3)
14 mm Oaklands 21.0 2.960
Junction
10 mm Oaklands 14.0 2.960
Junction
7 mm Oaklands 21.0 2.660
Junction
Dust Oaklands 30.0 2.640
Junction
Sand Bacchus Marsh 13.0 2.600
Filler Sibelco 1.0 2.760
Australia

Fig. 1. Some of the CBs used in this study.

In recognition of its wide use, it was decided to produce a Dense Grade Asphalt
(DGA) mix. According to Austroads [5], the mix design procedure for DGA involves
Table 1 initially preparing and conditioning a batch according to Standards Australia ,
Viscosity of C170, C320 and C600 bitumen [12,47]. AS2891.2.1. The procedure followed in accordance with the standard is explained
below.
Bitumen Class Viscosity (60 °C, Pa.s) Viscosity (135 °C, Pa.s) Initially, the aggregates were placed in an oven at 105 °C for 24 h to remove any
C170 140–200 0.25–0.45 moisture that might be present. After drying the components of the asphalt mix, the
C320 260–380 0.4–0.65 aggregates and bitumen were placed in an oven along with the testing equipment
C600 500–700 0.6–0.85 and heated to 150 °C for a minimum of one hour to ensure that they were all at the
same temperature. Once all the required materials were heated to the required
temperature, the aggregates were then mixed with the bitumen for a mixing time
not exceeding 3 min. Then the asphalt mix and mould was conditioned for 1 h at
150 °C in the oven. Within 30 min of conditioning, the contents were mixed
together with the required amount of encapsulated CBs. The total content of bitu-
men comprised 5.1% (by mass of total aggregates) of C170 bitumen, which was used
in the AC mix and for encapsulating the CBs. According to Austroads [4], aggregates
form up to 96% by mass of an asphalt mix. In order to maintain this ratio, the aggre-
gates were appropriately amended for the mixes to account for the addition of CBs.
These AC mixes comprised different amounts of encapsulated CBs (10 kg/m3, 15 kg/
m3 and 25 kg/m3) in addition to the control group that had no CBs.

2.1.3. Compaction of AC samples

Fig. 2. Some encapsulated CBs left to cool on Baking Paper.
After preparing and conditioning a batch, Austroads [5] requires a sample to be
compacted before testing by means of either Gyratory compaction (AS2891.2.2) or
Marshall compaction (AS2891.5). This study undertook the Gyratory compaction
method to compact all the samples before testing in accordance with Standards
Australia [51], AS2891.2.2.
The AC samples were compacted using a Servopac gyratory compactor similar
to the one displayed in Fig. 3. Once the samples were placed in the mould, the gyra-
tory compactor applied a vertical pressure of 240 kPa at a rate of 80 gyrations per

When the CBs were encapsulated and added to the asphalt mix, some of the
bitumen from the CBs became mobile and contributed to the overall free bitumen
content in the asphalt mix. An excess of free bitumen in the asphalt mix would be
contrary to the mix design and likely to have an impact on the mechanical and
physical properties of the final specimen; hence, controlling the amount of bitumen
released from the CBs was paramount. To minimise the effect of excess bitumen in
the samples, the CBs were subjected to a compressive load in a press, prior to soak-
ing them in hot bitumen. The compressive load was placed onto the CBs to force the
air out of the CBs. This was done to reduce the volume of voids within the CBs to
minimise the amount of free bitumen absorbed and the amount subsequently
released into the mix. The CBs were weighed before being placed into the bitumen
and then weighed again afterwards. This allowed the exact weight of the bitumen
absorbed to be determined.
The viscosity of the bitumen is an important factor in terms of both encapsulat-
ing the toxic chemicals within the CBs and for controlling the excess bitumen in the
asphalt mix. It was theorised that when CBs are soaked in low viscosity bitumen
and added to the asphalt mix, a small amount of bitumen from the CBs would
become mobile and would increase the mechanical and physical properties of AC,
where a class C170 bitumen would have the lowest viscosity and a class C600 bitu-
men would have the highest viscosity [12].

2.1.2. Asphalt mix preparation

All the aggregates required for this investigation were provided by the Alex Fra-
ser Group Pty Ltd. The 14 mm mix for this study was prepared in accordance with
Standards Australia [46], AS2150. Table 2 below displays the primary aggregate
types used in the mix, including their origin, the percentage of mix type used in
the control mix, and the bulk particle density of each aggregate type. Fig. 3. Servopac gyratory compaction machine used in the study.
72 A. Mohajerani et al. / Construction and Building Materials 153 (2017) 69–80

minute. If the Marshall method was used instead of the Gyratory method, this
would be equivalent to 50 blows with the Marshall hammer. An example of some
compacted samples is shown in Fig. 4.

2.1.4. Testing
Once the compacted samples were prepared, testing was undertaken with the
Marshall method in accordance with Standards Australia [52], AS2891.5. The Mar-
shall method involved determining the stability and flow of AC. Initially, the spec-
imens were placed in the water bath (60 °C) for 30–40 min. They were then
assembled (Fig. 5) in preparation for testing the Marshall stability and flow.
After assembly, a load was gradually applied to the specimen until the load
began to decrease. Then, the maximum load (stability) reading and flow reading
were recorded. Marshall Stability is defined as the maximum load carried by a com-
pacted specimen tested at 60 °C at a loading rate of 51 mm/min. The Marshall Flow
is defined as the vertical deformation of the specimen under load, measured from
the start of the loading to the point at which the specimen’s stability is at its peak.
Fig. 6 below displays a representation of the flow and stability using the Marshall
method.
According to Austroads [5], after the stability and flow tests are completed with
the Marshall method, optional performance tests can be performed, such as the
Resilient Modulus test. Fig. 7 displays a sample placed in a testing rig that is ready
to be tested to determine the resilient modulus. The resilient modulus of an asphalt
sample is the characterisation of the stress-strain relationship within the material
for rapidly applied loads, and quantifies the ability of the material to spread a load
[3,33,37,38].
As bitumen is a ‘visco-elastic’ material [5], variations in the testing conditions, Fig. 5. Specimen and breaking head assembled to undergo Marshall testing for
particularly temperature, have a significant impact on the resilient modulus results stability and flow.
obtained. The test conditions, and the equipment and procedures for determining
the resilient modulus of asphalt samples are detailed in Standards Australia [48],
AS 2891.13.1, and are based upon the indirect tensile method. The testing procedure
involved the application of a pulse load to a specimen. The displacement was then
measured on a plane perpendicular to that of the loading plane.
After the resilient modulus test, various other tests for volumetric properties
were carried out. These included bulk density, maximum density, air void content
and voids in mineral aggregates (VMA). The bulk density of asphalt was determined
from the ratio of the mass of an oven dried sample to the volume of water displaced
by the mass of a compacted dry asphalt sample. This was done in accordance with
Standards Australia [50], AS 2891.9.2. The water temperature was maintained at
22 °C during the bulk density testing. A value of 0.998 t/m3 was used as the density
of water.
Once the bulk density testing was completed, maximum density testing was
carried out for some samples. The maximum density of asphalt is the maximum
to which a mix could theoretically be compacted if there were no air voids present,
as described in Standards Australia [53], AS 2891.7.1. In other words, it is the density
of the loose asphalt mix with air voids filled by water displacement. The equipment
required for maximum density testing comprised a pycnometer, vacuum pump,
balance, thermometer, a water bath big enough to contain the immersed pycnome-
ter and maintain a water temperature of 25 °C, and an oven to heat up the loose
samples at 105 °C for approximately 10 min before testing.
Using the bulk density results, the percentage of air voids of the samples was
Fig. 6. Flow and Stability measurements taken under testing [5].
determined. The air void content of asphalt is a measure of the rut resistance ability
of the material and can also be used to determine the suitability of the asphalt for
certain environmental conditions [5]. The percentage of air voids of an asphalt mix

Fig. 7. Sample in Resilient Modulus Testing Rig.

is an important property to consider as its value strongly affects its durability and
Fig. 4. Some samples manufactured with CBs of 10 kg/m3, 15 kg/m3, 25 kg/m3 and stability. It is a representation of the amount of air trapped within an asphalt mix
no CBs (control). relative to the total volume of that particular mix. The smaller the air void content,
 A. Mohajerani et al. / Construction and Building Materials 153 (2017) 69–80
the less oxidation or ageing of the binder occurs, and the less the binder strips as
water is unable to penetrate the mix. However, if the air void content is too low,
the mix may cause plastic flow, which, in turn, causes rutting, shoving and bleeding
of the asphalt [5]. The relationships among maximum density, bulk density and air
void content are prescribed in Standards Australia [49], AS 2891.8. The results of all
the tests in this investigation were averaged from a minimum of three samples per
test.
2.2. Asphalt concrete incorporated with paraffin encapsulated CBs
2.2.1. Encapsulation of CBs
Paraffin wax (Fig. 8) was supplied by a local company in Melbourne, Australia.
Paraffin wax is an aliphatic hydrocarbon, which is made up of carbon chains with a
length of 40–115 carbon atoms [22]. It is distinguished by large, well-formed crys-
tals (Fig. 8). The paraffin wax that was used in this study had a melting point of
approximately 80 °C.
In this investigation, two classes of bitumen were used to manufacture AC, class
170 and class 320. Paraffin wax encapsulated CBs were added to these AC mixes in
the amount of 10 kg/m3. Class 170 bitumen is normally used for light traffic appli-
cations, whereas class 320 bitumen is used for medium traffic applications and is
the most commonly used binder in Australia for AC [4]. The total content of bitu-
men in the AC mix constituted 5.1% by mass of total aggregates.
Similar to the previous investigation involving encapsulation with bitumen, the
CBs were dried by heating them in an oven at 105 °C for 24 h. Then, the CBs were
encapsulated with paraffin wax. This was done by heating paraffin wax in a pot
until it melted completely, then the dried CBs were added to the wax (Fig. 9(a)).
The CBs were pressed against the bottom of the pot in order to remove any air that
might be trapped inside the CBs and then simmered in the wax for 20 min. The
encapsulated CBs were rolled in sand and sieved to remove any remaining wax
from the surface. They were then spread on a tray in a single layer to cool (Fig. 9(b)).
The encapsulated CBs were cooled for several days before use to allow them to
become hard and aggregate-like so that they would contribute to the mechanical
properties of the resulting AC mixture (Fig. 10).
2.2.2. Asphalt mix and sample preparation
Preparation of the asphalt mix for this investigation was undertaken in the
same manner as the previous investigation, in accordance with Standards Australia
, AS 2891.2.1. Prior to mixing, the separate components of the asphalt mix, other
than the binder, were dried to a constant mass and kept in an oven for 24 h at
105 °C to remove any remaining moisture. The average percentage of each compo-
nent used in an asphalt mix sample is shown in Table 3.
The dry components (aggregate and filler) and C170 bitumen binder were
heated to approximately 150 °C and mixed in a mechanical mixer. The mixing time
did not exceed 3 min after which the asphalt was hand mixed to ensure an even
spread of the binder.
The samples were each placed in the compaction mould and compacted in
accordance with Standards Australia [51], AS2891.2.2. A Servopac gyratory com-
pactor (Fig. 3) was used to compact the asphalt mix. The average characteristics
of the samples are given in Table 4, and the manufactured samples are shown in
Fig. 11.
2.2.3. Testing
The Marshall testing for stability and flow, performance tests for resilient mod-
ulus, and tests for volumetric properties, including bulk density, maximum density
and air void content, were performed on the samples. The stability-flow tests were
carried out using the Marshall method as per Standards Australia [52], AS 2891.5.
The setup for the stability-flow test can be seen in Fig. 5.
After the Marshall test, the resilient modulus testing was carried out in accor-
dance with Standards Australia [48], AS 2891.13.1. The sample was set up as shown
in Fig. 7. Once the resilient modulus testing was completed, other tests to deter-
mine the volumetric properties were undertaken in the same manner as the first
investigation. The results of all the tests in this investigation were averaged from
a minimum of three samples per test.
Fig. 8. Paraffin wax.
73
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Asphalt concrete incorporated wit bitumen encapsulated CBs
3.1.1. Marshall test results
The class of bitumen that was used with all the AC mixes for
this investigation was class 170. CBs were encapsulated with three
different bitumen classes, C170, C320 and C600. These bitumen
encapsulated CBs were added in different amounts to the AC
mix. Various types of sample were formed, which included mixes
with 10 kg/m3, 15 kg/m3 and 25 kg/m3 of CBs in addition to a con-
trol group which had no CBs. The stability and flow values that
were determined through the Marshall method can be seen in
Tables 5, 6 and 7.
According to Austroads [4], a minimum stability of 5.5 kN is
required for light traffic design and 6.5 kN for medium and heavy
traffic designs. It can be seen in Fig. 12 that all the different mixes,
except one, are suited for light traffic design, which is the mix that
is encapsulated with class C170 bitumen and contains 25 kg/m3 of
CBs. However, according to Standards Australia [46], AS2150, the
minimum stability requirement for light traffic is 4 kN, which
means that all the mixes satisfy the light traffic stability require-
ment. When it comes to medium and heavy traffic, it can be seen
that none of the three asphalt mix types of CBs encapsulated with
C170, C320 and C600 bitumen from the 25 kg/m3 CB content cate-
gory satisfy the minimum requirement. All the other categories
satisfy the minimum requirements for light, medium and heavy
traffic designs.
For all the mixes containing CBs encapsulated with C320 and
C600 bitumen, it can be seen that the stabilities are all higher than
for the samples containing CBs encapsulated with C170 bitumen.
This is due to the effect of using a higher-grade bitumen, which
results in higher stability.
The results were also used to compare the properties of samples
containing CBs in the amounts of 10 kg/m3, 15 kg/m3 and 25 kg/m3
as well as no CBs (control). The samples of mixes containing a lar-
ger amount of CBs displayed a decrease in stability compared to
those with smaller amounts. For example, the sample with a CB
content of 25 kg/m3 had a lower stability than the sample with
15 kg/m3, and, similarly, the sample with a CB content of 15 kg/
m3 displayed a slightly lower stability than the sample with
10 kg/m3. This decreasing trend is the result of CBs with low
strength properties and their ability to absorb the bitumen (bitu-
men used to bind aggregates) that was added during the mix
design, which is necessary to encapsulate CBs.
Further to the use of encapsulated CBs in AC mixes, the control
mix (with no CBs) had a stability of 6.9 kN, which is higher than for
the CBs encapsulated with C170 bitumen, but lower than for the
CBs encapsulated with C320 and C600 bitumen. This is an indica-
tion that the type of bitumen used to encapsulate the CBs affects
the stability. This supports the idea of encapsulating CBs with
higher class bitumen (C320 and C600) to strengthen AC.
Three samples had a higher stability than the control mix. These
were the CBs encapsulated with C320 and C600 bitumen and CB
content of 10 kg/m3, and the CBs encapsulated with class C600
and CB content of 15 kg/m3.
It can be concluded that the more CBs used in the AC mixes, the
more the stability drops, and the higher the class of bitumen used
to encapsulate the CBs, the higher the stability. The CB contents of
10 kg/m3 and 15 kg/m3 satisfied the light, medium and heavy traf-
fic requirements; however, in respect of Austroads [4], the use of
25 kg/m3 only satisfied the light traffic requirements.
Fig. 13 above displays the results of the flow test. The values
represent the deformation a test specimen experiences when it
undergoes loading up to a point where the stability is at its peak.
74 A. Mohajerani et al. / Construction and Building Materials 153 (2017) 69–80
Fig. 9. (a) Encapsulation of CBs with paraffin wax; (b) drying CBs in a single layer.
Fig. 10. Cooled and hardened encapsulated CBs.
The range required by Austroads [4] for the flow of a compacted
mix is from 2 mm to 4 mm (Table 8).
It can be seen in Fig. 13 that all the values are at or within the
targeted range of 2 mm–4 mm, and that only the mix containing a
CB content of 10 kg/m3 and encapsulated with C320 bitumen is
below the 2 mm, with a value of 1.8 mm. The CBs encapsulated
with C170 and C600 bitumen displayed values within the range
of 2 mm–4 mm. Values outside the range, are generally due to
the amount of bitumen applied and the type of bitumen used to
encapsulate the CBs. The higher the percentage of bitumen used,
the higher the flow. The CBs encapsulated with C320 bitumen dis-
played a drop in flow from 2.5 mm (control) to 1.8 mm and
increased as more CBs were added to the mix. Values lower than
2 mm are not acceptable as the flow reflects the deformation of
the sample. CBs encapsulated with C170 bitumen had a slightly
higher value than those encapsulated with C600 bitumen. This is
Table 3
Percentage of sample components used for each sample in this study.
Sample Average percentage of aggregates (%)
7 mm 10 mm
Class 170 (control) 19.9 13.3
Class 170 with 10 kg/m3 CBs 19.2 12.7
Class 320 with 10 kg/m3 CBs 19.2 12.7
because C170 has a lower viscosity than the other bitumen classes.
Class C320 bitumen has a lower flow value than class C600, which
is due to the higher percentage of bitumen used to encapsulate the
CBs with class C600 – a higher percentage of bitumen will increase
the flow.
Overall, the results indicate that CBs encapsulated with bitu-
men classes C170, C320 and C600, and CB contents of 10 kg/m3,
15 kg/m3 and 25 kg/m3 meet the requirements of Austroads [4].
The flow values are controlled by the quantity of CBs added to
the AC mix, and the amount and type of bitumen used to encapsu-
late CBs. CBs with flow values lower than the target flow indicate
that they are not suited for traffic design and do not meet the min-
imum standards.
Table 8 above is an extract from the Austroads Guide to Pavement
Technology Part 4B: Asphalt. It outlines the design requirements for
dense graded asphalt mixes compacted using the Marshall method
for a variety of asphalt applications. This table was used to deter-
mine the minimum allowable values for the experimental work
used in the industry. Although numerous references are available
for the analysis of these DGA mixes, this publication was used as
it is produced in Australia for the Australian asphalt industry.
3.1.2. Test results for volumetric properties
Fig. 14 displays the results for the bulk density (Table 9)
obtained from using the Marshall method. As can be seen, the bulk
density decreases with an increase in the amount of CBs encapsu-
lated – the bulk density value of 2.257 t/m3 (control) decreases to
as low as 2.066 t/m3 (C320 with 25 kg/m3 of CBs). Since CBs have a
lower density than the aggregates, and they replace some of the
aggregate volume in the mix, the density of the sample decreases.
All the samples have a lower bulk density value than the control,
except for the CB content of 10 kg/m3 encapsulated with C600
bitumen, which has a bulk density value of 2.278 t/m3.
Encapsulating CBs with a class C320 bitumen, gave relatively
similar results to that for a sample of C170 bitumen. However,
the bulk density for CBs encapsulated with C600 bitumen, had an
overall higher value than that for classes C320 and C170 bitumen
14 mm Dust Sand Filler Bitumen CB Total (g)
19.9 28.4 12.3 0.9 5.2 0.0 1114
19.9 28.4 12.3 0.9 5.0 1.3 1112
19.9 28.4 12.3 0.9 5.4 1.3 1116
 A. Mohajerani et al. / Construction and Building Materials 153 (2017) 69–80 75

Table 4 9
Average characteristics of samples.
8
Parameter Measurement
7
Diameter 0.1 m Control

Stability (kN)
6
Height 0.062 m
Volume 0.00049 m3 5 C170
Mass (after compaction) 1.114 kg
4
C320
3
2 C600
1
0
10 15 25
Cigaree Bu Content (kg/m3)

Fig. 12. The effect of different amounts of CBs on the Marshall Stability for CBs
encapsulated with different classes of bitumen (C170, C320, C600).

4.5

3.5 Control

Flow (mm)
C170
3
Fig. 11. Some AC samples manufactured with paraffin encapsulated CBs. C320
2.5
C600
Table 5 2 Min - 2mm
Marshall test results for CBs encapsulated with C170 bitumen, for AC containing 0 kg/
1.5 Max - 4mm
m3, 10 kg/m3, 15 kg/m3 and 25 kg/m3 of CBs.

Sample Stability (kN) Flow (mm) 1

0 10 20 30
AC – 0 (Control) 6.9 2.5 Cigaree Bu Content (kg/m 3)
AC – 10 (10 kg/m3 CBs) 6.6 2.4
AC – 15 (15 kg/m3 CBs) 6.5 2.3 Fig. 13. The effect of using different amounts of CBs on the Marshall Flow for CBs
AC – 25 (25 kg/m3 CBs) 4.6 2.5 encapsulated with different classes of bitumen (C170, C320, C600).

Table 6
The maximum density values for each mix type were obtained
Marshall test results for CBs encapsulated with C320 bitumen, for AC containing 0 kg/
m3, 10 kg/m3, 15 kg/m3 and 25 kg/m3 of CBs. using a loose sample made for each mix. Standards Australia [53],
AS.2891.7.1, specifies that a loose sample of 750 g is needed to con-
Sample Stability (kN) Flow (mm)
duct this experiment, however, due to equipment restraints, the
AC – 0 (Control) 6.9 2.5 pycnometer available was not able to accommodate 750 g. There-
AC – 10 (10 kg/m3 CBs) 7.1 1.8 fore, a mass of 400 g was used to proceed with this experiment.
AC – 15 (15 kg/m3 CBs) 6.8 2.0
AC – 25 (25 kg/m3 CBs) 6.3 2.4
The maximum density is essentially measured as a ratio; therefore,
the ratio between masses would be equal, and, hence, the results
would be acceptable. All the other requirements for the test were
met in accordance with the standard.
Table 7
Marshall results for CBs encapsulated with C600 bitumen, for AC containing 0 kg/m3, Theoretically, as the CB content in the mix increases, the maxi-
10 kg/m3, 15 kg/m3 and 25 kg/m3 of CBs. mum density should decrease, as the density of the CBs is much
lower than that of the aggregates, and the values should be higher
Sample Stability (kN) Flow (mm)
than those for the bulk density. According to the results displayed
AC – 0 (Control) 6.9 2.5
in Fig. 15, this trend is evident. For instance, all CB contents of
AC – 10 (10 kg/m3 CBs) 7.8 2.3
AC – 15 (15 kg/m3 CBs) 7.4 2.2 10 kg/m3, 15 kg/m3 and 25 kg/m3 have a lower maximum density
AC – 25 (25 kg/m3 CBs) 6.0 2.2 than that of the control group. However, there are some variations
in the results; for example, a CB content of 25 kg/m3 has a higher
maximum density than a CB content of 15 kg/m3 when encapsu-
lated with C170 and C320. For a CB content of 15 kg/m3, the max-
for all different amounts of CBs – this is also the case for the stabil-
imum density is higher than that for the 10 kg/m3 when
ity results. The bulk density for the CB content of 10 kg/m3 encap-
encapsulated with C600 bitumen. These variations do not affect
sulated with C600 bitumen displayed a higher value than that for
the properties of the sample, as these maximum densities are
the control, with a value of 2.278 t/m3. This could be the result of
higher than those for the bulk densities. It is evident that the type
a higher percentage of bitumen used in the mix. Overall, the sam-
of bitumen used to encapsulate the CBs influences the properties of
ple with no CBs showed a slightly higher bulk density, which is to
AC. In general, CBs encapsulated with class C600 bitumen have
be expected, as the density of CBs is lower than that of the aggre-
higher results for stability and densities than for CBs encapsulated
gates. Similarly, the results also show that the type of bitumen
with C170 and C320 bitumen. Overall, it can be concluded that the
used to encapsulate the CBs influences the properties of AC. A
maximum density of the mixes containing encapsulated CBs is
higher percentage of CBs resulted in a lower bulk density, and a
lower than for the control group since the control contains no CBs.
higher bitumen grade increased the bulk density.
76 A. Mohajerani et al. / Construction and Building Materials 153 (2017) 69–80

Table 8
Design requirements for asphalt dense graded asphalt mixes [4,11].

Mix Type Design Air Voids Target (%) Stability – min (kN) Flow (mm)
Traffic Category Application
Light Wearing and base 3.0 5.5 2–4
Medium Wearing and base 4.0 6.5 2–4
High fatigue base 3.0 6.5 2–4
Heavy Wearing and base 5.0 6.5 2–4
High fatigue base 3.0 6.5 2–4
Very Heavy Wearing and base 6.0 7.0 2–4

2.3 The results for the sample containing CBs encapsulated with
C170 bitumen indicate that the air voids slightly decrease when
2.25
the CB content increases. It also correlates to a decrease in bulk
Bulk Density(t/m3)

2.2 density. This is due to the CBs occupying the spaces between the
aggregates. While the trends are not clear, it appears that the more
2.15 Control CBs incorporated into AC, the smaller the air voids. CBs encapsu-
2.1
10kg/m3 CBs lated with C320 and C600 bitumen displayed similar trends to
15kg/m3 CBs the C170 samples when compared with the control group, except
2.05 for the content of 10 kg/m3 for all bitumen classes.
25kg/m3 CBs
CBs encapsulated with C320 and C600 mostly had higher air
2
voids than CBs encapsulated with C170 bitumen. This is due to
1.95 the properties of the bitumen used. Bitumen with low viscosity,
C170 C320 C600 such as C170, releases the bitumen inside the CBs into the voids
Bitumen used for encapsulaon of CBs between the aggregates. Whereas, bitumen with high viscosity
retains bitumen in the CBs and increases the air voids between
Fig. 14. The effect of different amounts of CBs on the Bulk Density for CBs
the aggregates. For the control group, the air voids will be greater
encapsulated with different classes of bitumen (C170, C320, C600).
since the pores are free from CBs.

Fig. 16 above displays the air voids within the samples contain-
ing different amounts of CBs that have different encapsulation
mediums (CBs encapsulated with C170, C320, C600 bitumen).
The design target range is between 3 and 6% [4], where 3% is the
target for light traffic and 6% is the target for very heavy traffic
design (Table 8). The results for air voids ranges from 4.2% to
6.5%, which is higher than the design target of 3% for a light traffic
design. The control sample has an air void content of 6%, which
suggests that asphalt with no CBs is suited for a very heavy traffic
design.
The type of traffic design depends on the air voids as well as the
stability and flow. The design of air voids for medium traffic ranges
between 3% and 4%, for heavy traffic between 3% and 5%, and for
very heavy traffic it is 6%, with each having its respective minimum
stability [4]. The CBs encapsulated with class C600 bitumen and a
CB content of either 15 kg/m3 or 25 kg/m3, and C320 bitumen with
a CB content of either 10 kg/m3 or 25 kg/m3, all have air void values
of above 6%. These samples are not necessarily suited for very
heavy traffic design since a minimum stability of 6.5 kN is
required.
3.1.3. Resilient modulus test results
Table 10 presents a summary of the results obtained through
the testing of a separate set of samples for the resilient modulus,
bulk density and maximum density. These samples were manufac-
tured with a total bitumen content of 5.1% by mass of total aggre-
gates, which constitutes C170 bitumen, 14 mm aggregate mix and
CBs encapsulated with C170 bitumen (see Table 11).
The modulus of a typical Australian dense graded asphalt for
class C170 bitumen has a range of 2500–4000 MPa and a typical
value of 3700 MPa [4]. These values were used to compare the
results obtained in this investigation.
AC containing no CBs was found to have an average resilient
modulus of 4703 MPa. For a CB content of 10 kg/m3, the resilient
modulus was 4414 MPa, for 15 kg/m3, it was 3387 MPa, and, for
25 kg/m3, the resilient modulus was 3115 MPa (Fig. 17). It is evi-
dent that, as more CBs are added to the asphalt mix, the resilient
modulus decreased. The resilient modulus for CB contents 15 kg/
m3 and 25 kg/m3 are well within the resilient modulus target range
of 2500–4000 MPa. For the control and 10 kg/m3 samples, the val-
ues were higher than anticipated with values above 4000 MPa. This
is likely to be a result of the disproportionate size and density of

Table 9
Average Bulk Density, Maximum Density, Air Voids and VMA values from the Marshall Test.

Sample Bitumen Class Bulk Density (t/m3) Maximum Density (t/m3) Air Voids% VMA%
AC – 0 (Control) 170 2.254 2.423 6.0 16.2
AC – 10 (10 kg/m3 CBs) 170 2.214 2.372 5.5 15.7
AC – 15 (15 kg/m3 CBs) 170 2.190 2.324 5.1 14.7
AC – 25 (25 kg/m3 CBs) 170 2.098 2.412 5.5 21.6
AC – 10 (10 kg/m3 CBs) 320 2.212 2.363 6.4 15.4
AC – 15 (15 kg/m3 CBs) 320 2.222 2.358 5.8 14.9
AC – 25 (25 kg/m3 CBs) 320 2.066 2.395 6.1 22.2
AC – 10 (10 kg/m3 CBs) 600 2.278 2.387 4.2 13.5
AC – 15 (15 kg/m3 CBs) 600 2.219 2.414 6.3 17.2
AC – 25 (25 kg/m3 CBs) 600 2.183 2.334 6.5 15.4
 A. Mohajerani et al. / Construction and Building Materials 153 (2017) 69–80 77

2.45 5000
2.4 4500

Resilient Modulus (MPa)

Maximum Density(t/m3)

2.35 4000
3500
2.3
3000
2.25 Control
2500
2.2 10kg/m3 CBs
2000
2.15 15kg/m3 CBs 1500
2.1 25kg/m3CBs 1000
2.05 500
2 0
C170 C320 C600 Control 10 15 25
Bitumen used for encapsulaon of CBs Cigaree Bu Content (kg/m 3)

Fig. 15. The effect of different amounts of CBs on the Maximum Density for CBs Fig. 17. Resilient Modulus for AC incorporating different amounts of CBs and
encapsulated with different classes of bitumen (C170, C320, C600). encapsulated with class C170 bitumen.

2.6
7
2.55
6 2.5
2.45

Density (t/m3)
5 Control
2.4 Bulk Density (t/m3)
Air Voids %

4 10kg/m3 CBs 2.35

15kg/m3 CBs 2.3
3 Maximum Density
25kg/m3 Cbs 2.25
(t/m3)
2 Min - 3% 2.2
2.15
1 Max - 6%
2.1
Control 10 15 25
0 Cigaree Bu Content (kg/m 3)
C170 C320 C600
Bitumen used for encapsulaon of CBs Fig. 18. Bulk density and maximum density comparison.

Fig. 16. The effect of different amounts of CBs on air voids for CBs encapsulated
with different classes of bitumen (C170, C320, C600).
the maximum density is greater than the bulk density. The control
sample (no CB content) was found to have a bulk density of 2.421 t/
Table 10 m3, which is a higher value than for the samples with a CB contents
Resilient Modulus, Bulk Density, Maximum Density results for CBs encapsulated with of 10 kg/m3, 15 kg/m3 and 25 kg/m3. The values for the bulk den-
class C170 bitumen with different amounts of CB content.
sity decrease with a slight variation from 2.421 to 2.262 t/m3. This
Tests Control 10 kg/m3 15 kg/m3 25 kg/m3 is because CBs have a lower density than the aggregates that they
CBs CBs CBs replace in the mix. Overall, it was understood that the bulk density
Resilient Modulus 4703 4414 3387 3115 of a mix would decrease as more CBs were added into the AC mix.
(MPa) The maximum density results are generally consistent with the
Bulk Density (t/m3) 2.421 2.358 2.327 2.262
observations of the bulk density testing, with the maximum densi-
Maximum Density (t/ 2.546 2.464 2.434 2.352
m3)
ties being higher than the bulk densities. The maximum density of
2.546 t/m3 is higher than the bulk density of 2.421 t/m3 for the
control mix. The maximum density values decrease from 2.546
Table 11 to 2.464, to 2.434, and, lastly, to 2.352 t/m3. These values are
Average Bulk Density, Maximum Density and Air Void values. higher than the results presented previously.
Sample Bulk Density (t/m3) Maximum Density (t/m3)
Control 2.421 2.546
3.2. Asphalt concrete incorporated with paraffin encapsulated CBs
10 kg/m3 – C170 2.358 2.464
15 kg/m3 – C170 2.327 2.434 3.2.1. Marshall test results
25 kg/m3 – C170 2.262 2.352 Two bitumen classes (C170 and C320) were used to manufac-
ture three AC samples for this investigation. Two of these samples
were mixed with paraffin wax encapsulated CBs in the amount of
the CBs compared to other aggregates within the asphalt matrix. 10 kg/m3, and the other was used as the control (no CBs). The sta-
The quality of the aggregates, the amount of coarse aggregate, bility and flow values were determined through the Marshall
the binder viscosity and the quantity of binder will affect the resi- method.
lient modulus of the asphalt mix. As previously mentioned, Austroads [4] states that a minimum
In Fig. 18 above, the bulk density results obtained for the sam- stability of 5.5 kN is required for a light traffic design and 6.5 kN for
ples were between 2.262 t/m3 and 2.421 t/m3, and for the maxi- medium and heavy traffic designs. A flow with a targeted range of
mum density between 2.352 t/m3 and 2.546 t/m3, with the 2–4 mm is also required.
control densities higher than samples containing CBs. There is a Looking at Fig. 19 and Table 12, the C170 control samples were
clear representation between an increase in the CB content and a found to have a stability of 6.75 kN, confirming their adequacy for
decrease in the bulk and maximum densities. It also shows that the intended light traffic load. The addition of 10 kg/m3 of CBs
78
resulted in a decrease in stability of 0.38 kN for C170 and 0.57 kN
for C320; however, they remain adequate for a light traffic design.
When it comes to medium and heavy traffic designs, they do not
meet the requirement, as the values are below the 6.5 kN
requirement.
Observing Fig. 20 and the values in Table 12, the addition of CBs
resulted in an increase of 0.05 mm flow in the C170 samples and
0.33 mm in the C320 samples. Both fall within the required range
of 2–4 mm. Although the AC sample manufactured with C320 bitu-
men and 10 kg/m3 of encapsulated CBs shows more of a spike in
the flow than for C170 with 10 kg/m3 of encapsulated CBs, it is
not necessarily the increase in grade that has led to the higher
increase in flow. Since C320 has a higher viscosity than C170, nor-
mally, a decrease in flow would be expected rather than an
increase in flow. Nevertheless, the addition of 10 kg/m3 of CBs that
are encapsulated with paraffin wax still maintains the requirement
for flow.
3.2.2. Test results for volumetric properties
The results determined for the maximum density, bulk density,
air voids and voids in mineral aggregates are summarised in
Table 13.
According to Standards Australia [46], AS2150, air voids within
an AC sample have a typical range of 3%–7% and a VMA of 15% for
light traffic design. As observed in Table 13 above, the air voids and
VMA values are within the required range. The addition of 10kg/
m3 CBs into the C170 sample resulted in an average decrease of
1.2% in air voids and 2.3% in VMA. However, the addition of
10 kg/m3 CBs into the C320 sample resulted in an average increase
of 2.7% in air voids and 3.1% in VMA. Also, it can be observed that
the addition of 10 kg/m3 of CBs reduced the bulk and maximum
densities for C170 and C320. However, C320 has a lower bulk
and maximum density than C170. Similar to the discussion on
the encapsulation of CBs with bitumen, the addition of CBs reduces
the density and air voids, but the increase in grade from C170 to
C320 results in an increase in void content and a small reduction
in the bulk and maximum densities.
3.2.3. Test results for resilient modulus
The results of the resilient modulus test are shown in Table 14
and Fig. 21 below.
The typical resilient modulus range for a 14 mm mix with C170
bitumen is between 2500 and 4000 MPa, and for C320 bitumen it is
between 2000 and 7000 MPa [6,38].
Observing the results in Table 14 and Fig. 21, it can be seen that
the addition of 10 kg/m3 CBs in the C170 bitumen mix resulted in a
decrease in average resilient modulus of 94 MPa. However, the
resilient modulus values for these samples were high. The average
resilient moduli of 4590 MPa (control) and 4496 MPa (C170 with
encapsulated CBs) are above the typical range of 2500–4000 MPa.
The average resilient modulus of the C320 with 10 kg/m3 of encap-
8.0
7.0
6.0
Stability (kN)
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
Class 170 controlClass 170 with 10Class 320 with 10
kg/mᶟ CBs kg/mᶟ CBs
Fig. 19. Average Marshall Stability test results for AC incorporating different classes
of bitumen and 10 kg/m3 CBs.
A. Mohajerani et al. / Construction and Building Materials 153 (2017) 69–80
Minimum stability for
medium & heavy traffic
(6.5 kN)
Minimum stability for light
traffic (5.5 kN)
Table 12
Average Marshall stability-flow test results.
Sample Stability (kN) Flow (mm)
Class 170 Control (No CBs) 6.75 3.40
Class 170 with 10 kg/m3 CBs 6.37 3.45
Class 320 with 10 kg/m3 CBs 5.80 3.73
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
Flow (mm)
2.5
Maximum flow (4 mm)
2.0
1.5 Minimum flow (2 mm)
1.0
0.5
0.0
Class 170 control Class 170 with 10 Class 320 with 10
kg/mᶟ CBs kg/mᶟ CBs
Fig. 20. Average Marshall Flow test results for AC incorporating different classes of
bitumen and 10 kg/m3 CBs.
sulated CBs is 4754 MPa, which is within the typical range of 2000–
7000 MPa.
It can also be seen that the addition of 10kg/m3 of CBs to the
C170 bitumen sample results in a decrease in the resilient modu-
lus, but an increase in grade from C170 to C320 results in an
increase in the resilient modulus. As discussed earlier in the previ-
ous sections, the quality of the aggregates, the amount of coarse
aggregate, the binder viscosity and the quantity of binder will also
affect the resilient modulus of the asphalt mix.
4. Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to encapsulate used cigarette
butts (CBs) for the incorporation into asphalt concrete (AC). Sam-
ples of AC were manufactured with 10 kg/m3, 15 kg/m3 or 25 kg/
m3 of encapsulated CBs, in addition to a control group with no
CBs. Different bitumen classes (C170, C320 and C600) were used
to encapsulate the CBs in order to determine how the use of a
higher class bitumen would affect the properties of AC. Several
tests were carried out in accordance with the relevant Australian
standards to determine the mechanical and volumetric properties
of AC. This was done for both investigations involving encapsula-
tion with bitumen and encapsulation with paraffin wax.
For the investigation involving bitumen encapsulated CBs, the
findings showed that 10 kg/m3 or 15 kg/m3 of CBs could success-
fully be incorporated into AC with acceptable properties, such as
flow, stability, resilient modulus, bulk density, and the percentage
of air voids. The bulk and maximum density values of CBs encapsu-
lated with C600 bitumen displayed a higher value than CBs encap-
sulated with C320 bitumen. Likewise, CBs encapsulated with C320
bitumen had greater bulk density and maximum density than CBs
encapsulated with C170 bitumen. However, these values decreased
as more CBs were added, which was expected due to CBs having a
lower density than the aggregates they replaced. Effectively, CBs
act as larger, but lighter sized aggregate, which reduces the overall
sample density. This also correlates to a smaller air void percent-
age. Air void values for CBs encapsulated with C170 bitumen were
within a target range of 3%–6%, but values were higher for C320
and C600 bitumen. This indicates that the class of bitumen influ-
ences the properties of AC. Manufacturing AC samples using higher
class bitumen to encapsulate the CBs gave better results for the
physical and mechanical properties.
 A. Mohajerani et al. / Construction and Building Materials 153 (2017) 69–80
Table 13
Average values of maximum density, bulk density, air voids and VMA results.
Asphalt Sample
Class 170 (Control) No CBs
Class 170 with 10 kg/m3 CBs
Class 320 with 10 kg/m3 CBs
Table 14
Resilient modulus test results.
Sample
Control
Class 170 with 10 kg/m3 CBs
Class 320 with 10 kg/m3 CBs
5000
4500
Resilient modulus (MPa)
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0 impact of highway construction and repair materials on surface and ground
Class 170 control Class 170 with 10
kg/mᶟ CBs
Fig. 21. Average resilient modulus test results for AC incorporating 10 kg/m3 CBs
for different bitumen classes.
Resilient modulus tests were also conducted on AC samples for
different amounts of CBs encapsulated with only C170 bitumen.
The target range for a maximum particle size of 14 mm was
between 2500 and 4000 MPa. Two samples, the control (no CBs)
and the CB content of 10 kg/m3, had a range over 4000 MPa,
whereas the CB contents of 15 kg/m3 and 25 kg/m3 reduced the
resilient modulus, but were within the expected ranges. This
shows that the resilient modulus decreases with the addition of
CBs. Overall, it was understood that the properties of AC would
change depending on the class of bitumen and the amount of bitu-
men used to encapsulate CBs as well as the amount of encapsu-
lated CBs incorporated into an AC mix.
The incorporation of 10 kg/m3 paraffin encapsulated CBs into
AC resulted in a decrease in the percentage of air voids and VMA
in the C170 samples, but an increase in the percentage of air voids
and VMA for the C320 samples. Despite the variations, both satis-
fied the requirements of the 3–7% air voids and minimum 15%
VMA requirements. The resilient modulus of the C170 samples,
for both the control samples and the samples with encapsulated
CBs, were required to be within the range 2500–4000 MPa. All
the C170 samples exceeded this typical range by approximately
500 MPa. The C320 samples were found to have an average resili-
ent modulus of 4754 kN, which was within the required range of
2000–7000MPA. This shows that an increase in bitumen class will
increase the resilient modulus of asphalt concrete. Furthermore,
the findings indicated that the addition of 10 kg/m3 of encapsu-
lated CBs did not satisfy the stability requirements for medium
and heavy traffic categories. However, the flow values for all sam-
ple types were within the required ranges. Further investigation is
recommended for the bitumen and paraffin encapsulation of cigar-
ette butts and the application of encapsulated cigarette butts in
asphalt concrete and other types of construction materials.
79
qmax (t/m3) qBulk (t/m3) Air Voids (%) VMA (%)
2.546 2.421 4.9 17.3
2.379 2.292 3.7 15.0
2.363 2.212 6.4 18.1
Acknowledgements
Resilient modulus (MPa) The authors would like to thank the Alex Fraser Group, Butt-Out
4590 Australia, Enviropoles Australia Pty Ltd and the Shell Company of
4496 Australia Pty Ltd for providing the materials used in this study.
4754
References
[1] S.M. Abtahi, M. Sheikhzadeh, S.M. Hejazi, Fiber-reinforced asphalt-concrete – a
review, Constr. Build. Mater. 24 (2010) 871–877.
[2] ANR 2016, Cigarette Butt Waste, Americans for NonSmokers’ Rights, <http://
www.no-smoke.org/learnmore.php?id=731>.
[3] A. Arulrajah, E. Yaghoubi, Y.C. Wong, S. Horpibulsuk, Recycled plastic granules
and demolition wastes as construction materials: resilient moduli and
strength characteristics, Constr. Build. Mater. 147 (2017) 639–647.
[4] Austroads, Guide to Pavement Technology Part 4B: Asphalt, 2007), Sydney,
Australia.
[5] Austroads, Guide to Pavement Technology Part 4B: Asphalt, 2014), Sydney,
Australia.
[6] Austroads, Improved Design Procedures for Asphalt Pavements, 2016), Sydney,
Australia.
[7] M.F. Azizian, P.O. Nelson, P. Thayumanavan, K.J. Williamson, Environmental
Class 320 with 10 waters: Case study: crumb rubber asphalt concrete, Waste Manage. 23 (2003)
kg/mᶟ CBs 719–728.
[8] C.M. Buchanan, R.M. Garner, R.J. Komarek, Aerobic Biodegradation of Cellulose
Acetate, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 47 (1993) 1709–1719.
[9] Clean Up Australia 2015, Cigarette Butts Fact Sheet, viewed 15 August 2016
<http://www.cleanup.org.au/au/LiveGreener/cigarette-butts-out-and-about.
html?kw=cigarette%20butts>.
[10] C. Courtois, J.P. Moncouyoux, E. Revertegat, Review of the development of
waste form conditioning processes in France, Nucl. Technol. 115 (2) (1996)
198–207.
[11] Department of Infrastructure Energy and Resources, Road Specification, R55
Asphalt Placement, Dept. of Infrastructure Energy and Resources, Tasmanian
Government, 2011.
[12] E.J. Dickinson, Bituminous Road in Australia, Australian Road Research Board,
Vermont South, 1984.
[13] Doyle, RD 1979, Asphalt Encapsulation of Radioactive Waste, Waste
Management, Waste Management Symposia, pp. 531–42.
[14] Y. Edwards, Influence of waxes on bitumen and asphalt concrete mixture
performance, Road Mater. Pav. Des. 10 (2) (2009) 313–335.
[15] Y. Edwards, Y. Tasdemir, U. Isacsson, Effects of commercial waxes on asphalt
concrete mixtures performance at low and medium temperatures, Cold Reg.
Sci. Technol. 45 (1) (2006) 31–41.
[16] EPA Victoria 2012, What you don’t know about butts that will shock you,
viewed 15 August 2016 <http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/get-involved/report-
litter/litter-news/what-you-dont-know-about-butts>.
[17] M. Eriksen, J. Mackay, N. Schluger, F.I. Gomeshtapeh, J. Drope, The Tobacco
Atlas, fifth ed., American Cancer Society, 2015.
[18] Euromonitor International 2011, The Future of Tobacco.
[19] Euromonitor International 2014, Global Tobacco: Key Findings Part 1 –
Tobacco Overview, Cigarettes and the future.
[20] Euromonitor International 2016, Cigarettes in Australia.
[21] H. Fazaeli, A.A. Amini, F.M. Nejad, H. Behbahani, Rheological properties of
bitumen modified with a combination of FT paraffin wax (sasobitÒ) and other
additives, Journal of Civil Engineering and Management 22 (2) (2016) 135–
145.
[22] H. Fazaeli, H. Behbahani, A. Amir Ali, J. Rahmani, G. Yadollahi, High and low
temperature properties of ft-paraffin-modified bitumen, Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng.
(2012).
[23] J.-D. Gu, D. Ebereil, S.P. McCarthy, R.A. Gross, Degradation and mineralization
of cellulose acetate in simulated thermophilic compost environments, J.
Environ. Polym. Degrad. 1 (4) (1993) 281–291.
[24] J. Guo, J. Guo, S. Wang, Z. Xu, Asphalt modified with nonmetals seperated from
pulverised waste printed circuit boards, Environ. Sci. Technol. 43 (2009) 503–
508.
[25] E.B. Hager, 2010, ’A Call to Recycle Cigarette Butts’, viewed 17 August 2016,
<http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/05/25/a-call-to-recycle-cigarette-
butts/?_r=0>.
[26] F. Hernandez-Olivares, G. Barluenga, B. Parga-Landa, M. Bollati, B. Witoszek,
Fatigue behaviour of recycled tyre rubber-filled concrete and its implications
in the design of rigid pavements, Constr. Build. Mater. 21 (2007) 1918–1927.
80 A. Mohajerani et al. / Construction and Building Materials 153 (2017) 69–80
[27] D. Hoffmann, M.V. Djordjevic, I. Hoffmann, The changing cigarette, Prev. Med.
26 (4) (1997) 427–434.
[28] Keep Australia Beautiful 2016, Cigarette Butts, viewed 05 August 2016 <http://
www.kabc.wa.gov.au/report-littering/cigarette-butts>.
[29] A.J. Kriech, Evaluation of Hot Mix Asphalt for Leachability Asphalt Institute
Report, Heritage Research Group, Indianapolis, 1990.
[30] X. Lu, B. Kalman, P. Redelius, A new test method for determination of wax
content in crude oils, residues and bitumens, Fuel 87 (8–9) (2008) 1543–1551.
[31] X. Lu, P. Redelius, Effect of bitumen wax on asphalt mixture performance,
Constr. Build. Mater. 21 (11) (2007) 1961–1970.
[32] A. Mohajerani, A.A. Kadir, L. Larobina, A practical proposal for solving the
world’s cigarette butt problem: recycling in fired clay bricks, Waste Manage.
52 (2016) 228–244.
[33] B. Nguyen, & A. Mohajerani, 2016, ’Possible simplified method for the
determination of the resilient modulus of unbound granular materials’, Road
Materials and Pavement Design, Taylor and Francis, United Kingdom, pp. 1-18
ISSN: 1468-0629.
[34] A. Abdul Kadir, A. Mohajerani, Recycling cigarette butts in lightweight fired
clay bricks, Proc. ICE – Constr. Mater. 164 (5) (2011) 219–229.
[35] A. Abdul Kadir, A. Mohajerani, Effect of heating rate on gas emissions and
properties of fired clay bricks and fired clay bricks incorporated with cigarette
butts, Appl. Clay Sci. 104 (2015) 269–276.
[36] J. Oliver, APRG Techincal Note 10 - The Use of Recycled Crumb Rubber,
Austroads Pavement Research Group, 1999.
[37] M. Ozel, A. Mohajerani, Prediction of subgrade resilient modulus for flexible
pavement design, Sci. Res. Essays, Acad. J., Nigeria 6 (21) (2011) 4567–4576.
ISSN: 1992-2248.
[38] S. Paranavithana, A. Mohajerani, Effects of recycled concrete aggregates on
properties of asphalt concrete, in: Resources Conservation and Recycling,
Elsevier, Amsterdam, vol. 48, no. 1, (2006), pp. 1–12 ISSN: 0921-3449.
[39] S. Paranavithana, A. Mohajerani, The effects of mixing and compaction on
volumetric properties of an asphalt concrete containing recycled concrete
aggregates, Aust. Geomech. 32 (2) (2003) 59–64.
[40] Pioneer Road Services, Project Evaluation Report - Recycled Glass in Asphalt,
Pioneer Road Services Pty Ltd, Hazelmere, Western Australia, 2007.
[41] J. Puls, S.A. Wilson, D. Holter, Degradation of Cellulose Acetate-Based
Materials: A Review, J. Polym. Environ. 19 (1) (2011) 152–165.
[42] J. Rebbechi, M. Green, Going green: innovations in recycling, in: paper
presented to AAPA Pavements Industry Conference, Surfers Paradise,
Queensland, Australia (2005).
[43] Roads and Civil Works Australia 2015, Recycling waste products in roads
gaining traction, Roads and Civil Works Australia, viewed 22 August 2016,
View publication stats
<http://roadsonline.com.au/recycling-waste-products-in-roads-gaining-
traction/>.
[44] R.M. Robertson, W.C. Thomas, J.N. Suthara, D.M. Brown, Accelerated
degradation of cellulose acetate cigarette filters using controlled-release acid
catalysis, R. Soc. Chem. J. 14 (2012) 2266–2272.
[45] R. Roffey, A. Norqvist, Biodegradation of bitumen used for nuclear waste
disposal, Experientia 47 (6) (1991) 539–542.
[46] Standards Australia, Hot Mix Asphalt - A Guide to Good Practice, (AS2150), SAI
Global Limited, 2005.
[47] Standards Australia, Bitumen for Pavements, (AS2008), SAI Global Limited,
2013.
[48] Standards Australia, Methods of Sampling and Testing Asphalt, Method 13.1:
Determination of the Resilient Modulus of Asphalt - Indirect Tensile Method,
(AS2891.13.1), SAI Global Limited, 2013.
[49] Standards Australia, Methods for sampling and testing asphalt, Method 8:
Determination and volumetric properties of compacted asphalt mixes, SAI
Global Limited, 2014.
[50] Standards Australia, Methods for Sampling and Testing Asphalt, Method 9.2:
Dtermination of Bulk Density of Compacted Asphalt - Presaturation Method,
SAI GLobal Limited, 2014.
[51] Standards Australia, Methods of sampling and testing asphalt, Method 2.2:
Sample preparation—Compaction of asphalt test specimens using a gyratory
compactor, SAI Global Limited, 2014 (AS2891.2.2).
[52] Standards Australia, Methods of sampling and testing asphalt, Method 5:
Compaction of asphalt by Marshall method and determination of stability and
flow - Marshall procedure, SAI Global Limited, 2015 (AS2891.5).
[53] Standards Australia, Methods of Sampling and Testing Asphalt, Method 7.1:
Determination of Maximum Density of Asphalt - Water Displacement Method,
SAI Global Limited, 2015 (AS2891.7.1).
[54] Sustainability Victoria, Victorian Litter Report, Sustainability Victoria,
Melbourne, Victoria, 2013.
[55] P.C. Taylor, S.H. Kosmatka, G.F. Voigt, et al., Integrated Materials and
Construction Practices for Concrete Pavement: A State-of-the-Practice
Manual, Federal Highway Investigation, Washington, DC, 2007.
[56] VicRoads, Standard Sections - 400 Series - Asphalt and Surface Treatments,
Section 407 - Hot Mix Asphalt, 2012), Victoria, Australia.
[57] H.F. Waller, Use of waste materials in hot-mix asphalt, American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM), Philadelphia, 1993.
[58] W-g Wong, G. Li, Analysis of the effect of wax content on bitumen under
performance grade classification, Constr. Build. Mater. 23 (7) (2009) 2504–
2510.