materials

Review
Progress and Challenges of Ultrasonic Testing for
Stress in Remanufacturing Laser Cladding Coating
Xiao-Ling Yan 1,2, *, Shi-Yun Dong 2 , Bin-Shi Xu 2 and Yong Cao 2
1 College of Material and Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Technology and Business University,
Beijing 102488, China
2 National Key Laboratory for Remanufacturing, Academy of Army Armored Forces, Beijing 100072, China;
dongsy73@gmail.com (S.-Y.D.); wydyxl1974@163.com (B.-S.X.); wwlwyd2002@163.com (Y.C.)
* Correspondence: yanxl@th.btbu.edu.cn

Received: 8 January 2018; Accepted: 12 February 2018; Published: 13 February 2018

Abstract: Stress in laser cladding coating is an important factor affecting the safe operation
of remanufacturing components. Ultrasonic testing has become a popular approach in the
nondestructive evaluation of stress, because it has the advantages of safety, nondestructiveness,
and online detection. This paper provides a review of ultrasonic testing for stress in remanufacturing
laser cladding coating. It summarizes the recent research outcomes on ultrasonic testing for stress,
and analyzes the mechanism of ultrasonic testing for stress. Remanufacturing laser cladding coating
shows typical anisotropic behaviors. The ultrasonic testing signal in laser cladding coating is
influenced by many complex factors, such as microstructure, defect, temperature, and surface
roughness, among others. At present, ultrasonic testing for stress in laser cladding coating can
only be done roughly. This paper discusses the active mechanism of micro/macro factors in the
reliability of stress measurement, as well as the impact of stress measurement on the quality and
safety of remanufacturing components. Based on the discussion, this paper proposes strategies to
nondestructively, rapidly, and accurately measure stress in remanufacturing laser cladding coating.

Keywords: remanufacture; laser cladding forming; stress; ultrasonic testing; complex factors coupling

1. Introduction
Due to its technological advantages, laser cladding [1,2] has become an important method of
green remanufacturing [3] for old products. In the process of laser cladding, a high-energy laser beam
is used as a moving heat source.
Rapid heating, melting, and cooling provide extreme non-equilibrium conditions that cannot be
achieved by conventional methods, so that forming parts gain excellent comprehensive properities.
Laser cladding has become an advanced technology in remanufacturing engineering [4]. Because of
the uneven heating in the process of laser cladding, as well as the difference of the thermal expansion
coefficient among different compositions in laser cladding coating, the stress distribution in laser
cladding coating is complicated [5,6]. Stress [7,8] has become a key factor that affects the service
performance and service life of remanufacturing mechanical parts. With the development of laser
cladding remanufacturing technology, the stress evaluation of remanufacturing coating becomes more
and more important. The key issues in this field have shifted from the study of the apparent problems
of quality and performance of remanufacturing products to the deep-seated problems of high quality
and reliability assurance. At present, the stress testing methods [9] can be divided into two categories:
destructive methods (the small blind hole method [10], the stripping layer method [11], and the
ring core method [12]) and nondestructive methods (the ray diffraction method [13], the magnetic
memory method [14], the optical method [15], and the ultrasonic method [16–18]). Although these
methods can determine stress measurements, there are some problems which cannot be ignored;

Materials 2018, 11, 293; doi:10.3390/ma11020293 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2018, 11, 293 2 of 16

for example, the destructive methods destroy the integrity of the component structure and can only
realize the sampling testing, while the X-ray diffraction method is harmful to the health of the operator.
The optical method has high requirements for the detection environment and cannot be detected
online. The magnetic memory method has limitations, since only ferromagnetic materials can be
detected. The ultrasonic method [19–21] has many advantages, such as a wide detection range,
safety, non-destructive detection, and online detection. Therefore, the ultrasonic method has become
a popular research direction in non-destructive stress testing.
To ensure the service reliability of laser cladding remanufacturing components, the primary
challenge is to evaluate and control the residual stress and initial defects of laser cladding coating.
The evaluation of residual stress and initial defects can provide guidance for the optimization of the
laser cladding process [22,23], so as to improve the service safety of remanufacturing components.
On this basis, the changing lifetime of laser cladding remanufacturing components is discussed,
which provides insight into the multi-life cycles of components.
At present, the theory and technology of the non-destructive evaluation of defects in laser cladding
coating are mature [24,25], but the non-destructive evaluation of stress in laser cladding coating is
still at the “experience” and “rough” levels; the related theory and experimental research have not yet
been perfected. In view of the advantages of the ultrasonic method in nondestructive stress testing,
this paper introduces the theory and method of ultrasonic testing for stress in laser cladding coating,
the interaction mechanism between anisotropic microstructures, and ultrasonic testing signals.

2. Basic Theory of Ultrasonic Testing for Stress

The method for stress testing by ultrasonic wave is based on acoustoelasticity theory [26]
and nonlinear ultrasonic theory [27]. The application of acoustoelasticity theory is based on
the establishment of a series of assumptions. These assumptions include objects possessing the
characteristics of continuity and uniformity; objects being hyperelastic; microvariations of ultrasonic
waves being superimposed on the finite deformation of objects; the deformation process being
isentropic. Nonlinear ultrasonic testing for stress is based on the nonlinear characteristics of ultrasonic
waves propagating in a solid medium (under stress). The appearance of nonlinear effects in elastic wave
propagation is one of the most reliable and sensitive indicators of the onset of material damage [28].

2.1. Acoustoelasticity Theory

In 1953, Hughes [29] and Kelly [30] proposed the early expressions of stress and ultrasonic velocity
in isotropic solids based on the finite deformation theory, which laid the foundation of acoustoelasticity
theory. Since the 1960s, the acoustoelasticity effect has been continuously improved by R.A. Toupin, B.
Bernstein [31,32], R.N. Thurston, et al. [33].
In summary, the existing expressions for acoustoelasticity equations of isotropic solids are as
follows [29,30]:

(1) The direction of longitudinal wave propagation is parallel to the stress direction:

σ λ+µ
ρv2111 = λ + 2u + [2l + λ + (4m + 4λ + 10µ)] (1)
3K0 µ

(2) The direction of longitudinal wave propagation is perpendicular to the stress direction:

σ 2λ
ρv2113 = λ + 2u + [2l − (m + λ + 2µ)] (2)
3K0 µ
Materials 2018, 11, 293 3 of 16

(3) The direction of transverse wave propagation and the direction of polarization are parallel and
perpendicular to the stress direction, respectively:

σ λn
ρv2131 = µ + (m + + 4λ + 4µ) (3)
3K0 4µ

(4) The direction of transverse wave propagation and the direction of polarization are perpendicular
to the stress direction:
σ λ+µ
ρv2132 = µ + (m − n − 2λ) (4)
3K0 2µ

(5) The direction of transverse wave propagation and the direction of polarization are perpendicular
and parallel to the stress direction, respectively:

σ λn
ρv2133 = µ + (m + + λ + 2µ) (5)
3K0 4µ

(6) Longitudinal wave under static pressure:

σ
ρv2111 = λ + 2µ − (6l + 4m + 7λ + 10µ) (6)
3K0

(7) Transverse wave under static pressure:

σ 1
ρv2131 = λ − (3m − n + 3λ + 6µ) (7)
3K0 2

where vijk is the velocity of the ultrasonic wave, the first subscript i is the propagation direction of the
ultrasonic wave, the second subscript j is the polarization direction of the ultrasonic wave, the third
subscript k is the direction of uniaxial stress, ρ is the density of the isotropic solid, σ is the stress in the
isotropic solid, K0 is the bulk modulus, λ, u are the second order elastic constants, m, n, l are the third
order elastic constants.
Remanufacturing laser cladding coating is usually anisotropic; in the process of laser cladding,
the material undergoes elastic-plastic deformation. Acoustoelasticity theory, which is perfectly
consistent with the elastic-plastic deformation, needs to be developed further. Some universities
and scientific research institutions in the United States, Japan, and Britain have carried out a series of
related studies and achieved some significant results since the 1980s. In 1981, Johson [34,35] deduced
the acoustic elastic formula under elastoplastic conditions based on the elastic-plastic continuum model
of Green. Elastic strain, plastic strain, principal stretch ratio, and strength hardening parameters are
included in the formula; these complex parameters can be determined by elastoplastic experimentation,
so it is difficult for the formula to be popularized and applied in practice. In the same year, Okada [36]
derived the acoustic elastic formula for weakly orthotropic materials under the assumption of the
nonlinear elastic constitutive relation of anisotropic materials. In 1985, Pao [37] deduced the acoustic
elastic formula in the orthotropic medium with initial stress. The above research results are beneficial
to the acoustoelasticity theory in anisotropic materials under elastic-plastic deformation, but most of
these researches remain at the theoretical level and are far from practical application.

2.2. Nonlinear Acoustoelasticity Theory

As early as 1755, Euler proposed the concept of nonlinear acoustics, while Lagrange, Strokes,
and Rayleigh studied nonlinear acoustic theory [38]. In the 1960s, researchers began to study nonlinear
acoustic phenomena in solids. In 1963, the phenomenon of harmonic propagation in aluminum was
observed by Hikata in the metals laboratory at Brown University [39].
Materials 2018, 11, 293 4 of 16

The laser cladding coating with residual stress has nonlinear characteristics of solids; when the
ultrasonic wave propagates, the nonlinear characteristics of laser cladding coating can be characterized
by the nonlinear phenomena of ultrasonic propagation. When a one-dimensional longitudinal wave
propagates through a nonlinear medium, in the case of small strain, the equation of the longitudinal
wave’s motion can be written as [40,41]:
 2 2
ρ2 ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂u ∂2 u ∂u ∂ u
2 2
= 2
+ β 2
+ δ (8)
E ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x2

where ρ is the density of medium, E is elastic modulus, u is the displacement in the x direction, and β, δ
are called the second and third order nonlinear coefficients, respectively. They are related to the second,
third, and fourth order elastic constants of the material.
Since Equation (8) has no general analytic solution, the perturbation method is adopted by
domestic and overseas scholars to obtain its approximate solution. The perturbation method is mainly
intended to expand the required parameter as a power series; here, u(x,t) is expanded by the power of
x. Finally, the power series expansion results are simplified and consolidated according to the same
power of x, thus finding the solution of Equation (8) [40,41]:

β 2 2 δ
u( x, t) = A1 cos(kx − ωt) − k A1 x cos 2(kx − ωt) + k3 A31 x [cos 3(kx − ωt) + 3 cos(kx − ωt)] (9)
8 24
where ω is circular frequency, k is wave number, A1 is the amplitude of the fundamental wave,
A2 = 8 k2 A21 x is the amplitude of the second harmonic, and A3 = 24
δ 3 3
β
k A1 x is the amplitude of the
third harmonic. Therefore, the expressions for the second and third order nonlinear coefficients are
as follows:
8A2
β= 2 2 (10)
k A1 x
24A3
δ= (11)
k3 A31 x
It can be seen from Equations (10) and (11) that the amplitude of the second harmonic (A2 )
and the amplitude of the third harmonic (A3 ) depend on the nonlinear parameter β, δ, respectively.
The two parameters indicate the characteristics of material related to stress. Therefore, if the β, δ
can be measured, the stress state of the material can be estimated. Due to the symmetry of the third
order elastic constants in laser cladding coating, the shear wave in the surface wave does not produce
harmonic components [42,43], so the description of the nonlinear coefficients for the longitudinal wave
is also applicable to the surface wave.

3. Ultrasonic Testing for Stress in Laser Cladding Coating

Ultrasonic testing has become a popular direction in the nondestructive evaluation of stress,
because it has the advantages of safety, nondestructiveness, and online detection. Remanufacturing
laser cladding coating shows typical anisotropic behaviors, while the ultrasonic testing signal in laser
cladding coating is influenced by many complex factors [16]. At present, the nondestructive evaluation
of stress in laser cladding coating can only be done roughly.

3.1. Ultrasonic Testing Methods for Stress

The main methods for testing stress based on acoustoelasticity theory include the use of the
relationship between ultrasonic velocity and stress [44]; ultrasonic attenuation degree and stress [45];
the incident angle of Rayleigh wave and stress [46]; echo power spectrum and stress [47]; and the
interaction of acoustic beams and stress [48]. The excitation waveforms used to measure stress in laser
cladding coating include Rayleigh waves [16], critical refraction longitudinal waves [49], or two wave
combinations [50].
Materials 2018, 11, 293 5 of 16

The2018,
Materials relationship
11, x FOR PEERbetween
REVIEWultrasonic velocity and stress is the focus of current research [16,49,50]. 5 of 16
A classical stress measurement system based on the relationship between Rayleigh wave velocity
velocity
and and
stress stress isin shown
is shown Figure in Figure
1 [51]. 1 [51]. It
It mainly mainlyofconsists
consists of a Panametrics-NDT
a Panametrics-NDT 5800PR
5800PR ultrasonic
ultrasonic pulse transmitting (Panametrics-NDT,
pulse transmitting (Panametrics-NDT, Waltham, MA, USA) and receiving instrument, a TDS5000Ba
Waltham, MA, USA) and receiving instrument,
TDS5000B oscilloscope
oscilloscope (highestfrequency
(highest sampling samplingisfrequency is 2.5 GHz,
2.5 GHz, Tektronix, Tektronix,
Beaverton, WA,Beaverton,
USA), and WA, USA),
Rayleigh
and Rayleigh wave transducers (SIUI, Shantou, China), with a frequency of
wave transducers (SIUI, Shantou, China), with a frequency of 5 MHz (a transmitting transducer and 5 MHz (a transmitting
atransducer and a receiving
receiving transducer). transducer).
In the experiment, Inin
the experiment,
order to ensureintheorder to ensure
coupling betweenthe coupling between
the tranducer and
the tranducer and the sample is stable, the contact between them is elastic. Additionally,
the sample is stable, the contact between them is elastic. Additionally, a simple device is used to fix the a simple
device is wave
Rayleigh used to fix the Rayleigh
transducer wave transducer
to the detected to the
area to collect detected
data area tobetween
(the distance collect data (the distance
the tranducers is
between
20 the tranducers
mm). Because is 20 mm).
the Rayleigh wave Because
velocity the Rayleigh wave
is inconvenient velocity and
to measure, is inconvenient
the propagationto measure,
time of
and the propagation
Rayleigh waves can betime of Rayleigh
measured waves
directly, can be measured
the velocity directly,
is converted thechange
into the velocity is of
rate converted
propagationinto
the change rate of propagation
time within a certain distance. time within a certain distance.

Figure 1. A classical ultrasonic testing system for stress in laser cladding coating [51]. “Reproduced
Figure 1. A classical ultrasonic testing system for stress in laser cladding coating [51]. “Reproduced
with permission from publisher by © Springer.” (2015).
with permission from published by © Springer.” (2015).
Both domestically and internationally, there are still few researches on stress testing based on
Both domestically
nonlinear and internationally,
ultrasonic theory. In 2009, Chaki et there are still
al. [52] few researches
analyzed the stress on stress
value testing based
of prestressed on
steel
nonlinear
strands byultrasonic
using the theory.
nonlinear In 2009, Chakiguided
ultrasonic et al. [52]
wave analyzed
technique,the and
stress value of the
discussed prestressed steel
sensitivity of
strands by using the nonlinear ultrasonic guided wave technique, and discussed
different modes of guided wave to stress. In 2010, Liu et al. [53] used nonlinear Rayleigh waves to test the sensitivity of
different modes of guided wave to stress. In 2010, Liu et al. [53] used nonlinear Rayleigh
the residual stress in the aluminum alloy plate produced by shot peening. It was found that the stress waves to test
the residual
values were in stress in the aluminum
one-to-one correspondence alloy with
platetheproduced
nonlinear by coefficients.
shot peening. TheIt above
was found that the
researches on
stress values were in one-to-one correspondence with the nonlinear coefficients.
ultrasonic testing for stress in heterogeneous materials have strong novelty and reference significance. The above
researchesit on
However, mustultrasonic testing for stress
also be acknowledged in heterogeneous
that most of the researches materials
remain at have strong
the level novelty and
of experimental
reference significance.
observation, and lack deepHowever, it must
theoretical also be acknowledged that most of the researches remain at
analysis.
the level of experimental observation, and lack deep theoretical analysis.
3.2. The Influence Mechanism of Micro Factors on Ultrasonic Testing for Stress
3.2. The Influence Mechanism of Micro Factors on Ultrasonic Testing for Stress
The microstructure of remanufacturing laser cladding coating is usually anisotropic. Figure 2 [51]
shows The
themicrostructure
SEM micrograph of remanufacturing laser cladding
of Fe314 laser cladding coating.coating
As can beis usually
seen in anisotropic.
Figure 2, theFigure
interior2
[51]
is shows the
obviously SEM micrograph
dendritic. Because theoflaserFe314 laser cladding
cladding sample was coating. As can
prepared be seenofinmultilayer
by means Figure 2,andthe
interior is obviously dendritic. Because the laser cladding sample was prepared
multipass lap cladding, there is obvious interface between two layers in the laser cladding coating. by means of
multilayer and multipass lap cladding, there is obvious interface between
The growth direction of dendrite in a single layer is basically identical, which is approximately two layers in the laser
cladding coating.
perpendicular to The growth direction
the interface betweenoftwo dendrite
layers.in aThesingle layer is basically
continuity of dendriteidentical,
growth which
in theis
approximately perpendicular to the interface between two layers. The continuity
adjacent laser cladding layer is interrupted by the interface between two layers, and the growth of dendrite growth
in the adjacent
direction laserdifferent.
is slightly cladding Thelayeradjacent
is interrupted
claddingbylayers
the interface
are bonded between
togethertwoby layers, and the
metallurgical
growth direction
bonding, is slightly
which ensures different. ofThe
the continuity adjacent
dendrite cladding
growth in thelayers are bonded
inner layer and thetogether
strength byof
metallurgical bonding, which ensures the continuity of dendrite growth in the
interlayer bonding. Figure 3 shows the SEM micrograph of Fe55 Cr20 Ni10 B2 Si2 laser cladding coating. inner layer and the
strength ofand
Inclusions interlayer
microcracks bonding.
at theirFigure 3 shows
boundaries can betheseen
SEM micrograph
in Figure 3. of Fe55Cr20Ni10B2Si2 laser
cladding coating. Inclusions and microcracks at their boundaries can be seen in Figure 3.
Materials 2018, 11, 293 6 of 16
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16

Figure
Figure 2.
2. SEM
SEM micrograph
micrograph ofof Fe314
Fe314 laser
laser cladding
cladding coating
coating [51].
[51]. “Reproduced
“Reproduced with
with permission
permission from
from
Figure 2.
published SEM
by ©micrograph
Springer.” of Fe314
(2015). laser cladding coating [51]. “Reproduced with permission from
publisher by © Springer.” (2015).
published by © Springer.” (2015).

Figure 3. SEM micrograph of Fe55Cr20Ni10B2Si2 laser cladding coating.

Figure3.3.SEM
Figure SEMmicrograph
micrographof
ofFe
Fe5555Cr
Cr20
20Ni10
10BB22SiSi
2 2laser
lasercladding
claddingcoating.
coating.
Textures, inclusions, and defects in the laser cladding coating are called micro factors. The
Textures, inclusions, and
inclusions, anddefects
defectsin in
thethe laser
laser cladding
cladding coating called
are called micro factors.
question is how these micro factors affect the stress testingcoating
resultsare
based on micro factors.
ultrasonic The
waves.
The question
question is how is how
thesethese micro
micro factors affect the stress testing results based on ultrasonic waves.
Experimental studies have beenfactors
carriedaffect
out bythe stressuniversities
related testing results based on
and research ultrasonic In
institutions. waves.
1983,
Experimental studies have been carried
been carried out
out byby related
related universities
universities and
and research
research institutions.
institutions. In
In 1983,
1983,
King [54] used the oblique incidence horizontal polarization shear wave (SH wave) to achieve the
King
King [54] used the oblique incidence horizontal
horizontal polarization shear
polarization shear wave (SH
wave (SH wave) to achieve the
measurement of plane stress state under weak orthogonality conditions. Thiswave) to achieve
method effectively
measurement of
measurement of state under weak orthogonality conditions. This method
method effectively
effectively
separated texture plane
effectsstress
and stress effects. weak orthogonality
It is assumed conditions.
that the This
principal stress coincides with the
separated texture
separated texture effects
effects and
and stress effects. ItIt is assumed
assumed that that the principal stress coincides
coincides with the
material symmetry axis, while the acoustoelasticity equation in the plane stress state is as follows:
material symmetry axis, while the acoustoelasticity equation in the plane stress state is as follows:

SH23SH
−23SH− SH13 cc5555−−c
SH 23 − SH
13 44 cos2 2θ + α (θ )(T − T )
= c55 − cc44 (12)
= 44 cos2 θ + α ( θ )(22T22 −
11 T ) (12)
SH0SH 0
13
= cc4444 cos θ + α (θ )(T22 − T11 ) 11 (12)
SH0 c44
where SH
where SHijijisisthe thevelocity
velocityofofSH SH wave
wave propagating
propagating in in
thethe surface
surface ij, 0SH
ij, SH is average
is 0the the average velocity
velocity of twoof
where
two SH
kinds is
ij of the
SH velocity
wave, c of, cSH wave
are thepropagating
elastic constantsin the ofsurface
the ij, SH
material,
kinds of SH wave, c44, c55 are the elastic constants of the material, α(θ ) is the elastic constant at
44 55 0 is
α (the
θ ) average
is the velocity
elastic of
constant twoat
kinds of angles,
different SH wave, and cT44, c,55
T are the
are theelastic
principalconstants
22, T1111are the principal stress. stress. of the material, α (θ ) is the elastic constant at
different angles, and T22
In 1984,
different angles, Thompson
In 1984, Thompson [55] and T 22, [55]
T11 areadopted plane SH
the principal
adopted plane SH waves propagating
stress.
waves propagating in in aa vertical
vertical direction
direction toto separate
separate
texture
In effects
1984, and
Thompsonstress effects.
[55] The
adopted expression
plane
texture effects and stress effects. The expression is presented as: SH is
waves presented
propagating as: in a vertical direction to separate
texture effects and stress effects. The expression is presented as:
ρρ((vv2ijij2 − =σσiiii −
− v2ji2 ) = −σσjjjj (13)
(13)
ρ (vij − v ji ) = σ ii − σ jj
2
(13)
where vvijij, v, vji jiis the
is the velocity
velocity of SHofwaves
SH waves
propagating propagating in theij,surface
in the surface and σii , σ ij,jj are
andtheσ principal
ii , σ jj
arestress.
the
where vij , v ji is the velocity of SH waves propagating in the surface ij, and σ ii , σ jj are the
principal stress.
principal stress.
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16

Materials 2018, 11, 293 7 of 16

In 1984, Allen and Sayeres [50] used the method of combining focused P-wave and S-wave
birefringence to separate tissue effects. The method was validated by measuring the residual stress
at the
In crack
1984, tip.
AllenIn and
1992,Sayeres
Rokhlin [56]
[50] usedproposed
the methodGAOoftechnology(using
combining focused twoP-wave
kinds of transverse
and S-wave
waves and one
birefringence tokind of longitudinal
separate wave);
tissue effects. The as a result,
method wasthevalidated
relation between the polarization
by measuring the residualangle of
stress
the transverse wave and stress was established. In 2002, the residual stress in butt-welded
at the crack tip. In 1992, Rokhlin [56] proposed GAO technology(using two kinds of transverse plates was
measured
waves and by
oneusing
kind ofthelongitudinal
critical refraction
wave); longitudinal
as a result, the wave in the
relation Frenchthe
between Mechanical Industry
polarization angle
Technology
of Center
the transverse [57].and
wave Thestress
effectwas
of microstructure
established. Inin2002,
the heat–affected zone and
the residual stress weld–zone plates
in butt-welded on the
test results
was measuredwasby considered, and therefraction
using the critical results were in good agreement
longitudinal wave in the with the small
French bore method.
Mechanical In
Industry
2015, Rayleigh
Technology waves
Center [57].were
Theused [51]
effect of to test the stressininthe
microstructure laser cladding coating,
heat–affected zone andandweld–zone
analyzed the
on
effect of the anisotropic microstructure on the testing results, in combination with
the test results was considered, and the results were in good agreement with the small bore method. the theory of
elastic-plastic deformation. The expression proposed is:
In 2015, Rayleigh waves were used [51] to test the stress in laser cladding coating, and analyzed
the effect of the anisotropic microstructure
 v1 − on v10 the testing results, in combination with the theory of
 0proposed
elastic-plastic deformation. The expression = k1σ 1 +is:k 2σ 2 + α1
 v1
  0 0 (14)
v − v2
 v1 −20v10 =
 =k1kσ2σ1 1++ kk21σσ22 ++αα21
 v1v02 (14)
v2 − v2
 = k 2 σ 1 + k 1 σ2 + α 2
where vi , vi0 is the velocity of the Rayleigh

v2 0
wave propagating in laser cladding coating under the
condition
where vi , vof
0 isstress and no stress
the velocity of therespectively;
Rayleigh wave k1, k2propagating
is the acoustic in elastic coefficient
laser cladding of laserunder
coating cladding
the
i
coating in two directions perpendicular to each other respectively; α , α is the
condition of stress and no stress respectively; k1 , k2 is the acoustic elastic coefficient of laser cladding
1 2
tissue effect factor in
two directions
coating perpendicular
in two directions to each other
perpendicular respectively.
to each other respectively; α1 , α2 is the tissue effect factor in
Figure 4 [51]
two directions shows the Rayleigh
perpendicular waverespectively.
to each other signals propagating in a fixed acoustic path according to
different
Figure testing
4 [51]positions
shows the ofRayleigh
Fe314 laser cladding
wave signalscoating (the stress
propagating is zero).
in a fixed Figurepath
acoustic 5 [51] shows the
according to
results oftesting
different stress positions
testing before and laser
of Fe314 after cladding
removal coating
of the tissue effect.isItzero).
(the stress can be seen 5that
Figure [51]the method
shows the
proposed
results by thetesting
of stress author’s research
before and group can effectively
after removal improve
of the tissue the It
effect. reliability
can be seenof the testing
that results.
the method
The above researches have greatly promoted the development of ultrasonic
proposed by the author’s research group can effectively improve the reliability of the testing results. nondestructive testing
for stress
The abovein anisotropic
researches havematerials, and have strong
greatly promoted reference significance.
the development of ultrasonicHowever, there istesting
nondestructive some
blindness in exploring the method of separating tissue effects. The fundamental
for stress in anisotropic materials, and have strong reference significance. However, there is some reason for this
blindess is that the ultrasonic propagation theory is not combined
blindness in exploring the method of separating tissue effects. The fundamental reason for this blindess with the elasto-plastic
deformation
is theory, propagation
that the ultrasonic the influence mechanism
theory of tissue with
is not combined effects
theon ultrasonic testing
elasto-plastic for stress
deformation theory,in
anisotropic materials is not analyzed in depth, and a convincing explanation
the influence mechanism of tissue effects on ultrasonic testing for stress in anisotropic materials is not is not given for the
separation
analyzed inof tissueand
depth, effects.
a convincing explanation is not given for the separation of tissue effects.

Figure 4.4. Rayleigh

Figure Rayleighwave
wavesignals
signalsofoflaser
laser cladding
cladding Fe314
Fe314 alloy
alloy coating
coating responding
responding to zero
to the the zero
stressstress
[51].
[51]. “Reproduced
“Reproduced with permission
with permission from published
from publisher by © Springer.”
by © Springer.” (2015).(2015).
Materials 2018, 11, 293 8 of 16
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16

Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16

Figure Figure 5. Stress

5. Stress testingtesting results
results of Fe314
of Fe314 laserlaser cladding
cladding coating[51].
coating [51].“Reproduced
“Reproduced with
withpermission
permission from
from
publisher bypublished by © Springer.”
© Springer.” (2015). (2015).

3.3. The Influence Mechanism of Macro Factors on Ultrasonic Testing for Stress
3.3. The Influence Mechanism of Macro Factors on Ultrasonic Testing for Stress
Temperature, probe coupling mode, coupling layer thickness, and surface roughness are called
Figure 5. Stress testing results of Fe314 laser cladding coating [51]. “Reproduced with permission
Temperature,
macrofromfactors. probe
publishedTheseby coupling
©macro mode,
factors
Springer.” havecoupling
(2015). various effectslayeronstress
thickness, testing and surface
results based roughness
on ultrasonic are called
waves. The
macro factors. Thesemostmacro
influential methods
factors have currently
variousinclude effects(1)onstress
exploringtesting the influence
results of based
macro factors
on ultrasonic
on
waves.3.3.Thestress
Themost testing
Influence results through
Mechanism
influential of Macro
methods tentative
Factors
currently experiments,
on Ultrasonic
include and(1)proposing
Testing for Stress
exploring methods for correcting
the influence errors factors
of macro
[58–60]; (2) improving the accuracy of testing characteristic parameters (such as ultrasonic signal
on stress testing
Temperature, results probe through tentative
couplingetc.)mode, experiments,
coupling layer and and
thickness, proposing methods
surface roughness for
areand
called correcting
propagation speed, amplitude, in ultrasonic testing for stress experiments [61–63]; (3),
errors macro
[58–60]; (2)
factors. improving
These macro the accuracy
factors have of
various testing
effects characteristic
onstress
exploring the methods for correcting errors through tentative experiments (once the testing objecttesting parameters
results based (such
on as
ultrasonic ultrasonic
waves.
signal propagationThe
and experimental most influential
speed,
condition methods
amplitude,
change, many currently include
etc.)experiments
in ultrasonic(1) exploring
are neededtesting the
to find influence
forthestress
method of macro
experiments factors
to correct the [61–63];
on stressModern
testing results through
and (3), exploring
error). thesignal
methods fortentative
processing correcting
technology experiments,
errors and proposing
through
can improve thetentative methods
reliability foraccuracy
experiments
and correcting oferrors
(once the testing
stress
[58–60];
testing (2) improving
results to a certain the accuracy
extentchange, of testing
[64,65]. Figure characteristic
6a,b parameters
[66] are Rayleigh (such
wave signals as ultrasonic
propagating signal
in to
a correct
object and experimental
propagation speed,
condition many experiments are needed to find the method
fixed acoustic path amplitude,
in Fe314 laser etc.) cladding
in ultrasonic coatingtesting
underfor 34stress
MPaexperiments
and 230 MPa [61–63];
tensile and (3),
stress,
the error). Modern
exploring signal processing
the Itmethods for correcting technology can improve the reliability and accuracy of stress
respectively. can be seen in Figure 6errors that the through
acquired tentative
Rayleigh experiments
wave signals (once the
contain testing
a lot ofobject
noise.
testingandresults to a certain extent [64,65]. Figure 6a,b [66] are
Evaluating the stress of laser cladding coating based on Rayleigh waves, the extraction correct
experimental condition change, many experiments are needed Rayleigh
to find the wave
method signals
to propagating
of acousticthe
error).
in a fixed Modern signal processing technology can improve the reliability
time delay is a key technology. Figure 7a [66] shows the acoustic time delay analysis result based on stress,
acoustic path in Fe314 laser cladding coating under 34 MPa and
and accuracy
230 MPa of stress
tensile
testing
respectively. results
It can to
the correlation be a seen
certain
method. in extent
Figure
Figure 7b[64,65].
6 that
[66] is Figure
thethe 6a,b [66]
acquired
acoustic timeare Rayleigh
Rayleigh
delay analysis wave
wave signals
resultsignals
based propagating
contain
on the complex a in
lota of noise.
fixed acoustic
cepstrum methodpath in Fe314 laser cladding coating under 34 MPa and 230 MPa tensile stress,
Evaluating the stress ofproposed
laser claddingby the coatingauthor’s based researchongroup.
Rayleigh As can be seen
waves, theinextraction
Figure 7, of theacoustic
respectively.
signal-to-noise It can
ratiobeofseen in Figure
correlation 6 that the
analysis is acquired
low. At theRayleigh
same wave
time, the signals
time contain
delay peak a lot
is of noise.
very close
time delay is a key
Evaluating technology.
the stress Figure 7a
of laser cladding [66] based
shows the acoustic time delay analysis result based
to the surrounding interference signal, coating
so it is not easy ontoRayleigh waves,
locate accurately. the
The extraction of acoustic
signal-to-noise ratio
on thetime
correlation method. Figure 7b 7a [66] isshows
the acoustic time delay analysis result based on the
of complex cepstrum analysis is relatively high, while the time delay peak is very sharp, and itonis
delay is a key technology. Figure [66] the acoustic time delay analysis result based
complex the cepstrum
correlation method
method. proposed
Figure 7b [66] by
is the
the author’s
acoustic time research
delay analysis
convenient for accurate positioning (the time difference between two signals is only 20 sampling group.result As can
based on be theseen
complex in Figure 7,
cepstrum
the signal-to-noise method proposed by the author’s research group. As
points (8 ns)). ratio of correlation analysis is low. At the same time, the time delay peak is very can be seen in Figure 7, the
close tosignal-to-noise
the surrounding ratio of correlation analysis is low. At the same time, the time delay peak is very close
interference signal, so it is not easy to locate accurately. The signal-to-noise
to the surrounding interference signal, so it is not easy to locate accurately. The signal-to-noise ratio
ratio of complex cepstrum analysis is relatively high, while the time delay peak is very sharp, and it
of complex cepstrum analysis is relatively high, while the time delay peak is very sharp, and it is
is convenient
convenient forfor accurate
accuratepositioning
positioning (the (thetime time difference
difference between
between two signals
two signals is onlyis 20only 20 sampling
sampling
points points
(8 ns)). (8 ns)).

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Time-domain diagram of the sampling signal [66]. (a) Under 34 MPa tensile stress; (b)
under 230 MPa tensile stress. “Reproduced with permission from published by © Zhongguo
Zhendong Gongcheng Xuehui.” (2013).
(a) (b)
Figure 6. Time-domain diagram of the sampling signal [66]. (a) Under 34 MPa tensile stress; (b)
6. Time-domain
Figureunder diagram of the sampling signal [66]. (a) Under 34 MPa tensile stress; (b) under
230 MPa tensile stress. “Reproduced with permission from published by © Zhongguo
230 MPa
Zhendong Gongcheng“Reproduced
tensile stress. Xuehui.” (2013).with permission from publisher by © Zhongguo Zhendong
Gongcheng Xuehui.” (2013).
Materials 2018,
Materials 11,11,
2018, 293x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of9 16
of 16

Sampling signal point

(a)

Sampling signal point

(b)
Figure 7. Contrast of acoustic time delay analysis results [66]. (a) Correlation analysis result; (b)
Figure 7. Contrast of acoustic time delay analysis results [66]. (a) Correlation analysis result;
complex cepstrum analysis result “Reproduced with permission from published by © Zhongguo
(b) complex cepstrum analysis result “Reproduced with permission from publisher by © Zhongguo
Zhendong Gongcheng Xuehui.” (2013).
Zhendong Gongcheng Xuehui.” (2013).

ToTosum sum up,up, there

there areare still
still many
many basicbasic scientific
scientific problems
problems unsolved
unsolved in in
thethe field
field of of ultrasonic
ultrasonic
nondestructive testing for stress in laser cladding coating. These problems are summarized as follows:as
nondestructive testing for stress in laser cladding coating. These problems are summarized
(1)follows: (1) the mechanism
the interaction interaction of mechanism
anisotropicoflaser anisotropic
claddinglaser
coatingcladding coating and
and ultrasonic ultrasonic
testing signals istesting
not
signals is not clear; (2) the effect of laser cladding coating and the substrate
clear; (2) the effect of laser cladding coating and the substrate “combination” and “sound transmission” “combination” and
on the stress testing result remains to be studied; (3) the essential principle for separation of tissuefor
“sound transmission” on the stress testing result remains to be studied; (3) the essential principle
separation
effects of tissue
in anisotropic effects is
materials innotanisotropic
given; andmaterials is not
(4), the stress given;forand
testing (4), the materials
anisotropic stress testing
basedfor
anisotropic materials based on nonlinear ultrasonic testing lack a profound
on nonlinear ultrasonic testing lack a profound theoretical analysis. The preliminary research of the theoretical analysis. The
preliminary
author’s research research
group of(thethe author’s
research research
group group (the research
on nondestructive testing group on nondestructive
for quality of remanufacturing testing
parts) showed that some basic scientific problems in the field of ultrasonic stress testing can be solved of
for quality of remanufacturing parts) showed that some basic scientific problems in the field
byultrasonic stress testing
using numerical can be
simulation and solved by using
data mining numerical simulation
technologies [51,66]. and data mining technologies
[51,66].
4. Strategies for Solving Related Problems
4. Strategies for Solving Related Problems
To solve the technical bottleneck problems in ultrasonic testing for stress in laser cladding coating,
research Toshould
solve thegrasptechnical bottleneck
the principal problemsand
contradiction in ultrasonic
reduce thetesting
complex forproblems.
stress in laser cladding
The factors
coating, research should grasp the principal contradiction and reduce the
that affect the reliability of ultrasonic testing for stress in laser cladding coating are classified into complex problems. The
twofactors that affect
categories: micro theand
reliability
macro. of The ultrasonic
influences testing for stress
of micro factorsinand
laser cladding
macro factorscoating
can be are classified
stripped.
intobytwo
First, categories:
changing micro
the laser and macro.
cladding process, The influences
specimens withof different
micro factors and macro
microstructure andfactors can be
stress state
stripped. First, by changing the laser cladding process, specimens with different
are prepared. In the process of testing, the stability of macro factors (such as environment, instrument, microstructure and
andstress state are
personnel) prepared. In
is maintained, and thetheprocess
influence of mechanism
testing, theofstability of macro
micro factors factorssignal
on testing (suchis as
environment,
studied. Second, in instrument,
view of theand same personnel)
laser claddingis maintained, and the
sample (to ensure theinfluence
consistency mechanism of micro
of micro factors),
thefactors
change onlawtesting signal
of stress is studied.
testing resultsSecond,
is studiedin view
whenofthe themacro
same factor
laser cladding
changes. sample Then, the(tocoupling
ensure the
consistency
effect of macroof and micro
microfactors),
factors the change law
is considered. of micro
The stress and
testing
macroresults
factors is studied
related towhenstressthe macro
testing
factor changes. Then, the coupling effect of macro and micro factors is
are extracted by data mining, and the coupling effect of multiple factors in ultrasonic stress tesing are considered. The micro and
macrobyfactors
proved orthogonalrelated
andtouniform
stress experiments.
testing are extracted
Finally, thebymultiple
data mining,
factorsand the coupling
coupling effect of
analysis results
multiple factors in ultrasonic stress tesing are proved by orthogonal and uniform experiments.
Materials 2018, 11, 293 10 of 16

are used as Support Vector Machine (SVM) input samples [67]. The prediction model of optimum
testing methods, based on multidimensional analysis and multi-source information, is established to
realize nondestructive, fast, and reliable testing for the stress in remanufacturing laser cladding coating.

4.1. Obtain Full-Effective Acoustic Field Information

Compared with the experimental research, numerical simulation is more flexible and convenient
in model making, parameter selection and variation, and data processing of simulation results.
Numerical simulation can highlight some details which are not easily observed in the experiment.
The numerical simulation technology of ultrasonic testing with the objective of acoustic field analysis
and flaw echo prediction has developed rapidly in recent years. Its applications include (1) scattering
and echo prediction of different types of flaws [68–70]; (2) ultrasonic propagation and acoustic field
analysis in isotropic and anisotropic materials [71–73]; (3) ultrasonic imaging simulation [74,75]. To the
best of our knowledge, no other scholars have carried out ultrasonic nondestructive testing for stress
in anisotropic materials by means of numerical simulation.
The author’s research group, using ANSYS/LS-DYNA Finite Element Method (FEM) [76],
obtained the acoustic elastic curve of Rayleigh waves in aluminum alloy (as shown in Figure 8a)
through the implicit and explicit solution. The red point is the data collected during a static load test;
the experimental results are in good agreement with the numerical simulation results. Figure 8b is
the Rayleigh wave signals in aluminum alloy under different stress. Therefore, it is more convenient
to obtain the intrinsic relationship between the velocity of ultrasonic signals and stress in material
by using FEM. In addition, the influence of anisotropic laser cladding coating on the propagation
behaviors of ultrasonic beams was analyzed by the author’s research group. The propagation behaviors
of ultrasonic beam in the laser cladding Fe314 alloy coating were investigated with the help of Rayleigh
integral, combined with the pencil method. Figure 9 [77] is part of the numerical simulation results.
Figure 9a shows the grain orientation angle in laser cladding coating and the coordinate system
direction. Figure 9b shows the numerical simulation results of ultrasonic field distribution in the
xoz section of the Fe314 laser cladding remanufacturing specimen (the white line in Figure 9b is the
joint surface of laser cladding coating and the substrate), based on the longitudinal wave vertical
incidence and a grain orientation angle of 30◦ . The results show that the grain orientation can affect
the propagation behavior of acoustic beams in the anisotropic laser cladding coating; when the
grain orientation angle is 30◦ , the propagation direction of the vertical incidence longitudinal beam
will change. Figure 9c shows the propagation principle of the vertical incident wave in Fe314 laser
cladding coating. As can be seen in Figure 9c, when the grain orientation angle is 30◦ , the slowness
surface of the longitudinal wave is not an ideal circle, so the direction of group velocity (the normal
vector direction of the slowness surface) is inconsistent with that of phase velocity (the direction
of a refraction longitudinal wave beam); thus, the longitudinal wave beam will change direction.
As shown in Figure 9d, under the same conditions, the oblique incidence transverse beam not only
changes direction but also splits into two shear beams with different propagation velocities. Figure 9e
is the flaw echo in the Fe314 laser cladding remanufacturing specimen (the numerical simulation and
test results are in good agreement). Thus, theoretical analysis, numerical simulation, and experimental
detection can be verified mutually, while numerical simulation technology is more intuitive to analyze
the propagation behaviors of ultrasonic signals in anisotropic materials. Using numerical simulation
technology, the information collection and processing in the process of ultrasonic testing for stress are
more transparent and detailed.
Materials 2018, 11, 293 11 of 16
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Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16

(a) (b)
Figure 8. (a) Acoustic (a)
elastic curve of Rayleigh waves in aluminum alloy; (b)
(b) Rayleigh wave signals
Figure 8. (a) Acoustic elastic curve of Rayleigh waves in aluminum alloy; (b) Rayleigh wave signals in
in aluminum
Figure alloy under
8. (a) Acoustic different
elastic curve stress.
of Rayleigh waves in aluminum alloy; (b) Rayleigh wave signals
aluminum alloy under different stress.
in aluminum alloy under different stress.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

(c) (d)
(c) (d)

(e)
(e) results [77]. (a) The grain orientation angle θ and direction of the
Figure 9. Numerical simulation q

Figure 9. Numerical
coordinate simulation
system; (b) results field
The ultrasonic [77]. (a) The grain
radiated by aorientation angle
longitudinal waveθ straight
and direction of the
probe in
q
Figure 9. Numerical simulation results [77]. (a) The grain orientation angle θq and direction of the
Fe314 lasersystem;
coordinate cladding remanufacturing
(b) The ultrasonic fieldspecimen;
radiated (c)
by aSchematic diagram
longitudinal of vertical
wave straight probeincident
in the
coordinate system;wave
longitudinal (b) The ultrasonic
propagation field laser
in Fe314 radiated by acoating;
cladding longitudinal
(d) The wave straight
ultrasonic probe in bythe
a Fe314
Fe314 laser cladding remanufacturing specimen; (c) Schematic diagram of field radiated
vertical incident
laser cladding remanufacturing
transverse wave angle probespecimen;
in the (c)
Fe314 Schematic
laser claddingdiagram of vertical
remanufacturing incident
specimen; (e)
longitudinal wave propagation in Fe314 laser cladding coating; (d) The ultrasonic field radiated by a
longitudinal
Simulation wave
propagation
and in Fe314
testing laser
results of cladding
the flaw coating;
echo signal (d)
in theThe ultrasonic
Fe314 laser field
cladding radiated by
remanufacturing
transverse wave angle probe in the Fe314 laser cladding remanufacturing specimen; (e) Simulation a transverse
specimen. wave
“Reproduced
angle probe
and testing with permission
in theresults
Fe314 oflaser
the flaw from
echopublished
cladding signal by ©Fe314
remanufacturing
in the Springer.” (2016). (e)
specimen;
laser cladding Simulation and
remanufacturing testing results
specimen.
“Reproduced
of the flaw with permission
echo signal in the Fe314 fromlaser
published by © Springer.”
cladding (2016).
remanufacturing specimen. “Reproduced with
permission from publisher by © Springer.” (2016).
Materials 2018, 11, 293 12 of 16
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16

4.2. Technology
4.2. Technology Roadmap
Roadmap
A comprehensive
A comprehensive technology
technology roadmap
roadmap for
for ultrasonic
ultrasonic testing
testing for
for stress
stress in
in remanufacturing
remanufacturing laser
laser
cladding coating is presented based on the above analysis. Figure 10 is used to illustrate the specific
cladding coating is presented based on the above analysis. Figure 10 is used to illustrate the specific
technical route
technical route process.
process.

Figure 10.
Figure Technology roadmap.
10. Technology roadmap.

5. Conclusions and Future Outlook

Laser cladding, due to its technological advantages, has become an important method of green
remanufacturing for
remanufacturing foroldoldproducts.
products.However,
However,practicepractice shows
shows that stress
that in laser
stress cladding
in laser coating
cladding is one
coating is
of the
one ofkey
the factors that affects
key factors the service
that affects performance
the service performance and life
andcycle of remanufacturing
life cycle of remanufacturing parts. parts.
In order
In
to realize
order nondestructive,
to realize fast, and
nondestructive, reliable
fast, testing for
and reliable the stress
testing for the in stress
remanufacturing laser cladding
in remanufacturing laser
coating, ultrasonic
cladding nondestructive
coating, ultrasonic testing technology
nondestructive was adopted.
testing technology was This paperThis
adopted. discusses
paper the active
discusses
mechanism
the of micro/macro
active mechanism factors to factors
of micro/macro achievetothe reliability
achieve of stress measurement
the reliability and the impact
of stress measurement and theof
stress measurement
impact on the quality
of stress measurement on theand safetyand
quality of remanufacturing
safety of remanufacturingcomponents. StrategiesStrategies
components. to obtain
nondestructive,
to rapid, and accurate
obtain nondestructive, rapid, and measurements of stress in remanufacturing
accurate measurements laser cladding coating
of stress in remanufacturing laser
are also discussed
cladding coating inarethis paper.
also Based on
discussed inthethisreview,
paper. theBased
most promising approaches
on the review, the to solve
most the main
promising
issues related
approaches toto this the
solve topic are issues
main as follows:
related to this topic are as follows:
(1) Master
Masterthetheinfluence
influencelaw lawandandmechanism
mechanism of stress in laser
of stress cladding
in laser coating
cladding on ultrasonic
coating testing
on ultrasonic
signals,signals,
testing which iswhich
the basis and
is the key and
basis to evaluating the stressthe
key to evaluating in laser
stresscladding
in laser coating.
claddingThe transient
coating. The
dynamicsdynamics
transient and viscoelastic absorbingabsorbing
and viscoelastic boundaryboundarytechniques [78,79] can
techniques be introduced
[78,79] into the finite
can be introduced into
element
the finiteanalysis
elementtechnique
analysis for ultrasonic
technique for testing
ultrasonicfor stress
testing infor
laser cladding
stress coating.
in laser claddingThe coating.
full-effective
The
ultrasonic fieldultrasonic
full-effective information in testing
field for stress
information in in laser cladding
testing for stress coating can cladding
in laser be collected through
coating finite
can be
element postprocessing. The relationship between stress and characteristic
collected through finite element postprocessing. The relationship between stress and characteristic parameters of ultrasonic
signals can of
parameters beultrasonic
refined bysignals
using can
databe mining
refinedtechnology,
by using data so as to determine
mining technology,the influence law and
so as to determine
mechanism
the influenceoflaw
stress
andinmechanism
laser cladding coating
of stress on the
in laser ultrasonic
cladding signal.
coating on the ultrasonic signal.
(2) Clarify
Clarify the
themechanisms
mechanismsofof texture,
texture,inclusion,
inclusion, defect, andand
defect, other micro
other factors
micro affecting
factors the result
affecting the
of ultrasonic
result testing testing
of ultrasonic for stressforinstress
laser cladding coating, and
in laser cladding weaken
coating, andorweaken
separate orits influence
separate itseffectively,
influence
which is thewhich
effectively, key to improving
is the key the to reliability
improvingof the ultrasonic testing
reliability of for stress. The
ultrasonic theoretical
testing model
for stress. of
The
theoretical model of ultrasonic propagation is established by using the semi-analytical method. The
full-effective ultrasonic field information in testing for stress in laser cladding coating can be
Materials 2018, 11, 293 13 of 16

ultrasonic propagation is established by using the semi-analytical method. The full-effective ultrasonic
field information in testing for stress in laser cladding coating can be obtained through numerical
simulation. The stress testing methods of “insulation” and “sensitivity” to tissue effect are selected
by cluster analysis [80] and threshold setting; the corresponding methods are further extended to the
experimental observation stage. Combined with elastic-plastic deformation and nonlinear dynamics
theory, the essential principle of separating or weakening the tissue effect can be clarified.
(3) Building a prediction model of the optimum testing method based on multidimensional
analysis and multi-source information is the key to realizing nondestructive, fast, and reliable
evaluations of stress in laser cladding coating under multi-factor coupling actions. Based on the
results of multi-factor coupling experimentation, the kernel, principal component analysis (KPCA) [81]
is used to extract the multi-dimensional indexes (stress sensitivity, separation organization effect,
detection signal recognition, and probe layout convenience) that affect the testing effect. The digital
representation method of each dimension index is defined, and its function to indicate the feasibility
of the detection method is inversed. The support vector machine method is used to establish the
prediction model of the optimum testing method.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (51375493),
Two Sciences Foundation Raising Project of Beijing Technology and Business University (LKJJ2017-12) and
Project on Science and Technology of Beijing Education Committee.
Author Contributions: Xiao-Ling Yan organized the texts and wrote the Sections of “Ultrasonic Testing Methods
for Stress” and ”Strategies for Solving Related Problems”. Shi-Yun Dong wrote the Sections of “Abstract” and
“Introduction”. Bin-Shi Xu wrote the Section of “Conclusions and Future Outlook”. Yong Cao wrote the Section of
“Basic Theory of Ultrasonic Testing for Stress”. Xiao-Ling Yan, Shi-Yun Dong, Bin-Shi Xu and Yong Cao proposed
the review topic, organized the overall structure, and systematically revised the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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