Electric Power Components and Systems

ISSN: 1532-5008 (Print) 1532-5016 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uemp20

Ferroresonance Analysis on Power Transformers

Interconnected to Self-excited Induction
Generators

Javier Arturo Corea-Araujo, Jose Antonio Barrado-Rodrigo, Francisco

Gonzalez-Molina & Luis Guasch-Pesquer

To cite this article: Javier Arturo Corea-Araujo, Jose Antonio Barrado-Rodrigo, Francisco
Gonzalez-Molina & Luis Guasch-Pesquer (2016): Ferroresonance Analysis on Power
Transformers Interconnected to Self-excited Induction Generators, Electric Power Components
and Systems, DOI: 10.1080/15325008.2015.1115921

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15325008.2015.1115921

Published online: 13 Jan 2016.

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 Electric Power Components and Systems, 00(00):1–10, 2016
Copyright C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ISSN: 1532-5008 print / 1532-5016 online

DOI: 10.1080/15325008.2015.1115921

Ferroresonance Analysis on Power Transformers

Interconnected to Self-excited Induction Generators
Javier Arturo Corea-Araujo, Jose Antonio Barrado-Rodrigo,
Francisco Gonzalez-Molina, and Luis Guasch-Pesquer
Departament d’Enginyeria Electrònica, Elèctrica i Automàtica (DEEEA), Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), Tarragona, Spain
Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 00:26 14 January 2016

CONTENTS
Abstract—This research intends to prove by experimental work how
1. Introduction ferroresonance can occur between generating systems based on a
2. Ferroresonance Phenomenon self-excited induction generator and power transformers. Up to four
different paths have been tested under different commutation maneu-
3. Characterization of Ferroresonance vers. Ferroresonance appearance can unfold into a dangerous state
4. System Description for machinery and personnel. Several over-voltages can be present in
5. Ferroresonance Testing and Analysis the system by a simple delay in one of the poles responsible for grid
connection/disconnection.
6. Conclusions
References
Appendix A

Keywords: ferroresonance, power transformers, non-linear behavior,
self-excited induction generator
Received 23 December 2014; accepted 25 October 2015
Address correspondence to Dr. José Antonio Barrado-Rodrigo, DEEEA,
URV, Paisos Catalans, 26, Tarragona, 43007, Spain. E-mail:
joseantonio.barrado@urv.cat
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online
at www.tandfonline.com/uemp.
1. INTRODUCTION
The versatility of the squirrel-cage induction generator offers
advantages for hydro and wind power plants because of its easy
operation as either fixed-speed generator or a variable-speed
induction generator [1]. For remote areas, it is often common
to have squirrel-cage induction machines performing as a self-
excited induction generator (SEIG). The self-excitation of an
induction machine occurs when a capacitor bank is connected
across its stator terminals [2]. Then an excitation voltage is
feed to the stator windings. This electromotive force will con-
tinue rising until a steady-state condition is attained. At this
operating point, the voltage and current will be stabilized at a
given peak value and frequency.
Moreover, switching operations are common in micro
power plants. Commutations are often required for inter-
connection or disconnection from the grid. In SEIGs, com-
mutations are also used to enable the capacitor bank and
occasionally to add extra capacitance to control the voltage
in the common coupling point [3, 4].
The test system for this study attempts to not only illustrate
the general paths of ferroresonance phenomenon appearance
for renewable energy systems [5] but also to test the close-
ness of a catastrophic situation by a switching mis-operation.
The topology of the test system represents a micro-hydro or
wind system configuration having an SEIG, a capacitor bank,

1
 2 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 00 (2016), No. 00
FIGURE 1. Typical ferroresonance path.
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a three-phase switch, and a step-up transformer [6, 7]. Figure 1
shows the ferroresonant test path.
Ferroresonance has been related to self-excited phe-
nomenon in the past. Works studying the classical case of a
generator being islanded and having high and destructive over-
voltages have been previously presented [6, 8, 9]. However,
those studies were not extensive and presented only present
brief analysis; in this work, several cases are presented and
deeply studied. Also, there is no islanding condition in such
cases because the system is already isolated from the network.
In fact, self-excitation is produced on purpose to turn on the
generator. This work leads with the fact that ferroresonance
is sustained with the same excitation capacitors, which is an
atypical case in ferroresonance studies.
The article is organized as follows. The ferroresonance the-
ory and principles are presented in Section 2. The techniques
for ferroresonance characterization are discussed in Section
3. The system description is depicted in Section 4, and ex-
perimental work is presented in Section 5. Conclusions and
future work are discussed in Section 6. Appendix A con-
tains all the experimental parameters for the generator and the
transformer.
2. FERRORESONANCE PHENOMENON
Ferroresonance is a well-established term among the power
system engineers and can be applied to a wide variety of
interactions between capacitors and non-linear inductances.
Capacitance can be found in the form of either shunt capacitor
banks or as capacitive coupling, such as series capacitor for
line compensation, underground cables, and grading capaci-
tors on circuit breakers.
Commonly, ferroresonance initiates after some type of
switching event, such as load rejection, fault clearing, trans-
former energization, single-phase switching, or loss of system
grounding. However, whether ferroresonance occurs or not
depends on the value of capacitance and the saturation curve
of the transformer core [10, 11]. The non-linearity involved
makes it impossible to predict whether ferroresonance will oc-
cur or not, and if so, how severe the over-voltage will be. In
general, the basic criteria to make ferroresonance possible are
summarized as follows:
• a capacitance in series with the core’s magnetizing
inductance,
• unloaded or lightly loaded transformer (below 10–20%
of rated load), and
• single-pole switching procedures or interrupting devices
in a three-phase system.
In distributed generation, it is common to connect a capac-
itor bank near the generator to reduce the amount of reactive
power demanded from the grid. Whenever these generators
should be islanded from the grid, if the capacitance value
from the bank is sufficiently high, a self-excitation process
will occur. This situation can, for instance, be matched with
the decrease in the magnetic reactance of the step-up trans-
former (no-load condition), giving a path for ferroresonance
phenomenon.
3. CHARACTERIZATION OF FERRORESONANCE
In many power system scenarios, more than one ferroreso-
nant state is possible, and the operation may jump in and
out of ferroresonance modes depending on switching angle or
core model [12]. Since it is difficult to distinguish the normal
transient state from the ferroresonant transient, it is possible
to utilize a set of tools developed to enhance signal analy-
sis and classification; Poincaré maps [13], as known today,
come from the idea of introducing a flat plane intersecting
the orbit of a periodic signal and can be used to accurately de-
scribe ferroresonant modes in power systems, and phase planes
[14] compose a plot of two state variables of the system (e.g.,
voltage and flux). The result is the temporal evolution of a point
following a trajectory. Resuming long parametric analysis is
also possible using such techniques as 2D and 3D bifurcation
diagrams [13, 15]. Interpretation for both Poincaré maps and
phase planes are as follows:
• fundamental mode: the phase plane shows a single
closed trajectory, while the Poincaré map shows one point
moved far away from the normal state point;
• sub-harmonic mode: the phase plane shows a closed
trajectory with n orbit sizes, while the Poincaré map
shows n points;
 Corea-Araujo et al.: Ferroresonance Analysis on Power Transformers Interconnected to Self-excited Induction Generators
FIGURE 2. Ferroresonance circuit including an induction
generator.
• quasi-periodic mode: the phase plane shows changing
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trajectories, while the Poincaré map shows several points
representing a closed curve; and
• chaotic mode: the phase plane shows trajectories that
never close on themselves, while the Poincaré map shows
several points with an unfixed pattern.
4. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The great majority of energy sources in the world depend
on rotating generators, mainly due to primary energies com-
ing from hydro turbines, wind turbines, or internal combus-
tion engines. The system under study is composed of a 4-kW
induction machine; a 220/380-V, 50-Hz, 75-μF/650-V capac-
itor bank; three independent switches; a 3.5-kVA, 220/380-
V, 50-Hz, three-legged, dry-type three-phase transformer; and
10-μF capacitors representing the cable capacitance compo-
nent. The studied scenario consists of a case when an SEIG
is connected or disconnected to a step-up transformer. In this
manner, a general example can be seen in Figure 2, regardless
of the origin of the primary mover. The scope of the following
tests points out the possibilities of obtaining ferroresonance in
systems for which the energy source has a non-linear depen-
dence and a limited amount of power.
System connection
Capacitor
Case Generator bank Transformer
1   
2 Y Y Y
3 Yn Yn Yn
4 Yn Yn + cable Yn
TABLE 1. System configuration tested
3
Four different case studies are documented here to illus-
trate how prone a hydro or micro wind energy system is to
ferroresonance. For all cases, ferroresonance phenomena will
be initiated either by energizing or de-energizing the step-up
transformer. It is important also to keep in mind that the volt-
age source has a limited power and that not all cases unfold
into a ferroresonance condition. In addition, the per unit val-
ues for any further reference are calculated using the nominal
voltage and current of the induction generator as a base. All the
experiments presented in this work are summarized in Table 1.
5. FERRORESONANCE TESTING AND ANALYSIS
Different system configurations are used in this work to test
all possible paths for ferroresonance ignition. These test sys-
tems include energization and de-energization routines and
the capacitance effect of cables for wye and delta connections.
The wye configuration would be tested using grounded and
ungrounded connections. It is important to remark that only
delta-delta or wye-wye configurations are valid connections
between the induction machine and the step-up transformer
because matching operation voltage can only be obtained in
such a way. Several experimental cases are discussed in the
upcoming sections, presenting different conditions that can
lead into ferroresonant states. Figure 3 shows the experimen-
tal setup used to evaluate the cases presented in this work.
5.1. Case Study 1
Two tests are presented for the - connection using the
test system in Figure 4: (1) de-energization of the transformer
from steady state by opening switch A, with a capacitor bank
value of 75 μF and no cable capacitance considered, and (2)
energization of the transformer initially deactivated by closing
switches B and C, with a capacitor bank of 75 μF and no cable
capacitance considered. Figure 5 presents the first case.
Open Closed
Maneuver phases phases Signal obtained
De-energization A B–C Ferroresonance
Energization Ferroresonance
Energization A B–C Damped sinusoidal
De-energization A B–C Damped sinusoidal
Energization Over-voltage
De-energization B–C A Ferroresonance
Energization A B–C Ferroresonance
 4 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 00 (2016), No. 00
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FIGURE 3. Experimental test system.

In those conditions, two case scenarios can occur: mis-

coordination on the switch while the transformer is being
energizated or while the transformer is disconnected, with this
being the second maneuver, often referred as de-energization.
Both cases will be reviewed in this experiment. Figure 5 shows
the voltage signal in phase A after the transformer has been
de-energizated, while phases B and C remain closed.
A voltage is being induced in open phase A, as seen in
Figure 5(a), since the three-phase core of a power transformer
provides direct magnetic coupling between phases. The ter-
minal voltage waveform presented in Figure 5(b) is close to
that presented as fundamental ferroresonance in [12], even
though deeper analysis is performed here. Figure 5(d) presents
FIGURE 5. Analysis of phase A voltage: (a) signal dynamic,
a Poincaré map that confirms the dynamic of the signal is peri-
(b) steady-state waveform, (c) phase plane, and (d) Poincaré
odic, and Figure 5(c) presents a phase plane indicating that the map.
signal is not sinusoidal (circles represents sinusoidal state).
The other condition leading into a potential ferroresonant
state is that in which a transformer is being energizated and The maneuver performed can be seen in Figure 6(a), while
one or more switches remained open. In the next tested case, the induced voltage waveform on the open phase is shown in
phases B and C are closed while phase A stays open. Figure 6 Figure 6(b). The waveform is similar to that presented in the
presents the analysis on the voltage signal of phase A. de-energization case, with the first cycles of the signal affected
by the inrush current of the transformer. This condition is
considered as a transient. Once the stability state is reached,
Figures 6(c) and 6(d) show periodic behavior. Again the peak
values are smaller than those under normal operation, but its
distortion and waveform suggest ferroresonance.
Depending on the severity of the ferroresonance phe-
nomenon, the stability of the induction machine could be
affected, and in the worst-case scenario, the self-excited
phenomenon could be loose, leading the machine to stop the
generation. The ferroresonance waveforms obtained in Fig-
FIGURE 4. Case 1: ferroresonance test system. ures 5 and 6 are quite close to those presented in [16] for a
 Corea-Araujo et al.: Ferroresonance Analysis on Power Transformers Interconnected to Self-excited Induction Generators
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FIGURE 6. Analysis of phase A voltage: (a) signal dynamic,
(b) steady-state waveform, (c) phase plane, and (d) Poincaré
map.
similar distribution generation system under a ferroresonance
condition.
5.2. Case Study 2
One test is presented on a Y-Y connection: energization of
the transformer initially deactivated by closing switches B and
C, with a capacitor bank of 75 μF and no cable capacitance
considered. Figure 7 presents the test system.
During the second experimental test, primary windings of
the transformer, induction generator stator windings, and ca-
pacitor bank connections were changed to an ungrounded wye
configuration. The presented case focuses in the energization
of the step-up transformer. This maneuver consists on energiz-
ing one or two of the switch poles while the other remains open.
In this experimental case, phases B and C were closed while
5
FIGURE 7. Case 2: ferroresonance test system.
phase A remains open. Figure 8 shows the analysis for phase
A. Figure 8(a) presents a large transient happening between the
energization and the final sinusoidal state. Figure 8(b) shows
the final steady state reached by the system. Figures 8(c) and
8(d) present a signal analysis showing the co-existence of dif-
ferent waveforms in the phase plane and the presence of two
fundamental states depicted in the Poincare map.
5.3. Case Study 3
Two tests are presented on a Yn-Yn connection: (1) energiza-
tion of the transformer initially deactivated by closing switches
B and C, with a capacitor bank of 75 μF and no cable capac-
itance considered, and (2) de-energization of the transformer
by opening switch A, with a capacitor bank of 75 μF and no
cable capacitance considered. Figure 9 shows the test system
for both cases.
Most of the distribution generators described in the lit-
erature uses the grounded wye connection to get the auto-
excitation; accordingly, it is important to verify how prone
that connection is from an actual failure condition involv-
ing ferroresonance. The first scenario analyzed consists in a
multi-branch failure while trying to de-energize the step-up
transformer. Phases B and C are open, while phase A remains
closed. Figure 10 shows the voltage on phase B. As seen in
Figure 10(b), ferroresonance mode is not reached. But it can
be seen from Figure 10(a) that over-voltages do occur during
the initial cycles of the transient. Figures 10(c) and 10(d) con-
firm the sinusoidal state and existence of only one steady state.
The last condition arises by having two closed phases, B and
C, with A open while the energization process of the trans-
former is performed, as seen in Figure 11(a). Ferroresonance
can be obtained in this configuration, as seen in Figure 11(b).
Figure 11(c) confirms that the waveform is away from the
sinusoidal behavior, and Figure 11(d) proves the existence of
only one steady-state condition.
5.4. Case Study 4
The last experiment tries to include most of the parameters
included in a real distributed generation system, where the
 6 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 00 (2016), No. 00
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FIGURE 8. Analysis of phase A voltage: (a) signal dynamic,
(b) steady-state waveform, (c) phase plane, and (d) Poincaré
map.
section of cable connecting the main induction generator (IG)
with the first transformer substation is normally an under-
ground cable with high capacitive effect. For that purpose,
the capacitance provided by the cables between the IG and
the transformer is included as a straight capacitance between
FIGURE 9. Case 3: ferroresonance test system.
FIGURE 10. Analysis of phase B voltage: (a) signal dynamic,
(b) steady-state waveform, (c) phase plane, and (d) Poincaré
map.
the ground and each individual cable. Figure 12 shows the
test system. Two tests are presented on a Yn-Yn connection:
(1) de-energization of the transformer from steady state by
opening switch A, with a capacitor bank of 75 μF and a ca-
ble capacitance value of 10 μF, and (2) energization of the
transformer initially deactivated by closing switches B and C,
with a capacitor bank of 75 μF and cable capacitance value of
10 μF.
The first test is performed by implementing a de-
energization maneuver opening two of the three phases, B
and C, while phase A stays closed. Figure 13(a) shows the ma-
neuver for phase B. A highly distorted waveform is presented
in Figure 13(b). This type of oscillation corresponds to the fer-
roresonance fundamental mode. Figure 13(c) presents a closed
shape that describes two different types of trajectories, one cor-
responding to the fundamental component of the signal and the
 Corea-Araujo et al.: Ferroresonance Analysis on Power Transformers Interconnected to Self-excited Induction Generators
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FIGURE 11. Analysis of phase A voltage: (a) signal dynamic,
(b) steady-state waveform, (c) phase plane, and (d) Poincaré
map.
last corresponding to the influence of the third harmonic com-
ponent. Figure 13(d) shows the existence of one periodic state
after the maneuver. The second case presents an energization
maneuver as the origin of ferroresonant oscillation.
For that, the system has been tested by introducing a mis-
commutation fault when the transformer is being energized.
FIGURE 12. Case 4: ferroresonance test system.
7
FIGURE 13. Analysis of phase B voltage: (a) signal dynamic,
(b) steady-state waveform, (c) phase plane, and (d) Poincaré
map.
Figure 14(a) presents the global behavior of the maneuver
performed to phase B, while the energization is only generated
by closing phase A. Figures 14(c) and 14(d) present the analysis
of the signal, showing the non-sinusoidal oscillation and the
periodicity of the signal.
Some general comments about the results obtained in each
experiment are described next.
Case 1: The peak value of the voltage is not bigger that
0.3 p.u. in both cases and could be classified as harm-
less for the equipment. But in general applications, such
distributed generation could be dangerous for maintenance
personnel.
Case 2: The sustained oscillations presented cannot be directly
related to ferroresonance due to the sinusoidal characteristic
of the waveform. In any case, the existence of a voltage in
 8 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 00 (2016), No. 00
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FIGURE 14. Analysis of phase B voltage: (a) signal dynamic,
(b) steady-state waveform, (c) phase plane, and (d) Poincaré
map.
a presumed turned-off transformer could be dangerous for
equipment and personnel surrounding the network. Also,
mechanical vibration, audible noise, and overheating are
present. The temperature is a result of over-currents in the
windings caused by the saturation of the magnetic core and
the stray flux; on the other hand, the noise is produced by
the core laminations moving when the transformer is driven
into saturation. Some works dealing with these problems
are found in [17–19].
Case 3: Since ferroresonance phenomenon is highly depen-
dent on initial conditions, it is possible to assume that the
first configuration studied could change the induced sinu-
soidal state into ferroresonance within a range of different
initial conditions. A case study presented in [20] is similar
to the test system presented in this work, concluding that
even small over-voltages can unfold in harmful results for
physical equipment.
Case 4: It is important to note in both cases the apparition
of a third harmonic component coming from the system
unbalance condition. Commonly, this type of distortion is
followed by physic vibration, audible noise, and overheat-
ing. This condition is potentially dangerous and unwanted,
and the produced heat may affect the insulation of the trans-
former material. Protection equipment, such as arresters,
may not work properly, and prolongation of the fault will
cause permanent damage.
An important aspect to point out in this study is the situation
in which ferroresonance is ignited. As seen in Figure 2, the
capacitor bank is always placed prior to the operated switch
that separates the IG and step-up transformer. This system
setup is completely different from the typical ferroresonance
cases, where the capacitors involved in the ignition of the phe-
nomenon are placed near the transformer and after the opera-
tion switch. It is worth mentioning that when ferroresonance
oscillation is obtained in a generation system, the failure con-
dition would affect the entire network. Efforts should be made
to deeply study the impact of the phenomenon in these con-
ditions; for this purpose, a simulation model for an isolated
generator has been developed [21]. Appendix A introduces
all the main characteristics needed any for further simulation,
including both transformer and generator data. Deeper para-
metric analysis must be performed to fully characterize all the
electrical and mechanical effects that ferroresonance can cause
to an isolated generation network.
6. CONCLUSIONS
This work has proved that capacitor banks used for the self-
excited process of a generator can involve the occurrence of
ferroresonance oscillations. Characterization of the signal has
been carried out, resulting in ferroresonance sub-harmonic and
fundamental modes. The fundamental mode is the most fre-
quent case in this study, presumably due to the static nature
capacitive values. Parametric analysis could reveal more fer-
roresonance modes for this type of system. Identification of
the configurations prone to ferroresonance was performed. For
the cases presented here, the delta-delta connection seems to
be less affected, having a damped signal at low peak-to-peak
voltages even when the ferroresonance stage is obtained; the
absence of a physical neutral connection makes it difficult to
sustain high oscillations. Regarding the most adverse situation
obtained in this work, the grounded wye connection accompa-
nied with high capacitive valued wiring (underground cables
case) can develop significantly high over-voltages due to the
 Corea-Araujo et al.: Ferroresonance Analysis on Power Transformers Interconnected to Self-excited Induction Generators
closed loop created by the ground connection that becomes a
pure series ferroresonance circuit. It is troubling, identifying
that the ferroresonant stage is not away for renewable genera-
tion systems and the fact that miscoordination when the system
is connecting or being disconnected from the network could
unfold into such a destructive event as ferroresonance. Sev-
eral cases involving ferroresonance have been studied in the
literature, but none of them has directly pointed to the interac-
tion of the self-excited process in generators. Therefore, in this
sense, the contribution of this work is to facilitate the possible
paths in which the capacitor of the self-exciting process can
interact with the nearest transformer in the system in a manner
that obtaining ferroresonance will be inevitable. At the same
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time, precaution should be considered due to the high vibration
and heating presented along with the over-voltage oscillation;
several insulation damages can be overcome.
In future work, longer parametric analysis using simulation
will be performed to study the ferroresonance effect in re-
newable power systems. The models for self-exited induction
generators and power transformers will be improved to better
characterize the phenomenon by performing dynamic study
cases and inquiry on the mechanical response of the machine.
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 10 Electric Power Components and Systems, Vol. 00 (2016), No. 00

APPENDIX A BIOGRAPHIES
The parameters obtained from the test routine performed to Javier Arturo Corea-Araujo was born in San Salvador
the three-legged transformer and to the inductor generator are (El Salvador). He received his M.S. and Ph.D. in electronic
provided as follows: engineering from Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Catalunya,
three-legged transformer laboratory routine test [22]: Spain, in 2010 and 2015, respectively. Currently, he is
a researcher in the Department d’Enginyeria Electrònica,
Load test (85◦ C)
Elèctrica i Automàtica, Universitat Rovira i Virgili. His re-
PCC (W) 196.76 search interests include transient analysis of power systems,
I2R (W) 103.92 electromagnetic transient program modeling, and non-linear
Additional losses (W) 92.84 dynamics.
UCC (V) 96.09
ZCC (%) 25.27
Jose Antonio Barrado-Rodrigo was born in Zaragoza, Spain.
XCC (%) 24.40
He received his Ph.D. in automatic control from Universitat
Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 00:26 14 January 2016

RCC (%) 6.55

Winding resistance (85◦ C) Politècnica de Catalunya, Catalunya, Spain, in 2008. Currently,
Primary winding () 1.48 he is an associate professor with the Department of Electronic
Secondary winding () 1.86 Engineering and Automatic Control of the Universitat Rovira
No-load test (20◦ C) i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain. His research interests include anal-
P0 (W) 24.08 ysis, modeling, and control of electric generators in renewable
I0 (%) 1.98
energy systems.

TABLE A1. Transformer parameters Francisco Gonzalez-Molina was born in Barcelona, Spain.
He received his M.S. and Ph.D. in industrial engineer-
induction generator laboratory routine test: ing from Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Catalunya,
P (kW) 4 J (Kg/m2) 0.012 Spain, in 1996 and 2001, respectively. Currently, he is
an assistant professor in the Department d’Enginyeria
V (V) 220/380 Rs () 1.39 Electrònica, Elèctrica i Automàtica, Universitat Rovira i Vir-
I (A) 15/8.7 Rr () 1.39
gili, Catalunya. His research interests include transient anal-
F (Hz) 50 Lls (mH) 5.84
Pole number 4 Llr (mH) 5.84 ysis of power systems, lightning performance of transmis-
sion and distribution lines, power quality, and renewable
energy.
TABLE A2. Induction machine parameters

excitation tests for both transformer and induction machine: Luis Guasch-Pesquer was born in Tarragona, Spain. He re-
ceived his M.S. and Ph.D. in industrial engineering from Uni-
Transformer magnetizing Induction machine magnetizing versitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Catalunya, Spain, in 1996
curve curve
and 2006, respectively. Currently, he is an associate profes-
V (%) Loss (kW) I (%) I (A) L (mH) sor in the Department d’Enginyeria Electrònica, Elèctrica i
Automàtica, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Catalunya. His re-
40.110 0.004 0.402 0.000 208.000
search interests include electric machines and power system
60.165 0.005 0.621 0.500 250.264
80.221 0.011 1.111 1.000 262.373 quality.
100.276 0.023 1.989 1.500 255.792
102.099 0.025 2.358 2.000 239.296
104.834 0.028 2.647 2.500 219.277
107.113 0.030 2.852 3.000 200.059
109.848 0.032 3.217 3.500 184.205
110.760 0.034 3.327 4.000 172.832
115.318 0.39 3.912 4.500 165.920

TABLE A3. Transformer (left) and induction machine (right)

magnetizing curves