Aerospace Dimensions

INTRODUCTION
TO FLIGHT

1
MODULE

Civil Air Patrol

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama
 Aerospace Dimensions
INTRODUCTION TO FLIGHT

1
MODULE

WRITTEN BY
DR. BEN MILLSPAUGH

DESIGN
BARB PRIBULICK

CovER PHoTo
WALT BRoWN, ALBUqUERqUE NM

ILLUSTRATIoNS
PEGGY GREENLEE

EDITING
BoB BRooKS
SUSAN MALLETT
DR. JEff MoNTGoMERY
E. J. SMITH

NATIoNAL ACADEMIC STANDARD ALIGNMENT

JUDY SToNE

PUBLISHED BY
NATIoNAL HEADqUARTERS
CIvIL AIR PATRoL
AERoSPACE EDUCATIoN DEPUTY DIRECToRATE
MAXWELL AfB, ALABAMA 36112

THIRD EDITIoN
JUNE 2013
 INTRODUCTION
The Aerospace Dimensions module, Introduction to Flight, is the first of six modules, which
combined, make up Phases I and II of Civil Air Patrol's Aerospace Education Program for cadets.
Each module is meant to stand entirely on its own, so that each can be taught in any order. This en-
ables new cadets coming into the program to study the same module, at the same time, with the other
cadets. This builds a cohesiveness and cooperation among the cadets and encourages active group
participation. This module is also appropriate for middle school students and can be used by teachers
to supplement sTEm-related subjects.
Inquiry-based activities were included to enhance the text and provide concept applicability. The
activities were designed as group activities, but can be done individually, if desired. The activities
for this module are located at the end of each chapter.

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CONTENTS
Introduction .............................................................................................ii

Contents...................................................................................................iii

National Academic Standard Alignment ..............................................iv

Chapter 1. Flight ......................................................................................1

Chapter 2. To Fly By the Lifting Power of Rising Air ........................31

Chapter 3. Balloons - They Create Their Own Thermals ..................38

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National Academic Standard Alignment

iv
Learning Outcomes
1
- Describe the relationship between Bernoulli’s Principle and Newton’s Laws of motion and how
they were used to develop a machine that could fly.
- Describe the coefficient of lift and the parameters involved.
- Identify the parts of an airplane and an airfoil.
- Describe the four forces affecting an airplane in flight.
- Define the three axes, movement around those axes, and the control surfaces that create the motion.

Important Terms
aero – pertaining to air
aerodynamics – relating to the forces of air in motion
aeronautics – the science of flight within the atmosphere
aerospace – a combination of aeronautics and space
air – a mixture of gases that contains approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases
aircraft – any machine that is capable of flying through the air; included are ultralights, airplanes,
gliders, balloons, helicopters, hangliders, and parasails
airplane – an aircraft that is kept aloft by the aerodynamic forces upon its wings and is thrust for-
ward by a means of propulsion
airfoil – a component, such as a wing, that is specifically designed to produce lift, thrust, or direc-
tional stability
airport – a place on either land or water where aircraft can land and take off for flight
altitude – height above sea level or ground level expressed in units
aviation – the art, science, and technology of flight within the atmosphere
aviator – a person who operates an aircraft in flight
camber – the curved part of an airfoil from its leading to trailing edge
chord – a line drawn through an airfoil from its leading to trailing edge
downwash – the downward movement of air behind a wing in flight
drag – a force which slows the forward movement of an aircraft in flight
dynamic – forces in motion
gravity – the natural force pulling everything to Earth
leading edge – the front part of a wing or airfoil
lift – the upward force that opposes gravity and supports the weight of an aircraft
relative wind – the flow of air which moves opposite the flight path of an airplane
thrust – the force which moves an aircraft forward in flight
upwash – the upward movement of air ahead of the wing in flight
vortex – a spinning column of air that is created behind the wingtip as a result of air moving from an
area of high pressure on the bottom to an area of low pressure on top
wind – air in motion

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 The labeled parts of the airplane will be useful in this chapter.

GODS, ANGELS, PRISONERS, AND BALLOONS

Pure mechanical flight involves using some kind of force to lift a machine upward away from
the Earth, thus opposing gravity. A bird is a “living machine” that gets lift by flapping its wings.
Once airborne, a glider is lifted by rising column of air, known as thermals. A balloon is lifted by
a large bubble of warm air. In flight, an airplane is lifted by the dynamic energy forces of the air
upon its wings. But, how did it all begin?
From the beginning of recorded time, there have been myths and legends about flying gods, an-
gels, and other supernatural beings. One of the earliest recorded accounts of manned flight is an
ancient Greek myth that tells of a father and son who were imprisoned on the island of Crete.
They decided that the only way to escape the prison was to fly. secretly, they collected feathers
from sea birds and wax from bees to make wings
for their arms. When the time came, the father,
Daedalus, and his son, Icarus, quietly melted the
wax onto their arms and mounted the bird feathers
to make wings. When the wax was cool, they
started flapping their wings and took off over the
Aegean sea in hopes of reaching freedom.
Daedalus warned his son not to fly too high or
the sun would melt the wax on his arms. Icarus
was having too much fun and disregarded his fa-
ther’s warning, flying closer and closer to the sun.
The heat from the sun eventually melted the wax

2
on the wings of Icarus, and he plunged to his death in the sea.
Around 1299 A.D., it was written that the great explorer,
marco Polo, saw Chinese sailors attached to kites being used
as military observers. This could be considered the first
“manned aircraft.”
Historians agree, however, that the first true powered flight
with humans on board was in a hot air balloon and the event
occurred in France during the Eighteenth Century. Brothers,
Joseph and Etienne montgolfier, created a manned hot air bal-
loon. On November 21, 1783, pilots Pilatre d’Rozier and Fran-
cois d’Arlandes made a historic 25-minute flight over Paris . . .
But, let’s start from the very beginning . . .

Then and Now

Balloons were the first known powered Gliders were the first aircraft that
aircraft with humans on board. actually had directional control.
Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA)

Airplanes evolved around power Jet engines provide high speed and great reliability. Although
and propellers. (EAA) now retired, the Concorde, when in service, could carry passen-
gers across the Atlantic Ocean at twice the speed of sound. (EAA)

3
 Early man studied birds, watched them fly,
and even gave names to their parts … but
never quite figured out how they flew.

NATURE’S FLYING MACHINE

In the book The Fantasy and Mechanics of Flight, the author, Paul Fortin, explains how birds
fly: “There are two phases of bird flight: a ground phase and a lift phase. The ground phase allows
the bird to get started moving forward in order for the wings to provide the necessary lift. To be lifted
by its wings, a bird … must be moving forward fast enough to make air pass over its wings. A bird
can move forward by flapping its wings. Most of the flapping is done by the outer wing The flight
feathers work like the propeller of a plane; i.e., they push downward and backward, thereby driving
the air backward and moving the bird forward. Once the bird’s speed is adequate, lift over the wing
is generated by the same principle as the flow of air over the wing of an airplane.”
A bird’s wing is shaped somewhat like an airplane’s wing. The upper surface is curved more than
the under surface. Basically, the same principles of lift that apply to an airplane apply to a bird; how-
ever, the wings of a bird also act as its propeller. Once again, referring to the Fantasy and Mechanics
of Flight, the author says, “…Slow motion pictures of birds in flight show that the wings move down-
ward rapidly. The wing tips trace a figure eight as
they move though the air. The downward beat of
the wings moves the bird forward as the outer tips
push against the air. Wing feathers are arranged
much like shingles on a roof. They change posi-
tion when the bird is flapping. On the downbeat
of the wing, the feathers are pressed together so
little air can pass through them. On the up stroke
the feathers open.” The down stroke of the feath-
ers provide a strong lifting force and the opening,
upward action provides a smooth energy-saving
return motion. You will soon learn that airplane
flight is based upon two laws and bird flight uti-
lizes these laws as well.
Like an airplane’s wing, there is a pressure dif-
ference between the upper and lower areas of a
bird’s wing. This creates a form of “Bernoullian

4
lift.” Also, when the bird changes its body
angle slightly upward to its flight path,
Newton’s Third Law of motion takes effect
and this is an example of dynamic lift or
“Newtonian lift.” Like airplanes, birds
need to approach and land slowly. A bird
uses it tail feathers and its wing feathers to
steer, brake, and produce drag, as well as
lower speed lift. This greater lift, at a lower
speed, allows the bird to land without get-
ting hurt. The bird is a fascinating, natural flying machine and further study into its mechanism of
flight is encouraged.

TWO GREAT SCIENTISTS NEVER FLEW, BUT . . .

Although they never attempted to fly, Dutch-born Daniel Bernoulli and Englishman, sir Isaac
Newton, are very important in the history of aerospace. The laws and principles they discovered laid
the groundwork for the science of manned flight both in air (aviation) and in space. These laws
helped develope many aeronautic accomplishments using the science of aerodynamics.

Daniel Bernoulli
Not as well known as Isaac Newton, but certainly one who holds an honored place in the history
of aerospace science, is Daniel Bernoulli. His discovery of the relationship between pressure and flu-
ids in motion became the cornerstone of the theory of airfoil lift. He found that a fluid, like air in
motion, has a constant pressure. However, when that fluid is accelerated, the pressure drops. Using
this principle, wings are designed to make air flow go faster over the top. This, in turn, causes the
pressure to drop and the wing moves upward, against gravity.

Bernoulli found that the pressure of a fluid, like air, drops

when it is accelerated. An example of this can be shown
when air passes through a tube that has a restriction.
This tube, known as a venturi tube, causes the air to ac-
celerate when it passes through the middle. The pressure
at the restriction drops. Notice the two gauges — the ve-
locity gauge shows an increase and the pressure gauge
shows a decrease. This is the secret of lift for flight that Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) Courtesy of
eluded mankind for centuries. the Royal Society, London, England

5
SIR ISAAC NEWTON
Isaac Newton received the highest honor when he was “knighted” for his work in science. That is
why we call him “sir” Isaac Newton today. He not only gave
the world a mathematical explanation of gravity, he figured out
how forces and motion are related to matter. He gave the world
three laws that are still very much in use to this day:

1. An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted upon by

an unbalanced, outside force.
2. A force acting upon a body causes it to accelerate in the
direction of the force. Acceleration is directly
proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the
mass of the body being accelerated.
3. For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.

Newton’s Third Law is used to explain how an aircraft is

lifted against the force of gravity. An example of this can be
shown by sticking your hand out the window of a car traveling
at highway speeds. Pointing your fingers forward (toward the di-
rection the car is going) with your hand tilted slightly upward,
your hand should rise. The oncoming wind becomes the action
Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727)
and the upward movement of your hand is the reaction. An air-
Courtesy of the Royal Society,
plane’s wing acts like your hand. When it is angled slightly up- London, England
ward, it, too, receives some of its lift from the oncoming air. The
airflow is the action and the reaction provides lift.

CAP Cessna 172 Skyhawk ready for lift-off – Photo courtesy of CAP member Alex McMahon

6
A NEW LOOK AT LIFT
For years, there has been a
widely accepted explanation on
how a wing creates lift and makes
the airplane take flight. many text-
books, including ground school
manuals for pilot training, ex-
plained the theory of lift like this:
The upper surface of an airplane’s
wing (airfoil) is designed with a
greater curvature or camber on the
topside. This curved line causes
the oncoming air to flow much
faster over the upper surface.
Using Bernoulli’s Law for proof, it
There is an on-going argument concerning the role of Newton’s
was stated: as the airflow speeds
Laws of Motion and the pressure differential theory of Daniel
up, the pressure drops, and it cre- Bernoulli. This illustration, by cartoonist, Robrucha, is presented
ates a lower pressure as it passes here with permission from the artist and KITPLANES Magazine.
over the top of the wing. With a
lower pressure above, there has to be a higher pressure on the underside. subsequently, the wing has
nowhere to go but upward toward the lower pressure.
It was also taught that when the molecules of oncoming air split at the front of wing, they traveled
over and under this airfoil and met at the back (trailing edge) of the wing at exactly the same time.
This is known as the theory of equal transit time. Keep this in mind as it will be discussed later.
Newton’s Third Law was also used in the explanation of how an airplane is lifted against the
force of gravity. A classic example is this: When the airplane’s wing is angled slightly upward, it re-
ceives some of its lift from the oncoming air. This example was explained in the text next to New-
ton’s picture on page 6.
Both Newton’s and Bernoulli’s scientific laws have been used to explain how a wing lifts. These
explanations were basically simple and something any elementary science book could handle. There
was only one thing wrong. An explanation where Bernoulli’s Law creates the lift, based on the shape
of the airfoil, is not quite right. And— any explanation where Newton’s Laws create most of the lift is
also not quite right. The actual process of creating lift is very complicated. In the world of aerody-
namic science, there is an ongoing argument about how lift really occurs!
most every textbook cor-
rectly shows all of the parts
of a wing. These include the
leading edge, upper camber,
lower camber, trailing edge,
and chord. The actual shape
of a wing (airfoil) has a beau-
tiful, graceful form known as
a tear-drop. most airfoil de-
signs are relatively flatter on
the bottom.

7
THE COMPONENTS OF A STANDARD AIRFOIL
Even when the air is calm around the airport,
as an airplane moves forward on takeoff, it cre-
ates a “wind” that goes in the opposite direction.
This air-in-motion is called the relative wind. At
the beginning of this whole lifting process a lot
of power is needed. This is provided by the pro-
peller or a jet engine.
As air flows toward the wing, it splits at the
leading edge and flows backward to join the un-
derside air. most traditional textbooks will say
that the upper and lower air molecules will meet
at the trailing edge at
precisely the same mo-
ment. This is wrong.
This explanation is
based on the theory of
equal transit time. In re-
ality, the air traveling
over the upper surface
of the wing goes much
faster and much farther
than the underside air-
flow. subsequently, the
air flowing over the top
goes beyond and down-
This illustration shows how the upper airstream goes beyond and ward. This is called
downward compared to the airflow below the wing. Pick the two points downwash and creates
just ahead of the leading edge and follow them backward.
a huge amount of dy-
namic force.

THE WING CREATES A HUGE AMOUNT OF

DOWN FORCE ON THE SURROUNDING AIR
When you look at a wing in cross-section, you will see the same tear-drop shape that was men-
tioned before. If you study it for a moment and imagine the air flowing around the wing during
flight, you can readily see that the oncoming molecules of air at one point have to split. The upper
flow has to bend upward and the lower flow bends to pass under the wing as shown in the diagram
above.
something else happens — the air flow tends to hug the wing. Air is a fluid like water and the
flow tends to stick to the wing. As shown, on the following page, take a spoon and hold it under a
flow of water from a faucet. Turn the bottom side of the spoon to the water flow and notice how the
water hugs the spoon and then when it “exits” the tip of the spoon, it bends toward the center. This is
called the Coanda effect.
In the drawing, above, that shows the streamlines of airflow around the wing, look at the mole-
cules that are about to split. Now, follow the upper and lower molecules comparing both with your

8
eyes, and it will soon occur to you that the top
flow is really “outrunning” the lower flow. Be-
cause of the higher speed of the top flow, and sub-
sequent “back and down” action, the air passes the
trailing edge wing and starts downward. This is
where the Coanda effect comes into play. This
“downwash” creates a huge amount of force and
the subsequent reaction is what lifts the aircraft
upward. The dynamic downwash force presses
down so hard on the air, it causes the wing to lift.
This enormous energy can be seen in the picture,
below, of a Cessna Citation flying over a fog
bank. The aircraft has actually pushed hard
against the surrounding air and the reaction of the
air is to lift the airplane. A vortex is visible behind
each wingtip. This demonstrates the Coanda effect. The blue line
is the direction the water would flow normally.
The dynamics of total lift are complicated, and
When the spoon is inserted into the flow, the water
it is almost impossible to make it “elementary “sticks” to the spoon and bends toward the tip.
simple” for this module. If you want to really get
into the math and theoretical science of how lift occurs check out the following Internet sites, which
are recommended for further aerodynamic study: www.grc.nasa.gov.www/k-12/airplane/down
wash.html and http://adamone.rechomepage.com/index4.htm.
An article entitled “A Physical Description of Flight; Revisited”© by David Anderson & scott
Eberhardt can be “googled” on the internet and will give an excellent, in-depth coverage of flight
science.

This picture dramatically shows airplane down-
wash. The Cessna Citation has just flown above
a fog bank shown in the background. The down-
wash from the wing has pushed a trough into
the cloud formation. The swirling flow from
wingtip vortices is also evident. The picture was
taken by Paul Bowens and the image was pro-
vided courtesy of Cessna Airplane Company.
This is the Civil Air Patrol Gippsland GA-8. When you
look at this photograph, imagine what the plane is
doing to the surrounding air. As the air passing over
the wing speeds up, it passes behind the wing and cre-
ates a downwash. This puts a force against ALL of the
air surrounding the wing … and the airplane flies.

9
THE IMPORTANCE OF ANGLE OF ATTACK
When a pilot, or aviator, pulls
back on the control stick, or yoke,
the nose goes upward. In aeronauti-
cal terminology, it goes like this:
when the pilot pulls back on the
stick, the elevator goes upward and
this causes the airplane to rotate
around the lateral axis (the one that
goes through the airplane wingtip to
wingtip). The nose pitches upward
and this subsequently causes the
wing to also rotate around the lateral
axis. The pilot of this Canadair CRJ-700 has increased the angle of
attack prior to takeoff. Angle of attack is also increased just
It is easy to see that this upward
before landing to slow the aircraft and provide an additional
movement of the leading edge causes amount of control at low speed. Image courtesy of Adam Wright,
the airflow coming toward the wing First Officer, Atlantic Southeast Airlines.
to make a much more dramatic “flow
change.” This also increases the dy-
namic forces against the underside of
the wing. As a result of the higher
“angle,” or “angle of attack,” a
greater downwash is created as the
flow exits the back of the wing.
Thus, it can be stated that an increase
in the angle of attack causes a sub-
stantial increase in the amount of lift
created.
This increase in angle of attack
explains how an airplane can fly up-
side down. Although the curvature of
the wing is greatest (now) on the bot-
tom of the wing, an increase in the The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II has the ability to take off
angle of attack still creates the down- and land vertically (STOV/L), or use an increase in the angle of at-
tack in a conventional takeoff (CTOL). Image by Lockheed Martin.
wash and lift is maintained.
In everyday flying, angle of attack
is changed many times during the course of a flight. It all begins
at takeoff when a pilot has reached enough speed and then pulls
back on the stick (or yoke). This causes the nose to pitch upward.
This is shown in the images of the Canadair CRJ – 700 pictured.
The Lockheed martin F-35 Lightning II Joint strike Fighter
(JsF) is a transformational weapon system that provides advanced
survivability and lethality to a fighter-weapons platform.
This is the pilot’s helmet for a Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II. An
Australian Air Force pilot “models” this version. This helmet
is needed because the JSF does not have a traditional heads-up
display. Instead, the computerized symbology is displayed
directly onto the pilot’s visors, providing the pilot with cues
for flying, navigating, and fighting with the aircraft.

10
THE FOUR FORCES ACTING UPON AN AIRPLANE IN FLIGHT
There are four forces acting upon an airplane in flight. They are lift, gravity, thrust, and drag.
Each of these forces has an opposing force. The word “oppose” means to work against. Therefore,
lift opposes gravity and drag opposes thrust. We will expand on these terms for better understanding.

GraviTy
(WeiGhT)
Lift = Gravity (Weight)
Thrust = Drag
Look at the diagram of the four forces, then imagine you can see them working on the Vixen airplane. (EAA)

The Two Natural Forces

• Drag - The best way to understand drag is to imagine walking waist deep in a swimming pool.
Now imagine what it’s like to walk faster. It is difficult because of the drag of the water on your
body. A similar resistance occurs when riding a bicycle against a strong head wind. Like water,
air creates drag. Drag is a natural force that is common throughout all of nature, and is espe-
cially evident in flight.
• Gravity - There is a natural force which pulls everything toward the center of the Earth. This is
the force of gravity, and, on Earth, we speak of that force as being one “G.”

The Two Artificial Forces

• Thrust - This is a force that pulls or pushes an airplane forward through the air, and it opposes
drag. In some airplanes, thrust is provided by a propeller; in others, it is provided by a jet en-
gine. This force is artificial because it takes a mechanical device, like an engine and propeller, to
generate it.
• Lift - This, also, is an artificial force because it requires a mechanical device to create the pres-
sure changes discussed in Bernoulli’s Law. Pressure differential creates lift. To put this into
practical terms, when an airplane is ready for takeoff, the pilot adds power and the machine
moves forward. The relative wind starts to flow under and over the wings. The wings ( a me-
chanical device) are being forced to move through air (a fluid).

11
THE THREE AXES
Imagine that you are an aeronautical engi-
neer and one of your jobs is to suspend an air-
plane from a cable so that it will hang
perfectly level in all directions. For the sake of
illustration, let’s say that you are going to do
this experiment in a large building area, like a
hangar or a gymnasium. somewhere up high,
you would hook the cable to one of the ceiling
supports. The other end would be hooked to
the airplane at precisely the right point where
it would hang level. This cable line would be
known as its vertical axis (the red line).
Now, visualize a line that goes from The Three Axes of an Airplane
wingtip to wingtip and passes through the
center where the cable suspends the airplane. This side to side line is called the lateral axis (the pur-
ple line). Imagine yet another line that passes through the nose and ends at the tail. This line also
passes through the cable that is suspending the airplane. This nose to tail line is known as the longi-
tudinal axis (the green line).
If you hooked your cable at the point where all three of these “axes” come together, that point is
called the center of gravity (denoted by gold arrow). Refer to these axes, as we will continue to dis-
cuss them. (see associated Activity One at the end of the chapter.)

Airplanes Can Only Move In Three Directions

In flight, an airplane can only move in three
directions; i.e., nose right/nose left, roll
right/roll, and left nose up/nose down. An ex-
ample: if you walked out to the end of the
wing of this suspended airplane and pushed up
or pulled down on its wingtip, it would rotate
around the longitudinal axis. Rotation around
this axis is called roll. (see associated diagram
on page 14.) If you went back to the tail and
moved it up and down, the airplane would ro-
tate around its lateral axis, as shown in the il-
lustration to the right. This motion is called
pitch. If you moved the tail from side to side,
this would be a rotation around the vertical Rotation around the lateral axis is called pitch and
axis and is called yaw. (see associated diagram the elevator causes this motion. When the
on next page.) Thus, flight is said to be three elevator moves up, the nose pitches up. When
dimensional. so, how does a pilot get the air- the elevator moves down, the nose pitches down.

plane to move in these three dimensions? It’s

done by manipulating the moving parts on the plane with the inside control stick (yoke) and the rud-
der pedals. By using the dynamic forces of the air as they rush over the control surfaces of the air-
plane, the airplane flies. (Refer to labeled airplane parts on page 2, and the descriptions of these parts,
as follow on the next page.)

12
The Elevator Is Hinged To The
Horizontal Stabilizer
The horizontal stabilizer is fixed and
doesn’t move. It gives the airplane stability.
The elevator is attached to the horizontal sta-
bilizer and moves up and down. movement of
the elevator pitches the nose up or down in a
rotation around the lateral axis.
Elevator assembly

The Stabilator
On some aircraft, the horizontal stabilizer
and the elevator are one. Engineers call this a
“stabilator,” and it works by changing the
angle of attack. The stabilator is a very effec-
tive method of controlling pitch. When the
pilot pulls back on the control yoke (or stick),
the stabilator’s leading edge goes down. This
creates a “negative” angle of attack and the
low pressure increases on the bottom. When Stabilator assembly
the stabilator is moved, it causes a rotation
around the lateral axis and the nose is pitched
up or down.

Nose Right, Nose Left

When the pilot wants the nose to go left or
right, he/she has to move the rudder pedals
located on the floor of the cockpit. When the
right rudder pedal is pushed forward, this
moves the rudder to the right. The dynamic
force of the air causes the tail of the airplane Vertical stabilizer and rudder assembly
to move left and the nose to go to the right.
This movement is around the vertical axis.
The nose right, nose left motion is called yaw.

Vertical Axis

Rudder pedals used to created vertical stabilizer

movement in the rudders create yaw rotation.

13
Wingtip Up, Wingtip Down (to roll)
If a pilot wants the wings to
move up or down, he/she rotates
the control yoke to the right or left.
Out on the ends of the wings are
located control “surfaces” called
ailerons. When one aileron moves
downward, the other one, on the
opposite wing, moves upward and
vice versa. The airplane then ro-
tates around the longitudinal axis.
This movement around the longitu-
dinal axis is known as roll. (to roll)

Flaps And What Are They Used For

When a control surface is moved, especially
on a wing, some people will say that the pilot is
“moving the flaps.” In fact, many uninformed
people think that any moveable control surface
on an airplane is called a “flap.” so what are the
real flaps and what do they do?
In the photograph of the Fowler Flaps, to the
right, notice that the trailing edge of the wing is
down. It looks somewhat like the whole back-
side of the wing has dropped. This is somewhat
The Flaps on a Cessna Skyhawk
true — the inboard portion of this airplane's wing
did go down. From an aerodynamic point of view,
study the photograph and visualize the upper camber
of the wing, starting at the leading edge and going all
the way back to the trailing edge. With the flaps down,
the curvature of the upper camber is dramatically in-
creased and so is the wing area. The flaps shown on
this Cessna are known as Fowler Flaps.
When the flaps are down, it causes an increase in
Right aileron and flap of a Cessna
both the upper camber and wing area. This will sub-
stantially increase lift. so there you have the answer.
The flaps actually increase lift so that an airplane can fly slower and still maintain flight. Flaps are
especially useful in landing, where it is desirable to touch the ground at a minimum speed. Flaps are
also used during takeoff and this allows the pilot to decrease takeoff distance. And, finally, flaps in-
crease drag. They act like big "doors" that open into the airstream. During one of your orientation
flights, ask the pilot to demonstrate the use of flaps. Note the airspeed when the flaps come down.
You will also feel a change in the airplane and hear the air rumble around the flaps. The airplane will
rise (increase lift) and the wind will buffet (drag) the flaps. They are very effective in what they do.
(see associated Activity Two at the end of the chapter.)

14
THE AERODYNAMICS OF A PROPELLER
When you examine a propeller closely, you soon discover that it is
shaped like a wing on each side of the center, or hub. The reason for this air-
foil shape is obvious, it is a wing. It is a wing designed to "lift" forward cre-
ating a force called thrust.
As the propeller rotates, its leading edge moves through the air and this
motion creates a relative wind. As this rotational relative wind moves
around the curved surface of the propeller blade, a low pressure is created.
This low pressure is a "forward lift," and given enough power, the entire air-
plane will move forward into this area of lower pressure.
The numbers on the propeller
photograph to the right are signifi-
cant points in the aerodynamics of a
propeller. (1) This is the hub. Bolts
go through this hub and fasten the
propeller to the engine. (2) Notice
that this part of the blade is thick
and narrow. Note also that the angle,
called the angle of incidence, is
quite high. If you can imagine this
propeller going round and round at a
certain speed, other than the hub,
this point will be the slowest. Low Starting at the hub, you can see how
the blade changes in angle, chord, and
pressure, or lift, is created by a high
area on this restored Piper Cub. Just
angle of incidence and greatly like a wing, the rotating propeller
curved camber. (3) The blade has a harnesses the energy of the air and
The propeller blade
longer chord and greater area. The converts it to thrust.
angle of incidence has slightly de-
creased and, at this point, the speed
is much greater. (4) The angle of in-
cidence is considerably less than
near the hub. The chord is longer
and the speed is higher. (5) Out at
the tip, the speed is tremendous so
there is a smaller chord, smaller
angle of incidence, and a smaller
area. If you think in terms of the
four methods of increasing lift, the
shape of the propeller begins to Once the engineers figured out the right propeller to harness the
make sense. power of its engine, this WWII P-47M Thunderbolt became one of
the fastest fighters in the war.
In the history of one of America’s
most important World War II air-
craft, the P-47 Thunderbolt, it tells how engineers at Republic Aircraft had a difficult time getting the
right propeller for the huge Pratt & Whitney R2800 engine. Eventually they found the right combi-
nation and the “m” version of this aircraft reached almost 500 miles per hour.

15
UAV – UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES
They look a bit strange,
and it becomes immedi-
ately apparent that no one
is at the controls when a
UAV passes by on takeoff.
These “UAVs,” stand for
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles.
In a combat zone, if the
enemy spots one, it is
probably already too late
to react. Pilots sitting in a
control center 7,000 miles
away know exactly who
the enemy is and where
they are. The pilot control-
ling the UAV only has to Two Predators are being launched from
acquire the target and de- Creech Air Force Base near Indian Springs, Nevada

stroy it. These incredible

machines have just come
into a position of high re-
gard by the U.s. military
and they are feared by our
enemies.
One of the centers for
UAV operation and control
is at Creech Air Force Base
in Indian springs, Nevada.
For several years, the
UAVs were used mostly MQ-9, Reaper UAV
for reconnaissance (a pre-
liminary, or exploratory survey of an area to collect information), but as conflicts escalated, they
have taken on a combat role. Of these predators, one version is known as the Reaper mQ-9, and is
one of the most effective combat aircraft ever to go to war. CAP uses the “surrogate predator” for in-
creasingly important missions for non-combat reconnaissance missions. (CAP does not do surveil-
lance. Local authorites do surveillance, as described on the next page.)
In 2006, the UsAF announced that it had a UAV capable of hunting and destroying enemy activ-
ity. It was a modification of an earler UAV series and was designed to carry as many as 14 Hellfire
anti-tank missiles. The mQ-9 UAV can carry bombs and precision-guided missiles to the battle zone.
The aircraft has a ceiling of 50,000 feet and a cruise speed of 260 knots. One of the most notable fea-
tures is its ability to “loiter” in the target area for as much as 14 hours.
In order to give the reader a better understanding of the UAV and its role in the U.s. Air Force
inventory, the following will focus on the role of the mQ-9 as it currently exists.

16
 The mQ-9 is a vari-
ant of the original UAV
used by the Air Force
mQ-9 Predator. It is
manufactured by the
General Atomics Aero-
nautical systems and is
used as a high-altitude,
long range, long en-
durance combat air-
craft. The primary
mission is that of sur- With smoke from Lake Arrowhead, CA, fires in the background,
veillance (a close the NASA Ikhana UAV heads out on a wildfire imaging mission.
watch, or supervision,
of an area after reconnaissance, or “recognition” of something in the area).
The mQ-9 has a 950 horsepower (hp) turbopropeller engine. There are several terms used in this
new aerospace technology and they include: UAV - Unmanned Aerial Vehicle; UAs - Unmanned
Aerial system; and RPV - Remotely Piloted Vehicle. All of these terms are used in basically the
same context.
Although the mQ-9 can fly on pre-programmed flight plans by itself, it is constantly controlled by
flight crews located at Air Force installations known as GCs, or Ground Control stations. By the end
of 2009, the U.s. Air Force had a total of 195 Predators and 28 Reapers in its inventory.
NAsA has also been using a UAV in its continuing research efforts. One example, the Ikhana, has
been extensively used in combating wild fires in California. This demonstrated that UAV’s are ex-
tremely valuable in the private sector, as well as in military service. (see associated Activity Three at
the end of the chapter.)

THE BIG BIRD –

GLOBAL HAWK
Another UAV that has been
used in the combat arena is
the Global Hawk. The image
shown is a Grumman RQ-4 in
route to record intelligence,
surveillance, and reconnais-
sance data. Because of its
large coverage area, the re-
motely-piloted aircraft has be-
come a useful tool for
recording data and sending it
to warfighters on the ground.
The Global Hawk is built A ground control station crew performs post takeoff checks after
by Northrop Grumman and is launching an earlier Predator MQ-1 from Ballad Air Base in Iraq.
primarily used by the UsAF USAF image by Master Sergeant Steve Horton

17
as a surveillance aircraft. It is equipped with synthetic Aperture Radar that penetrates heavy weather,
including sand storms. It has the ability to survey over 40,000 square miles in a day. specifications
include:

• Empty weight is 9,200 lbs

• Payload is 1,900 lbs for the RQ-4 and 3,000 lbs for the RQ-4B
• maximum gross take-off weight is 25,600 lbs (the RQ-4B version weighs 32,250 lbs)
• Engine is a Rolls Royce North American AE3007H turbofan
• Loiter on station is 24 hours
• Loiter velocity is 343 knots TAs
• maximum altitude is 65,000 ft
• Wingspan is 116.2 ft (RQ-4B - 130.9 ft)
• Length is 44.4 ft (RQ-4B - 47.6 ft)
• Height is 15.2 ft
• Length is 44.4 ft
• Wing area is 540 ft²
• Wing aspect ratio is 25:1

(see associated Activities Four, Five, and six at the end of the chapter.)

The deadly-looking Global Hawk is on an Air Force

mission somewhere in the world. USAF photo.

18
Activity One -
The Soda Straw Three Axis Demonstrator
1
Purpose: This activity will demonstrate how the three axes of flight in an airplane works.

Materials: 3 soda straws and a hand-held, single-hole, paper punch

Procedures:
1. Punch 2 holes in the center of one of the straws. These holes should be near the center and per-
pendicular to each other.
2. Pull 1 soda straw through 1 of the holes. You now have two axes.
3. Insert the third soda straw into the remaining hole. What you now have is a three axis demon-
strator. Refer to top illustration on page 2, which displays labeled airplane parts. Now, imagine
that your three axis demonstrator is an “airplane.” If you hold one straw on each end, that’s
your “wings.” If you rotate the straw, you are pitching the demonstrator around the lateral axis.
If you grab the vertical straw and rotate it, you are “yawing” the demonstrator to the left and
right. And finally, if you grab the “nose” and “tail” ends of the straw, and rotate it, you are
“rolling” the demonstrator, such as tilting from side to side.
(Note: You can also attach your axis demonstrator to a balsa, paper, or other model airplane for
the procedures above.)

Summary: The three axes of flight in an airplane pass through the airplane’s center of gravity, which
is that point located at the center of the airplane’s total weight. The longitudinal axis (green straw in
diagram) extends lengthwise through the fuselage from the nose to the tail. movement of the air-
plane around the longitudinal axis is known as roll and is controlled by movement of the ailerons.
The lateral axis (blue straw in diagram) extends crosswise from wingtip to wing tip. movement of
the airplane around the lateral axis is known as pitch and is controlled by movement of the elevators.
The vertical axis (red straw in diagram) passes vertically through the center of gravity. movement of
the airplane around the vertical axis is yaw and is controlled by movement of the rudder.

vertical axis

lateral
longitudinal axis
axis

The three-axis soda straw demonstrator was developed by Dee Ann Mooney,
Civil Air Patrol member and math teacher at Big Sky High School, Missoula, Montana.

19
Activity Two -
Folding, Flying, and Controlling the Flight of a Paper Airplane

Purpose: This activity teaches, 1. First, a sheet of standard

by modeling, about a delta wing printer paper is folded in half,
configuration airplane and the "hot dog style." Then it is folded
control surfaces of this paper back, as shown. The two upper
edges fold to the center.
airplane by using experimenta-
tion and the inquiry method.

Materials: a sheet of standard

printer paper and scissors 2. A portion of the outer edge is
folded to the center. Make sure
Procedures: Follow the in- the both sides are equally folded.
structions as outlined in the
diagrams

3. The wings are folded outward

and the two halves are held to-
gether either by a staple or tape.

4. Make small cuts, as shown, to manipulate the

“control surfaces” which will control direction of flight.

Small cuts on solid lines for elevons

(combination of elevators and ailerons)

Small cut for rudder

Fold on dashed lines to
make control surfaces

5. Fly your airplane to create the three directions of flight: nose up/nose down, nose right/nose
left, roll right/roll left. How do you accomplish this? Refer to the directions in chapter 1, found
on pages 12-14, to adjust movable control surfaces. Also, refer to further directions on pages
21-22. The questions at the end are suggestions on how to expand this activity.

Summary: The control surfaces of this paper airplane are the elevons (a combination of a conven-
tional elevator and ailerons) and the rudder (which causes the airplane to yaw left or right). When the
maneuvers are correctly performed, the conclusion can be reached that the paper airplane is similar
to a real airplane.

20
Components of a Paper Airplane
The paper airplane has components just like a real one. The wings of our activity model have a
“delta” shape; i.e., they come to a point at the nose like an arrowhead. At the back of the delta wing
you were asked to make two cuts and to become control surfaces known as “elevons.” This is a
combination of conventional elevators and ailerons. since the elevator makes the airplane's nose go
up and down, both of the paper airplane's elevons in the up position will make the nose pitch up
when you throw it. If one elevon is down and the other is up, the actions of the ailerons are enacted
and the aircraft will spiral through the air when thrown. This motion is called roll.

Don't throw a sharp-nosed The paper airplane has a delta wing configuration.
paper airplane at anyone The famous Concorde had the same design.
(might want to fold and tap
the point inward for safety).

The Three Axes of a Paper Airplane

Now, let's mark the paper airplane to match a real one. A line drawn from nose to tail going
through the center is called the longitudinal axis. A line drawn from side to side passing through the
center is called the lateral axis. A line drawn down through the center from top to bottom is called
the vertical axis. All of these lines (axes) will pass through the exact center of the paper airplane;
this point is called the center of gravity. To find the center of gravity, get a piece of thread, some
household tape, and see if you can make it hang perfectly level in all directions.

21
Making It Roll
The first paper airplane flight maneuver is an easy one.
simply put one elevon up and the other elevon down.
Throw the paper airplane and it should spiral through the
air rolling several times.

Making It Pitch
You can make the nose of the paper airplane pitch up
or down by adjusting the elevons. If you put both elevons
up to a 40 degree angle, it should fly forward, pitching
upward, and then stall. Once it stalls, the nose will pitch
downward and it will head for the floor. You can experi-
ment with various elevon settings so that the aircraft will
stall several times before hitting the floor. These multiple
stalls are called secondary stalls.
One of the more difficult maneuvers is to make the
paper airplane land gently. Try this experiment with various elevon settings. Put the elevons up
maybe 10 degrees and give it a toss. It may glide forward or roll slightly. If this happens, adjust each
elevon until it flies straight. Then fold the elevons a few more degrees and, eventually, your paper
airplane should glide in for a very smooth landing.
make a “runway” on the floor using masking tape or a piece of cardboard. This runway should
be about 4 feet long and 1 foot wide. stand about 20 feet from one end of the runway and try to
“land” your paper airplane on the surface. If you find this too easy, back away another 20 feet and
give it a try.

Be A Paper Airplane Test Engineer With These Suggested Activities

1 What is the length of your paper airplane in inches and centimeters?
2. What is its exact wingspan?
3. Can you determine the chord of a delta wing?
4. How much does your plane weigh in milligrams, grams, kilograms, and ounces?
5. Where is the exact center of gravity?
6. measure the greatest distance it will fly in meters and feet.
7. At what carefully measured point in its flight does it stall?
8. Can you make it fly in a long, wide turn?
9. In competition with another person, “Calling Your shot” is a fun activity.
a. Call for a spot landing.
b. Call a pitch and make the aircraft descend into a trash can.
c. Call a roll and make it fly through a hoop.
d. Call a stall to a spin.
10. Develop a computer program for the flight test of a paper airplane.

22
Activity Three -
MQ-1 Predator

Purpose: Build a Predator and observe how it flies.

Materials: foam board or meat trays, hot glue gun, spray glue, snap knife, pennies, and copy of
Predator cut outs (template) on the next page

Procedures:
1. Attach the page of cut outs with spray glue to the foam board or meat tray.
2. Cut out the designs.
3. Use the red-dashed lines that indicate where to put glue or hot glue used to bond together the
pieces of the aircraft.
4. Fly your airplane.
5. Experiment with different nose weights until the plane flies, as desired.

Notes: Foam works very well for making flying models. It is strong, very light weight, and inexpen-
sive. styrofoam meat trays from the grocer work well, and are free! The following recommendations
work well for a group activity:
• It is recommended that you use a low-tack spray glue, such as 3m spray mount™ to bond the
template to the foam board or styrofoam meat tray.
• Use a hobby knife or a “snap knife” to cut out your foam pieces. (Adult supervision needed.)
• Hot glue guns have an adhesive that works very well on foam board for attachment of wings and
stabiliser elevators.
• There is also foam “glue” that is available in craft stores like Hobby Lobby™ and some hobby
shops. This works well, but takes longer to dry. You might ask for “Helmar” foam glue if you
need a brand name. (It also works well on cardstock, for other activites.)
• It is recommended that you build one complete side of the model first. Get it perfect and then at-
tach the opposite pieces for alignment.
• Foam flyers also need nose weight to better stabilize or balance the plane for better control.
Using hot glue, you can experiment with pennies, dimes, or gem clips until the desired stabiliza-
tion point is achieved.

Summary: The General Atomics Aeronautical systems mQ-1 Predator is an unmanned aerial ve-
hicle (UAV) which the United states Air Force (UsAF) describes as a mALE (medium-altitude,
long-endurance) UAV system. more information was discussed on page 17 to describe its purpose
in use. Learning to fly this model, while experimenting with nose weights and amount and direction
of thrust use to fly it, can aid in better understanding of the complexities of maintaining proper bal-
ance to achieve and maintain flight.

23
MQ-1 Predator Template
(Manufactored by General
Atomics Aeronautical Systems)

MQ-1 Predator

24
Activity Four -
Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

Purpose: Build a Global Hawk and observe how it flies.

Materials: foam board or meat trays, hot glue gun, spray glue, snap knife, pennies, and copy of the
Global Hawk cut outs on the next page

Procedures:
1. Use spray glue to attach the cut outs (templates) on your foam board or meat tray.
2. Cut out the designs.
3. Use the red-dashed lines that indicate where to put glue or hot glue used to bond together the
pieces of the aircraft.
4. Fly your airplane.
5. Experiment with different nose weights until the plane flies, as desired.

Notes: Foam works very well for making flying models. It is strong, very light weight, and inexpen-
sive. styrofoam meat trays from the grocer work well, and are free! The following recommendations
work well for a group activity:
• It is recommended that you use a low-tack spray glue, such as 3m spray mount™ to bond the
template to the foam board or styrofoam meat tray.
• Use a hobby knife or a “snap knife” to cut out your foam pieces. (Adult supervision needed.)
• Hot glue guns have an adhesive that works very well on foam board for attachment of wings and
stabiliser elevators.
• There is also foam “glue” that is available in craft stores like Hobby Lobby™ and some hobby
shops. This works well, but takes longer to dry. You might ask for “Helmar” foam glue if you
need a brand name. (It also works well on cardstock, for other activites.)
• It is recommended that you build one complete side of the model first. Get it perfect and then at-
tach the opposite pieces for alignment.
• Foam flyers also need nose weight to better stabilize or balance the plane for better control.
Using hot glue, you can experiment with pennies, dimes, or gem clips until the desired stabiliza-
tion point is achieved.

Summary: The Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk, as

discussed on page 17, is a remotely-piloted aircraft used by
the United states Air Force and Navy as a surveillance air-
craft. Learning to fly this model, while experimenting with
nose weights and amount and direction of thrust use to fly it,
can aid in better understanding of the complexities of main-
taining proper balance to achieve and maintain flight.

25
Northrop
Grumman
RQ-4
Global
Hawk
Template
RQ-4 Global Hawk

26
Activity Five -
The Race to the Top!
Purpose: This activity is a contest between the flying models built in activities 3 and 4, the Global Hawk
and the Predator, to learn about different aircraft ad how their designs and performance are different.
Materials: pre-prepared airplane models for contest
Procedure:
1. This is a contest using the pre-built Global Hawk and Predator foam models.
2. Divide the participants into two groups; one group using the Global Hawk model, and the other
group using the Predator model.
3. Test Flight Phase- Each participant gets 5 minutes to “test and tweak” their foam models. This
can be done in any open area, such as a gym or outdoors. Weights can be added and/or adjusted,
as needed, to prepare for the contest.
4. Contest Phase- Each participant flies his/her foam model to determine and record the following
on the Contest Form on the bottom of this page:
a. Longest distance
b. spot landing accuracy
c. How much of a circle made when flying with angular degrees
d. How to fix the elevators so it causes the nose to go up and stall the aircraft
5. To determine team winner of contest, compare 2 categories: distance (part a above) and sum total
of parts b, c, and d above. If one team is highest in both categories, there is a clear team winner.
If each team wins in one category, winners could be declared for each category. Or, there could
be a “fly off” between the top distance scorer on each team with the longest distance winner
“breaking the tie.”
Summary: In this activity the contest provided ways to test the construction of the models from Ac-
tivities 3 and 4. This activity will also promote the inquiry method to solve problems based on desired
results and the variables that can cause such results.

Contest Form for: ___________________________________ Company President:__________________________

Company Members:________________________________________________________________________________

Participant’s Type of Distance Accuracy Degrees of a How was Stall Total Points
Name Aircraft Circle Flown Accomplished

Record Averages
in this Row
Find the average for each category of competition except Stall column and record on the last row.
27
Activity Six -
Build the SR-71 Blackbird
Purpose: This activity teaches how to build a model of the sR-71 Blackbird, fly it as a foam glider,
and demonstrate an understanding of the words fuselage (the body of the plane) and nacelle (the en-
closed portion covering the engine outside the fuselage).

Materials: piece of 1¾” outside diameter foam pipe tubing cut to a length of 14 inches (found at
local hardware or super center stores), two pieces of foam tubing cut to 4 inches, a foam meat tray, a
#64 rubber band, a nylon cable tie, a metal washer, tape, spray-on glue, hot glue gun, Exacto knife or
other cutting device (adult supervision needed), and copy of sR-71 Blackbird template found on
page 29

Procedure:
1. Cut out paper cones on template sheet and hold for later use.
2. Attach the remaining template to the meat tray with spray-on glue.
3. Cut out the wings and fins templates.
4. Hot glue the wings and fins to the long foam tubing (fuselage) and the 2 shorter foam tube
pieces (nacelles), as shown in the illustration on page 30. (* It works best to use hot glue on the
wings and fins, as opposed to on the foam tubing, as the hot glue melts the foam tubing.)
5. Roll the paper cones pieces into a cone shape that will fit inside the nacelles and tape shut. Hot
glue these to the nacelle, as shown in the illustration on page 30.
6. Tie the rubber band in and through the hole of the washer to “lock” in place.
7. Insert the washer/rubber band into the top of the fuselage, letting about an inch of the rubber
band hang out the top (which will become the nose section of the aircraft).
8. Pull a cable tie around the nose and cinch it down as tight as possible. Clip the remaining tail
of the cable tie. Put a drop of hot glue on the sharp cut edge of the cable tie to avoid being cut
by the sharp edge.
9. To launch, put one thumb in the tail pipe and stretch the rubber band with the other hand and
let it fly!

Summary: This chapter discussed reconnaissance aircraft, albeit unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)
used for surveillance and reconnaissance. Thus, it was logical to add another fun aircraft to make
and fly, the sR-71 Blackbird, which was unofficially named the “Blackbird.” The Blackbird was de-
veloped as a long-range strategic reconnaissance aircraft capable of flying at speeds over mach 3.2
and 85,000 feet. The first sR-71 to enter service was delivered in 1966 and was retired in 1990.
However, the UsAF still kept a few sR-71s in operation up until 1998, after a few were brought
back to service in 1995. NAsA Drysden’s Center at Edwards AFB, CA flew the sR-71 from 1991
until the program was cancelled in 2001. On 15 December 2003, sR-71 #972 went on display at the
steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia.

since 1976, the Blackbird has held the world record for the fastest air-breathing manned aircraft.
Thus, it is a unique and noteworthy aircraft to continue to share with young people who it is hoped
will take part in the design of future aircraft that can surpass the flying feats of the sR-71. Blackbird.

28
 Sr-71 a Blackbird Template
The red dashed lines show where to put the hot glue used to bond the tray foam to the black insu-
lation tubing used to make the fuselage.

Note:
This is a paper
cone that is to
be mounted in
the nacelle.
Cut both of these
out before the tem-
plate page is glued
to the meat tray.

29
 Sr-71 Blackbird assembly Diagram

The wing is glued to the

The outer wing fuselage at 90 O to the seam.
piece is glued
to the foam
nacelle.

Cones are glued

to the front of
the nacelle.

Outer Wing
Piece

The foam nacelle

Drinking is glued to the
Cup Cone (or cone outer edge of the
made from paper) wing.

Cable Tie

Cinch as tight as possible C B. Millspaugh

Rubber Band

30
Learning Outcomes
- Describe how gliders use the environment
2
to obtain altitude.
- Describe why gliders look different than
powered airplanes.
- Discuss how gliders can achieve great
distances without power.

EAA Photograph

Important Terms
altitude – the height or distance above a reference plane (The most common planes of reference
used in aviation are heights above sea level and ground level. If it’s above average sea level, it’s
referred to “msL,” or mean sea Level, and if it’s above ground level, it’s referred to as “AGL.”)
convection – fluid motion between regions of unequal heating
density – mass in a given volume (example: 12 eggs in a basket)
glide ratio – a mathematical relationship between the distance an aircraft will glide forward to the
altitude loss (If an aircraft has a glide ratio of twenty to one, and it is one mile above the Earth, it
should glide 20 miles before landing.)
lapse rate – the average rate at which temperature decreases with an increase in altitude (The aver-
age lapse rate is 3 1/2°F per 1000 feet increase in altitude.)
soaring – the art of staying aloft by exploiting the energy of the atmosphere
stability – the atmosphere's resistance to vertical motion
thermal – a column of air that moves upwards
tow plane – usually a single-engined airplane that will pull a glider from the ground to an altitude
where it can be released
wave – a waving action with strong up and down motions started as air moves across mountain
ranges (sailplane pilots can use the motion of this wave to gain altitude.)

31
RISING AIR CAN MAKE THINGS FLY
Rising air can have enough energy to provide lift for an aircraft. That's what soaring flight is all
about. Normally, we think of air moving parallel to the Earth and, of course, we call this "wind."
But, there are other factors involved, and one of the most important is the influence that the sun has
upon our environment. From 93,000,000 miles away, the sun provides energy that causes our atmos-
phere to move both horizontally and vertically. The vertical motion provides lifting power for
sailplanes.
When the surface of the Earth gets warmed by the sun, the surrounding atmosphere is heated and
this causes the air to rise. This vertical motion happens because of a change in the density of the air.
As the air becomes less dense, it tends to get lighter and this lighter air wants to rise upward until it
cools. This cooling with an increase in altitude is called the lapse rate. Normally, the temperature
will drop at a rate of 3 1/2° F for every 1000 feet of altitude gained. The Celsius equivalent of this is
2° C per 1000 feet of altitude.
When warm air rises into the colder air at higher altitudes, it cools and then stops rising. After a
period of "hanging around," the air begins to sink back toward the Earth. This up and down move-
ment results in a circulation known as convection. sometimes the atmosphere strongly resists this
convective circulation and is said to be stable.
Two other things happen to air when it is heated; it expands and the pressure drops. Here is an ex-
ample: In early morning, the air is cool due to low overnight temperatures. The molecules are close
together and the atmosphere is more dense when it is cold. When the sun comes up, it warms the
Earth, and this warms the surrounding atmosphere. The molecules start bouncing around at a higher
rate due to heat energy. Because they are bouncing around faster and faster, they spread out. This
means any given parcel of warm air will be lighter than an equal parcel of cold air. As a result of a
decrease in density and a lighter weight, the warm air rises. This upward flow has energy in it and
given enough power, it can lift a flying machine!

During daylight hours, the Sun

heats the Earth's surface. Some
areas absorb this energy while
others tend to reflect it back into
the atmosphere. This reflected
energy heats the surrounding
atmosphere and causes rising
columns, or even bubbles of air,
called thermals. It's these thermals
that provide lift for sailplanes.

32
GLIDERS AND SAILPLANES - Aircraft Designed to Ride the Rising Air
When the air moves upward, this thermal can provide enough lift and glide ratio to keep a com-
petition sailplane up for hours. By technical definition, a glider is an aircraft that is towed to a certain
altitude and then it glides back to Earth due to the pull of gravity. A sailplane, on the other hand, ac-
tually soars on the energy of the environment. The pilot of a sailplane uses every method possible to
find lift and then to ride the wave to a greater height. (more information about the air environment
glider and sailplane pilots use to their advantage for flight is found in module 3.)
During World War II, the Allies used gliders to haul soldiers into battle. They were towed aloft by
transport airplanes and then released over designated drop zones. Once released from the tow plane,
the skilled glider pilots would try to get the gliders safely back on the ground so the troops could be
in a better combat position. In later wars, the glider was replaced by troop-carrying helicopters and
this proved far more effective in the combat environment.

The United States Air Force Academy Sailplane

It is the dream of many
CAP cadets to someday enter
the United states Air Force
Academy in Colorado
springs, Colorado. One of the
outstanding programs at the
Academy is their sailplane
training and many cadets get
the opportunity to take flight
training in a schweizer TG-4A
sailplane. After being towed to altitude by a powered aircraft, modern sailplanes
The sailplane has dual flight are released. The sailplane pilot searches for rising thermals in the at-
controls. The flight control sur- mosphere and these provide lift. (Illustration by Dekker Zimmerman.)
faces are actuated by control
sticks and rudder pedals
through a push rod and cable
system. Aileron and elevator
control is accomplished
through push rods connected to
both control sticks. Rudder
control is accomplished
through cables attached to both
sets of rudder pedals.
The UsAF Academy TG-
4A sailplanes are equipped
with instruments which include
an airspeed indicator, an al-
timeter, a vertical velocity indi-
cator, a sensitive variometer,
and compass. Parts of a sailplane

33
THE CIVIL AIR PATROL CADET GLIDER PROGRAM
The Civil Air Patrol offers yearly
flight encampments on a nationwide
basis. These are called “Flight Acade-
mies” and provide each participating
cadet at least 10 hours of flight instruc-
tion with an FAA certificated Flight In-
structor. This is called “dual” for
one-on-one instruction. Because a
cadet is eligible by federal aviation reg-
ulation to solo a glider at age 14, this is
an outstanding entry-level opportunity
for future pilots to acquire important,
basic flying skills. Once a cadet has
soloed a glider, he/she can then move
on to powered flight training at another Cadets receive a pre-flight briefing on a CAP Blanik L23 glider.
encampment. The eventual goal is to
achieve the coveted Private Pilot’s Cer-
tificate, which allows a pilot to carry
passengers and to fly under visual
flight regulations (VFR) virtually any-
where within the Continental United
states air space system.
Civil Air Patrol offers all cadets an
opportunity to participate in an orienta-
tion flight program. This program is
designed to give each cadet nine flights
during the course of his/her cadet expe-
rience. These flights are flown by CAP
senior (adult) members who meet spe-
cific experience and training require-
ments as well as through personal
background clearance standards. This
is by far the best opportunity for a
cadet to find out if he/she “really likes If you find out you “love it,” you’ll be
hooked for life with the “flying bug!”
flying.” It involves “altitude, attitude,
and aptitude.” (see associated Activity
seven at the end of the chapter.)

Thousands of military, commercial, and

general aviation pilots had their career
start with Civil Air Patrol’s glider
program. Now it’s your turn. If
not already a CAP cadet, contact
www.capmembers.com to find out
how you and your friends can join!

34
2

35
Activity Seven -
Zia Glider

Purpose: Build a Zia glider and observe how a glider flies.

Materials: cardstock, hobby knife, ruler, glue, paper clips, a little clay, and glider pattern (cutouts)
on the following page (use this one or a color copy of it)

Procedures:
1. Glue the entire pattern page to the piece of cardstock (a file folder is excellent for this project).
2. Cut out the designs from the attachments.
3. Use ruler to help fold movable parts.
4. Glue the pieces together to build the glider.
5. Fly your glider, experimenting with different positions of the control (movable) parts.
6. Add a small piece of clay to the nose area (experimenting to get the accurate amount) for “stabi-
lization” (better control stability of flight).

Notes: The following recommendations make building a cardstock glider much more successful.
• It is recommended that a hobby knife be used to cut out cardstock models. scissors are accept-
able, but a knife, like the X-Acto® #11, can make more precise cuts. (adult supervision sug-
gested.)
• Use a ruler to score long bends, like the point where the fuselage of the ZIA is folded.
• A high quality white or carpenter’s glue, or spray glue, works well on these models. Be patient,
paper glue takes longer to dry.
• super glue also works, but there’s always the problem of getting your fingers glued together.
Have an adult help when working with super glues.
• All gliders, whether they are cardstock or balsa, usually require a little nose weight to make
them fly. Use the clay for this step, trying different amounts until your glider flies as desired.

Summary: In this activity, cardstock is used to copy a pattern of the Zia Glider and techniques are taught
to put together a quality model and to learn to fly it effectively as a glider. The Zia Glider is a high-wing
design with no dihedral (the upward angle of a fixed-wing aircraft’s wings) and tends to go unstable if the
trim (the cuts and folds for movable parts) is not set exactly. One possible class exercise might include
how dihedral works to make aircraft stable and then problem solve how the airplane design could be mod-
ified to improve stability.

36
Zia Glider Template

Optional horizontal
stabilizer placements

fold under, glue optional and

cut from leading edge to marks cut out straight slot
if you want to give
the wing a dihedral
or cut out curved
slot for a design
with no dihedral

Depending on your design, you

may want to cut out the “V” notch or
OptiONal Fold first and glue
leave the horizontal stabilizer flat
Nose Stiffener into nose.
across the trailing edge.

37
Learning Outcomes
3
- Define the principle of buoyancy and how this relates to the flight of a balloon.
- Describe the components of a balloon and how each works in the flight profile.
- Describe the history of the balloon and why it’s recognized as the first powered, manned flight.

Important Terms
altimeter – instrument to provide the height of the balloon above sea level
balloon – an aircraft that uses lighter-than-air gas for its lift, with no built-in means of horizontal
control
burner – the heat source for filling the envelope with hot air
buoyancy – to rise or float on the surface of water or within the atmosphere
crown – the top of the hot air balloon's envelope
envelope – the main body of the balloon, usually made of nylon, that is filled with lighter-than-air gas
gondola – a wicker basket, hanging below the envelope, used to transport passengers and propane
tanks
gore – one of several vertical panels
that make up the envelope
Montgolfier – the name of the two
French brothers who created the
first successful, manned, hot air
balloon in 1783
parachute panel – located in the top
of the balloon's envelope that al-
lows it to be deflated (When a
larger area of deflation is needed,
some balloons are equipped with a
rip panel.)
propane – a lightweight, low carbon
fuel used in hot air balloon burners
thermistor – an instrument which
measures the temperature within the
envelope
variometer – an instrument to deter-
mine the rate of climb or descent;
sometimes referred to as vertical
velocity indicator

38
BALLOONS WERE FIRST
Two brothers, Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier, were well-educated Frenchmen who enjoyed re-
searching science and flight. In 1782, after having read scientific papers about the properties of air,
they noticed sparks and flames rising in their fireplace. so, they took a small bag of silk, lit a fire un-
derneath it, and watched it rise. They soon began experimenting outdoors with larger bags made of
paper and linen.
In 1783, their earlier experiments led to a demonstration with a balloon. Then, in september 1783,
in a demonstration before King Louis XVI and marie Antoinette, they attached to a balloon a cage with
a sheep, a roster, and a duck inside. All of the “passengers” were carried aloft and landed safely.
Then on November 21,1783, the first successful manned, powered flight was made in a mont-
golfier balloon. Two Frenchmen, Pilatre d'Rozier and the marquis Francois d'Arlandes, flew their
way into history aboard a balloon launched in Paris. The flight lasted about 25 minutes and it landed
approximately five miles from the launch point. The race toward the skies had begun! (Note: The
Wright Brothers are credited with the first manned, controlled, powered flight. since hot air balloons
can not be completely controlled, due to the unpredictability of the wind, the Wright Brothers’ status
was achieved when the brothers made their historic flight December 17, 1903.)

How They Fly

A balloon operates on the princi-
ple of buoyancy. It all happens be-
cause hot air is lighter, or more
buoyant, than cold air. Imagine that
you have two parcels of air the same
size. If the air in one parcel is hot
and the other is cold, the warm-air
parcel will be lighter. If you could
insert the hot parcel of air inside a
very lightweight balloon, it would
rise into the surrounding colder air.
With enough hot air, a balloon will
lift not only itself, but passengers,
instruments, fuel, and all of the
equipment needed for a flight. The
large container that holds this hot air
is called the envelope. There are
strips of very strong material along
the vertical length of a balloon that
attach the envelope to the basket.
These are known as load tapes.
These are also horizontal load tapes,
as shown on page 40.
Power for the balloon is provided
by a propane burner that quickly A replica of the Montgolfier balloon is on display
heats the air inside the envelope. in the US National Air and Space Museum.
The propane, in liquid form, is
stored in tanks carried in the basket, called the gondola. When the pilot pulls a cord, the liquid

39
propane rushes through a series of vaporizing coils and is ignited by a pilot flame at a jet in the
burner. During ascent, it is quite common to have temperatures inside the envelope reach 212°
Fahrenheit. To get this kind of heat, burners need to produce several million BTU's/ hour. For clarifi-
cation, A BTU is a "British Thermal Unit" and by definition it is a measure of heat. It is defined as
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water, one degree Fahrenheit.
The metric equivalent of the BTU is a Calorie. A Calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one Kilogram of water, one degree Celsius.
A balloon floats on the wind and directional control is minimal. At various altitudes, wind direc-
tion can change and pilots take advantage of this by climbing or descending to get the balloon to
change direction.

The Mathematics Of A Balloon's Lifting Power

In the excellent book, Ballooning, A Complete Guide To Riding The Winds, by Dick Wirth and
Jerry Young, an explanation is given for the lifting power of a balloon. “Typically, a (hydrogen) gas
balloon will derive about 60 lbs. of lift per 1,000 cu. ft., whereas a hot-air model will develop only
17-20 lb. per 1,000 cu.
ft. (at 100-120 degrees
Vent Opening
Celsius). Thus, a Parachute
77,000 cu. ft. balloon Envelope
will lift: 77 x 17 =
1,309 lbs. gross lift.”
The authors state
that the envelope will Horizontal
Load Tape
weigh about 160 lbs.,
the burner and basket
will weigh collectively
150 lbs., and four gas
tanks will weigh 290
lbs. This gives a total
aircraft weight of 600
pounds. If the balloon
has a gross lifting Vertical
Load Tape
power of 1,309
pounds, that means it
will carry 709 pounds
under standard condi-
tions. Divide 709 by Skirt Burner
the weight of an aver-
age human at 170
pounds and the balloon
will carry 4.17 per-
sons, or three passen-
gers, one pilot, and Basket
some miscellaneous To ascend, or go up, the pilot lights the burner to create hot air
equipment. inside the envelope. To descend, or go down, the pilot can pull down
on the parachute control and this allows hot air to escape out the
vent opening at the top of the envelope, called the crown.

40
Construction Of A
Balloon's Envelope
A large volume of lightweight air is best contained in a sphere. If you study a hot air balloon
closely, as shown on page 40, you will notice that the general shape of the envelope is spherical. To
make the shape of a balloon, a series of panels are sewn together. These panels are called gores. The
fabric most widely used is nylon and dacron, a form of polyester. There are advantages to both of
these fabrics. Dacron will withstand higher temperatures, but nylon is lighter and stronger. The fab-
rics are coated with polyurethane and other additives to give it longer wear and greater resistance to
ultraviolet sunlight damage. most fabrics weigh between 1.2 and 2.4 ounces per square yard.

The Basket – A Balloon Pilot's Cockpit

The basket of a balloon is its cockpit. The fuel for the burners is liquid propane and is carried
along in cylindrical tanks. When the liquid propane passes through the coils on top of the burner, it
vaporizes. A small pilot flame ignites the propane and a much larger flame shoots up through the
skirt into the envelope.
A balloon pilot's control system is the ascent and descent power of the burner. There is a panel in-
side of a hot air balloon that
allows some of the hot air to
escape. It's called the para-
chute panel and looks some-
what like a conventional
parachute only it fills a hole
in the top of the balloon,
called the crown. This hole
is known as a vent. The vent
varies from 6-18 feet across.
The parachute is held in
place by cords inside the en-
velope. The hot air pressure
inside the balloon keeps the
parachute in place; however,
when the pilot wants to re-
lease some of the hot air, a
cord is pulled which draws
the parachute downward
thus opening the vent hole.
When the cord is released,
the parachute is pushed back
into the vent, closing it so
the rest of the hot air is not
allowed to escape.

41
Cockpit Instrumentation
Generally, the pilot has only three instruments on the instrument panel. One of the most important
is the vertical velocity indicator, or variometer. This gives the pilot an indication of the rate of climb
and descent. Next, the pilot has an instrument that gives a measurement of the temperature at the top
of the balloon and it is known as a thermistor. This is an electronic warning instrument that shows
the pilot when the temperature is dropping and a descent is about to occur. The optimum temperature
inside the crown is around 100 degrees Celsius. Finally, an altimeter is installed that provides the
height of the balloon above sea level.

Flying in a Hot Air Balloon

If you ever have the opportunity to fly in a hot air balloon, do it! This flight is one of the most
peaceful and beautiful flights you’ll ever experience. Being so close to the balloon pilot and the con-
trol equipment will enable you to get a very good idea of how the balloon actually flies. Observing
the pilot’s continued attention to both ground and aerial structures, to the need for greater or lesser
altitude, and to the safety in
using the propane tanks will
place you directly in the on-
going action of balloon flight. It
is a wondrous thing to behold.
(see associated Activity Eight at
the end of the chapter.)

Balloons have priority over all other aircraft in flight when flight plans
have been submitted. If you look under the balloon, you’ll see the
crew in a tiny basket. They’re doing what pilots do best—having fun!

42
Activity Eight -
Hot Air Balloon
3
Purpose: Construct a model hot air balloon and help reinforce the understanding of how a hot air
balloon works.

Materials:
- dry cleaner plastic film bags or very thin garbage bag liners (select the type of bag with the
thinnest possible plastic and have several on hand. You may have to experiment with bags of
different thicknesses.)
- several small paper clips
- cellophane tape
- blow dryer (with hot temperature setting)

Safety: If the bag starts to crumple and melt from the heat, set
the blow dryer on a lower setting or hold the bag farther from
the heat source.

Procedures:
1. seal any openings and tears in the upper end of the bag
with a minimum of cellophane tape.
2. Turn on the blow dryer (or other hot air source). spread
the bag opening wide to capture the rising hot air while
supporting the upper end with your hand. It is best to
have assistance in keeping the bag open so that it does not
melt.
3. When the bag is inflated with hot air, test its buoyancy by
letting it go for a moment. If it rises quickly, stand back
and let it lift. Otherwise, continue heating it for a little
while longer.
4. Attach several paper clips to the plastic around the lower
opening. Have students experiment with the number of
paper clips that are needed to keep the balloon from rising too high, but that are needed for the
balloon to stay afloat.
5. Release the balloon for its flight. If the bag tips over and spills its hot air before it reaches the
ceiling, add a few more paper clips to slightly weigh down the bottom. If the bag will not rise
at all, remove a few clips.

43
Summary:
Hot air is less dense than cold air. Heat accelerates the motion of the air molecules causing fewer
molecules to occupy the same space as a much greater number of molecules do at a lower (cooler)
temperature. With fewer molecules, the hot air has less mass, weighs less, and, therefore, is buoyant.
Placing the dry cleaner bag over the heat source captures the hot air and forces out the cooler air
in the bag. The bag becomes a mass of low-density air which floats upward in the cooler denser air
surrounding it. The paper clips are placed at the bottom of the bag to keep the open end downward in
flight to prevent it from prematurely spilling the hot air and terminating the flight.
As this chapter closes with this last activity, your group may want to build or purchase a larger
tissue paper balloon to have an outdoor launch. For information about purchasing a hot air balloon,
go to Edmund scientific at http://scientificsonline.com or Pitsco at http://catalog.pitsco.com.
For information about building and launching a hot air balloon, go to the CAP AE website at
www.capmembers.com/ae. Click on the lessons and other resources box to find the hot air balloon
section which includes full directions for building a tissue paper hot air balloon.

44
 Aerospace Dimensions

AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
AND AIRPORTS

2
MODULE

Civil Air Patrol

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama
 Aerospace Dimensions
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
AND AIRPORTS

2WRITTEN BY
DR. BEN MILLSPAUGH

DESIGN
BARB PRIBULICK

CovER PHoTo
WALT BRoWN, ALBUqUERqUE NM

ILLUSTRATIoNS
PEGGY GREENLEE

EDITING
BoB BRooKS
SUSAN MALLETT
DR. JEff MoNTGoMERY
JUDY SToNE

NATIoNAL ACADEMIC STANDARD ALIGNMENT

JUDY SToNE

PUBLISHED BY
NATIoNAL HEADqUARTERS
CIvIL AIR PATRoL
AERoSPACE EDUCATIoN DEPUTY DIRECToRATE
MAXWELL AfB, ALABAMA 36112

THIRD EDITIoN
JUNE 2013
 INTRODUCTION
The Aerospace Dimensions module, Aircraft Systems, is the second of six modules, which com-
bined, make up Phases I and II of Civil Air Patrol's Aerospace Education Program for cadets. Each
module is meant to stand entirely on its own, so that each can be taught in any order. This enables
new cadets coming into the program to study the same module, at the same time, with the other
cadets. This builds a cohesiveness and cooperation among the cadets and encourages active group
participation. This module is also appropriate for middle school students and can be used by teachers
to supplement sTEm-related subjects.
Inquiry-based activities were included to enhance the text and provide concept applicability. The
activities were designed as group activities, but can be done individually, if desired. The activities
for this module are located at the end of each chapter.

ii
CONTENTS
Introduction .............................................................................................ii

Contents...................................................................................................iii

National Academic Standard Alignment ..............................................iv

Chapter 1. Airplane Systems...................................................................1

Chapter 2. Airports................................................................................24

Chapter 3. Airport to Airport - Aeronautical Charts .........................38

A horizontally opposed avco lycoming aircraft engine

iii
National Academic Standard Alignment

iv
Learning Outcomes
1
- Explain how a reciprocating engine operates.
- Identify parts of the airplane engine when viewed externally.
- Describe how a jet engine operates.
- Identify basic cockpit-mounted powerplant controls.
- Identify basic flight instruments.

Important Terms
combustion - the chemical process of burning
combustion chamber - an enclosed container in which fuel and air are burned for the production of
energy
compression - the act of making a given volume of gas smaller
cycle - a recurring series of events; the airplane engine has four cycles, intake, compression, power,
and exhaust
fuel - a chemical substance which is used as a source of energy; aircraft fuels include gasoline,
kerosene, and propane
lean mixture - a mixture of gasoline and air in which there is less fuel and more air
magneto - an electrical generator that produces power when rotated
meter/metering - in terms of fuel for an engine, this is the process of allowing a precise amount of
fuel to pass (An example would be a passageway that allows only so many molecules of gasoline
to pass in a given unit of time.)
powerplant - a term which applies to the airplane engine and accessories
reciprocating - a type of engine that processes air and fuel by a back and forth movement of its in-
ternal parts
rich mixture - a mixture of gasoline and air in which there is more gasoline and less air than needed
for normal combustion
stoichiometric - a ratio of fuel to air in which, upon combustion, all of the fuel is burned (In energy
terms, it is 15 parts air to 1 part gasoline.)
stroke - in the example of an airplane engine, it is the movement of the piston to its limits within the
combustion chamber

1
THE AIRPLANE ENGINE
An airplane engine is
the propulsion system
for the aircraft. It sup-
plies the power for the
airplane and is called a
powerplant when a por-
tion of its energy is used
to run other accessories,
such as the electrical
system and cockpit heat-
ing and air conditioning.
On the right is a pic-
ture of the external com-
ponents of an airplane
engine, but what’s on
the inside? The internal
components of a recip-
rocating engine are
mentioned in the picture
at the bottom of the
page. A reciprocating
engine is also known as
The external components of a Teledyne Continental 0200 Aircraft Engine
an internal combustion Courtesy of Teledyne Continental
engine because a fuel mix-
ture is burned within the
engine. To understand how a reciprocating
engine works, we must take a look at the en-
gine’s major parts and their functions.
Every internal combustion engine must
have certain basic parts in order to change
heat into mechanical energy. The cylinder
forms a part of the chamber in which the fuel
is compressed and burned. An intake valve is
needed to let the fuel/air into the cylinder.
An exhaust valve is needed to let the exhaust
gases out. The piston, moving within the
cylinder, forms one of the walls of the com-
bustion chamber. The piston has rings which
seal the gases in the cylinder, preventing any
loss of power around the sides of the piston.
The connecting rod forms a link between the
piston and the crankshaft.

The internal components of a reciprocating airplane engine

2
Cylinder Arrangements
Cylinders can be
arranged so that en-
gines may be
mounted in different
airframes. In-line en-
gines are tall and the
nose of the airplane
can be slim for aero-
dynamic efficiency.
The “V” and horizon-
tally opposed in-line
arrangements are
compact and ideal for
small aircraft. The ra-
dial design presents
each cylinder to the
oncoming air for
maximum cooling ef-
ficiency. Most reciprocating engines have one of these four cylinder arrangements.

Modern Aircraft Powerplant Operation

A modern airplane engine is a device that converts chemical energy into mechanical energy. Air
mixed with gasoline is drawn into a cylinder, then compressed by a piston moving up and down in-
side a combustion chamber. A small bolt of lightning from a spark plug ignites the mixture of fuel
and air and this causes an explosion that drives the piston downward, creating power. The next step
is to get the burned-up gases out of the cylinder. This is done by opening a mechanical “door” called
a valve. This “door” momentarily opens and the piston pushes the gases out past the valve into an
exhaust pipe. The process starts all over again, hundreds of times a minute. This is known as a four-
stroke operating cycle.
The standard configuration for a general aviation aircraft engine is to have four or six cylinders
opposite each other. There are two “banks” of cylinders and this design is called horizontally op-
posed. The opposed engine has a very narrow silhouette and this allows aircraft engineers to design
cowlings, or engine covers, with a low aerodynamic frontal area drag. This shape also allows engi-
neers to install engines on wings with a minimum of drag. The wing-mounted engine is usually cov-
ered with a streamlined enclosure called a nacelle.

Converting Chemical Energy to Mechanical Energy

In a reciprocating engine, the piston moves up and down converting air and fuel to energy and ex-
haust. The first stroke occurs when the piston moves downward and simultaneously an intake valve
opens. This is called the “intake” stroke and a mixture of air and fuel is sucked into the engine. A
squeeze, or “compression,” occurs after the intake valve closes and the piston moves upward com-

3
pressing the mixture of fuel and air. Then when the piston has reached its full upward travel, known
as “top dead center,” a spark ignites the mixture of fuel and air. This is the ignition or “power” phase.
The explosion pushes the piston downward and this energy is then transmitted to the crankshaft,
which in turn powers the propeller. The propeller rotates providing forward thrust. The piston keeps
on going and in a final stroke, pushes the “exhaust” gases out of the cylinder. An exhaust valve
opens simultaneously and the gases are expelled.

The four-stroke (5 event) operating cycle of a reciprocating engine: (1) Fuel and air are drawn into the
cylinder during the intake stroke. (2) The fuel/air mixture is compressed by the upward stroke.
(3/4) A spark ignites the mixture forcing the piston downward producing power that turns the propeller.
(5) The burned gases are expelled by the upward stroke.

Comparing the Reciprocating, Jet, and Rocket Engines

In both the reciprocating and jet engines, air enters during an intake phase. It is then compressed
by a piston or by a set of compressor fan blades in a jet. The reciprocating engine has a spark plug
for ignition. Once started, a jet engine maintains its combustion by the extremely hot gases. When
the explosion occurs, gases are expelled from both through an exhaust pipe. A rocket, on the other
hand, carries its oxygen with it. As shown in the illustration on the following page, fuel and oxygen
are mixed together and ignited. This provides an enormous amount of power.

4
 A comparison of the three most commonly used aircraft engines

The Chemistry of Power

Before getting into the control system that enables a pilot to regulate power to an engine, let’s
look at the “chemistry” of power. An airplane engine is a “heat” engine. It converts heat energy into
mechanical energy, and it is this mechanical energy that turns the propeller. millions of years ago,
the sun provided energy to billions of plants and prehistoric animals, and over long periods of time
their remains have been converted into what we now call “fossil fuels.” When these fossil fuels are
refined into gasoline, it becomes a source of energy for airplane engines.
A mixture occurs when two chemical compounds come together, yet are not chemically com-
bined. Gasoline and air are mixed in the carburetor, but don’t chemically combine until they get in-
side the closed cylinder. In scientific terms, the air molecules do not become part of the gasoline
molecules until they are burned. When they are ignited, a chemical reaction, known as oxidation, oc-
curs and energy is released. That’s what drives the propellers and jet turbines. After this combustion
occurs in the combustion chamber, the gasoline molecules are converted into other compounds like
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and water, and are expelled as exhaust.
One of the most efficient mixtures of gasoline and air is called the stoichiometric ratio. This is 15
parts air to one part gasoline and, theoretically, when ignited, all of the fuel is burned. sometimes,
however, this ratio is not desirable. An example would be during initial engine startup when the out-
side temperature is cold. A rich mixture works better because there is more gasoline and less air. A
lean mixture contains less fuel and more air. A leaner ratio works better after the engine is warmed
up. One problem exists with a stoichiometric mixture. It can get very hot, and over prolonged peri-
ods too much heat can damage an engine. modern engines are designed to operate most efficiently
with a mixture near 12 parts air to 1 part fuel. Pilots can control this in the cockpit with the mixture
control.

5
Gravity-Feed Fuel System
This is a greatly simplified diagram of a gravity-feed fuel system in a high wing aircraft. stylized
renderings of only the major parts are shown. Drain valves and plugs, fuel line strainers, interconnect
vents, etc. have been deleted for clarification of the system and its function.

Filler Cap
Fuel Tanks

Vent

Mixture Control
Main Fuel Line
Throttle
Primer

Primer Line
Direct to
Cylinders

1
3

Fuel Selector
Valve Vent
2 Fuel Strainer
4
Carburetor Filler Cap

Main Fuel Line

Fuel-Metering Carburetors
To develop the maximum amount of
power, an engine must have the right
mixture of gasoline and air supplied to
it during the intake or suction phase.
The volume of fuel and air is controlled
by the throttle which operates the car- Continental Continental Continental
buretor.
A carburetor functions because of
the lower pressure created when a pis-
ton moves down on the intake stroke.
When the air is sucked into engine, it
Intake
comes in through a tube system and the manifold
The carburetor on an aircraft en-
carburetor is located between the out- gine is located on the bottom. Air
side air and the inside of the engine. is drawn in through the carbure- Venturi
The carburetor has a restriction in it tor and passes into the engine
called a venturi. This causes air from through a series of tubes called Carburetor

the outside to accelerate as it passes the intake manifold. (Illustration

courtesy of Teledyne Continental) Outside Air
through the restriction. A drop in pres-
sure occurs inside the venturi and this
sucks gasoline out of the carburetor

6
into the airflow.
There is a small
“gate” in the carbu-
retor that controls
the amount of air
going into it. This
gate is called the
throttle valve and is
controlled by the
pilot in the cockpit.
It is a hand-oper-
ated control and it’s
called the throttle.
When the throttle
is closed, the throt-
tle valve seals the
carburetor. As the
pilot pushes the
throttle forward, it
opens the throttle
valve in the carbure-
tor. The engine is
started and the pis- A simplified illustration of a carburetor
tons start moving,
creating a suction.
The air is sucked in from the outside, and as it passes through the venturi in the carburetor, it speeds
up. When this acceleration occurs, the pressure drops and fuel is sucked into the air flow. The air and
fuel mixture then travels down into the engine past one of the intake valves. When the intake valve
shuts, the trapped fuel and air gets compressed.
Every time a little fuel is sucked out of the carburetor into the stream of air, it has to be replaced
or the cylinders will starve. Inside the carburetor, there is a chamber that holds gasoline until it is
needed. This is called the float chamber. There is a float (somewhat like those found in a toilet tank)
that monitors the amount of gasoline in the chamber. When the gasoline is drawn into the venturi of
the carburetor, the float drops. A gate in the float chamber opens and allows gasoline from the fuel
tanks to fill up the float chamber. Either a fuel pump or gravity is used to get the gasoline from the
fuel tank to the carburetor. This force puts pressure on the line and keeps the float chamber supplied
with fuel.
There is a very important component in the carburetor “system” and it’s known as the carburetor
heat. Under certain flying conditions, air passing into a carburetor will form ice in the venturi. This
can be dangerous since it can make the carburetor inoperative. If icing chokes the carburetor, the en-
gine will quit. To solve this problem, pilots are taught how to use the carburetor heat control so that
it melts the ice. Carburetor heat is made available by using the hot air that surrounds the exhaust sys-
tem. When the pilot pulls the carburetor heat control, heated air is channeled into the carburetor. This
closes off normal filtered air and directs exhaust-heated, unfiltered air into the carburetor. When the
hot air goes through the carburetor, existing ice is melted and the water passes through the engine.
momentarily, this creates a problem because hot air is much less dense than cold air. The engine will
run rough due to a fuel/air mixture that is too rich. After the ice is removed, it is proper pilot proce-
dure to close the carburetor heat and return to colder air.

7
Powerplant Controls
In most training airplanes used by the
Civil Air Patrol, there are only two engine
controls, the throttle and mixture. In air-
planes, the throttle is hand-operated and it
controls engine speed by regulating the
amount of air and fuel that flows into it
during the “intake,” or suction phase.
Normally, at sea level, there is a con-
siderable amount of oxygen and nitrogen
in the air; however, as we climb higher
and higher into the atmosphere, the num- The throttle and mixture controls
ber of air molecules decreases. (Research
has found that 50% of all of the atmos-
phere’s air is located below 18,000 feet above sea level.)
Although the percentage composition of nitrogen and oxygen remains basically the same, the
amount of nitrogen and oxygen is less at higher altitudes. As a result of less air (fewer air mole-
cules), less fuel is needed. For that reason, a pilot must control the amount of fuel during the suction
phase of engine operation. This is done with the mixture control in the cockpit. It is used to “meter”
the amount of fuel available to the carburetor.

Electrical
Power to the
Spark Plugs
Electrical energy is
required to operate ra-
dios, lights, and other
aircraft equipment.
However, the electrical
power to the spark
plugs is supplied by
magnetos, which are
separate from the air-
craft’s main electrical
system. If a pilot were
to shut off all electrical
power during flight,
the engine would con-
tinue to operate.
Twin magnetos are located at the back of the engine
In the early days of Photo courtesy of Teledyne Continental
aviation, airplanes
were not equipped with an electrical system, yet the engines had spark plugs that required continu-
ous energy. This power was supplied by magnetos. A magneto is an electrical generator that pro-
duces power when it is rotated. The airplane’s engine rotates the magneto mechanically and this
produces the spark for the spark plugs.

8
 When watching a movie or video about an early aviation pioneer, you may see a pilot sitting in
the cockpit and someone in front manually spinning the propeller. This procedure has been around
for years and is a mechanical method of getting spark to the airplane’s engine. Here’s how it works:
The person in front of the airplane spins the propeller; the crankshaft turns and this mechanically ro-
tates the magneto. When the magneto turns, electrical energy goes to the spark plugs, and the engine
starts. Once started, the rotation of the crankshaft keeps the magneto going and this supplies the
spark plugs with power.

The Electrical System

most airplanes are equipped with a 14-28 volt electrical system and the electrical power is sup-
plied by an engine-driven alternator. This component also keeps the battery charged. The battery is
especially important for starting the airplane.
Alternators produce alternating current, which is then converted to direct current. Electrical power is
supplied to the bus bar (see schematic on page 10) which distributes this energy to the accessories.
In the cockpit, there is an instrument that monitors the electrical current, or flow, called the ammeter.
Another important electrical component in the system, which is located in the cockpit, is the master
switch. The master switch has to be “on” to engage the starter, and, in the event of an alternator malfunc-
tion in flight, the master switch can be turned “off” to isolate the alternator from the rest of the system.
As the schematic shows, there are many circuit breakers and fuses that protect the system from
electrical overloads. When a circuit breaker “pops,” the electrical power to that accessory is stopped.
Resetting the breaker will usually reactivate the circuit; however, if there is still an overload, or an
electrical short, the breaker will continue to pop until the problem is fixed. A fuse, on the other hand,
is an electrical device that has a thin metal piece between two metal connections. The thin metal
piece is designed to break when an electrical overload, or short, occurs. Unlike the circuit breaker, a
fuse must be replaced once the metal connection is broken.

The alternator on an airplane engine looks much like the one on an automobile.
Photo Courtesy of Teledyne Continental

9
 The Electrical System Schematic

That Awesome Jet Engine

The jet engine is a wonderful powerplant and one of its greatest features is reliability. With recip-
rocating engines, you have all kinds of parts moving up and down, in and out, and sideways. But in a
jet, there is only one moving part. In the illustration shown on page 11, find the shaft down the cen-
ter. Notice that it connects the turbine in the back and both the compressor and fan in front. When the
starter is engaged, this shaft spins. Air is pulled in through the fan section and gets compressed in the
compressor section. Fuel is sprayed into the burner section and ignited. Combustion occurs and this
spins the turbine. The turbine acts like a windmill, capturing the energy of the high velocity hot air.
This “windmill” spins the shaft which rotates the fan and compressor in front. The remaining hot
gases are expelled through the tail pipe, creating thrust. If you study the artwork provided by Pratt &
Whitney on page 11, you can trace the path of air, left to right, through the PW6000 engine.

10
 On the left side, (front), you will see the large fan section. Air enters there, is compressed (blue) in the
compressor section and ignited in the burner section (yellow). This spins the turbine (red) and part
of this energy is used to turn the center shaft. The rest is expelled out the tail pipe (in rear) as thrust.
(Artwork of PW6000 engine courtesy of United Technologies, Pratt & Whitney Division)

ENGINE INSTRUMENTS
One of the most important operations inside an en-
gine is lubrication. This is accomplished by oil, which
allows metal parts to work together. Oil is as important
to an internal combustion engine as blood is to the
human body. Oil has two primary functions in an en-
gine: (1) to lubricate moving parts; and (2) to carry
away heat.
In most training aircraft, a pilot has two instruments
that give information about the operation inside the
engine. One of the most important is the oil pressure The temperature and oil pressure
gauge. The oil is circulated through the engine by a gauges in the cockpit
pump and it is the oil pressure gauge that monitors this
operation. Close to the oil pressure gauge is the oil
temperature gauge. This allows the pilot to monitor the
temperature and take corrective measures to avoid
possible engine damage due to overheating.
Engine speed is monitored by the tachometer. The
“tach,” as it is commonly called, also displays the
speed of the propeller. since the propeller is connected
directly to the crankshaft of the engine, changes in the
speed of the engine mean like changes in the speed of
the propeller.

The tachometer, displaying engine

speed in revolutions per minute

11
FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
There are special instruments that allow
the pilot to monitor an airplane’s operation This line represents
the top of the earth's
in flight. Three of these work on the princi- atmosphere (50 miles
ple of differences in pressure, also known above the surface).
as pressure differential. The other three
work on the principle of gyroscopes, main-
taining their position while spinning.
To more clearly understand these instru-
A parcel of air
ments, let’s first examine pressure differen- 1 square inch
tial. Think of a parcel of air, one square at the bottom
and reaching Approximately 1/2 of
inch (about the size of a postage stamp), to the top of the earth's atmosphere
and 50 miles tall. If you could somehow the atmosphere is located below
weighs 14.7 18,000 feet.
weigh that space of air anywhere in the pounds.
world, it would average 14.7 pounds. If
you could take weight samples at various
levels, up to the top of the parcel, the air
would weigh progressively less, and, at the
top, it would be virtually weightless.
What does this have to do with altitude
measurement in an airplane? If the pres-
sure becomes progressively less as we go
higher above the Earth, we can use it to 1 square inch of
air at sea level
give us precise height information. Think
of it this way; if you had an ultra-sensitive
pressure gauge, you could get an accurate
reading of the altitude gained by going up-
stairs in a house, or a school, or even up on
a chair. The weight of the air upon every square inch of the Earth’s
surface is approximately 14.7 pounds at sea level and
Engineers who build airplane instru-
decreases to nearly zero at 50 miles above the surface.
ments have a set of standard references
based on information that scientists have
gathered. There are standard references for
pressure, temperature, etc. For pressure, at
sea level, the standard is 29.92 inches of
mercury, or 1013.2 millibars. This means 1013.2 Millibars 29.92 Inches
that our 50 mile-tall column of one square A Torricelli
inch of air would cause a mercury barome- barometer is a
ter to stand 29.92 inches tall. As stated ear- glass tube filled
lier, when we go higher in altitude, the air with the ele-
ment Mercury.
weighs less and the pressure drops. scien-
The open end
tists found that the average pressure drop, Hg of the glass
for every 1000 feet of altitude gained, is one tube is placed in a bowl of Mercury. The pressure of the at-
inch. see the diagram to the right. (It must mosphere pushing down on the surface of the Mercury, and
be noted that the element mercury is dan- the vacuum inside the glass tube, will give a measurement of
gerous, and only a trained and highly-quali- changes in atmospheric pressure. On a standard day at sea
level, this column of Mercury rises to 29.92 inches tall. The
fied scientist should experiment with it.)
metric equivalent of that is 1013.2 millibars.

12
The Altimeter
since pressure is related to altitude, we are able to tell how
high we are by monitoring the pressure in an airplane com-
pared to a pressure reference on the ground or at sea level.
That is how altimeters work. Just before take-off, a pilot sets
the altimeter to the local pressure. Then as the airplane
climbs, the pressure begins to drop. The altimeter senses this
change and displays it as altitude.

The Vertical Velocity Indicator

When the airplane levels off at a given altitude, and the The altimeter measures pressure and
pressure stabilizes, another instrument reads this as zero. If displays this as height above sea level
the airplane goes up or down from this point, the instrument
senses the change and gives the pilot a rate of climb, or as-
cent. This instrument is known as the VVI or Vertical Veloc-
ity Indicator. You may also hear it referred to as the “rate of
climb.”

The Airspeed Indicator

Another very important instrument records the difference
between still air (static) and air that is being rammed into the
system. Compared to a car, it is the airplane’s “speedometer.”
In the language of instruments, it is called the airspeed indi-
cator. Outside, usually located on a wing, is a small, hollow
The vertical velocity indicator displays
tube called the pitot. As the airplane moves forward, the rela- a rate of change in altitude
tive wind flows into the pitot tube and this creates a ramming
effect that is registered as pressure. When this ram air is com-
pared to still air, it can be displayed as speed. The difference
between the ram air and the still air gives what is known as a
pressure differential. A static port provides the system with
information from an area of undisturbed air.
Indicated airspeed is the information you get when you
read the airspeed indicator, directly. Another, known as the
calibrated airspeed, is the indicated airspeed corrected for er-
rors that may occur in the instrument itself. The next kind of

The all-important airspeed indicator

The Pitot Static System Schematic

13
airspeed is known as true. True airspeed is the actual speed of the airplane through the air. This kind
of airspeed is corrected for pressure and non-standard temperature. In “language” terms, pilots will
say, “...my airplane trued out at 180 knots.” It means that after adjusting the airspeed indicator, at a
given altitude, the airplane is traveling at 180 knots. Finally, there is the speed over the ground. This is
referred to as ground speed and can be calculated by the time it takes for the airplane to fly between
two or more points on the ground. For your information, a regular mile is known as a statute mile and
is 5,280 feet long. A nautical mile, often referred to as a “naut,” or “knot,” is 6,076 feet.

Flight Instruments-Gyro Power

These instruments are based on the principle of a spinning gyroscope. The gyroscope has a small
rotating wheel, called a rotor, that is mounted on an axle. The rotor will maintain its position in space
while spinning at a very high speed. This principle is called rigidity in space and means that once the
rotor starts to spin at high speed, it strongly resists changes and forces applied to it. As long as it re-
mains in one place, and the rotor spins, it will give the pilot valuable information about direction,
banking, and attitude. Note that the gyro is mounted in two rings, called gimbal rings. These rings
allow the gyro to rotate freely, or universally. By various methods of mounting, gyros are an energy
source in three very important flight instruments: alitude indicator, heading indicator, and turn
coordinator.
Let’s take a look at the gyroscope as an “experiment.” A toy gyroscope (gyro for short) can be made,
but it is much more convenient to buy one at a hobby, craft, or toy store. Here’s how they work: A
string is first inserted into a hole in the gyro’s axle. The string is wound tightly around the axle. A hard
pull on the string will spin the axle at high speed and that’s when Newton’s First Law of motion takes
over. This law states, “a body at rest will remain at rest unless acted upon by some outside, unbalanced
force, or a body in motion will remain in motion unless acted upon by some outside, unbalanced
force.” Now, when it’s spinning you can actually balance the gyro on the tip of a pencil! Amazing, but
true! If it is standing up, that’s the principle behind the airplane’s attitude indicator; if it is on its side,

A toy gyroscope shows how it can maintain its position while spinning. When the
rotor is spinning perpendicular to the surface, it is parallel to the horizon.
The attitude indicator is based on this principle. It gives the pilot an “artificial horizon.”

14
 Once a vertically-mounted rotor starts to spin, it tends to stay in that alignment.
The heading indicator becomes an artificial compass and gives the pilot directional information.

and the rotor is spinning perpendicular to the surface, that’s the principle behind the airplane’s heading
indicator and turn coordinator.
If a rotor is aligned vertically, it can give direction information. Imagine that the airplane is sitting
on the ground with its nose pointed north. When the airplane is started, the rotor starts to spin. No
matter what direction the airplane goes, the rotor will continue to spin still aligned to north. This is
the basis of a heading indicator, an instrument also known as the “directional gyro.”
The heading indicator can be set without the airplane facing north. An example of this may be
that the airplane is headed west when the engine is started. The pilot rotates a small knob on the face
of the instrument so that it shows west, or 270 degrees. The instrument is now automatically cor-
rected for all other headings. The pilot uses a precision magnetic compass, located usually above the
instrument panel, for these corrections. (see associated Activity One at the end of the chapter.)
Also displayed with the turn coordinator is a
simple instrument called an inclinometer. This is
nothing more than a curved, liquid-filled glass tube
with a ball inside. If a turn is not being executed
properly by the pilot, the ball will give a clear indi-
cation of poor technique. If the banking maneuver is
done properly, the ball will stay in the center
throughout the procedure. The inclinometer shows
whether the airplane is slipping or skidding in a
turn. slipping means that the airplane is moving to-
ward the inside of the turn and skidding means it's
moving away from the radius of the turn.

The turn coordinator uses the gyro

principle for banking information.

15
THE GLASS COCKPIT –
A New Generation of Aircraft Instrumentation

This image gives you a closer look at the Captain’s panel of a Cessna 172 airplane. The display in
front of the pilot is referred to as the PFD, or Primary Flight Display. The upper ADI, or Attitude Di-
rector Indicator, is bracketed on the left by the “speed Tape” Indicator and on the right by the “Alti-
tude Tape” Indicator. The bottom half is the Horizontal situation Indicator and shows a full compass
rose presentation with a terrain mode overlay.

What is a “Glass Cockpit?”

A glass cockpit is an airplane cockpit that features electronic instrument displays. The glass cock-
pit has become standard equipment on most aircraft today, including airliners, military aircraft, and
general aviation aircraft. The glass cockpit was even fitted on several of the recent space shuttles.
Aircraft used to rely on mechanical gauges, but over the years as more instruments and controls
were added, the cockpit became very crowded. The growing number of instruments competed for
space and the pilot’s attention. The introduction of electronic displays and digital information
changed that. The glass cockpit represented a huge technology update and an improvement.
The glass cockpit displays the information in an easily understood picture of the aircraft situation
and position. It does this, not only in horizontal and vertical dimensions, but also in regard to time
and speed. The glass cockpit reduces the pilot’s workload and at the same time gives the pilot situa-
tional awareness. The multi-colored, multi-functional flat screens are much easier to read and under-
stand. The glass cockpit has improved pilot efficiency and airplane safety.
NAsA, the aerospace industry, and the Department of Defense are all using glass cockpit technol-

16
 The glass cockpit of a Cessna CJ2 Citation – Image by Alex McMahon

ogy to increase performance of their aircraft and the pilots who fly them. Additionally, both airlines
and passengers are benefitting from this new technology. The cost of travel is less than it would be
with the old technology and more flights arrive on time.

Future Developments
The newest developments in cockpit displays look and behave a lot like other computers, with
windows and data that can be manipulated with point-and-click devices. They also add terrain, ap-
proach charts, weather, vertical displays, and 3D navigation images.
The improved concepts enable aircraft makers to customize cockpits to a greater degree than was
previously done. All of the manufacturers involved have chosen to do so in one way or another—
such as using a trackball, thumb pad, or joystick as a pilot-input device in a computer-style environ-
ment. many of the modifications offered by the aircraft manufacturers improve situational awareness
and customize the human-machine interface to enhance safety.
As aircraft displays have
modernized, the sensors that
feed them have modernized
as well. Traditional gyro-
scopic flight instruments
have been replaced by Atti-
tude and Heading Reference
systems (AHRss) and Air
Data Computers (ADCs),
improving reliability and re-
ducing cost and mainte-
nance. (GPs) receivers are
frequently integrated into
glass cockpits.
Glass cockpit of a Piper Saratoga modern glass cockpits

17
might include the synthetic Vision system (sVs) or the Enhanced Vision system (EVs). synthetic
Vision systems display a realistic 3D depiction of the outside world (similar to a flight simulator),
based on a database of terrain and geophysical features in conjunction with the attitude and position
information gathered from the aircraft navigational systems. Enhanced Vision systems add realtime
information from external sensors, such as an infrared camera.
All new airliners, such as the Airbus A380, and Boeing 787, as well as private jets, such as Bom-
bardier Global Express and Learjet, use glass cockpits. Certain general aviation aircraft, such as the
4-seat Diamond Aircraft DA40, DA42, and DA50, and the 4-seat Cirrus Design sR20 and sR22, are
available with glass cockpits. systems, such as the Garmin G1000, are now available on many new
General Aviation (GA) aircraft, including the classic Cessna 172, one of CAP’s two major airplanes
used for aviation missions. The other major CAP airplane, the Cessna 182, has a glass cockpit.
Glass cockpits are also popular as a retrofit for older private jets and turboprops, such as Dassault
Falcons, Raytheon Hawkers, Bombardier Challengers, Cessna Citations, Gulfstreams, King Airs,
Learjets, Astras, and many others. Aviation service companies work closely with equipment manu-
facturers to address the needs of the owners of these aircraft.

GPS – A NEW TECHNOLOGY FOR AEROSPACE NAVIGATION

GPS – Where Did It Start?

The Global Positioning system (GPs) is a navigation and
precise-positioning tool. Developed by the Department of De-
fense in 1973, the GPs was originally designed to assist sol-
diers and military vehicles, planes, and ships in accurately
determining their locations world-wide. Today, the uses of the
GPs have extended to include both the commercial and sci-
entific worlds. Commercially, the GPs is used as a navigation
and positioning tool in airplanes, boats, cars, and for almost
all outdoor recreational activities such as hiking, fishing, and
kayaking.
In the scientific community, the GPs plays an important
role in the earth sciences. meteorologists use it for weather
forecasting and global climate studies. Geologists can use it as The GPS is a “constellation” of
satellites that orbit the earth.
a highly accurate method of surveying and in earthquake stud-
ies to measure tectonic motions during, and in between, earth-
quakes.

How Does It Work?

Three distinct parts make up the Global Positioning system. The first segment of the system con-
sists of 24 satellites, orbiting 20,000 km above the Earth in 12-hour circular orbits. This means that it
takes each satellite 12 hours to make a complete circle around the Earth. In order to make sure that
they can be detected from anywhere on the Earth's surface, the satellites are divided into six groups
of four. Each group is assigned a different path to follow. This creates six orbital planes which com-
pletely surround the Earth.
These satellites send radio signals to Earth that contain information about the satellite. Using GPs
ground-based receivers, these signals can be detected and used to determine the receivers' positions

18
 (latitude, longitude, and height).
The Earth and its layers
lithosphere crust The radio signals are sent at two
asthenosphere different L-band frequencies. L-
atmosphere mantle
band refers to a range of frequen-
cies between 390 and 1550 mHz.
crust Within each signal, a coded se-
quence is sent. By comparing the
mantle
core mesosphere received sequence with the origi-
nal sequence, scientists can deter-
ionosphere mine how long it takes for the
signal to reach the Earth from the
thermosphere stratosphere satellite. The signal delay is use-
ful in learning about the Iono-
troposphere sphere and the Troposphere, two
atmospheric layers that surround
Earth's surface. A third signal is
also sent to the receivers from the
satellite. This signal contains data about the health and position of the satellite.
The second part of the GPs system is the ground station, comprised of a receiver and antenna, as
well as communication tools to transmit data to the data center. The omni-directional antenna at each
site, acting much like a car radio antenna, picks up the satellite signals and transmits them to the site
receiver as electric currents. The receiver then separates the signals into different channels desig-
nated for a particular satellite and frequency at a particular time. Once the signals have been isolated,
the receiver can decode them and split them into individual frequencies. With this information the re-
ceiver produces a general position (latitude, longitude, and height) for the antenna. Later, the data
collected by the receiver can be processed again by scientists to determine different things, including
another set of position coordinates for the same antenna; this time with millimeter accuracy.
The third part of the system is the data center. The role of the data center is two-fold. It both mon-
itors and controls the global GPs stations, and it uses automated computer systems to retrieve and
analyze data from the receivers at those stations. Once processed, the data , along with the original
raw data, is made available to scientists around the world for use in a variety of applications. since
global GPs sites are constructed and monitored by different institutions all over the world, there are
many different data center locations.
The Global Positioning system (GPs) was designed as a dual-use system with the primary pur-
pose of enhancing the effectiveness of U.s. and allied military forces. GPs is rapidly becoming an
integral component of the emerging Global Information Infrastructure, with applications ranging
from mapping and surveying to international air traffic management and global change research. The
growing demand from military, civil, commercial, and scientific users has generated a U.s. commer-
cial GPs equipment and service industry that leads the world. Augmentations to enhance basic GPs
services could further expand these civil and commercial markets.
The GPs is managed by the National space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT)
Executive Committee, supported by the PNT Executive secretariat (http://www.pnt.gov). The PNT
manages GPs and Us Government augmentations to the GPs, consistent with national policy, to
support and enhance Us economic competitiveness and productivity while protecting national secu-
rity and foreign policy interests.
The basic GPs is defined as the constellation of satellites, the navigation payloads which produce
the GPs signals, ground stations, data links, and associated command and control facilities which are

19
 One of 24 Global Positioning Satellites – Image courtesy of NASA

operated and maintained by the Department of Defense; the standard Positioning service (sPs) as
the civil and commercial service provided by the basic GPs; and augmentations as those systems
based on the GPs that provide real-time accuracy greater than the sPs. The GPs permits land, sea,
and airborne users to determine their three dimensional position, velocity, and time, 24 hours a day,
in all weather, anywhere in the world.
The GPs is one technology that allows pilots to accurately determine their position anywhere on
the Earth within seconds. The GPs is becoming the primary means of navigation worldwide. The
GPs units in the aircraft finds the nearest two satellite signals. This process is called “acquisition.”
The time it takes for the signals to travel creates a precise triangle between the two satellites and the
aircraft, telling the pilot his latitude and longitude to within one meter.
Despite these advances, pilots can still crash because
they get lost or lose track of hazards at night or in bad
weather. On December 29, 1970, the Occupational
safety and Health Act came into effect. It requires most
civilian aircraft to carry an emergency locater transmit-
ter (ELT). In the event of an accident, an ELT is de-
signed to transmit a distress signal and then lead
rescuers to the site. The ELT becomes active when a
pilot tunes to an emergency radio frequency or acti-
Emergency locater transmitter
vates automatically when the aircraft exceeds a certain
force in landing, called the g-force, during a crash. (see
associated Activity Two at the end of the chapter.)

20
Activity One -
Gyroscope: Earthly Spinning
1
Purpose: After discussing the use of the gyroscope in airplane instrumentation, this activity will
demonstrate how the gyroscope works within the force boundaries of Earth, and what principle oc-
curs when the gyroscope is spinning.
Materials: Acquire a toy gyroscope from a hobby, craft, or toy store. The cost is around $5.00. (sci-
ence museums are also usually a good place to locate one, as well as the internet.)
Procedure:
1. Run the gyroscope’s string through the hole in the gyroscope rotor's axle.
2. Wind the string onto the axle.
3. Holding the gyroscope, pull the cord with a steady but strong motion.
4. Once the rotor starts spinning, let the gyro rest on its stand.
5. Touch the upper part of the gimbal rings and notice how it wants to stay in position.
6. Let it spin down or stop it with your fingers.
7. Repeat the steps 1-3 and see how many places a gyro will maintain its position, even continuing to
work sideways. With careful placement, the gyro will sit on a pencil point!

Summary: Newton’s First Law of motion applies here. This law states: “a body at rest will remain
at rest unless acted upon by an outside, unbalanced force, or a body in motion will remain in motion
unless acted upon by an outside, unbalanced force.” On Earth, gravity acts on the gyro. But, in
space, without the forces found on Earth, the gyroscope will spin endlessly. Thus, a spinning gyro-
scope could help demonstrate the principle of rigidity in space, which means that once the gyro is
spinning at a high speed, it resists change.

The principles of a gyroscope are amazing

21
Activity Two -
Geocaching

Purpose: To introduce students to a fun reading, geography, math, and technology activity using the
Global Positioning satellite (GPs) technology available for use in the aviation and space programs.

Materials: computer with internet to access informa-

tion from the Geocaching website http://www.geo-
caching.com/, which includes information on where
caches are located; a GPs; note pad; pen or pencil;
drinks; and first-aid kit for trip; bug spray; walking
stick (optional depending on terrain); small items to
use as trade items in the located caches (such as mar-
bles, keychains, special coins, or other significant
items);

Procedure:
What is geocaching? Geo stands for Earth and cache
stands for container. Geocaching is a high-tech treas-
ure hunting game played throughout the world by ad-
venture seekers equipped with handheld GPs
devices. The basic idea is to locate outdoor hidden
containers, called geocaches, and then log your find
and experiences online. Geocaching is enjoyed by
people from all age groups, with a strong sense of
community and support for the environment.
There are hundreds of thousands of registered geo-
caches hidden around the world. One of the big sur-
prises is how many geocaches there are in virtually
all vicinities (some even in the places people regu-
larly walk their dogs). This would be a great way to
This find was a larger size container in the
enliven a long boring car journey, adding extra inter-
woods. The kids enjoy the trade items
est to a unit or school field trip. and the log gets signed.

Follow the guidance below.

1. Give yourself or your team a name to use online at geocaching.com and to log your find at the
cache location.
2. While online select and print at least one cache you want to find by searching the zip code of the
desired area. You may want to select a cache with a larger container size in hopes of being able to
trade items for your group.
3. Read your selected cache description, checking cache size and terrain. You can pull up the goggle
map to get a general idea of the area where it is located. Caches can be in parking lots or deep in
the woods. Print out your selected cache page information and take it with you.
4. Use the coordinates given by the hider to find the cache. Put these coordinates in your GPs an hit
go on the GPs.
5. Once you arrive, use stealth in finding the cache. Not all people are in the game. You don’t want

22
 others seeing you find the cache or they may not respect the game and may move it or take it. Use
your GPs to get as close to the exact location as you can. Hopefully this will bring you within 10
feet or closer.
6. start your hunt. The cache can be a large Tupperware container full of fun trade items hidden
under branches or it can be a small magnetic cache stuck on something metal so small it only
holds a small piece of paper to sign. many are very creative and are something you would never
think was even a container.
7. Inside the cache is a log. Enter your cache name on the log so you can show that you have found
it. The first cacher to find a newly published cache gets “first to find” (FTF)
honors. And will sign the log FTF. Others might put TFTC which means
“thanks for the cache”.
8. Use your paper to make any notes to describe your find and to record back at
your computer. You will log it as a “find” and get a smiley or a “did not find”
(DNF) and maybe a fun story about your adventure without giving informa-
tion about what the container was or the exact location. It takes the even the
most experienced geocacher a few times to find some of the harder ones, so
don’t get discouraged.
9. Larger cache containers often have small trade items. If you take something
it is nice to leave something for the next person to enjoy or use for trade. You
may find a geocoin or travel bug (which are trackable items described on the
website). If you take one, you must find another cache to leave it in and log
where you moved it to on the website. The owner has written a mission or
goal and watches its movement online. This Geomate Junior
Geocaching GPS is
Summary: This activity familiarizes you with a GPs. some GPss have geo- great for kids.
But any GPS
caching programs so you can read the information while you are geocaching. can be used.

23
 2

During the last week in July and the first week in August, Wittman Field,
in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, becomes the busiest airport in the world.
This occurs during the annual Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA) fly-in called AirVenture.

Learning Outcomes
- Explain the basic layout of a general aviation airport.
- Identify taxiway and runway signs and markings.
- Explain the role of the Federal Aviation Administration in controlling air traffic.
- Identify the different phases of the flight profile.
- List the phonetic alphabet.

Important Terms
ATC - air traffic control
beacon - a tower-mounted, large, rotating light located at an airport that gives pilots a guide to the
type of airport and the airport’s location
controlled airport - an airport with an operating control tower
control tower - a structure that houses air traffic controllers

24
course - the intended path of flight, which is measured in angular degrees from true or magnetic
north on a compass
FAA - Federal Aviation Administration, which is the regulatory authority for all aviation
flight profile - a standardized series of steps the pilot takes from take-off to landing
FSS - Flight Service Station - a FAA facility that provides pilots with weather briefings and flight
planning (opening and closure)
heading - the direction that an airplane points with respect to true, or magnetic, north including any
wind displacement; based on its longitudinal axis
noise abatement - a policy set forth by a governing body that controls the noise impact upon a com-
munity surrounding an airport
ramp - the airport’s “parking lot”
runway - a dedicated pathway for taking off and landing airplanes
runway heading - a number labeling a runway, which is based on corresponding degrees from true,
or magnetic, north
segmented circle - a set of indicators, usually surrounding an airport’s wind sock, that provide traf-
fic pattern information to a pilot in the air
taxi - ground movement of an airplane
taxiway - a passageway between the parking area and the runways of an airport
tetrahedron - a device that gives an indication of the landing direction at an airport
traffic pattern - a rectangular virtual path above an airport that facilitates the coordination of the
flow of aircraft in the air
uncontrolled airport - an airport without an operating control tower
wind direction indicators - several types of devices that give a pilot an indication of wind direction
wind sock - a fabric tube that shows which direction the wind is from

Naples, Florida Airport – Images by Alex McMahon

25
THE FLIGHT PROFILE
There are basically two kinds of
airports, uncontrolled and con-
trolled. An airport can be a small
grassy field, located in a pasture, or
it can be a large center for commer-
cial or military aviation.
When an airplane departs an air-
port, large or small, it normally fol-
lows a standard flight profile.
Whether it’s a Piper Cherokee with
a student pilot at the controls or a
Lockheed SR-71 on a routine mis- Not all airports are acres of concrete and asphalt.
sion, it follows basically the same In many parts of the world, grassy fields are home
procedure every time. Refer to the for airplanes like this Australian Tiger Moth.
illustration below to follow the
listed profile:
(A) While the airplane is parked, the pilot walks around and examines it externally. This is called
the preflight inspection. Fuel & oil levels, control surface freedom-of-movement, flaps check and
landing gear condition are just a few of the many important items a pilot examines before starting
the airplane.
(B) Using the example of a controlled airport, the pilot gets movement clearance from the ground
controller in the airport control tower. This is the taxi phase of the profile. The pilot taxis the air-
plane along a taxiway and then stops before entering a runway.
(C) The pilot sets the parking brake, does an engine run-up, checks magnetos, sets mixture,
checks carburetor heat, checks engine instruments, checks flight instruments, and makes sure that all
flight controls are moving properly. Passengers are briefed, seat belts and shoulder harnesses are
checked, and the pilot calls the control tower for clearance to take off.
(D) Once cleared by the tower controller, the pilot enters the runway and the takeoff portion of
the flight profile begins.
(E) After takeoff, the pilot puts the airplane into the climb portion of the profile. During this pe-
riod, the air traffic controller may ask the pilot to follow a specific traffic pattern. Once clear of the
airport traffic, the pilot may continue climbing until a desired altitude is reached.
(F) The pilot then levels off and the aircraft enters the cruise part of the profile. Depending upon
preflight planning, the pilot may elect several options for the rules that govern flying. An example of
this is VFR, or Visual Flight Rules. If the pilot elects to go from point to point using these rules, all

h indicates complete stops

The flight profile-from takeoff to touchdown

26
movement is done on a “see and be seen” basis. A very important part of learning to fly an airplane
is knowing where you can and can not go when flying by the rules. Visual Flight Rules are directly
connected to weather and visual conditions within the airspace system. A pilot may elect to go by
IFR, or Instrument Flight Rules, wherein the pilot uses the instruments to guide flight. IFR are used
in poor visibility conditions, such as bad weather or darkness. In either case, the pilot must first be
trained in and rated by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Unlike VFR, IFR is a system
of carefully-controlled directions and altitudes that enables the pilot to fly into weather conditions
where visibility is limited. Under these rules, strict control is maintained by Air Traffic Controllers
who monitor the system by radar, and IFR requires that a pilot fly an airplane with great precision.
(G) The next phase from cruise is descent. In this phase, the pilot decreases altitude and prepares
for landing at another destination, or returns to the airport where the flight originated. If the pilot is
approaching a controlled airport, radio contact must be made with the air traffic control tower, or an
ATC radar facility called “approach control.” The controller will then direct the pilot to position the
airplane on a specific course so that it enters the airport without disrupting the existing flow of traf-
fic.
(H) Once the pilot enters the proximity of an airport, a traffic pattern is followed in preparation
for landing. This is all part of the approach-to-landing phase.
(I) The next step is landing. Once the pilot has positioned the airplane into alignment with the
runway, a glide slope angle is maintained until touchdown. The object is to get the airplane to land
straight ahead at a relatively slow speed. most flight training schools teach pilots to land just above
stall speed. This puts the least amount of stress on the airplane and does the least damage to tires.
The pilot slows the airplane down and exits the runway onto a taxiway.
(J) The airplane is then stopped and the pilot contacts the ground controller for permission to con-
tinue on a taxiway to a parking spot on the ramp. Once cleared, the pilot taxis the aircraft to the park-
ing area.

The airport traffic pattern

27
 (K) The pilot positions the airplane at or near the tie-down chains and the airplane is shut down. A
post-flight procedure is followed including shutting everything off properly and recording the flight in
the necessary log books.

RUNWAY MARKINGS
The Federal Aviation Administration controls the airway system over the United states and it has
certain standards that govern airports. These standards are quite different from the familiar automo-
bile street, avenue, boulevard, and freeway markings.
several factors are taken into consideration when airport designers are in the planning stages. If
there is to be only one runway, careful consideration is given to the prevailing winds surrounding the
airport. since wind is a major factor in the takeoff and landing performance of an airplane, airport
designers try to position a runway so that pilots will be taking off and landing into the wind most of
the time.
The numbers at the ends of the runways are actually shortened
headings as noted on a Compass Rose. (see photo to the right.)
Runways are given numbers between 01 and 36. This indicates the
runway heading. A runway with the number 36 point to the north, at
“magnetic north,” or “true north,” which is 360°.
A runway with the number 18 is south, or 180°, which is actually
180° clockwise from magnetic north on a compass.
Thus, the runway number is one tenth of the runway’s magnetic
heading. In other words, a runway with a 270° will be recorded as 27
(the zero is dropped to denote one tenth of the actual heading). Look-
ing at the Compass Rose photo to the right, in what direction would a
Compass Rose
270° (or runway 27) be headed? Yes, it would be west. Look at 290°
(or runway 29). In what direction would that runway be headed? You
will see WNW on the compass, and that means West North West.
29

11

A typical VFR runway where the numbers "29" and "11" are based on magnetic headings of 290° and 110°

Looking at the runway image above, imagine that you are in the cockpit of an airplane coming in
for a landing. When you look out, you see runway 29 directly ahead. If you were to glance at the air-
plane’s compass, you would note that it also reads 29 (the shortened, or one-tenth version of 290°).
Now, if you were to come into the same airport from the opposite direction, you would see the num-
ber 11 on this runway. Again, a glance at the compass would show the number 11, the magnetic
heading of 110° . In what direction is runway 11’s course ? The compass says EsE, which means
East south East, which is the opposite direction of runway 29- WNW.
Often there will be two parallel runways (runways running side-by-side with the same magnetic
heading). Their numbers will be the same at both ends. In this case, they are designated “R” for the
right one and “L” for the left one. Using the “20” above, you would see 29R on one runway and 29L
on the other. If three runways are in parallel, the center would be 29C (for center).

28
Nonprecision Instrument Runways

18
36

Nonprecision instrument runway

some airports have the capability to conduct nonprecision instrument approach operations during
inclement weather. Nonprecision runways only provide pilots with lateral (left or right) or alignment
markings to help the pilot land. There are no markings to determine vertical (altitude) or glide angle
and the pilot has to rely on instruments for this information. At airports where they have this instru-
ment landing capability, you may see nonprecision instrument markings, as in the illustration below.
These threshold markings are the two sets of four stripes ahead of the number 36.

18
All the Bells and Whistles-
Precision Instrument Runways
If an airport is an important hub in the airway system,
it will usually have a runway that is designed to accept
aircraft under bad weather conditions. This type of run-
way is in full compliance with IFR, or Instrument Flight
Rules. When a pilot is in the approach phase of the flight 3000'
profile, he/she will use an electronic “Instrument Landing
system” (ILs) glide slope instrument in the cockpit for
guidance to a precision runway.
A precision runway has both lateral (left to right) and
vertical (altitude) informational markings to assist the
pilot in precise alignment (lateral) and glide angle (verti- 1000'
Aiming Point
cal) control.
since the pilot often cannot see the runway, the visual
markings, shown to the right, assist in getting the airplane Touchdown
500'
onto the runway safely. Zone Marker

36 Side Strips
Threshold
Markings

Unusable
Portion

Precision instrument runway

29
AIRPORT SIGNS
At some point, it is hoped that you will get the opportunity to go on an orientation flight. When
the pilot is taxiing out for departure, you will notice signs along the route and near the runway. Part
of the “language” of an airport is understanding the meaning of these signs. The six categories of
signs are depicted below and are described on next page.

Airport signs

30
1. Mandatory Signs - These have a red background with white numbers/letters. These signs denote
an entrance to a runway, critical area, or a prohibited area.
2. Location Signs - These are black with yellow inscription and usually a yellow border. They don’t
have arrows. They are used to identify a taxiway or runway location, boundary of the runway, or
an instrument landing system (ILs) critical area.
3. Information Signs - These are yellow signs with black lettering and symbols that give informa-
tion on such things as areas that cannot be identified by the tower, noise abatement procedures,
and applicable radio frequencies.
4. Direction Signs - These are yellow signs that give a pilot directions. The black inscription and
arrow identifies the designation of the intersecting taxiways leading out of an intersection.
5. Destination Signs - These are yellow signs with black letters and a distinctive black arrow, like
the direction signs. They give direction to special locations like military, international, and
fixed-based operator (FBO) sites.
6. Runway Distance Remaining Signs - These are large black signs with a white number that tell
pilots the distance remaining during takeoff or landing.

AIRPORT LIGHTING
During flight training, you will discover that one of the most challenging, yet fascinating, experi-
ences is flying at night. moonlit landscapes and city lights are sometimes breathtaking. From a dis-
tance, airports tend to blend into big city lights; however, if you know what to look for, they are easy
to spot. Airport lighting is a kaleidoscope of color and each light has both purpose and meaning.
since the Federal Aviation Administration controls the airway system, airport lighting is standard-
ized.

Who Controls Airport Lighting?

Airport lighting is controlled by air traffic controllers at controlled (tower) airports. At uncontrolled
(no tower) airports, the lights may be on a timer, or if there is a Flight Service Station (Fss) located
at an airport, the Fss personnel may control the lighting. A pilot may request various light systems
be turned on or off and also request a specified intensity. At selected uncontrolled airports, pilots in
flight can control the intensity of these runway edge lights from the cockpit. It’s done by using a
specified radio frequency and clicking the microphone. This procedure is called “pilot controlled
lighting.”

AIRPORT LIGHTS
most airports have some type of lighting for night operations. The type of lighting systems de-
pends on the volume and complexity of operations at an airport. Airport lighting is standardized so
that airports use the same colors for lights on the runways and taxiways. Below are examples of
some of the lights at airports:
1. Runway edge lights - Lights used to outline the edges of runways at night or during low visibility
conditions. They are classified according to the intensity they are capable of producing: (1) Low
Intensity Runway Lights (LIRL); (2) medium (MIRL); and (3) High (HIRL). These lights are
white except on instrument runways where amber lights are used on the last half the length of the
runway (or the last 2,000 feet, whichever is less).

31
2. Threshold Lights - Green lights that show the beginning of the runway.
3. End of runway lighting - Red lights that mark the end of the runway you are facing.
4. REIL - Runway End Identifier Lights - High intensity white strobe lights placed on each side of
the runway, especially helpful with reduced visibility, contrasting terrain, and much other lighting.

White Runway Edge Lights

Basic Runway Lights

5. In-Runway Lighting - Touchdown zone lights (TDZL), runway centerline lights (RCLs), and
taxiway turnoff lights are installed on some precision runways to facilitate landing under adverse
visibility conditions. TDZLs are two rows of transverse light bars disposed symmetrically about
the runway centerline in the runway touchdown zone. RCLs consists of flush centerline lights
spaced every 50 feet beginning 75 feet from the landing threshold. Taxiway turnoff lights are flush
lights which emit a steady green color.
6. ALS - Approach Lighting System - If an airport has a precision landing system, there is a good
possibility that it will also have an ALs, or approach lighting system. The ALs is primarily in-
tended to provide a means to transition from instrument flight to visual flight for landing. It de-
pends on whether the runway is designated as “precision” or “nonprecision.” sometimes
beginning as far away as 3,000 feet, some of the more complex systems include sequenced flash-
ing lights which appear to the pilot as a ball of light traveling toward the runway at high speed.
Approach lights can also aid VFR pilots operating under normal conditions.
7. VASI - Visual Approach Slope Indicator - The VAsI lighting system is the most common visual
glide path system and gives pilots a visual indication of the proper approach angle during the land-
ing. The VAsI provides obstruction clearance within 10° of the extended runway centerline, and to 4
nautical miles from the runway threshold. A VAsI consists of light units arranged in bars. There are
2-bar and 3-bar VAsIs. The 2-bar VAsI has near and far light bars and the 3-bar VAsI has near, mid-
dle, and far light bars. Two-bar VAsI installations provide one visual glide path which is normally
set at 3° and the upper glide path one-fourth degree above the lower glide path. The basic principle
of the VAsI is that of color differentiation between red and white. Each light unit projects a beam of
light having a white segment in the upper part of the beam and a red segment in the lower part of the
beam. The lights are arranged so the pilot will see the combination of lights.
A standard two-color VASI

32
The newer tri-color VASI

When an aircraft descends from green to red, the pilot may see a dark amber color during the transition in colors.

8. Tri-Color VASI - This is a system with a single light giving three separate indications. When a pilot
is above the recommended glide path, there will be an amber color displayed. If the pilot is below
the glide path, a red color will be observed. When the pilot makes the necessary corrections and the
airplane is on the recommended glide path, a green colored light will be indicated.
9. Pulse Light Approach Slope Indicator (PLASI) and Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)
- A newer version of a two color visual approach involves a pulsating red light when the pilot is
below and a pulsating white light when the pilot is too high above the recommended path. This is re-
ferred to as the PLASI system. The PAPI lights are usually located on the left side of the runway and
consist of a row of four lights. If the pilot is too high, all four lights will be white. When the recom-
mended glide path is obtained, the left two will be white and the right two will be red. All four lights
will be red if the pilot is too low on the glide path.

The PLASI system of approach lighting

10. Taxiway Lights - Blue lights are the norm for taxiway edge lights. However, some airports have
green taxiway centerline lights that may include portions of the ramp. Lights that shine in all di-
rections are called omnidirectional and can be observed at the edge of taxiways.
11. Beacons - These beacon lights guide pilots to airports at night. From a distance, pilots can see
what appears to be flashing colors. If it is a civilian airport, the beacon will flash alternating col-
ors of white and green. If it’s a water airport, the colors will alternately be white and yellow. Hel-
icopter airports, called heliports, have a three color display of green, yellow, and white. military
airports have a distinctive “white-white-green” display.

33
WIND DIRECTION INDICATORS
Wind is a key factor in flying, especially in takeoff and
landing. At controlled airports, the tower operators provide
this information to pilots in voice and recorded communi-
cations. However, when this service is not available, stan-
dardized, visual wind indicators become one of the pilot’s
best sources of wind information. These indicators include
a wind sock, a wind tee, and a tetrahedron.
Wind socks have been around for decades and they are
still a reliable source of wind direction and speed. Because
the wind sock is large on one end and small on the other,
and can swivel around its pole, it gives the direction and a
good indication where the wind is from and how hard it’s
blowing. The wind enters the larger end of the sock, in-
flates it, and rotates it so that the sock aligns itself to the
wind. From the air, a pilot can see this inflated sock and es-
timate the speed of the air flow.
Wind tees and tetrahedrons can swing freely, and will
align themselves with the wind direction. The wind tee and
tetrahedron can also be set manually by some authority at The airport beacon
the airport. Both the tetrahedron and wind tee point into the
wind.

Wind Indicators
At most airports, there is
a segmented circle sur-
rounding the wind indicator.
These can be as simple as
half-buried car tires that are
tetrahedron
painted so they can be seen windsock
from the air.
wind tee
Other markings around
the segmented circle include Wind indicators
traffic pattern direction indi-
cators or landing runway indicators. These markers tell the pilot which way the normal traffic pattern
flows around an airport. (see associated Activity Three at the end of the chapter.)

Airport Communication
As we have learned, the airport has special lighting, markings, indicators, and signals to ensure
safe take off and landing. The FAA has coordinated these safety features, but has also designated
special communication codes between the Air Traffic Controllers and the pilots. A unique alphabet
vocabulary is used so that all oral communication at the airport is clear. This phonetic alphabet is
presented in Activity Four at the end of the chapter. Try this associated activity to help you under-
stand how aviators clearly communicate to avoid misunderstandings that could cause disasters in
take off and landing.

34
Activity Three -
Look Down; What Are You Seeing?
2
Purpose: Identify parts of an airfield and where each is located from an aerial view.

This is an actual photograph taken of Jefferson County Airport, Broomfield, Colorado. Imagine
that you are flying over this field, or a similar airport, and you are being quizzed by a flight instruc-
tor on what you're seeing. Identify as many parts of the airfield as you can. The answers are on the
next page.
1. Taxiway 2. Ramp 3. Runway 29 Right
4. Threshold markings 5. Aiming Point 6. side strip
Notice that there is a runway crossing Runway 29R. It is exactly perpendicular, or 90°, to
Runway 29R. There is also a runway to the left of runway 29R. It is also at 290°. What would this
runway be called? The answer is on the next page.

Jefferson County Airport, Broomfield, Colorado Courtesy of Raytheon Airport Services

35
Summary: This activity gives you the opportunity to identify the various parts of an airport. The
answers for questions 1-6 are labeled on the map below. match the numbers to the names on the
previous page. The runway that is to the left of runway 29R is 29L.

5
3

4 1

Jefferson County Airport, Broomfield, Colorado Courtesy of Raytheon Airport Services

36
Activity Four -
Hey You, Bravo-Oscar-Bravo!
Purpose: Increase your knowledge of the phonetic alphabet used by pilots and Air Traffic Controllers.

Materials: standard phonic alphabet below

A Alfa “Al-fa”
B Bravo “Bra-vo”
C Charlie “Char-lee”
D Delta “Del-tah”
E Echo “Eck-o”
F Foxtrot “Fox-trot”
G Golf “Golf”
H Hotel “Hoh-tell”
I India “In-dee-a”
J Juliet “Jew-lee-et”
K Kilo “Key-lo”
L Lima “Lee-ma”
m mike “mike”
N November “No-vem-ber”
O Oscar “Ahs-ker”
P Papa “Pah-pa”
Q Quebec “Keh-beck”
R Romeo “Row-me-o”
s sierra “see-air-a”
T Tango “Tang-go”
U Uniform “Yew-nee-form”
V Victor “Vic-tah”
W Whiskey “Wiss-key”
X X-Ray “Ecks-ray”
Y Yankee “Yang-key”
Z Zulu “Zoo-loo”
Procedure: You've probably heard someone try to spell out a word using other words like “...that's N,
as in Nancy,” or “B...like boy.” In the world of aviation, there is an organization called the ICAO, or
International Civil Aviation Organization, and they have established English as the world-wide lan-
guage of aviation. Along with this, they have selected 26 words which help in transmitting clear com-
munications. This is known as the phonetic alphabet.
Have each participant stand and give his/her name in phonetic alphabet. It's quick, it's fun, and it's a
learning experience. But, first try these just for grins!
1. Who am I? Juliet, Oscar, sierra, Hotel, Uniform, Alfa
2. Who am I? Tango, Uniform, Romeo, Kilo, Echo, Yankee
3. Who am I? sierra, Papa, Alfa, Charlie, Echo, Charlie, Alfa, sierra, Echo?

Summary: This activity helps to familiarize you with the phonic alphabet which many people outside
the aviation field use to clearly communicate orally. Hopefully this will be helpful to you in the future.

37
 3
Learning Outcomes
- Describe the basic layout of a
sectional chart.
- Explain the sectional chart
legend. An excerpt from an aeronautical sectional chart
- Identify latitude and longitude lines.
- Identify features such as railroads, pipelines, obstructions, and highways.
- Identify all of the information given about an airport.

Important Terms
cartography - the art and science of creating charts and maps
chart - a projection, usually on paper, showing a body of land and other features, such as water, that
gives information, usually in the form of symbols, graphs, or illustrations
latitude - a system of lines that run parallel to the equator, also known as parallels
legend - an illustration showing the symbols that are used on charts
longitude - a system of lines, known as meridians, between the north and south poles
map - a representation of the surface of the Earth (or of the sky/space above)
nautical mile - a unit of length that is approximately 6076 feet
projection - a method of transferring a portion of the Earth’s surface onto a flat chart; the most
widely used in aeronautical charts being the Lambert Conformal Conic Projection
relief - a term used to describe elevations, which is depicted by color tints, contour lines, and
shading on maps
sectional - a chart specifically designed for aviation use and Visual Flight Rules, with the scale being
1:500,000 or approximately 8 statute miles to one inch
scale - the size of an item, or area, on a chart, compared to it in actuality
statute mile - a unit of length that is 5,280 feet
tick - a small, or abbreviated mark on a line
WAC - The World Aeronautical Chart, which covers a much larger area than the sectional chart; the
scale of the WAC being 1:1,000,000 or approximately 16 statute miles per one inch

38
A SYSTEM OF GLOBAL
ORGANIZATION
The most commonly used aeronautical
“map” is known as the Sectional Chart. It has
a scale of 1 inch to 500,000 inches, or approxi-
mately 8 statute miles. The nautical mile
equivalent is approximately 6.85 miles. These
charts are based on the principle of a Lambert
Conformal Conic Projection and locations are
positioned according to lines of latitude and
longitude. The World Aeronautical Chart is
even larger than the sectional chart, but in this
chapter we will focus on the sectional chart. Lines of longitude (meridians) and latitude (parallels)

The lines of latitude are shown with a straight arrow. ———

The lines of longitude are shown with curved arrows. ———
The small arrows show the "ticks" that represent minutes. ——

39
SECTIONAL AERONAUTICAL CHARTS
The sectional Aeronautical
Charts are shown in this illus-
tration. The cartography
used to create these charts is
revised every 6 months, but
there are a few located outside
of the 48 contiguous states
that are revised annually. The
scale of this chart is
1:500,000 and it is based on
the Lambert Conformal Conic
Projection.
In the illustration, you will
see the chart title and that
refers to a primary city within
the coverage of the sectional.
Note the one we are using is
Wichita, a large city located in
the state of Kansas. Others,
like Las Vegas, Chicago,
miami, Dallas-Ft.Worth,
Phoenix, and Houston, all
have small blotches within
their area. This means that
there is additional information
available for their large air-
ports in the form of Terminal
Area Charts.
The black arrows in the
upper right and left corners
indicate which side of the
sectional is north and which
is south. There is a band of
color (vertical) just below the
illustration of the United
states. This graphic shows
the gradient tints assigned to
each one thousand feet of el-
evation, called relief. Colors
range from a green at sea
level to a golden tint, at high
areas. The “8720” is the max-
imum height that is repre-
sented on the Wichita
sectional. This is an actual, full-size face panel of a Sectional Aeronautical Chart
for Wichita, Kansas and surrounding territories.

40
THE LEGEND AND ITS SYMBOLS
The sectional chart not only dis-
plays airports, it has cities, towns,
railways, rivers, radio navigation
aids, power lines, obstructions, and
other landmarks that pilots can use
as visual checkpoints along a route
of flight. All of these features are
depicted in various colors and
forms. To learn how they are repre-
sented, you must become familiar
with the chart’s legend. This is a
colorful array of symbols and
graphics that represent features of
interest to pilots.
Using the legend shown here, try
to locate the following symbols on
the Wichita sectional excerpt shown
on page 42. This activity will give
you a challenge that will help pro-
mote a better understanding of the
legend. Work with a partner to as-
sist each other in locating each
symbol.

• Obstruction below 1000 ft. AGL

• mines and quarries
• small town shown in yellow
• Private-non public use airport
• Power transmission line
• Interstate Highway 80
• Nondirectional radio beacon
• Railroad track
• Visual check point
• Parachute jumping area
• Class C airspace
• Group obstruction
• Outdoor theater
• small river
• Wichita VORTAC
• A longitude line
• A latitude line
• Golf course
• sand pit
• Race track

The legend for the Wichita Sectional Aeronautical Chart

41
This is an excerpt from the Wichita sectional and it covers an area in northern Oklahoma.
The Kansas border is 37° Latitude and just west of Enid is 98° Longitude.

42
Airports
You will notice that
the legend has “blocks”
of information. Using
the two airport blocks,
notice how a symbol re-
lates to an actual symbol
on the excerpt. Often
times, the legend sym-
bol doesn’t exactly fit
the one in the block.
That’s when you have to
look around for other re-
lated graphics. Here’s an
example: Go to block
marked Airports that has
been superimposed
upon the exerpt. The
second line down is a
blue symbol with an “x”
in it. This is the symbol
for a tower-controlled
airport with a hard-sur-
faced runway between
1500’ and 8069’ long.
There is a black line that
connects that symbol to
the one on the chart.
This is Enid Woodring
Airport. Its longest run-
way is 6400 feet and it
falls between the 1500-
8069 limits. The runway
is hard-surfaced. Notice
that there is a small star
on top of the Enid-
Woodring symbol and
tabs sticking out. Go
back to the block of in-
formation and you’ll see
a little blue star at the
bottom. It says, “* Ro-
tating airport beacon in
operation sunset to sun-
rise.” Enid-Woodring
Field has a beacon and it
is shown on the symbol.
Wichita sectional

43
Now look down at the lower portion of the box and you will see symbols, although the wrong color,
that have tabs. The information says, “services: fuel available and field tended during normal work-
ing hours depicted by use of ticks around basic airport symbol.” They call them ticks, but they look
like tabs.
In order to get the meaning of the symbols used,
you have to do a little digging. If you carefully exam-
ine the Enid-Woodring Airport symbol, you will notice
a small dot in about the 5 o’clock position. To solve the
mystery of the dot, it’s buried in the AIRPORTs block
of information. Can you find it?
Looking back at the Airport Data block on the ex-
erpt on page 43, you will see a black line going from
the text to the magenta information around “Chero-
kee.” Note that the information in the AIRPORT
DATA is blue and the information around Cherokee’s The Cherokee, Oklahoma Airport
airport is purple. Now, look back at the information symbols and information
around Enid-Woodring Airport. It is blue. Woodring has a control tower and Cherokee does not. It is
said to be uncontrolled. Note also that the Cherokee airport symbol has a tiny star on top of it. This
means that it has a rotating beacon operating from sunset to sunrise.
Let’s take a look at the airport data and see what it’s all about. Of course, CHEROKEE is the
name of the airport and the name of the town. Notice right after the name CHEROKEE, there is (OK
6). If you will look back up into the data block, you will see (NAm) and a small arrow pointing to it
with “Location Identifier” written. This means that Cherokee airport is identified with that symbol. If
it were Los Angeles International Airport, it would be LAX, Dallas-Ft. Worth would be DFW, seat-
tle, sEA, etc.

Remember-Uncontrolled Airports Are Magenta, Controlled Airports Are Blue

Under the first line of information about Cherokee is “1177 L 38 122.9 .” Again, looking back at
the information block, you will see that the 1177 relates to the “elevation in feet.” so Cherokee has
an elevation above sea level of 1,177 feet. The L is “Lighting in operation sunset to sunrise.” The 38
is the “Length of the longest runway in hundreds of feet.” Cherokee has a runway that is 3800 feet
long. Now, look at the Cherokee airport symbol. It is magenta and there is a line in the middle of it.
If you go back down to the AIRPORTs block, you will see the second symbol, again shown in ma-
genta, and this says it is a hard-surfaced runway between 1500’ to 8069’ in length. Cherokee has a
hard-surfaced runway that is 3800’ long. You can see that information is often buried in another
block and you have to hunt for it.

Once You’ve Mastered Cherokee, Try All of the Airports on the Sectional!
The next information in the Cherokee airport data is the 122.9. This is the UNICOm and it is
identified in the AIRPORT DATA block with a small arrow. Down in the lower portion of the AIR-
PORT DATA block, you will see a definition for UNICOm. It is an "Aeronautical advisory station"
and not a control tower. It means that the airport has an advisory on items such as wind direction,
c at the end of the information means this is a
services available, and traffic pattern directions. The 䊉
“Common Traffic Advisory Frequency.”

44
Airports- Time to Visit One!
Now that you have learned a good deal
about airports, it is time to go and visit one.
You can arrange a visit through an adult with
whom you are working on this module. If
you are lucky, you will be able to take an
orientation flight to see the airport from the
air, hear the communications of the Air Traf-
fic Controllers, and observe the final ap-
proach for landing. Blue skies to you! (see
associated Activity Five at the end of the
chapter.)

This is what is seen when you fly in an airplane. Once the

runway is lined up, full power is added for take-off. It is
one of the most exciting moments of flight.

45
Activity Five -
The Final Approach!!
2
Purpose: simulate the final approach and landing of an airplane.

Materials: a plastic toy airplane with fixed landing gear, two eye screws, 30-40 feet of fishing line,
a stick or broom handle 18-24 inches long, masking tape, and two people. Note: The model airplanes
can be purchased in most variety stores. The nylon fishing line and eye screws can be found at any
hardware store, or large center, like Wal-mart.

Procedure:
1. Put the two eye screws in the back of the toy airplane so that it hangs straight and level on the
fishing line.
2. Tie one end of the fishing line up high in a room.
3. Thread the fishing line through the eye screws on the back of the plane.
4. Tie the other end of the fishing line to the stick, which becomes the pilot's “joystick.”
5. Lay out the runway on the floor with masking tape. Place the joystick at the far end of the runway.
6. One person takes the airplane to the top of the line and releases it while the pilot, seated just be-
yond the runway, moves the joystick forward and backwards to adjust the speed in order to land
on the runway.

If the pilot pulls back too tightly on the stick, the plane will overshoot the runway. Pushing forward
increases the speed of the plane coming down the fishing line. The object is to land the plane inside the
runway limits. Prac-
tice makes perfect
on this activity!

Summary: This is
a great activity for
simulating a land-
ing and the diffi-
culty involved in
judging both speed
and angle upon
final approach, de-
scent, and landing.

46
 (pedrson to
release plane)
Upper End of Line

Too tight a line will

cause overshoot.

Looser line
will bring it in.

Control or Joystick
(person to
control joystick)

47
48
 Aerospace Dimensions

AIR ENVIRONMENT

3
MODULE

Civil Air Patrol

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama
 Aerospace Dimensions
AIR ENVIRONMENT

3 WRITTEN BY
DR. JEFF MONTGOMERY
DR. BEN MIllspauGh

DEsIGN
BaRB pRIBulICK

IllusTRaTIONs
pEGGY GREENlEE

EDITING
BOB BROOKs
susaN MallETT

NaTIONal aCaDEMIC sTaNDaRD alIGNMENT

JuDY sTONE

puBlIshED BY
NaTIONal hEaDQuaRTERs
CIVIl aIR paTROl
aEROspaCE EDuCaTION DEpuTY DIRECTORaTE
MaXWEll aFB, alaBaMa 36112

ThIRD EDITION
JuNE 2013
 INTRODUCTION
The Aerospace Dimensions module, Air Environment, is the third of six modules, which com-
bined, make up Phases I and II of Civil Air Patrol's Aerospace Education Program for cadets. Each
module is meant to stand entirely on its own, so that each can be taught in any order. This enables
new cadets coming into the program to study the same module, at the same time, with the other
cadets. This builds a cohesiveness and cooperation among the cadets and encourages active group
participation. This module is also appropriate for middle school students and can be used by teachers
to supplement sTEm-related subjects.
Inquiry-based activities were included to enhance the text and provide concept applicability. The
activities were designed as group activities, but can be done individually, if desired. The activities
for this module are located at the end of each chapter, except chapter one.

ii
CONTENTS
Introduction .............................................................................................ii

Contents...................................................................................................iii

National Academic Standard Alignment ..............................................iv

Chapter 1. The Atmosphere ....................................................................1

Chapter 2. Air Circulation ......................................................................4

Chapter 3. Weather Elements ...............................................................11

Chapter 4. Moisture and Clouds ..........................................................19

Chapter 5. Weather Systems and Severe Weather..............................32

A F-22 Raptor climbs above the great Alaskan mountain range (USAF photo)

iii
National Academic Standard Alignment

iv
Learning Outcomes
1
- Describe the composition of the atmosphere.
- Describe the standard temperature lapse rate.
- Identify the four layers of the atmosphere.

Important Terms
ionosphere - a region of the atmosphere where electrons are gained or lost
lapse rate - the rate of decrease with an increase in height for pressure and temperature
mesosphere - a layer of the atmosphere extending from about 30 to 50 miles
ozonosphere - a region of the atmosphere where ozone is created
stratosphere - a layer of the atmosphere extending from the tropopause to about 30 miles
thermosphere - a layer of the atmosphere extending from 50 to about 300 miles
tropopause - boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere
troposphere - first layer of the atmosphere where most of the Earth’s weather occurs

The atmosphere is a blanket of air made up of a mixture of gases that surrounds the Earth and
reaches almost 350 miles from the surface of the Earth. This mixture is in constant motion. If the at-
mosphere were visible, it might look like an ocean with swirls and eddies, rising and falling air, and
waves that travel for great distances.
Life on Earth is supported by the atmosphere, solar energy, and the planet’s magnetic fields. The
atmosphere absorbs energy from the sun, recycles water and other chemicals, and works with the
electrical and magnetic forces to provide a moderate climate. The atmosphere also protects life on
Earth from high energy radiation and the frigid vacuum of space.

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

In any given volume of air, nitrogen accounts for 78 percent
of the gases that comprise the atmosphere, while oxygen makes
up 21 percent. Argon, carbon dioxide, and traces of other gases
make up the remaining one percent. A variable amount of water
vapor can also be present, and this amount can be responsible for
major changes in our weather.

Apollo 17 view of Earth

1
ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS
Certain levels of the atmosphere can be identified according to general characteristics, such as
temperature distribution and physical and chemical properties. There are four distinct regions or lay-
ers of the atmosphere where the temperature distribution is different enough to justify a different
name.
The first layer, known as the troposphere, extends from sea level up to 20,000 feet over the poles
and to 55,000-60,000 feet over the equatorial regions. most of the atmosphere is contained in this re-
gion, and the vast majority of weather, clouds, storms, and temperature differences occur here. Tem-
peratures within the troposphere decrease with an increase in altitude at a fairly constant rate. This
temperature decrease is generally accepted to be at a rate of about 3.5˚F or 2˚C for every 1,000 feet
of altitude gain. This is called the standard lapse rate for temperature.
At the top of the troposphere is a boundary known as the tropopause, which is the dividing area
between the troposphere and the next layer. The altitude of the tropopause varies with latitude and
with the season of the year.
The next region of the atmosphere is the stratosphere, which extends from the tropopause to a
height of about 160,000 feet or about 30 miles. Little weather exists in this layer and the air remains
stable although certain types of clouds occasionally exist in it. The temperature actually gets warmer
with an increase in altitude; usually moving from a temperature of -76° F to about -40° F. The U-2
aircraft pictured on the next page is an example of a airplane that routinely flies in the stratosphere.
The next atmospheric region is the mesosphere. The mesosphere extends from beyond the strato-
sphere to about 280,000 feet or from about 30 to 50 miles. At first, the temperature increases in the
mesosphere, but then it decreases at the top of the layer to about -130° F. Finally, the last region
identified by temperature differences is the thermosphere. It begins at about 50 miles up and ex-
tends to about 300 miles. Here, the temperature increases again. How much it increases depends on
solar activity, but it is usually between 1,380° F and 2,280° F.

The four layers of the atmosphere

2
 There are two atmos-
pheric regions that can be
described by the physical
and chemical processes that
occur within them. First,
there is the ozonosphere. It
extends from about 10 to 30
miles in altitude. In this re-
gion, the sun’s radiation re-
acts with the oxygen
molecules and causes them
to pick up a third atom, cre-
ating ozone. The ozonos-
phere performs the very
important function of shield-
ing us from ultraviolet and
infrared radiation. The majesty of our atmosphere with the Moon barely visible in the distance
The next region described Images courtesy of NOAA
by these physical and chemi-
cal processes is the ionosphere. This region begins at an altitude of about 25 miles and extends out-
ward to about 250 miles. Because of the interactions between atmospheric particles and the sun’s
radiation, there is a loss or gain in the electrons of the atoms and molecules, and thus the word “ion.”

ONE OF THE MOST FAMOUS SPY PLANES OF ALL TIME, THE LOCKHEED U-2
This airplane routinely flies at extremely high altitudes
into both the tropopause and stratosphere layers.

3
Learning Outcomes
- Describe how the sun heats the Earth.
2
- Describe the Earth's rotation and revolution, and its effect on the Earth's seasons.
- Explain the various theories of circulation.
- Describe Coriolis Effect (Force).
- Define the jet stream.

Important Terms
autumnal (fall) equinox - the time when the sun's direct rays strike the equator resulting in day and
night of equal length, usually on september 22nd or 23rd
Coriolis Effect (Force) - is the apparent deflection of a freely-moving object to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere
doldrums - a global area of calm winds
global winds - the world-wide system of winds that transfers heat between tropical and polar regions
jet stream - a strong wind that develops at 30,000-35,000 feet and moves as a winding road across
the Us, generally from the west to the east
polar easterlies - global winds that flow from the poles and move to the west
prevailing westerlies - global winds that move toward the poles and appear to curve to the east
radiation - the method by which the sun heats the Earth
revolution - the movement of the Earth revolving around the sun; full revolution about 365 days
rotation - how the Earth turns (rotates) on its axis at an angle of 23.5° while it revolves around the
sun; full rotation 24 hours
summer solstice - the longest day when the sun is
at its northernmost point from the equator in the
Northern Hemisphere, usually on June 21st or
22nd
trade winds - a warm steady wind that blows to-
ward the equator
vernal (spring) equinox - the time when the sun's
direct rays strike the equator resulting in day and
night of equal length, usually on march 21st or
22nd This world map is divided into horizontal (lati-
tude) lines in degrees of a point north or south of
winter solstice - the shortest day when the sun is the equator, often called parallels. The vertical
the farthest south of the equator and the Northern (longitude) lines, often called meridians, point
Hemisphere, usually on December 21st or 22nd east or west of the Prime (Greenwich) Meridian.

4
 The sun heats the Earth. This is the funda-
mental cause of our various weather condi-
tions. However, the sun heats some parts of the
Earth more than others. This uneven or unequal
heating causes temperature and pressure differ-
ences. This creates circulation or movement of
air. This movement initiates the whole weather
process.
The activities in this section are designed to
give you a better understanding of uneven heat-
ing and the circulation it creates.
The flight of aircraft is affected by heat and cold.

RADIATION
The sun heats the Earth through a method
known as radiation. The energy from the sun ra-
diates into the Earth's atmosphere. As already
mentioned, the sun heats the Earth unevenly. This
heat from the sun is absorbed differently depend-
ing on the surface or the substance. For example,
if you go to the beach on a hot day and take your
shoes off and walk in the sand, the sand will be
almost too hot to walk on, but the water will be
cool. Go back at 11:00 at night. The sand will be
cool while the water will be comfortably warm.
The sand absorbed and lost heat faster than the
water. About 50% of the sun's radiation is ab-
sorbed by the Earth's surface. The other 50% is Solar Radiation
reflected and absorbed in the atmosphere and
space. (see associated Activity One at the end of the chapter.)
Warm air rises and this impacts weather in a big way. This rising warm air adds to temperature
and pressure differences, as well as air movement. This effects the surrounding air, air masses, and
fronts. It is also an ingredient for producing clouds and plays a part in the occurrence of moisture
and precipitation. (see associated Activity Two at the end of the chapter.)
Aircraft are affected by warm air, too. Air is made up of molecules and warm air has less mole-
cules than cool air. The warm air molecules are spaced farther apart, so the air is less dense or thin-
ner. so, airplane engines work more efficiently in dense, colder weather.

ROTATION AND REVOLUTION

In relationship to the sun, the Earth has two motions that affect the amount of heat received from
the sun. These motions are rotation and revolution. The Earth revolves around the sun, and at the
same time, rotates as well. The Earth's revolution takes 365 days, 5 hours and 48 minutes, while the
Earth is rotating on it axis at an angle of 23.5 degrees. This rotational tilt causes the length of the
days to vary and the rotation plus the revolution causes the seasonal changes. As demonstrated on

5
 Equinox
March 21-22
Sun vertical at equator

23 1/2

SUN

Solstice Solstice
June 21-22 December 21-22
Sun vertical Sun vertical
Latitude 23 1/2 N Latitude 23 1/2 S

Equinox
September 22-23
Sun vertical at equator

Seasonal changes caused by the Earth's rotation and revolution

next page, the Earth's axis stays tilted in the same direction as it revolves around the sun. The dia-
gram shows that the Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the sun on June 21st or 22nd. This is
called the summer solstice. This day marks the longest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere
when the sun is at its northernmost point from the equator. December
21st or 22nd is the date when the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away
from the sun and the sun is the farthest south of the equator. This is
called the winter solstice. During the spring (vernal) equinox, which
occurs on march 21st or 22nd, and the fall ( autumnal) equinox, which
occurs on september 22nd or 23rd, the sun's rays cross the equator. so,
days and nights are of equal length. (See the diagram at the top of page.)
Our Earth rotates on its axis in a counterclockwise direction. The
winds associated with the rotation cause an object moving freely in the The Coriolis effect (Force)
Northern Hemisphere to be appear to be deflected to the right of its in-
tended path. This deflection to the right is called Coriolis Effect (Force). As the drawing indicates,
an airplane flying south from the North Pole to the equator must take the Coriolis Effect (Force) into
account. If it doesn't, it will land west of its intended destination. (see associated Activity Three at
the end of the chapter.)

CIRCULATION AND GLOBAL WINDS

Unequal heating causes air movement. Globally, this movement is called circulation or the gen-
eral circulation of the atmosphere. This general circulation may be regarded as the world-wide sys-
tem of winds that transfers heat between tropical and polar regions called global winds.
The region of the Earth receiving most of the sun's heat is the equator. Here, air is heated and

6
rises, leaving low pressure areas Polar Easterlies
behind. moving to about 30°
north and south of the equator, the Prevailing
warm air from the equator finally Westerlies
60O
begins to cool and sink. Between
30° latitude and the equator, most
Northeast 30O
of the cooling, sinking air moves
Trade Winds
back to the equator. The rest of the
air flows toward the poles. The air
0O
movements toward the equator are
called trade winds - warm, steady
breezes that blow almost continu- Sourtheast
ously. The Coriolis Effect (Force) Trade Winds 30O
P o l ar Fro n t
makes the trade winds appear to
be curving to the west, when they
are actually traveling toward the Prevailing
equator from the south and the Westerlies
north.
Polar Easterlies
The trade winds coming from
Global winds
the south and the north meet near
the equator. These converging trade winds produce general upward winds as they are heated, so there
are no steady surface winds. This area of calm is called the doldrums.
Between 30° and 60° latitude, the winds that move toward the poles appear to curve to the east.
Because winds are named for the direction from which they originate, these winds are called pre-
vailing westerlies. Prevailing westerlies in the Northern Hemisphere are responsible for many of the
weather movements across the Us and Canada.
At about 60° latitude in both hemispheres, the prevailing westerlies join with polar easterlies to
produce upward motion. The polar easterlies are formed when the atmosphere over the poles cools.
This cold air then sinks and spreads out over the surface. As the air flows away from the poles it is
turned to the west by the Coriolis Effect (Force). Again, because these winds begin in the east, they
are called the easterlies. many of the changes in wind direction are hard to visualize, but hopefully
the diagram above will help.
These global winds are a constant concern for pilots. Pilots receive a weather briefing before
takeoff. During the briefing, the direction and speed of the winds between their takeoff point and
their destination are always examined at various levels
of altitude. (see associated Activity Four at the end of
the chapter.)

JET STREAM
Another interesting concept is the jet stream.
The jet stream usually crosses the Us at 30,000-
35,000 feet, generally moving in a west to east direction.
The jet stream develops when there are strong tempera-
ture differences in the upper troposphere. These large
Jet stream

7
temperature differences cause large pressure
differences, which create stronger winds.
The jet stream's winds are generally be-
tween 100-300 miles per hour (mph), with an
average of 120-150 mph. However, speeds
have been recorded as high as 450 mph. The
jet stream moves like a winding road across
the Us It is generally thousands of miles
long, hundreds of miles wide, and a few
miles deep. It is usually stronger and dips far-
ther south in the winter.
Both commercial and military pilots are
well aware of the location of the jet stream.
In fact, many flight plans are filed with the
jet stream in mind. Why is that? since the jet
stream moves west to east, a plane flying east
can save time and fuel by riding the jet
stream to the plane's destination. Passengers
are usually very happy about arriving 30-60 The jet stream affecting the United States moves up and
minutes early. Of course, the opposite is also down across the continent. When it is farther north, as in
Canada, the weather to its south tends to be mild, or, at
true. Planes flying west may be flying into
least, less cold. When the jet stream swings south into the
the jet stream. This will slow them down, or United States, especially in winter, very cold, often harsh
they can try to avoid the jet stream. weather prevails at the surface on the northern side.

This diagram shows

two typical jet
stream positions at
the height of sum-
mer and of winter.

8
Activity One - Absorbing Heat
2
Purpose: Compare and contrast the absorption of heat by soil and water to better understand how this
affects weather.
Materials: 2 tin cans, 2 thermometers, soil, water, sunlight, pencil, and paper
Procedure:
1. Fill one can with water and the other can with soil. SOIL
2. stand one thermometer in the water and insert the other into the soil. WATER

3. Read the thermometers, and record temperature and time of each.

4. Place both cans into the sunlight.
5. Watch the readings on the thermometers, and record temperature and time of each.
6. Notice the temperature of the soil begins to rise first.
7. Discuss the implications this temperature variance has on weather.
Summary: The temperature of the soil begins to rise first. This is because the soil absorbs heat faster
than the water. If placed in the shade, the soil will lose heat faster than the water. The unequal heating of
the Earth causes differences in temperature and pressure.

Activity Two - Warm Air Rising

Purpose: Use observation skills to learn that warm air
rises to better understand weather conditions caused by
this upward air movement.
Materials: paper, pencil with eraser, scissors, metal
thimble, needle, sewing thread spool, and table lamp
Procedure:
1. mark the pattern of a spiral on the paper, with turns
about an inch wide.
2. Cut the pattern from the paper, leaving enough space
in the center to partially insert the thimble.
3. make a hole in the center for the thimble, and press
the bottom of the thimble half way through the hole.
4. Remove the threaded nut from the top of the lamp
shade and place the spool over the threaded stud.
5. Insert the needle in the top of the eraser of the pencil,
and place the other end of the pencil in the spool hole.
6. Carefully set the thimble and paper spiral over the
point of the needle. The point of the needle makes

9
 very little contact with the thimble, and, thus, makes a very Safety Precautions
good pivot point with little friction. 1. Be careful with the scissors when
7. Turn on the lamp, observe the movement of the spiral and dis- cutting the paper.
cuss why the spiral begins to turn. 2. Be careful when handling the needle.
3. Light bulbs get hot very fast, so be
Summary: The lamp heats the air and the molecules of air ex- careful when lamp is on.
pand, making the air less dense, and, thus, lighter. Cooler, heavier air moves in and pushes the warm air
up. The warm air pushes on the spiral, and it begins to turn. This same warm rising air affects the weather.
It can lead to cloud formations, which can lead to precipitation and storms. Thus, pilots have to constantly
maintain awareness of weather conditions caused by the upward movement of warm air molecules.

Activity Three - Coriolis Effect (Force)

Equator
Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to

n
o
i
demonstrate the path of Coriolis Effect (Force).

t
t i o n

a
t
Rot a

o
R
Materials: a globe and chalk
Procedure:
1. Place one hand on top of the globe and slowly turn it in the same
direction that the Earth spins (to the right in a counterclockwise direction).
2. As the globe turns, draw a chalk line directly down from the North Pole toward
the south Pole.
3. stop the globe and examine the chalk line. It will not be a straight line but a curved line that crosses the
equator at an angle. The chalk line will look like it was drawn from the northeast toward the southwest.
4. Discuss with the group how the Coriolis Effect (Force) works and its effects on airplanes flying through it.
Summary: This activity demonstrates Coriolis Effect (Force), which occurs from the wind effects associ-
ated with the rotation of the Earth. Coriolis Effect (Force) deflects a freely moving object to the right in
the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the southern Hemisphere. It is important to realize that pilots
plan for this when they are flying to avoid being deflected off their planned flight course.

Activity Four - Wind Currents

Purpose: Conduct a visual demonstration of wind
currents as air moves up and over mountains.
Materials: electric fan, stack of different sized
books, and a strip of tissue paper
Procedure:
1. stack the books to form a small mountain.
2. Place the fan a few feet from the books so a strong breeze blows over the stack.
3. Hold one end of the tissue paper over the books so that it blows.
4. Observe the motion of the tissue paper as the wind from the fan blows it.
5. Discuss what is happening and why.
Summary: The tissue on the side of the books nearest the fan rises up, while the tissue on the side
away from the fan descends. mountain ranges can alter the temperature, pressure, and direction of
the prevailing winds. Near the coast, mountains may even block ocean breezes from inland areas.
These wind currents can affect flight. Thus, pilots remain constantly aware of such changes in the at-
mosphere to ensure optimum performance of the airplane.

10
Learning Outcomes
- Define wind.
3
- Describe the Beaufort scale.
- Define heat.
- Explain what temperature is and how it can be expressed on scales.
- Describe what wind chill is and what it does.
- Describe how a microburst can affect a plane’s flight.

Important Terms
advection - lateral transfer of heat
atmospheric pressure - the weight of all of the atmosphere's gases and molecules on the Earth's
surface
Beaufort Scale - a scale for estimating wind speed on land or sea
conduction - heating by direct contact
convection - heat transfer by vertical motion
heat - the total energy of all molecules within a substance
microburst - a downdraft or down burst phenomenon that creates unstable air and thunderstorm turbulence
radiation - heat transferred by the sun
temperature - a measure of molecular motion expressed on a man-made scale
wind - a body of air in motion
wind chill - temperature and wind speed used to explain how cold it feels

WIND
This chapter discusses three of the very basic weather elements: wind, temperature, and pressure.
These elements will be defined and you can conduct activities which will give you a better under-
standing of how these elements contribute to the overall weather.
Let's begin with a brief discussion of wind. Wind is a body of air in motion. It is described as hav-
ing direction and speed. Wind direction is defined as the direction from which the wind is blowing.
For instance, if the wind is blowing from the west, it is called a west wind. A wind blowing from the
northwest is called a northwest wind. Here in the Us, wind speed is expressed in either miles per hour
or knots. A knot is a common nautical
and aviation term. One knot equals 1.15
miles per hour and one knot is equiva-
lent to one nautical mile per hour, which
is 6,076’.
The illustration to the right demon-
strates an easy way to estimate wind-
speed. It isn’t precise, but it can give a
good estimate. (see associated Activity
Five at the end of the chapter.)
calm 10 mph 20 mph 30 mph

11
 There is another tool for estimating wind speed. This one works on land or sea. It is called the
Beaufort Scale and has been around since 1805. It is still widely used today. On a windy day, take
the Beaufort scale (below) outside and estimate the wind speed. Do this a few times during the day
and then compare your estimations with the local weather report that night.
Beaufort Scale
Beaufort Wind Speed Seaman's Effects at Sea Effects on Land
Number (mph) Term
0 under 1 calm sea like a mirror calm; smoke rises vertically

1 1-3 light ripples with appearance of smoke drift indicates wind

air fish scales; no foam crests direction; vanes do not move

2 4-7 light small wavelets; crests of glassy wind felt on face; leaves
breeze appearance; not breaking rustle; vanes begin to move

3 8-12 gentle large wavelets; crests begin to leaves, small twigs in constant
breeze break; scattered whitecaps motion; light flags extended

4 13-18 moderate small waves, becoming longer; dust, leaves, and loose paper
breeze numerous whitecaps raised up; small branches move

5 19-24 fresh moderate waves, becoming longer; small trees begin to sway
breeze many whitecaps; some spray

6 25-31 strong larger waves forming; whitecaps large branches of trees in motion;
breeze everywhere; more spray whistling heard in wires

7 32-38 moderate sea heaps up; white foam from whole trees in motion; resistance felt
gale breaking waves begins to blow streaks in walking against wind

8 39-46 fresh moderately high waves of greater length; twigs and small branches
gale foam is blown in well-marked streaks broken off trees

9 47-54 strong high waves, sea begins to roll; dense slight structural damage occurs; slate
gale streaks of foam; spray may reduce blown from roofs
visibility

10 55-63 whole very high waves with overhanging seldom experienced on land; trees broken;
gale crests; sea takes white appearance; structural damage occurs
visibility reduced

11 64-72 storm exceptionally high waves; sea covered very rarely experienced on land;
with white foam patches usually with widespread damage

12 73 or hurricane air filled with foam; sea completely violence and destruction
higher force white with driving spray; visibility
greatly reduced

Wind is an interesting phenomenon all by itself. However, if you apply temperature into the situa-
tion it gets even more interesting, especially cold temperatures. We have all heard of the wind chill,
but what exactly is it and how does it work? To determine wind chill, temperature and wind speed
are used to explain how cold it feels. It may be 30° F outside, but feels like 9° F because of the com-
bination of cold temperature and strong winds. Actually, heat is escaping from your body and warms
the air next to you. If the wind is calm or almost calm, the warm air will stay next to your body.
However, if the wind is blowing, it blows the warm air away from your body, and the faster it is
blowing, the faster the heat is being carried away causing you to feel colder. Thus, the pysiological
effect of wind chill on the body is important to maintain safe body temperature. The wind chill index,
noted on next page, can help to calculate wind chill. The actual formula used to determine wind chill

12
 How to find wind chill:
Wind Chill Index
Temperature in Fo

0 mph 30o 25o 20o 15o 10o 5o 0o

Wind Speed

15 mph 9o 2o -5o -11o -18o -25o -31o

20 mph 4o -3o -10o -17o -24o -31o -39o

25 mph 1o -7o -15o -22o -29o -36o -44o

30 mph -2o -10o -18o -25o -33o -41o -49o Example: 20 mph wind, 10o F =
wind chill of -24o F
has various variables, and is different in many countries. If you want to find out more about the ac-
tual formulas used, go to the National Weather service Website at http://www.weather.gov/os/wind-
chill/index.shtml.
How does wind affect flying? Wind speed and wind direction always impact flying. The smaller
planes are affected more than the larger planes. Airplanes takeoff into the wind because the wind
gives the plane more lift. This allows the plane to leave the ground faster. The wind direction is im-
portant because if crosswinds get too high, planes can't takeoff or land safely. Crosswinds are winds
blowing toward the side of the plane. strong crosswinds can blow planes off course. Base operations
or the control tower will not allow planes to takeoff or land if the winds are unsafe. A plane's wind
capability has already been determined by the manufacturer and is published in the plane's manual.
While planes are en route to their destinations, winds are very important. Pilots love having a tail-
wind. This is a wind that is blowing from the same direction the plane is flying. Tailwinds will re-
duce the overall flying time and allow the plane to arrive at its destination earlier. On longer flights,
tailwinds can save pilots a significant
Photo credit Wikipedia

amount of time and fuel. (see associated

Activity six at the end of the chapter.)
There is another weather phenomenon
involving winds that impacts flying in a
very crucial way. That phenomenon is a
microburst. For many years, authorities
have realized that microbursts have been
responsible for several aircraft accidents.
microbursts are particularly dangerous
during takeoffs and landings.
A microburst is defined as a down-
draft or downburst. It is a column of
sinking air that as it nears the ground or
hits the ground diverges in many direc-
tions. These winds associated with a mi-
croburst can reach 100 - 150 miles per
An example of a microburst
hour and cause considerable damage.
Because these diverging winds happen at
or near ground level airplanes are so much more vulnerable during takeoffs and landings. A mi-
croburst can occur very suddenly leaving little time to react to these diverging winds. microbursts
have a diameter of 2.5 miles or less and can be associated with or without precipitation.
When a microburst happens at normal flying altitudes there may be bumps and bruises, but the
plane will recover. When it happens near the Earth’s surface, there may not be time to recover. Fly-
ing near thunderstorms is dangerous, but when a microburst is involved, it is extremely dangerous.

13
TEMPERATURE
We know that uneven heating creates temperature and pressure differences which causes the air
to move. If we break heat down into its basic form, it becomes energy. Heat is the total energy of all
molecules within a substance. These molecules are constantly in motion because of the heat differ-
ences. Heat is a relative term, particularly when expressed as temperature.
There are four principal ways in which heat is transferred from one place to another. These four
methods are conduction, convection, advection, and radiation. When a molecule is heated and comes
in contact with another molecule, the second molecule absorbs some of this heat. This is heating by
direct contact and is called conduction. Convection is the heat transfer by vertical motion. In sum-
mer, air over a hot runway or a highway will rise. Air over hot surfaces rises faster than the air over
surrounding surfaces. Parcels of air have a certain temperature, and when the wind blows, this air
comes in contact with other parcels of air. This process is the lateral transfer of heat and is called ad-
vection. The last heat transfer is the heat energy from the sun, and it is called radiation. These four
processes of heat transfer are very important in the process of weather.
Temperature is a measure of molecular motion expressed on a man-made scale, either in Fahren-
heit (F), Celsius (C), or Kelvin (K). Fahrenheit's freezing point is 32° and its boiling point is 212°.
The freezing point of Celsius is 0° and its boiling point is 100°. The Kelvin freezing point is 273°
and its boiling point is 373°. Kelvin is used for scientific purposes.
Converting back and forth from Fahrenheit and Celsius is very simple if you have a formula to
use. Any of these three formulas will work.
F = (C x 1.8) + 32 or C = F - 32
1.8 or F = (9/5) C + 32
There is another conversion procedure which can be helpful; take a Celsius temperature and dou-
ble it, then subtract 10%, then add 32. This will work as well.
Example: if C = 100, then F=212. Use one of the formulas to determine this. (see associated Ac-
tivity six at the end of the chapter.)
Do aircraft pilots really care about what the temperature is? You better believe they do! Particu-
larly in extreme conditions. In other words, when temperatures are either really cold or really hot, pi-
lots are most concerned. Why is this the case? Well, for one thing, temperature affects takeoff. An
explanation follows.
You will recall that the sun heats the earth un-
evenly. This unequal heating gives us temperature
differences which, in turn, causes pressure differ-
ences. The different temperature and pressure char-
acteristics mean that the parcels of air have different
molecular make up and weigh different amounts, ex-
erting different amounts of pressure. Pilots must
take this into account when preparing for takeoff.
Warmer temperatures result in longer acceleration
times to attain proper takeoff speeds. On extremely
hot days the air can become very humid. A pilot
needs to calculate the distance needed to make sure High temperatures impact takeoffs of large aircraft.
there is enough runway for takeoff.
Understanding temperatures becomes crucial when they are extreme. Extreme hot and cold tem-
peratures can cause pain discomfort and even death. Extreme heat can cause heat cramps (especially
in legs), fainting (quick drop in blood pressure), heat exhaustion (dizziness after several hot days),
and heatstroke (confusion, unconsciousness, or even death). Drinking plenty of water when it is ex-
tremely hot can offset negative physical conditions.

14
 In extreme cold, hypothermia and frostbite may occur. In hypothermia, the body temperature
drops below 95° and a person can become unconscious and even die. Wearing wool clothing de-
creases body heat escape, thus reducing the chance of hypothermia. Frostbite can range from very
minor to very serious cases. Ears, nose, hands, and feet are the most vulnerable. Gloves, hats, dry
socks, and a covering for the face help prevent frostbite. (see associated Activities seven and Eight
at the end of the chapter.)

PRESSURE
The last area in this chapter is pressure. We already know that unequal heating creates pressure
differences. Our air is made up of gases. Each of these gases has molecules, and these molecules
have weight. This weight, or push on the Earth's surface, is called atmospheric pressure. The
weight, or atmospheric pressure, in a given space depends on the number of molecules occupying
that space. There are literally billions of molecules near the Earth's surface. It has been said that a
molecule travels less than one millionth of an inch before it collides with another molecule. This col-
liding causes additional movement. Because it is so crowded, there is always molecular movement
near the surface of the Earth.
Another area where we notice pressure changes is our body, particularly our ears and sinuses. Our
bodies have trouble adjusting to rapid decreases or increases in pressure. Airplanes or even elevators
can make us physically uncomfortable. When an airplane is taking off, the outside pressure de-
creases so the pressure inside our ear is higher. Also, when a plane is landing, the outside pressure
increases so the pressure inside our ear is lower. Normally, air can move through the ear and equalize
the pressure. However, if you have a cold and your ears are blocked or you have blocked sinuses, the
air can't equalize and you may feel some discomfort or pain. If you have a severe cold or sinus prob-
lem, you should consider consulting a doctor before flying.
Air pressure can be measured with a mercury barometer, an aneroid
barometer, or an aneroid barograph. An aneroid barometer is fast and
easy to read. Aneroids are the barometers people have on their walls at
home or in their office. A mercury barometer is not as quick, but is more
stable and reliable. A mercury barometer is mainly used by scientists and
meteorologists. An aneroid barograph can be found in weather stations
all over the country because it gives a permanent record of pressure
readings. A permanent record is important if pressure readings need to
be reviewed due to severe weather or an aircraft accident.
Aneroid barometer

Pen Release
Rod Pen Arm
Linkage Indicator
Revolving
Drum

Mercury Forced Up

Recording Pen Air Pressure

Mercury
Syphon Cell
Aneroid Barograph Mercury Barometer

15
Activity Five - Wind Gauge
Purpose: make and test a simple wind gauge.
3
Materials: clear plastic drinking straw (clean and dry), styrofoam cup, two
straight pins, piece of cardboard (about 3x12 inches), transparent tape, and
Exacto knife or scissors (caution – adult supervision advised)
Procedure:
1. Cut a piece of styrofoam from a styrofoam cup slightly larger than the
diameter of the straw.
2. Roll the piece of styrofoam between your finger and thumb until it
forms a ball that will move freely inside the straw.
3. Cut a notch in the straw about a half inch from one end to allow air to
enter. (This notch will designate the front of the straw.)
4. Cut another piece of styrofoam and place it in the end of the straw
below the notch to plug up the hole.
5. Cut a small hole in the side of the straw near the opening at the other
end of the straw to allow air to escape when you are measuring higher
winds.
6. Place the straw on the center of the cardboard with the open straw end meeting the top of the card-
board and the hole facing the side. The notched end will hang a bit below the bottom of the card-
board with the notch facing forward.
7. Press one of the pins through the straw and cardboard, just above the notch.
8. Drop the ball into the other end of the straw.
9. Press the other pin through the top of the straw and the cardboard, just below the small side hole you
cut for the high range.
10. securely fasten the straw to the cardboard with a couple of strips of transparent tape.
11. Label the cardboard, as shown on the illustration, with the words Low Range and High Range. The
numbers on the illustration will be added as your gauge is calibrated by determining the correspon-
ding speed with the movement of the styrofoam ball.
12. To calibrate (or establish and mark the units on a measuring instrument) your wind gauge, hold it
outside a moving car window on a calm day. Have the open notch at the bottom of the straw fac-
ing into the wind. Air entering here will lift the styrofoam ball to various heights depending on
the speed of the air (determined by the speed of the vehicle). Use the vehicle’s speedometer to
mark the card. Determine low range markings by having the vehicle driver go 1 mph and mark
the height of the styrofoam ball. Then, do the smae for 2 mph, 3 mph, and so on until you reach
12 mph. To determine high range markings, hold your finger over the top of the straw. This will
keep the ball from rising as high and forces the air to leave through the small hole you cut near
the top. Follow the same markings procedure as for the low range, but use the illustrated mph

16
 speeds. Another way to calibrate would be to go to your local weather station and measure your
gauge against their equipment.
Summary: The wind gauge is used to measure the approximate speed of the wind. Knowing the
wind speed, or forecasting a wind speed, gives a good idea of how the wind will affect the land and
sea. Knowing wind speed helps pilots appropriately adjust their takeoff, cruise, and landing speeds.
If the winds are too high, flights may be cancelled, or planes may have to land at alternate landing
sites.

Activity Six - Convert Temperatures

Purpose: Use mathematical skills to convert temperatures from Fahrenheit to Celsius and vice-versa.
Materials: Use formulas found on page 14 to conduct this activity.
Procedure: Convert temperatures
1. Convert the following Fahrenheit temperatures to Celsius:
22° F = ___ C, 55° F = ____C, 75° F = ____C
2. Convert the following Celsius temperatures to Fahrenheit:
45° C = ____F, 4° C = ____F, 82° C = ____F
Summary: Pilots are concerned about extremely cold and hot temperatures as temperature affects flight,
and, thus, need to be able to quickly convert temperature measurement scales, as appropriate, to main-
tain current temperature data for flight planning. By using the appropriate mathematical formula, conver-
sion of temperature from one scale to another is possible. F = (C x 1.8) + 32 and C = (F – 32) ÷ 1.8
Answers to problems (rounded to nearest whole number): 1. 22°F = - 6 °C; 55°F = 13°C; 75°F = 24°C
2. 45°C =113 °F; 4°C = 39 °F; 82°C = 180 °F

Activity Seven - Homemade Thermometer

Purpose: Construct and test a homemade thermometer to determine heat or cold.
Materials: clear glass bottle (pint or quart), cork or stopper with one hole to fit a drinking straw, clear
plastic drinking straw, 3x5 inch card, pencil, water, food coloring, candle, matches, transparent tape, oil
(any kind), a medicine dropper, and thermometer
Procedure:
1. Fill the bottle with water and add a few drops of food coloring.
2. Push the straw through the hole in the cork.
3. Press the cork down into the bottle. make sure that about two inches of the straw are in the water.
4. Light the candle and hold it so that the wax drips where the straw meets the cork to seal the straw to
the cork. (Adult supervision suggested.)
5. The level of the water should be about one-fourth of the way up the straw.
6. Use the medicine dropper to add more colored water into the straw.
7. Add a couple of drops of oil to prevent the water from evaporating.
8. Use tape to fasten the card behind the straw.
9. To calibrate your thermometer, place another thermometer alongside yours and mark the level on the
card. mark the degrees from the known thermometer.

17
10. Experiment with the thermometer by moving it to differing levels of
temperature (in sun, in refrigerator, in closet, etc).

Summary: The higher the liquid rises in the straw, the hotter the tem-
perature. The lower the liquid in the straw, the lower the temperature. Pi-
lots are concerned about extremely cold and hot temperatures as
temperature affects takeoffs and landings. Additionally, extremely cold
temperatures can impact a flight in route to a destination.

Activity Eight - Cricket Thermometer

Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to use observation and mathe-
matical skills to estimate temperature.
Materials: chirping cricket, clock or watch with a second hand, a warm day/evening, and a thermometer
Procedure:
1. On a warm day or evening, listen for the sound of a chirping cricket.
2. Use the watch or clock, count the number of chirps in 15 seconds and add 37 to this number. This sum
should just about equal the actual temperature.
3. To find out, compare with an actual thermometer.
4. Discuss why or how it may be possible for a cricket (or other living thing) to be so aligned with the
environment.
Summary: This activity is a fun way to estimate temperature, if you have a warm day/evening and a
chirping cricket. The implications of varying temperature, especially to pilots, has been explained in this
chapter. But, fun activities, such as this, help us to see how nature is well-planned to “work” in the
scheme of life.

12

9 3

18
Learning Outcomes
- Describe the condensation process.
4
- Describe how saturation occurs.
- Define dew point.
- Define what precipitation is and give some examples.
- Define fog.
- Define turbulence.

Important Terms
condensation - the process of converting water vapor to liquid
dew point - the temperature at which the air becomes saturated with water vapor
fog - tiny droplets of liquid water at or near the surface of the land or water
humidity - amount of water vapor in the air
precipitation - general term given to various types of condensed water vapor
relative humidity - amount of water vapor in the air compared to its water vapor capacity at a given
temperature
saturation - the condition of a parcel of air holding as much water vapor as it can at the air tempera-
ture at that time
water cycle - continuous movement of water as it circulates between the Earth and its atmosphere

MOISTURE
Without moisture in the atmosphere, weather could not exist. moisture is the most important ele-
ment in the development of the weather. It is the main component for clouds, rain, snow, and fog.
moisture exists in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. As a gas, it is called water vapor. Water vapor is
always present in varying degrees in the atmosphere. When the air gets to the point where it is hold-
ing all of the water it can, saturation is reached. Saturation is defined as the air holding as much
water vapor as it can at the air temperature at that time. The temperature at which the air becomes
saturated is called the dew point. This is not a fixed point. It changes several times a day depending
on the amount of moisture in the air. If the temperature decreases below its dew point, condensation
occurs. Or, if a parcel of saturated air receives more water, it condenses into liquid form. The conver-
sion of water vapor to a liquid is called condensation. Clouds, fog, snow, and rain are products of
condensation. (see associated Activity Nine at the end of the chapter.)
Another important term is humidity. Humidity is the term used for the amount of water vapor in
the air. When someone talks about how humid it is, they are really describing the relative humidity.
Relative humidity is the amount of humidity in the air compared to its total water vapor capacity at

19
a given temperature. It is expressed in a percentage. The higher the percentage, the more humidity.
(see associated Activity Ten at the end of the chapter.)

FOG
As mentioned earlier, one form of
condensation is fog. Fog is composed
of tiny droplets of liquid water that are
at or near the surface of the geographi-
cal area. It is actually a cloud that is
very near, or touching the ground.
Generally, fog forms when the temper-
ature and dew point are within five de-
grees of each other and the winds are
light (five knots or less). (see associ-
ated Activity Eleven at the end of the
chapter.)
Pilots frequently encounter fog, Fog rolling in under the Golden Gate Bridge
and it mostly concerns them during
takeoffs and landings. Fog restricts
how well a pilot can see. many times when fog is present, pilots use their flight and navigation in-
struments to gauge distances both horizontally and vertically.

PRECIPITATION
Another product of condensation is precipitation. Precipitation is the general term given to the
various types of condensed water vapor that fall to the Earth's surface such as rain, snow, or ice. Pre-
cipitation that falls to the ground as a liquid and stays in liquid form is called rain.
Precipitation affects flying mainly through the pilot's visibility and the runway conditions. The
harder it rains, the more it reduces the
visibility, and the more it diminishes
good runway conditions for both take-
off and landing. (see associated Activ-
ity Twelve at the end of the chapter.)
Precipitation that falls to the ground,
but freezes upon contact with various
surfaces, such as the ground, a high-
way, or cars, is called freezing rain.
Freezing rain can cause hazardous con-
ditions. Ice on car windshields and on
highways poses major problems for
motorists. Extreme caution should be
taken in icy conditions.
Flying in snow and icy conditions
Ice can also represent huge prob-
lems for aircraft. First of all, ice on the

20
runway can raise havoc with a plane trying to land. The plane Moist Air
can lose directional control and take much longer to come to
a full stop, causing possible accidents. Fuel
Another critical condition could be ice in the airplane's en-
gine. In this case, ice can form in the carburetor, thus reduc- Ice
ing or stopping fuel flow to the engine. Engine manufacturers
recommend that carburetor heat be applied to help solve the
ice problem.
Ice can also form on a plane's windshield, propeller, or To engine
wings. If left to accumulate, it could cause weight, lift, and
visibility problems. Pilots will quickly change flying altitude
to get away from the ice. Also, weather forecasters will brief Carburetor Icing
pilots on possible icy conditions before they take off.

WATER CYCLE
The water cycle is the con-
tinuous movement of water be-
tween the Earth and its
atmosphere. Water is always
moving and changing from a
liquid to vapor and back to liq-
uid or snow and ice. The sun
heats the oceans and lakes
causing water to evaporate.
The water rises and becomes
water vapor, then eventually
condenses into tiny droplets
forming clouds. When clouds
meet cool air, precipitation can
occur. some precipitation
soaks in the ground and other
falls back into the oceans, and
the circulation continues. This
picture is a good illustration of
the water cycle.

Courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA)

21
CLOUDS

Cumulus Stratus Cirrus

Another phenomenon which results from condensation is clouds. Clouds are made up of minute
droplets of water, or tiny crystals of ice, or both. Clouds are of continual interest to meteorologists
because they are visible indications of what is going on with the weather. The more we learn about
clouds, the more we learn about the weather and what to expect. (see associated Activity Thirteen at
the end of the chapter.)
There are three basic cloud forms: cumulus, stratus, and cirrus. Clouds are classified by their ap-
pearance and height. Cumulus clouds are normally white, billowy, puffy clouds. some describe them
as cotton balls. Cumulus is a fair weather cloud indicating good weather. stratus has a very uniform
appearance. It is thin with very little vertical development. It is almost sheet-like in its appearance.
stratus is gray instead of white. Cumulus and stratus are both found low in the sky and close to the
ground. Cirrus clouds are very high in the sky. They are white, thin, wispy clouds, usually in patches,
filaments, hooks, or bands. Because of their height, they are composed of ice crystals.
There are also ten basic cloud types that come from the three basic cloud forms. These ten basic

Cirrus

High Clouds
Cirrostratus
Veil
Cirrocumulus
6000 m
Altostratus
(Anvil Head)
Altocumulus
Middle Clouds
Clouds with Vertical
Development

Nimbostratus Stratus
Cumulus Cumulonimbus
2000 m (Fair Weather)
Stratocumulus
Low
Clouds
Cumulus

Ten Basic Cloud Types

22
cloud types are universally accepted as the world's
main cloud types. The diagram on page 22 should give
you an idea of what they look like and a general feel
for some of the differences. For instance, nimbostratus
clouds produce rain that can last for hours.
An important cloud for helping us identify weather
is the cumulonimbus cloud. Cumulonimbus is the cloud
that produces storms with thunder and lightning. This
cloud also produces heavy rain showers, strong winds,
hail, and even tornadoes. Thunder and lightning come
only from cumulonimbus clouds. Cumulonimbus Clouds
Another distinctive feature of cumulonimbus is the
mammatus development. This feature normally occurs
at the base of the cloud and looks like bulges or
pouches. mammatus formations indicate the degree of
instability in the area. Although not always, tornadoes
often come from these clouds. Even if tornadoes don't
occur, these clouds indicate severe weather.
Normally, clouds do not present a problem for air-
planes. Pilots fly in and out of clouds all of the time.
Obviously, an exception to this is the cumulonimbus
cloud. Pilots don't want to fly into thunderstorms or tor-
Cumulonimbus Clouds
nadoes.

Mammatus formations under cumulonimbus clouds

23
 In general, cumulus clouds are also associated with another weather phenomenon, and that is tur-
bulence. Turbulence is an unrest or disturbance of the air. It refers to the instability of the air. Turbu-
lence is the motion of the air that affects the smoothness.
Unstable air is turbulent air, whereas stable air is smooth with very little turbulence. Cumulus
clouds are formed by convection, which is defined as warm air rising. This rising warm air comes in
contact with cooler air causing the turbulence.
Pilots know that they will encounter turbulence when they fly through cumulus clouds. They also
know that turbulence can cause some very bumpy rides, especially in smaller planes.

CLOUD CLASSIFICATION
Clouds are classified according to their height above and appearance (texture) from the ground.
The following cloud roots and translations summarize the components of this classification system:
1) Cirro-: curl of hair, high; 2) Alto-: mid; 3) strato-: layer; 4) Nimbo-: rain, precipitation; and 5)
Cumulo-: heap. Refer to the chart on page 22 for examples of the various types of clouds.

High-level clouds:
High-level clouds occur above about
20,000 feet and are given the prefix "cirro."
Due to cold tropospheric temperatures at
these levels, the clouds primarily are com-
posed of ice crystals, and often appear thin,
streaky, and white (although a low sun
angle, e.g., near sunset, can create an array
Cirrostratus Cirrocumulus
of color on the clouds). The three main types
of high clouds are cirrus, cirrostratus, and
cirrocumulus.
Cirrus clouds are wispy, feathery, and composed of ice crystals. They often are the first sign of an
approaching warm front or upper-level jet stream. Unlike cirrus, cirrostratus clouds form more of a
widespread, veil-like layer (similar to what stratus clouds do in low levels). When sunlight or moon-
light passes through the hexagonal-shaped ice crystals of cirrostratus clouds, the light is dispersed or
refracted (similar to light passing through a prism) in such a way that a familiar ring or halo may
form. As a warm front approaches, cirrus clouds tend to thicken into cirrostratus, which may, in turn,
thicken and lower into altostratus, stratus, and even nimbostratus.
Finally, cirrocumulus clouds are layered clouds permeated with small cumuliform lumpiness.
They also may line up in "streets" or rows of clouds across the sky.

Mid-level clouds:
The bases of clouds in the middle level
of the troposphere, given the prefix "alto,"
appear between 6,500 and 20,000 feet. De-
pending on the altitude, time of year, and
vertical temperature structure of the tropo-
sphere, these clouds may be composed of Altostratus Altocumulus

24
liquid water droplets, ice crystals, or a combination of the two, including supercooled droplets (i.e.,
liquid droplets whose temperatures are below freezing). The two main types of mid-level clouds are
altostratus and altocumulus.
Altostratus clouds are "strato" type clouds (see previous page) that possess a flat and uniform type
texture in the mid levels. They frequently indicate the approach of a warm front and may thicken and
lower into stratus, then nimbostratus, resulting in rain or snow. However, altostratus clouds them-
selves do not produce significant precipitation at the surface, although sprinkles or occasionally light
showers may occur from a thick altostratus deck.
Altocumulus clouds exhibit "cumulo" type characteristics (see previous page) in mid levels, i.e.,
heap-like clouds with convective elements. Like cirrocumulus, altocumulus may align in rows or
streets of clouds, with cloud axes indicating localized areas of ascending, moist air, and clear zones
between rows suggesting locally descending, drier air. Altocumulus clouds with some vertical extent
may denote the presence of elevated instability, especially in the morning.

Low-level clouds:
Low-level clouds are not given a prefix, although their names are de-
rived from "strato" or "cumulo," depending on their characteristics.
Low clouds occur below 6500 feet, and normally consist of liquid water
droplets or even supercooled droplets, except during cold winter storms
when ice crystals (and snow) comprise much of the clouds.
The two main types of low clouds include stratus, which develop
Stratocumulus
horizontally, and cumulus, which develop vertically. stratus clouds are
uniform and flat, producing a gray layer of cloud cover which may be
precipitation-free or may cause periods of light precipitation or drizzle.
Low stratus decks are common in winter in the Ohio Valley, especially
behind a storm system when cold, dismal, gray weather can linger for
several hours or even a day or two. stratocumulus clouds are hybrids of
layered stratus and cellular (individual) cumulus, i.e., individual cloud
elements, characteristic of cumulo-type clouds, clumped together in a Nimbostratus
continuous distribution, characteristic of strato-type clouds. stratocumu-
lus also can be thought of as a layer of cloud clumps with thick and thin
areas. These clouds appear frequently in the atmosphere, either ahead of
or behind a frontal system. Thick, dense stratus or stratocumulus clouds
producing steady rain or snow often are referred to as nimbostratus
clouds.
In contrast to layered, horizontal stratus, cumulus clouds are more
cellular in nature, have flat bottoms and rounded tops, and grow verti- Cumulus congestus
cally. In fact, their name depends on the degree of vertical development.
For instance, scattered cumulus clouds showing little vertical growth on an otherwise sunny day
used to be termed "cumulus humilis" or "fair weather cumulus," although normally they simply are
referred to just as cumulus or flat cumulus. A cumulus cloud that exhibits significant vertical devel-
opment (but is not yet a thunderstorm) is called cumulus congestus or towering cumulus. If enough
atmospheric instability, moisture, and lift are present, then strong updrafts can develop in the cumu-

25
lus cloud leading to a mature, deep cumulonimbus cloud, i.e., a thunder-
storm producing heavy rain. In addition, cloud electrification occurs
within cumulonimbus clouds due to many collisions between charged
water droplet, graupel (ice-water mix, much like hail), and ice crystal
particles, resulting in lightning and thunder.

Cumulonimbus

THE LENTICULAR CLOUDS — FORMING ON ONE SIDE —

GOING AWAY ON THE OTHER SIDE!

No, it’s not an alien spacecraft. It’s known as a “lenticular cloud,”

or an “altocumulus standing lenticular” or ACSL cloud.

Lenticular clouds, technically known as altocumulus standing lenticularis, or ACsL, are station-
ary lens-shaped clouds that form at high altitudes, normally aligned at right angles to the wind direc-
tion.
When stable moist air flows over a range of mountains, a series of large-scale standing waves
may form. Under certain conditions, long strings of lenticular clouds can form, creating a formation
known as a wave cloud.
Power pilots tend to avoid flying near lenticular clouds because of the turbulence of the rotor sys-
tems that accompany them, but sailplane pilots actively look for them. This is because the systems
of atmospheric standing waves that cause "lennies" (as they are sometimes called) also involve
large vertical air movements, and the precise location of the rising air mass is fairly easy to predict
from the orientation of the clouds. This vertical air movement gives a glider lift that takes it to a
higher altitude.

26
 "Wave lift" of this kind is often very smooth and strong, and enables gliders to soar to remarkable
altitudes and great distances. some gliders have soared as far as over 1,500 miles and as high as
about 50,000 feet.
The picture below depicts an altocumulus standing lenticular over mt. Rainier in Washington
state, just south of seattle. The cloud, although it looks like it is standing still, is actually forming on
one side and dissipating on the other. These clouds look this way because cloud-forming vapor con-
denses by going below dew point at the crest of the waves. The lenticular clouds are known to fore-
shadow bad weather. When airline pilots see these in the distance, the “seat belt” light goes on
immediately and a voice comes over the speaker saying, “Ladies and gentlemen, we may be experi-
encing turbulence soon so please take your seats and fasten your seat belts!”

An altocumalus standing lenticular cloud simultaneously

forming and dissipating above Mt. Rainier.

27
Activity Nine - Dew Point
4
Purpose: Conduct an experiment to visually demonstrate the concept of dew point.

Materials: tin can, thermometer, tablespoon, ice cubes, paper towel, bowl, spoon, cool water, and salt
(optional - blender)

Procedure:
1. Place an ice cube on the paper towel.
2. Use the spoon to break the ice cube into small
pieces.
3. Place these pieces into the bowl.
4. Continue this process of breaking ice cubes until you
have about half a bowl full of crushed ice. (Or, use a
blender to crush ice all at once.)
5. Fill the can to about one-fourth full of cool water.
6. Place the thermometer in the can. steps
7. Add a tablespoon of crushed ice and stir. step
8. Continue to slowly add ice and stir until a thin layer
of moisture, or dew, forms on the outside of the can.
9. Read the temperature as soon as the dew forms. This is the dew point.
10. If you add salt to the ice and stir, the moisture will turn into frost because the salt lowers the tempera-
ture of the dew to freezing.

Summary: This activity reinforces the concept explained in this chapter regarding dew point. The
dew point affects weather, which, of course, is of concern to pilots. Also, as explained at
http://www.flyingsafer.com/test%20report.htm, “A major cause of shortened engine life is water that
forms inside an internal combustion engine when it is not running. If the metal parts of the engine
ever cool to a temperature that is lower than the dew point temperature of the air inside your engine,
water droplets will form on the cool engine parts. This same process that causes dew to collect on
your automobile in the morning is collecting water inside your engine. If you can do something to
upset this process of changing temperatures and humidity levels (such as lowering the dew point
temperature of the air inside the engine to a temperature considerably below the outside air tempera-
ture), you can prevent water from ever forming inside your engine.”

28
Activity Ten - Comfort and Humidity
Purpose: Use observation skills to experiment with humidity,
which is discussed in chapter four.

Materials: plastic bag or empty bread wrapper, tape, and

room-temperature water

Procedure:
1. Place one hand in the plastic bag.
2. seal the bag snugly around your arm with tape, making the
bag airtight.
3. Leave the bag in place a few minutes and observe your
hand as it begins to sweat.
4. Wet your other hand with the room-temperature water. Both
hands are wet, but the one in the bag feels uncomfortable
while the other hand feels cool.
5. Discuss possible reasons for the difference in the “comfort”
of the two types of dampness.

Summary: The hand outside the bag feels wet, but comfortable. The hand inside the bag feels wet, un-
comfortable, and probably sticky. This is because the humidity is too high inside the bag. Humidity af-
fects the weather, which, in turn, is of great concern to pilots. Also, humidity can affect the properties of
materials both inside and outside the airplane. Inside the cabin, the relative humidity is kept low to help
prevent corrosion. Due to the low humidity inside the cabin of an aircraft, passengers may want to wear
eyeglasses as opposed to contact lenses that can become dried out. Also, passengers may wish to bring
moisturizer for the face and/or hands on long flights.

Activity Eleven - Making Fog

Purpose: Demonstrate how fog forms.

Materials: clear glass jar, tea strainer, ice cubes, and hot water
Procedure: steps
1. Fill the jar half full of hot water.
2. Place the strainer over the opening of the jar.
3. Fill the strainer with ice cubes and fog will form
inside the jar. step

Summary: With this activity, it is easy to see how

easily fog can form. This fog is formed when a layer
of warm, moist air forms low to the ground. A layer of
cooler, dry air (ice) forms overtop, cooling the
warmer air quickly. As the air temperature lowers,
small droplets of water condense, and is seen as fog.

29
Activity Twelve - Measuring Precipitation
Purpose: make and use a rain gauge to measure precipitation.
Materials: a 1-pound coffee can, olive jar, ruler, marking pen, water, funnel, and a watch
Procedure:
1. Place the ruler into the coffee can.
2. Pour 2 inches of water into the can, using the 2-inch mark on the ruler as your gauge.
3. Place the funnel into the top of the olive jar.
4. Pour the 2 inches of water from the can into the jar.
5. mark the water level on the outside of the jar.
6. Discard the water in the jar.
7. Use the ruler to divide the space below the mark on the jar into 20 equal spaces. (This divides the
space into tenths, with each mark representing one-tenth of an inch of rain.)
8. Place the coffee can in an open area away from trees and buildings to collect rain water.
9. After the rain stops, use the funnel to pour the rain water from the can into the jar.
10. Read the marks on the jar to determine the amount of rain that fell.

steps steps steps step

5 steps

Summary: This is a great exercise for keeping an accurate account of how much rain is falling or has
fallen. It is standard practice to measure rainfall for an hour, 6 hours, or even a day or month. When
using the rain gauge, remember to record your measurements and then dump out the rain so that it
doesn’t get counted again. measuring precipitation is a regular action of meteorologists to help the pub-
lic stay abreast of agricultural, transportational, and recreational impact.

Activity Thirteen - Cloud in a Bottle

Purpose: simulate cloud formation, as discussed in chapter four.

Materials: glass jug with a small mouth and a match or candle (Note: adult supervision suggested.)

Procedure:
1. Light the match or candle. (Adult supervision required)
2. Turn the jug upside down and carefully hold the opening over the flame.
3. Warm the air inside the jug for a few seconds.

30
4. Blow out the match or candle.
5.Quickly place your mouth around the opening to make
a seal.
6. Blow hard into the jug, compressing the air inside the
jug as much as possible. (Be careful not to breathe in, or steps
the compressed air will be released too soon.)
7. Quickly remove your mouth and release the pressure.
8. Observe the cloud that forms inside the jug.
9. Discuss why/how this happens.

Summary: When you compressed the warm air in the steps

jug, you also added the moisture from your breath.
When you suddenly released the pressure, the air mole-
cules in the jug cooled and expanded. The cooler air
couldn't hold as much moisture as the warmer air, thus
some of the moisture condensed into tiny droplets and
formed a cloud. In the atmosphere, these tiny water
droplets, or ice crystals, cling to particles in the atmos-
phere, such as salt, smoke, dust, and volcanic ash to
step
form clouds.

31
Learning Outcomes
5
- Define an air mass and identify air mass characteristics.
- Define a front and describe the types of fronts.
- Describe hurricanes, thunderstorms, and tornadoes.
- Identify the stages of a thunderstorm.
- Outline safety precautions for thunderstorms and tornadoes.

Important Terms
air mass - huge body of air with the same temperature and moisture characteristics
front - a boundary between two air masses
hurricane - a tropical cyclone of low pressure and very strong winds; usually with heavy rain and
possible thunderstorms and tornadoes
thunderstorm - cumulonimbus cloud possessing thunder and lightning; usually accompanied by
strong winds, rain, and sometimes hail
tornado - whirling funnel of air of very low pressure and very strong winds; may be powerful
enough to suck up anything in its path; must touch the ground to be called a tornado

AIR MASSES
When the meteorologist on television is talking about a large weather pattern or weather system
moving into your area, he/she is referring to an air mass or a front. An approaching air mass or front
will definitely influence and change the weather in your local area. This chapter takes a look at se-
vere weather and some of the effects of these phenomena.
An air mass is a huge body of air, usually 1,000 miles or more across, that has the same tempera-
ture and moisture characteristics. When an air mass travels out of its area of origin, it carries those
characteristics with it. The place of origin of an air mass is called its source region, and the nature of
the source region largely determines the initial characteristics of an air mass. The ideal source region
must be very large and the physical features must be consistent throughout. Land located next to
water is not a good source region. Tropical (frost free and high temperatures areas) and polar (colder
areas far from the equator) locations are the best source regions.
Air masses are classified by their source region and the nature of the surface in their source region.
They are identified by a two-letter code consisting of a lowercase letter and a capital letter. The lower-
case letter is either m (maritime) or c (continental). maritime stands for water (high moisture and wet),
and continental stands for land (low moisture and dry). The capital letter refers to temperature at lati-
tude and is placed into four categories: polar (P), arctic (A), tropical (T), and equatorial (E). The differ-
ences between polar and arctic (colder), and between tropical and equatorial (warmer) are very small.

32
 Here are the air mass classifications:
cA continental arctic cA cA
cP continental polar cP mP cP
cT continental tropical
cT
mT maritime tropical
mT
mP maritime polar cT mT
mE maritime equatorial cT

(see associated Activity Fourteen at the end of

the chapter.)
T
FRONTS ON
FR
WARM COLD
Fronts are classified as warm, cold, stationary, and occluded. A
warm front occurs when warm air moves into an area of colder air A Warm Front
and they collide. The warm air overrides the cold because it is lighter. FR O
The heavier, colder air sinks.

NT
COLD M
Cold fronts occur when the air moving into the area is colder than the WAR
already present warmer air. The heavier, colder air pushes the warmer
A Cold Front
air up and out of the way. In general, cold fronts move faster than warm
fronts. so, the colder air is rapidly pushing the warmer air out.
ARM
sometimes different air masses bump against each other, but the dif- FRO W ONT
FR
ference between them is not enough to force movement. This is called a

NT
stationary front. Neither the warm nor the cold air advances, and it be- COLD COOL
comes a standoff. This can last a few hours or a few days, but eventu- A Cold Occluded Front
ally more forceful air will push into the area and create movement.
RM
FRO
Occluded fronts involve three differing air masses and are classi- N
WA T
fied as either cold occluded or warm occluded. In the cold occluded, ON

T
FR
cold air moves in and collides with warmer air pushing the warm air COOL COLD
aloft. Then, the leading edge of this cold front comes in contact with
A Warm Occluded Front
the trailing edge of the cooler surface air that was below the warm air.
Because the advancing air is the coldest, it sinks to the surface and causes the cooler air to rise.
However, the cooler air is still cooler than the warm air, so it continues to push the warm air above it.
In the warm occluded front, cool air is advancing to collide with the air in your area. since the cooler
air is warmer than the colder surface air, the cooler air rides up over the cold air. Once again, though, the
cooler air is cooler than the warm air that was already aloft, so the cooler air continues to push the
warmer air up.
In color weather maps, cold fronts
are identified by the color blue and
warm fronts by the color red. stationary
and occluded fronts are red and blue.
(see associated Activities Fifteen and
sixteen at the end of the chapter.)

This is how fronts appear

Cold Front
on weather maps:
Stationary
Warm Front
Occluded

33
SEVERE WEATHER
The last section of this chapter is severe
weather. There are three main weather phe-
nomena to discuss in this area: thunderstorms,
tornadoes, and hurricanes. All three are pow-
erful, devastating phenomena that damage
property and bring destruction. All three are
dangerous and potentially deadly, as well.
This section will give you information about
these three severe weather phenomena and
help you prepare for them.
spotting a cumulonimbus cloud, like the
one pictured here, is a sign of severe weather
conditions. All three of our severe weather
phenomena can be associated with cumu- Cumulonimbus Cloud
lonimbus clouds.

Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms come from cumulonim-
bus clouds and always possess thunder and
lightning. The most spectacular and danger-
ous part of a thunderstorm is the lightning.
Lightning is the flash of light produced by
electrical discharges in a thunderstorm area.
Lightning discharges millions of volts of elec-
tricity and heats the air to 60,000°F. Lightning
can vary from between 9 to 90 miles. Thunder
is the sound sent out by rapidly expanding
gases along the lightning’s trail. Thunder- Hail
storms usually contain heavy rain, strong
winds, and sometimes hail (small balls of ice).
Thunderstorms have three stages: building,
mature, and dissipating. The building stage is
dominated by updrafts as the storm builds and
grows vertically. Eventually, the moisture that
is carried up with the storm gets heavier and
starts to fall. This creates downdrafts. Up-
drafts are still occurring, so the moisture
moves up and down several times. This activ-
ity describes the mature stage. The last stage Building Mature Dissipating
has downdrafts only and this is called the dis-
sipating stage. (see associated Activity seventeen at the end of the chapter.)
At any given time in the world, 2,000 thunderstorms are occurring, and from these storms 100
lightning strikes occur per second. Thunderstorms can occur anytime, anywhere. There is an old say-
ing that lightning does not strike twice in the same place. Don't believe it! The Empire state Building
has been struck many times during the same storm.

34
 Lightning can kill. On the av-
erage, over 200 people are killed
every year in the U.s., and an-
other 500-600 people are injured
by lightning strikes.
Let's take a moment and re-
mind ourselves of some safety
rules for thunder and lightning.
During a storm, following this
list will increase your safety:
• When inside, stay away from
windows and doors.
• Don't use electrical appliances.
• Don't use the telephone or take
a shower or bath.
• If outdoors, go inside if you
can.
• move away from water, such Lightning near Eglin AFB
as swimming pools and lakes.
• If you are in a boat, go ashore.
• stay away from metal objects
like golf clubs, fishing poles,
bicycles, farm equipment, or
motorcycles.
• Don't stand in an open field, a
hilltop, or on a golf course
(stay low by sitting or crouch-
ing).
• Don't stand under a single tree
(if you must be under a tree,
look for a clump of small trees
or trees of similar height).
• If in a group of people, stay
low and spread out.
• If in a car, stay there.
Vertical & horizontal lightning (NASA)
Thunderstorms present sev-
eral challenges to pilots. Thun-
derstorms come from cumulonimbus clouds, and that means there is unstable air present. so,
thunderstorms have violent up and down drafts. As already mentioned, unstable air causes turbu-
lence, and turbulence, particularly heavy turbulence, raises havoc with planes.
Thunderstorms generally bring rain, usually heavy, and sometimes even hail. Hail can do serious
damage to airplanes. Also, thunderstorms are always accompanied by thunder and lightning. Pilots
are well aware of the dangers associated with thunderstorms and usually fly above or around them.

35
Tornadoes
One of the most severe weather phenomenon is the tornado. A tornado is very destructive and can
be devastating to life and property. Tornadoes have occurred in every month of the year and in every
state in the Us About 700 tornadoes are reported in the Us annually.
Tornadoes consist of unstable air of very low pressure. most tornadoes move in a counterclock-
wise manner. Air is sucked into the center, or vortex
of the storm, and is rapidly lifted and cooled. The
funnel of a tornado appears very dark as it moves
picking up dirt and debris.
Tornadoes will normally touch down for several
miles then go back up in the cloud, and then touch
down again later. It will do this many times during
its life. A tornado ranges from 50 to 500 yards wide
and moves across the ground at about 70 mph.
These are just averages, as they can move twice as
fast, or as slow as 5 mph.
A tornado's winds can be stronger than 300 knots
(each knot is equal to one nautical mile, which is
about 1.151 mph), and this is the main reason for the
tremendous destruction associated with tornadoes.
The Fujita Wind Damage scale, shown below, ex-
plains the categories of wind speed and expected
damage. Tornado

If you know a tornado is coming, there

are precautions you can take: Fujita Wind Damage Scale
• If time permits, get to a basement Number Wind Speed Damage
or underground. F-0 Up to 72 mph light
F-1 73 to 112 mph moderate
• If in open country, move at right F-2 113 to 157 mph considerable
angles (90°) away from it. F-3 158 to 206 mph severe
• If there is time, get to a low place, F-4 207 to 260 mph devastating
F-5 above 261 mph incredible
like a ditch, and lie down.
• If indoors, stay away from win-
dows, and if you don't have a basement, get to an interior hallway, closet, or bathroom.

Hurricanes
Another severe phenomenon is the hurricane. A good case could be made for hurricanes as being
the most dangerous of storms. First of all, they produce many thunderstorms and tornadoes within
their system. secondly, although their winds are not as strong as a tornadoes, they are often above
100 knots. Hurricanes affect a large area, hundreds of miles wide, and they usually continue for more
than a week. many times they will flood coastal cities and dump many inches of rain. The winds,
along with the tidal waves from the ocean, demolish homes on a routine basis.
Before tropical cyclones develop into hurricanes, they can be divided into three categories de-
pending on the wind speed. The lowest category is a tropical disturbance, then a tropical depression,
and finally a tropical storm. A tropical storm's winds must be between 39 and 74 mph. If the winds

36
go above 74 mph, the cy-
clone is called a hurricane.
Hurricanes have five cate-
gories. These categories are
presented on the saffir-simp-
son Hurricane Damage Po-
tential scale (shown below).
Although the winds are what
most people pay attention to,
this scale also mentions the
barometric pressure and the
storm surge. Hurricane dam-
age comes from the winds,
storm surges, and flooding.
One distinctive feature of
every hurricane is the eye.
The eye is the center of the
storm. It consists of calm or
very light winds and clear Even the strongest of trees are no match for the fury of hurricane or tor-
skies or very few clouds. It is nado winds.
calm and peaceful, yet sur-
rounded by violence and force on all sides. The average eye of a hurricane is about 10-15 miles
wide. After the eye passes, the winds roar and blow as strong as before. (see
associated Activity Eighteen at the end of the chapter.)

Hurricane

The eye of a hurricane

Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Damage Potential Scale

Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4 Category 5

Pressure 28.94 28.50-28.91 27.91-28.47 27.17-27.88 27.17
Wind 75-95 mph 96-110 mph 111-130 mph 131-155 mph 155 mph
Storm Surge 4-5 ft 6-8 ft 9-12 ft 13-18 ft 18 ft

37
Activity Fourteen - Air Masses
5 mP
cA cA
mP
Purpose: Identify types of air masses indicated on a map.
cT
Materials: map to right and matching columns below mT
mT
cT
Procedure:
1. Identify the type of air masses on the map. (Refer to
page 33 for assistance and answers.)
2. match the air mass characteristics (Column A) with its source region (Column B).

Column A Column B

____ (1) Very moist and very warm air mass a. cA

____ (2) Exceptionally cold; very dry air mass b. cT

____ (3) Cool and moist air mass c. mP

____ (4) Very warm and dry air mass d. mT

Summary: This activity reinforces knowledge regarding types of air masses. Air masses are classified
by their source region and the nature of the surface in their source region.
Answers: 1) d. 2) a. 3) c. 4) b.

Activity Fifteen - Identifying Fronts

Purpose: Practice identifying fronts.

Materials: questions and illustrations below

Procedure: Circle each correct answer. Use page 33 for reference.

1. What kind of front is this?

a. Warm
T
b. Cold
R ON
c. stationary F
d. Occluded WARM COLD

38
2 What kind of front is this?
a Warm FR O
b. Cold M

NT
c. stationary COLD WAR
d. Occluded

3. What kind of front is this? M

R
a. Warm
FR O WA
b. Cold

NT
c. stationary
d. Occluded COLD COOL

Summary: This exercise is useful to review the identification of weather fronts. The important aspect to
understand is which air is replacing, or pushing or lifting, which air.
Answers: 1) a. 2) b. 3) d.

Activity Sixteen - Fronts on Maps

Purpose: Practice reading and analyzing maps.
Materials: map and questions
Procedure:
Use the map below to answer the following questions.
1. What kind of front is approaching Atlanta, Georgia?
a. Warm
b. Cold
c. stationary
d. Occluded
2. What kind of front is next to Bismarck, North Dakota?
a. Warm
b. Cold Bismarck, North Dakota
c. stationary St. Paul, Minnesota
d. Occluded
3. In the next several hours, what will the
temperatures be in st. Paul, minnesota
St. Louis, Missouri
and st. Louis, missouri?
a. Warmer
b. Colder Atlanta, Georgia

Summary: This activity reinforces

weather map knowledge. Knowing what
fronts look like on a map can greatly aid Cold Front
forecasting skills, which is an important
Stationary
skill for pilots.
Warm Front
Answers: 1) a. 2) c. 3) b.
Occluded

39
Activity Seventeen - Distance to a Thunderstorm
Purpose: Using observation and math skills, estimate the distance between you and a storm.
Materials: a watch or clock with second hand and a thunderstorm
Procedure:
1. Watch for a flash of lightning.
2. Then count the number of seconds until you hear the thunder.
3. Now divide the number of seconds by five. This gives you the
approximate number of miles to the storm. Light from the flash
travels to your eyes almost instantly, while sound travels at about
1,100 feet per second. Example: 5 seconds is 5,500 feet, or a lit-
tle more than 1 mile. If you don't have a watch, simply count
"thousand one, thousand two, thousand three," and so on. Each
count is a second and 5 seconds is 1 mile.

Summary: Knowing how to estimate the distance between you and an approaching storm is important.
It gives you an idea of how quickly the storm is approaching or moving away. This knowledge may help
you make important life-saving decisions.

Activity Eighteen - Matching Severe Weather

Purpose: Review your knowledge of severe weather.

Materials: matching columns below

Procedure: match the description in column A with the correct weather in column B.

Column A Column B

___ (1) Cloud which can produce severe weather a. flooding

b. lightning
___ (2) First stage of a thunderstorm
c. stratus
___ (3) Can heat the air to 60,000° F d. cumulonimbus
e. mature
___ (4) What you do not do during a thunderstorm f. building
g. thunder
___ (5) What you do not do during a tornado
h. go to the upstairs of your house
___ (6) Cause of damage due to a hurricane i. go golfing

Summary: This matching exercise allows you to demonstrate your knowledge of severe weather and
the damages and precautions for each.
Answers: 1) d. 2) f. 3) b. 4) i. 5) h. 6) a.

40
Aerospace Dimensions

ROCKETS

4
MODULE

Civil Air Patrol

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama
Aerospace Dimensions
ROCKETS

4 WRITTEN BY
DR. JEFF MONTGOMERY
DR. BEN MIllspauGh

DEsIGN
BaRB pRIBulICK

IllusTRaTIONs
pEGGY GREENlEE

EDITING
BOB BROOKs
susaN MallETT
JuDY sTONE

NaTIONal aCaDEMIC sTaNDaRD alIGNMENT

JuDY sTONE

puBlIshED BY
NaTIONal hEaDQuaRTERs
CIVIl aIR paTROl
aEROspaCE EDuCaTION DEpuTY DIRECTORaTE
MaXWEll aFB, alaBaMa 36112

ThIRD EDITION
JuNE 2013
 INTRODUCTION
The Aerospace Dimensions module, Rockets, is the fourth of six modules, which combined, make
up Phases I and II of Civil Air Patrol's Aerospace Education Program for cadets. Each module is
meant to stand entirely on its own, so that each can be taught in any order. This enables new cadets
coming into the program to study the same module, at the same time, with the other cadets. This
builds a cohesiveness and cooperation among the cadets and encourages active group participation.
This module is also appropriate for middle school students and can be used by teachers to supple-
ment sTEm-related subjects.
Inquiry-based activities were included to enhance the text and provide concept applicability. The
activities were designed as group activities, but can be done individually, if desired. The activities
for this module are located at the end of each chapter.

ii
CONTENTS
Introduction .............................................................................................ii

Contents...................................................................................................iii

National Academic Standard Alignment ..............................................iv

Chapter 1. History of Rockets ................................................................1

Chapter 2. Rocket Principles, Systems and Engines...........................11

Chapter 3. Rocket and Private Space Travel ......................................27

Last century launch vehicle ... Saturn V This century launch vehicle ... Ares I

iii
National Academic Standard Alignment

iv
Learning Outcomes
1
- Identify historical facts about the Greeks, Chinese, and British, and their roles in the
development of rockets.
- Describe America's early contributions to the development of rockets.
- List the early artificial and manned rocket launches and their missions.

Important Terms/Persons
Neil Armstrong - first man to walk on moon
Roger Bacon - increased the range of rockets
William Congreve - designed rockets for military use
Jean Froissart - improved the accuracy of rockets by launching them through tubes
Yuri Gagarin - a Russian; the first man in space and the first man to orbit the Earth
John Glenn - first American to orbit the Earth
Robert Goddard - experimented with solid and liquid propellant rockets; is called the “Father of
modern Rocketry”
William Hale - developed the technique of spin stabilization
Hero - developed first rocket engine
Sergei Korolev - the leading soviet rocket scientist; known as the “Father of the soviet space Program”
Sir Isaac Newton - laid scientific foundation for modern rocketry with his laws of motion
Hermann Oberth - space pioneer; wrote a book about rocket travel into outer space
Alan Shepard - first American in space
Skylab - first Us space station
Space Shuttle - a space transportation system for traveling to space and back to Earth
Spin Stabilization - a technique developed by Englishman, William Hale, wherein escaping gases in
a rocket hit small vanes that made the rocket spin, and stablize, much like a bullet in flight
Sputnik I - first artificial satellite; Russian
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky - proposed the use of rockets for space exploration and
became known as the “Father of modern Astronautics”
Wernher von Braun - director of the V-2 rocket project

Today's rockets are remarkable examples of scientific research and experi-

mentation over thousands of years. Let's take a moment and recall some of the
fascinating rocket developments of the past.

HISTORY
The history of rockets began around 400 BC when a Greek named Archytas Hero Engine
built a flying wooden pigeon. It was suspended on a wire and propelled by escaping steam. About
300 years later, another Greek named Hero developed the first rocket engine. It was also propelled
by steam.

1
 Hero placed a sphere on top of a pot of water. The water
was heated and turned into steam. The steam traveled
through pipes into the sphere. Two L-shaped tubes on op-
posite sides of the sphere allowed the gas to escape. This
created a thrust that caused the sphere to rotate. This device
is known as a Hero Engine. (see associated Activity One at Fireworks and rockets
the end of the chapter.) share a common heritage
In the first century AD, the Chinese developed a form of
gunpowder and used it as fireworks for religious and festive
celebrations. The Chinese began experimenting with the
gunpowder-filled tubes. They attached bamboo tubes to ar-
rows and launched them with bows, creating early rockets.
In 1232, with the Chinese and mongols at war with
each other, these early rockets were used as arrows of fly-
ing fire. This was a simple form of a solid-propellant
rocket. A tube, capped at one end, contained gunpowder.
The other end was left open and the tube was attached to a
long stick. When the powder ignited, the rapid burning of
the powder produced fire, smoke, and gas that escaped out Early Chinese Rocket
the open end and produced a thrust. The stick acted as a
guidance system that kept the rocket headed in one general
direction as it flew through the air. Records indicate that from this point, the use of
rockets spread, as well as the use of fins to add greater guidance and stability.
Rocket experiments continued throughout the 13th to 15th centuries. In England,
Roger Bacon improved forms of gunpowder, which increased the range of the rocket.
In France, Jean Froissart achieved more accuracy by launching rockets through
tubes. This idea was the forerunner of the bazooka. (see associated Activity Two at
the end of the chapter.)
During the latter part of the 17th century, Sir Isaac Newton laid the scientific
foundations for modern rocketry when he developed his laws of motion. These laws
explain how rockets work and are discussed in detail in Chapter 2 of this volume.
Newton's laws of motion influenced the design of rockets. Rocket experimenters in
Germany and Russia began working with very powerful rockets. some of these rock-
ets were so powerful that their escaping exhaust flames bored deep holes in the
ground even before liftoff.
At the end of the 18th century, Colonel William Congreve, an artillery expert with
the British military, set out to design rockets for military use. His rockets increased
the rocket's range from 200 to 3,000 yards and were very successful in battle, not be-
cause of accuracy, but because of the sheer numbers that could be fired. During a typi-
cal siege, thousands of rockets could be fired. These became known as the Congreve
rockets, and were the rockets that lit the sky during the battle at Fort mcHenry in
1812, while Francis scott Key wrote his famous poem, which later became our na-
tional anthem, “The star spangled Banner.”
Even with Congreve's work, the accuracy of rockets still had not improved much.
so, rocket researchers all over the world were experimenting with ways to improve
accuracy. An Englishman, William Hale, developed a technique called spin stabi-
lization. In this method, the escaping exhaust gases struck small vanes at the bottom
of the rocket, causing it to spin much as a bullet does in flight. many rockets still use
variations of this principle today. Congreve Rocket

2
MODERN ROCKETRY

In 1898, a Russian schoolteacher, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, pro-

posed the idea of space exploration by a rocket. He published a report
in 1903 suggesting the use of liquid propellants for rockets in order to
achieve greater range. Tsiolkovsky stated that only the exhaust veloc-
ity of escaping gases limited the speed and range of a rocket. For his
ideas, research, and vision, Tsiolkovsky has been called the “Father of
modern Astronautics.”
Early in the 20th century, an American physics professor, Dr.
Robert H. Goddard, conducted many practical experiments with
rockets. His research led to major breakthroughs in the development
of rockets. His earliest experiments were with solid-propellant rock-
ets. Then he became convinced that liquid fuel would better propel a
Dr. Robert H. Goddard
rocket. In 1926, Goddard achieved the first successful flight with a
liquid-propellant rocket. It was fueled by liquid oxygen and gasoline.
This was the forerun-
ner of today's rockets. Igniter
As he continued Needle valve Needle valve
with his experiments,
his liquid-propellant Rocket motor
rockets grew bigger
and flew higher. He
also developed a gyro- Liquid
scope system for flight Gasoline line oxygen
line
control, a payload
compartment, and a
parachute recovery
system. Additionally,
he believed that multi-
stage rockets were the Hinged rod
answer for achieving Pressure
high altitudes. For his relief vent
many accomplish- Exhaust shield
ments, Dr. Goddard is
Liquid
known as the “Father oxygen tank Pull cord
of modern Rocketry.”
Alcohol burner
Cork float
valve
Gasoline tank
Oxygen gas
pressure line Pull cord

Check valve Pipe

Detachable
starting hose Oxygen cylinder

Goddard Rocket Illustration

3
 In 1923, Hermann Oberth of Germany, published a book about rocket
travel into outer space. Because of his writings, small rocket societies were
started around the world. In Germany, one such society, the society for space
Travel, led to the development of the V-2 rocket.
The V-2 rocket, with its explosive warhead, was a formidable weapon
which could devastate whole city blocks. Germany used this weapon against
London during World War II, but fortunately this occurred too late in the war
to change the outcome. The V-2 was built under the directorship of Wernher
von Braun, a German,who after the war headed up the Us rocket program.
With the fall of Germany, the Allies captured many unused V-2 rockets
Wernher von Braun
and components. many German rocket scientists came to the United states.
Others went to the soviet
Union. Von Braun and
about 120 of his scientists
signed contracts to work Warhead
with the Us Army. Von (Explosive Charge)
Braun and his team used
Automatic
captured V-2s to teach Gyro Control
American scientists and
Guidebeam and Radio
engineers about rocketry. Command Receivers
In the soviet Union,
Sergei Korolev was lead-
ing Russian scientists in Container for
rocket development. He Alcohol-water
organized and led the de- Mixture
velopment of the first suc-
cessful soviet
intercontinental ballistic
missile in August 1957.
Two months later, the so-
viet Union launched the
Container for
world’s first artificial satel- Liquid Oxygen
lite, Sputnik I. He is con- Container for
sidered to be the Turbine Propellant
(Hydrogen Peroxide)
“Father of the soviet Propellant
space Program.” Vaporizer for Turbine Turbopump
Propellant (Propellant
Turbopump Drive)
Steam Exhaust
Oxygen Main Valve from Turbine

Rocket Motor
Alcohol
Main Valve

Jet Vane Air Vane

V-2 Rocket

4
Space Race

Both the United states and the soviet Union recognized

the potential of rocketry as a military weapon and began a
variety of experimental programs. The United states began
a program of high-altitude atmospheric sounding rockets.
Then the Us developed a variety of medium - and long-
range intercontinental ballistic missiles. These became the
starting points for the Us space program.
missiles, such as the Redstone, Atlas, and Titan, would
eventually launch satellites and astronauts into space. Col-
lectively, they were called rocket launch vehicles and they
were the real workhorses for the space program.
A launch vehicle is the rocket system that lifts a space-
craft. It gives the spacecraft enough force to reach orbit.
These launch vehicles propelled people and cargo into
space. The diagram to the right shows an example of a
rocket launch vehicles used by the Us space program.
As stated previously, on October 4, 1957, the soviet
Union launched into space the first artificial (man-made)
satellite, Sputnik I. The “race for space” between the two
world superpowers, the Us and the UssR, had begun.
On January 31, 1958, the Us launched Explorer I (il-
lustration on next page). The Explorer I was the first space-
craft to recongnize the Van Allen radiation belt around the
Titan III(23)C rocket launch (March 25,
1978) carrying two DSCS (Defense
Satellite Communications System)
II satellites (The Titan IIIC was the
launch vehicle for Voyager 1 and 2).

William Pickering,
James Van Allen, and
Wernher von Braun
displaying a full-
scale model of the
Explorer 1 satellite,
weighing only 30.80
lbs, at a crowded
press conference
held in the Great Hall
of the National Acad-
emy of Sciences at
1:30 A.M. February 1,
1958, when it was
confirmed that the
satellite was in orbit
around the Earth.
Sputnik I

5
 Explorer I External Nosecone with
Temperature Temperature
Gauge Probe Inside
Rocket Engine

Geiger Counter
Internal
Micrometeorite Temperature
Erosion Gauges Gauge Instrument Compartment
with Radio Transmitter
Antenna

Earth held in place by Earth’s magnetic field. The Explorer I was launched then, in October 1958,
the Us formally organized its space program by creating the National Aeronautics and space Admin-
istration (NAsA). NAsA became the civilian agency with the goal of peaceful exploration of space
for the benefit of all humankind. The Department of Defense (DoD) became responsible for research
and development in the area of military aero-
space activities. Thus, the Us began to study
space exploration in earnest.
Both the Us and the soviet Union began
sending many people and machines into
space. In April of 1961, a Russian, named
Yuri Gagarin, became the first man to orbit
Earth. Then, less than a month later, Alan
Shepard, aboard his mercury capsule, Free-
dom 7, became the first American in space.
The Redstone rocket that propelled shepard
was not powerful enough to place the mercury
capsule into orbit. so, the flight lasted only 15
minutes and reached an altitude of 187 kilo-
meters (or 116 miles). Twenty days later, may
25, 1961, even though the soviet Union was
ahead of the Us in the space race, President
John F. Kennedy announced the objective of
putting a man on the moon by the end of the
decade.
In February 1962, John Glenn became
the first American to orbit the Earth aboard
the mercury capsule, Friendship 7. Glenn
was launched by the more powerful Atlas
Alan Shepard's John Glenn's Mercury
rocket and remained in orbit for 4 hours and Mercury capsule atop capsule atop an Atlas
55 minutes. a Redstone rocket launch vehicle

6
 The Us then began an extensive unmanned space program aimed at supporting the manned lunar
landing program. The Atlas rocket continued to power these mercury missions until the larger Cen-
taur rocket booster was added to it and the Titan rockets. Although rocket staging had been used
since early rocketry began, this booster system added boosting stages to propel rockets even further.
As rocket building was refined, so was the capability of the Us to explore the moon. (see associated
Activity Three at the end of the chapter.)
Next came the Gemini missions in 1965-1966,
which were designed to carry two crew members.
These missions were launched by the largest
launch vehicle available, the Titan II. Gemini mis-
sions were aimed at expanding our experience in
space and preparing the U.s. for a manned lunar
landing on the moon. Gemini paved the way for
the Apollo missions by demonstrating rendezvous
and docking procedures.
After the Gemini missions, the third manned
space program, Apollo, began in 1967 and ended
in 1975. Launching men to the moon required
much larger launch vehicles than those avail-
able. so, the Us developed the saturn launch ve-
hicles; saturn I, IB, and V. The saturn I and IB
were large two-stage liquid-propellant launch
vehicles assembled from the components of
other rockets.
Neil Armstrong's photo of Buzz Aldren
In October 1968, a saturn IB launched the first
planting the U.S. Flag on the Moon
three-person mission, Apollo 7. Then, the three-
stage saturn V was developed with one goal —
send humans to the moon. On July 20, 1969,
Apollo 11 landed on the moon, powered by the
saturn V launch vehicle, and Neil Armstrong be-
came the first man to walk on the moon.
The next space project of the United states
was Skylab - first Us space station. The saturn
V was used to launch Skylab into space. The sat-
urn IB launch vehicles were used to launch
crews to the space station. Skylab was launched
in may 1973 and had three separate missions be-
tween 1973 and 1974. The last mission was the
longest. It lasted 84 days.
After the space station, the Us concentrated
on a reusable launch system, the space Trans-
portation system (sTs). The sTs used solid
rocket boosters and three main engines to launch
the shuttle orbiter. The reusable boosters fell off Skylab in orbit over the
Amazon River in Brazil
about two minutes into the flight. Parachutes de-

7

A space shuttle launch
Rocket timeline
A space shuttle landing
ployed to decelerate the solid rocket boosters for a safe
splashdown in the Atlantic Ocean, where ships recovered
them. The sTs, commonly referred to as the Space Shuttle,
was used for transportation
” to space and back to Earth.
This chapter gave a
“ brief account of how rocket
launch vehicles were used
in the space race. A more
detailed account of the Us
manned space program is
contained in module six of
Aerospace Dimensions.
Rockets evolved from
simple gunpowder devices
into giant vehicles capable
of traveling into outer
space, taking astronauts to
the moon and launching
satellites to explore our
universe. Without a doubt,
rockets have opened the
universe to our explo-
ration, and the possibilities
continue to be endless.
8
Activity One - The Hero Engine
1
Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to demonstrate Newton’s Third Law of
motion, which was discussed in this chapter as related to the Hero Engine.
Materials: empty soda can, medium-size nail, string, bucket or tub of water, and a hammer
Procedure:
1. Lay the can on its side and carefully punch four equally-spaced holes in the can.
Before removing the nail, push the nail to the right so that the hole is slanted in
that direction. The holes should be just above the bottom rim. (Adult supervision
suggested.)
2. Bend the opener at the top of the soda can straight up and tie a short piece of string
to it.
3. Immerse the can in the water until the can is full.
4. Pull the can out of the water by the string. Water will stream out of the openings
causing the can to spin.
Summary: This replicates the very first rocket engine, the Hero Engine. Although the Hero Engine
was propelled by steam, this activity demonstrates thrust and Newton’s Third Law of motion. New-
ton’s Third Law of motion states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. The
force of falling water at slanted intervals around the can (action) causes the soda can to spin in the op-
posite direction (reaction).

Activity Two - Making a Paper Rocket

Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to create a paper rocket and experiment with the flight of the
paper rocket as pushed through a tube, as discussed in this chapter about early rockets. The use of fins will
aid with stabilization of the rocket, as also discussed in the chapter.

Materials: paper, cellophane tape, scissors, sharpened pencil, and a straw (slightly thinner than the pencil)
Procedure:
1. Cut a piece of paper 1.5
inches wide by 1 inch Step Step Step
shorter than the straw to Tape
be used.
Tape Tape
2. Wrap the paper around Step
Fold
the pencil. line
Cut
3. Tape tube in three places here
as shown.
4. Remove pencil and cut Step Step Steps
off ends of tube.
5. Reinsert pencil into tube and tape around sharpened point of the pencil.
6. Cut out fins in any shape you like and tape to base of rocket.
7. Remove the pencil from tube. Insert the straw into the open end of the paper rocket.

9
8. Launch the rocket by blowing on the end of the straw.

Summary: Paper rockets demonstrate how rockets fly through the air and the importance of having
fins for control. When experimenting with the flight of the rocket, the more the force of air applied to
the paper rocket, the farther it soars. Also, launching the rocket at different angles results in different
heights and distances that the rocket achieves. Consider experimenting with the placement of fins and
number of fins. Having no fins at all results in an unstable rocket!

Activity Three - Rocket Staging

Purpose: In this activity, the concept of how rocket stages work is visually demonstrated using balloons.
Materials: two long party balloons, nylon monofilament fishing line (any weight), two plastic straws
(milkshake size), styrofoam coffee cup, masking tape, scissors, and two spring clothespins
Procedure:
1. Thread the fishing line through the two straws. stretch the fishing line snugly across a room and
secure its ends to stable areas, such as a cabinet or wall. make sure the line is just high enough for
people to pass safely underneath.
2. Cut the coffee cup in half so that the lip of the cup forms a continuous ring.
3. stretch the balloons by pre-inflating them. Inflate the first balloon about three-fourths full of air and
squeeze its nozzle tight. Pull the nozzle through the ring. Twist the nozzle and hold it shut with a
spring clothespin. Inflate the second balloon. While doing so, make sure the front end of the second
balloon extends through the ring a short distance. As the second balloon inflates, it will press
against the nozzle of the first balloon and take over the clip's job of holding it shut. It may take a bit
of practice to achieve this. Clip the nozzle of the second balloon shut also with the clothes pin or
your fingers.
4. Take the straws to one end of the fishing line and tape each balloon to a straw with masking tape.
The balloons should point parallel to the fishing line.
5. Remove the clip from the first balloon and untwist the nozzle. Remove the nozzle from the second
balloon as well, but continue holding it shut with your fingers.
6. If you wish, do a rocket countdown as you release the balloon you are holding. The escaping gas
will propel both balloons along the fishing line. When the first balloon released runs out of air, it
will release the other balloon to continue the trip along the line.
7. Have students experiment with other ways to make multi-stage rockets work. Add 2, 3, or 4 stages,
as is possible.

Summary: This activ-

ity demonstrates
how a multi-stage
rocket works.
After a stage ex-
hausts its load of
propellants, the
entire stage drops
away, making the
upper stages more
efficient in reach-
ing higher alti-
tudes.

10
Learning Outcomes
- Define acceleration.
- Define inertia.
2
- Define thrust.
- Describe Newton's First Law of motion.
- Describe Newton's second Law of motion.
- Describe Newton's Third Law of motion.
- Identify the four major systems of a rocket.
- Describe the purpose of each of the four major systems of a rocket.
- Define payload.
- Describe how the world land speed record applies to rockets.

Important Terms
acceleration - the rate of change in velocity with respect to time
airframe - provides the shape of the rocket, within which all of the other systems are contained
control system - steers the rocket and keeps it stable
guidance system - gets the rocket to its destination; the brain of the rocket
inertia - the tendency of an object at rest to stay at rest and an object in motion to stay in motion
Newton's First Law of Motion - a body at rest remains at rest and a body in motion tends to stay in
motion at a constant velocity unless acted on by an outside force; inertia
Newton's Second Law of Motion - the rate of change in the momentum of a body is proportional to
the force acting upon the body and is in the direction of the force
Newton's Third Law of Motion - for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
payload - what the rocket is carrying
propulsion - everything associated with propelling the rocket
thrust - to force or push; the amount of push used to get a rocket traveling upwards

In this chapter, we will take a brief look at some of the concepts and principles that explain how
rockets work, with a particular emphasis on Newton's Laws of motion. These laws lay the scientific
foundation for rockets and aid tremendously in explaining how rockets work.

PRINCIPLES
In its simplest form, a rocket is a chamber enclosing a gas under pres-
sure. A small opening at one end of the chamber allows the gas to escape,
and thus provides a thrust that propels the rocket in the opposite direction. AIR MOVES BALLOON MOVES

A good example is a balloon.

Balloons and rockets actually have a strong similarity. The only signifi-
cant difference is the way the pressurized gas is produced. With space
rockets, the solid or liquid burning propellants produce the gas.

11
NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION
Even though rockets have been around for over 2,000 years, it has only been in the last 300 years
that rocket experimenters have had a scientific basis for understanding how they work. This scien-
tific basis came from sir Isaac Newton. Newton stated three important scientific principles that gov-
ern the motion of all objects, whether on Earth or in space. Understanding these principles has
enabled rocketeers to construct the giant rockets we use today. These principles are known as New-
ton's Laws of Motion.

Newton's First Law of Motion: a body at rest remains at rest and a body in motion tends to stay
in motion at a constant velocity unless acted on by an outside, or unbalanced, force.
Rest and motion are the opposite of each other. If a ball is sitting on the ground, it is at rest. If it is
rolling, it is in motion. If you hold a ball in your hand and keep it still, the ball is at rest. All the time
the ball is being held there, it is acted upon by forces. The force of gravity is trying to pull the ball
downward, while at the same time your hand is pushing against the ball to hold it up. The forces act-
ing on the ball are balanced. Let the ball go, or move your hand upward, and the forces become un-
balanced. The ball then changes from a state of rest to a state of motion.
In rocket flight, forces become balanced and unbalanced all the time. A rocket on the launch pad
is balanced. The surface of the pad pushes the rocket up while gravity tries to pull it down. As the
engines are ignited, the thrust from the rocket unbalances the forces, and the rocket travels upward.
Thrust is defined as the amount of push used to get the rocket traveling upwards.
Consider a grocery cart full of groceries that you are pushing down an aisle. Let's pretend there is
no friction from the wheels or from the floor. The cart weighs 75 pounds and you are pushing it at
100 ft/min. What force must you exert on the cart to keep it moving in a straight line at this constant
speed? The answer is none. You exerted a force to start it from rest, and you will need to exert a
force to stop it, but no force is needed to keep it moving at constant velocity if there is no friction.
Inertia is the tendency of an object at rest to stay at rest and an object in motion to stay in motion.
(see associated Activity Four at the end of the chapter.)

Newton's Second Law of Motion: the

rate of change in the momentum of a A F M A
body is proportional to the force acting
upon the body and is in the direction of
the force.
This law is essentially a mathematical
equation. There are three parts: mass (m),
acceleration (a), and force (f) so that f =
ma (force equals mass times accelera-
tion). The amount of force required to accelerate a body depends on the mass of the body. The more
mass, the more force is required to accelerate it.
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change in velocity with respect to time. Use a cannon as an
example to help explain. When the cannon is fired, an explosion propels a cannon ball out the open
end of the barrel. It flies to its target. At the same time, the cannon itself is pushed backward. The
force acting on the cannon and the ball is the same. since f = ma, if the mass increases, then the ac-
celeration decreases; if the mass decreases, then the acceleration increases.
Apply this principle to a rocket. Replace the mass of the cannon ball with the mass of the gases
being ejected out of the rocket engine. Replace the mass of the cannon with the mass of the rocket
moving in the other direction. Force is the pressure created by the controlled explosion taking place

12
inside the rocket's engines. That pressure accelerates the gas one way and the rocket the other.
Another example of this law would be a hockey puck sliding over the ice. That puck has a quan-
tity of motion that slowly decreases due to being in contact with the ice, which causes friction.

Newton's Third Law of Motion: for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
A rocket can lift off from a launch pad only when it expels gas out of its engine. The rocket
pushes on the gas, and the gas in turn pushes on the rocket. The example of a skateboard and rider il-
lustrates this point. Imagine the skateboard and rider at rest. The rider jumps off the skateboard. The
jumping is called the action. The skateboard responds to that action by traveling some distance in the
opposite direction. The skateboard's opposite motion is called the reaction. Another example is a
man walking on level ground pushes against the ground with his feet. The earth also pushes against
his feet with an equal and opposite force.
With rockets, the action is the expelling of gas out of the engine. The reaction is the movement of
the rocket in the opposite direction. To enable a rocket to lift off from the launch pad, the action, or
thrust, from the engine must be greater than the weight of the rocket. (see associated Activity Five,
six, and seven at the end of the chapter.)

ROCKET SYSTEMS
modern rockets consist of four major systems: air- Person or
frame, guidance, control, and propulsion. These four sys- Equipment Payload
tems work together to deliver the payload. The payload is
defined as whatever the rocket is carrying. For instance, Guidance
System
the payload of a military rocket might be explosives, while
the payload of a civilian rocket might be satellites. The as- Air- Control
frame System
tronauts and their data are also part of the payload.
The airframe provides the shape of the rocket and all Propellant
of the other systems are contained within it. The airframe
must be light-weight, yet structurally strong. It must with- Propulsion
System
stand heat, stress, and a lot of vibration. The primary ob-
jective in the design and construction of an airframe is to
build a structure that will withstand all anticipated stresses Major Systems of Rockets
while using the least possible weight. For example, the
airframe of the Atlas rocket is thinner than a dime. When
the Atlas has no fuel aboard, it must be pressurized to
keep it from collapsing. The airframe is the skin of the
rocket and serves as the wall of the propellant tanks.
This eliminates the need for separate internal tanks and
saves in weight, too.
The guidance system is the "brain" of a rocket. It is
responsible for getting the rocket and its payload to its
destination. In a military missile, the guidance system
delivers the warhead to its target. In a civilian rocket, the
guidance system is responsible for delivering the space-
craft to its proper orbit or destination.
The guidance system is small compared to the rest of
the rocket. This photo on the right gives you an idea of
its actual size. It is a self-contained electronic unit with a The Guidance System

13
computer. The computer is programmed to guide the
rocket on a desired trajectory. There is also a radio link Payload
between the rocket's mission controllers and its guidance
system. This allows changes to be made if necessary. Igniter
The control system takes the information from the
guidance system and steers the rocket to its destination.
The control system also keeps the rocket stable. The con- Casing
(Body tube)
trol system is actually several controls that work to stabi-
lize and steer the rocket. These controls allow for Core
changes to be made during the rocket's flight.
Propellant
Vanes, movable fins, gimbaled nozzles, and attitude- (Grain)
control rockets are a few examples of controls that can
help steer or stabilize a rocket. Vanes are like small fins
that are placed inside the exhaust of the rocket engine. Combustion
Chamber
Tilting the vanes deflects the exhaust and changes the di-
rection the rocket is going. A gimbaled nozzle is one that Fins
sways while the exhaust passes through it. This also
changes a rocket's direction. A rocket’s movable fins can
be tilted to change the rocket's direction, as well. The Throat
most commonly used control system is the attitude- Nozzle
Solid Fuel Propulsion System
control rockets. small clusters of engines are mounted all
around the vehicle. By firing the right combination of
these small rockets, the vehicle can be turned in any di-
rection.
The propulsion system consists of everything directly Payload
associated with propelling the rocket. This includes the
propellant used, the containers for the propellant, and the
Oxidizer
engine. The propellant doesn't mean just the fuel, but in-
cludes both the fuel and the oxidizer. The fuel is the
chemical the rocket burns and the oxidizer (oxygen) must
be present. Rockets must carry oxygen with them be-
cause there is none in space. Fuel
There are two rocket propellants, liquid and solid.
solid rocket propellants were used for 700 years before
Pumps
the liquid propellant was created. The solid propellant is
carried in the combustion chamber and is much simpler Injectors
than the liquid propellant. The solid propellant is illus- Fins
trated in the picture on the right. The fuel is usually a Combustion
mixture of hydrogen compounds and carbon, and the oxi- Chamber
dizer is made up of oxygen compounds.
The liquid propellant is much more complicated. Nozzle
Liquid propellants are carried in compartments separate Liquid Fuel Propulsion System
from the combustion chamber, one for the fuel and one for
the oxidizer. The liquid propellant is usually kerosene or liq-
uid hydrogen; the oxidizer is usually liquid oxygen.
The liquid propellant is what is commonly used today. It is heavier than a solid propellant, but
easier to control. (see associated Activity Eight at the end of the chapter.)

14
THE ROCKET ENGINE AND THE WORLD LAND SPEED RECORD
A rocket can operate in space, where there is almost no air. A rocket can produce more power for
its size than any other kind of engine. For example, the main rocket engine of the space shuttle
weighs only a fraction as much as a train engine, but it would take 39 train engines to produce the
same amount of power. When that enormous power is applied to a car, speeds in excess of 1000
miles per hour are possible. more and more rockets are going to be used along with jet engines to
make cars go faster. (see associated Activities Nine and Ten at the end of the chapter.)
Gary Gabelich was
the driver of a car called
the “Blue Flame” that set
the land speed record on
October 28, 1970. The
car was rocket-powered
and reached a speed of
622.407 miles per hour.
The car was almost 42
feet long, weighed 7,700
pounds, and had a height
at the fin of 7’6”. Its fuel
was pressure fed The Blue Flame was a rocket-powered car that exceeded
methane and the oxidizer 600 miles per hour. Image courtesy of the Viper Club

was hydrogen peroxide.

It had a thrust power of close to 50,000 pounds.
In the following section you will learn that the
sound barrier was broken on land in a car, featured
here, called the Thrust ssC. Although not rocket
powered, but jet-engined powered, high interest and
commonalities in thrust power led to inclusion in
this chapter.

This illustration clearly shows how the oxidizer and

fuel can be self-contained. In an aerospace craft or
an automobile, an enormous amount of power can
Thrust SSC be made available. Image courtesy of NASA

15
The British Hold The Record For the World’s Fastest Car

Back in 1997, a British team was the first to break the sound barrier on land in a jet-powered car.
The team was put together by Richard Noble, who directed a project that built and ran an incredible
car called the Thrust ssC. He is also a previous land-speed record holder.
Thrust ssC (super sonic Car) is a British-designed and built project. The leadership in the team
effort included Noble, Glynne Bowsher, and Jeremy Bliss. The driver was Andy Green (a Royal Air
Force pilot who flies the famous Tornado aircraft).
On October 15, 1997, Green piloted the most powerful, most extraordinary car ever to be de-
signed to attack the Land speed Record to a speed of 763 miles per hour (1,228 km/hour) to offi-
cially break the sound barrier on land. There was an earlier claim that an American rocket car, called
the Budweiser Rocket, broke the sound barrier. That controversy is still being resolved.
The Thrust ssC car broke the official record on
the Black Rock Desert in Nevada. It was powered by
two Rolls Royce spey Turbofan engines from an
American mcDonnell F-4 Phantom fighter and was
equipped with afterburners. The two engines devel-
oped a combined thrust of 50,000 pounds or approxi-
mately 110,000 horsepower. During the “run for the
record,” the engines burned an incredible 4.8 gallons
per second of fuel. The official records show that the
car achieved the following speeds:
• Flying mile 1227.986 km/h (763.035 mph)
Royal Air Force pilot, Andy Green, was also the • Flying kilometer 1223.657 km/h (760.343 mph)
pilot of the SSC and holds the record as being the
“Fastest Man Alive on Earth.”

This is a cutaway illustration, by Lawrence

Watts and the Castrol Corporation, that shows the
components of the Thrust SSC. It is 16.5 m (54 ft)
long, 3.7 m (12 ft) wide, and weighs 10.5 tons.
Image courtesy of Richard Noble

16
 Former record
holder and Thrust
SSC Director,
Richard Noble
Image courtesy of
Richard Noble
At speed, the Thrust SSC is going 1100 feet per second

The Thrust SSC after its monumental run of 763 miles per hour — fifty years almost to the day after Chuck
Yeager broke the sound barrier in the skies over what is now Edwards Air Force Base, CA

THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA TAKE THE CHALLENGE

An American and Canadian team have joined together to bring the world land speed record back
to North America. It is called the North American Eagle Land speed Program. The challenge is to
make the transition from subsonic to supersonic speed and break the current land speed record of
763 miles per hour. The team is using a modified F-104 starfighter that will make the runs. Al-
though, again, not rocket powered, but jet-engine powered, this information is included for interest
and close alignment to the principles of rocket propulsion.

17
 The United States and Canada are making a joint effort to be the fastest car on Earth.
This is the North American Eagle. Image Courtesy of the North American Eagle Land Speed Program

What are the Expected Results?

Edward shadle and co-Director Keith Zanghi had this to say about the effort and its impact on
mankind: “Few people on this earth have ventured into the realm of such high speeds on the surface
of this earth. Researchers today may not be able to explain what phenomenon occurs as a vehicle tran-
sitions past the speed of sound and what happens beyond that speed, but that's because man has not
been able to go there, until now. We want to know, and we want to share that information. many ques-
tions beg to be answered about this issue. What bearings can handle the weight loading and revolu-
tions per minute in these high-speeds? Can the aluminum-alloy wheels withstand the tremendous
centrifugal force? What about the shock wave and acoustical absorption of it into the earth's surface?
Can we keep this beast controlled and stopped safely? To the average individual, these issues may not
seem worth bothering to learn about. However, most people who had a difficult time envisioning the
benefits from the space race program of NAsA in the '60s, are now taking those benefits for granted;
microwave ovens, VCR and DVD players, cellular phones, and the computer to name a few. The
knowledge gained can have more far-reaching impact than would appear at first. This has usually
been the case with research that seems initially frivolous.” (To keep up with the progress of the North
American Eagle program, and the benefits to future aerodynamic progress, go to
www.landspeed.com)

NEXT STEP, PROJECT BLOODHOUND – A ROCKET POWERED

CAR THAT WILL BREAK 1000 MILES PER HOUR ON THE GROUND
BLOODHOUND ssC (super sonic Car) has gone through ten design evolutions since work
started. The original plan had been to position the small 200 kg rocket above the heavier 1,000 kg
EJ200 Eurofighter Typhoon jet engine and the car was designed accordingly over the following 18
months.

18
 Bloodhound SSC

As the project developed it became clear that more thrust was required to overcome the aerody-
namic drag. This culminated in a hybrid rocket weighing 400 kg. The extra thrust also created a fresh
challenge for the engineering team: The rocket firing would violently pitch the car nose-down, desta-
bilizing the whole vehicle.
The engineering team lead by John Piper, engineering director, began a radical re-design of the
car which saw the jet engine positioned over the rocket. This re-design was made possible by partner
Intel providing one of the largest computer clusters in the country. Designs are tested using Compu-
tational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) technology developed at swansea University. Tests that previously
took one day to be run could now be completed in just a couple of hours with the increase in com-
puting resource provided by Intel.

Wheel design
Lockheed martin UK has been developing the BLOODHOUND ssC wheel design to ensure they
can withstand forces of 50,000 radial g at the rim and support a 6.5 ton car travelling at 1,050 mph.
Research by Lockheed martin UK has focused on a 90 cm diameter wheel design, constructed from
forged aerospace-grade aluminum.

Rocket test program

BLOODHOUND ssC will feature the largest hybrid rocket ever designed in the United King-
dom. The rocket weighs in at 400 kg, it is 45 cm (18 inches) in diameter and, at 425 cm (14 feet)
long, is the same length as a Formula One car. The rocket is designed to produce 27,500 lbs of
thrust. Together with BLOODHOUND ssCs EJ200 jet engine (20 000 lb thrust), this will give the
car a total of 212 kN (47,500 lb) of thrust – the equivalent of 135,000 HP, or the power of 180 For-
mula One cars.

World Land Speed Record run site

The BLOODHOUND team scoured the globe looking for the perfect run location on which to
make their attempt on the World Land speed Record.The site needed to fulfill some very specific
criteria: It had to be 10 miles long, have one mile of clear run off at each end, be dead flat, and be
firm enough to support a 6.5 ton car moving at 1,000 mph. The search began with a computer pro-
gram that utilized space shuttle radar survey data and satellite imagery to identify potential loca-
tions. It produced several thousand possibilities, which were then whittled down using Google Earth.
Following a rigorous process of elimination, the short list contained some 35 deserts and salt flats,
including: Bonneville salt Flats and the Black Rock desert, UsA; Lake Tuz, Turkey; Verneuk Pan,
south Africa plus Lake Gairdner and Lake Eyre, Australia.
Andy Green, driver of BLOODHOUND ssC, visited the majority of these deserts to conduct on-

19
site surveys in order to identify the location best suited to a record-breaking run. Verneuk Pan in the
Northern cape of south Africa came out on top. Verneuk Pan is the site of malcolm Campbell’s ill-
fated bid for the World Land speed Record in 1929, which is 830 m above sea level. With his engine
performance limited by the thin air, Campbell only managed 218.5 mph.
A thorough survey conducted at Verneuk Pan found it wasn’t practical to clear the stone-littered
surface. However, a previously discounted desert lying 400 km north was identified as a possible run
site. A more detailed survey found the ideal location: Hakskeen Pan, Northern Cape province, south
Africa. Hakskeen Pan offers a 12 mile-long track across a perfectly flat dried-up lake bed. The sur-
face is relatively free from debris and stones but it is crossed by a dirt track which will need to be re-
moved prior to record-breaking runs in 2011. The Project has received fantastic support from the
Northern Cape Government, which has undertaken to prepare Hakskeen Pan for the World Land
speed Record runs as part of the Northern Cape’s development as a world-class adventure sports lo-
cation.

Sponsors
The Project currently has 166 product sponsors supporting it. These range from specialist product
suppliers such as Goodridge Hoses to multinationals such as, Lockheed martin and IT partner, Intel.
many of these companies have borne the brunt of the recession, but have come onboard to sup-
port this groundbreaking education program as they see first-hand that their industries have a real
need for more skilled engineers, mathematicians, and scientists. This has become a great challenge to
produce the next generation of aerospace and aerodynamic scientists, engineers, and mathematicians.
The excitement of such endeavors is hoped to inspire students toward more sTEm-related career
choices.

Bloodhound SSC

20
 2
Activity Four - Law of Inertia (Newton’s First Law)
Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to demonstrate New-
GRAVITY

ton’s First Law of motion, the law of inertia. BALL AT

Material: stack of checkers, ball REST
Procedure:
1. stack the checkers, leaving one out for step #2.
2. shoot the extra checker so it hits the bottom
checker. When you shoot the checker, you are introduc- LIFT
ing an outside force to the stack of checkers. When it
hits the bottom checker, its inertia is transferred and the bottom checker moves with almost the same
speed and inertia.
3. Next, you can take a ball and cup it in your hand, like the picture to the right. It is in a state of rest.
Gravity is pushing down on the ball, while your hand is pushing up. If you remove your hand, the
ball drops and is in a state of motion. It stayed at rest until an unbalanced force, gravity, makes it
move downward.
Summary: Newton’s First Law of motion explains that an object at rest remains at rest and a body in
motion tends to stay in motion at a constant velocity unless acted on by an outside force. Energy is
transferred from the moving checker (the outside force) to the checker at the bottom of the stack (object
at rest), resulting in the bottom checker being moved. Depending on the surface of the table or floor
being used, 100% of the energy will not be transferred to the other checker due to friction. Friction is
the force of two objects in contact that results in the slowing or stopping of an object. A smooth surface
results in less friction. A rougher surface, such as carpet, creates more friction. A rocket cannot launch
until a force acts upon it resulting in its launch. As the rocket travels through the atmosphere, atmos-
pheric drag (fluid friction) works against the upward motion of the rocket.

Activity Five - 3-2-1 POP

Purpose: This activity helps explain how thrust is generated in a rocket. It also
demonstrates Newton’s Third Law of motion.

Materials: heavy paper (60-110 index stock or construction paper), plastic 35

mm canister with lid on inside of canister (or equivalent), student sheets, cello-
phane tape, scissors, effervescing antacid tablet, paper towels, water, and eye
protection (Note: In the past, Fuji film canisters were free and easy to locate.
Due to digital photography this is no longer the case. A good source to locate
film canisters is Educational Innovations @ www.teachersource.com Item #
CAN-300 12@$7.95.)
Procedure:
1. Wrap and tape a tube of paper around the film canister. The lid end of the
canister goes down.

21
2. Tape fins to your rocket.
3. Roll a cone of paper and tape it to the rocket's upper end.
4. Ready for flight.

Tape

Cone Pattern Overlap this

(Cone can be edge to form
Lid any size) cone

Countdown:
5. Turn the rocket upside down and fill the canister one-third full of water.
Work quickly on these next steps!
6. Drop in 1/2 of the antacid tablet.
7. snap lid on tight.
8. Turn rocket right-side up and set on ground.
9. stand back.
10. LIFT OFF!
Summary: Once the fizzy tablet reacts with the water in the film canister,
gas bubbles are produced. much pressure is produced by the gas building
up inside the canister. Unlike a balloon, the canister cannot expand as the
amount of gas being produced increases. Eventually, so much gas pressure
is produced that it forces the canister to pop open. The gas rushing down-
4 ward out of the canister causes the rocket to move upward, demonstrating
Newton’s third law of motion. Real rockets work in a similar way; how-
ever, they use real rocket fuel.

Activity Six - Two Balloons (Newton’s Third Law)

Purpose: This activity demonstrates Newton’s Third Law of motion.

Materials: two balloons, inflated and tied

Procedure:
1. squeeze the two balloons together, pushing with only one of them. PUSHER PUSHED
The pusher is compressed by the force of the push. The pushed is
also compressed from pushing back with equal force.
2. To prove further that they are pushing on each other equally, let go all at
once. The balloons spring back into shape and push each other apart.
Summary: In this demonstration, only one balloon is doing the pushing,
but the other balloon is pushing back at an equal and opposite force. When
the balloons are released, they push apart equal distances.

22
Activity Seven - Roller Skates and Jug
(Newton’s Third Law) REACTION ACTION

Purpose: This activity demonstrates Newton’s Third Law of motion.

Material: roller skates and plastic jug of water

Procedure:
Wearing roller skates, with feet parallel, throw a plastic jug of water to a friend 10 feet away
(as you push forward, you roll backward). OR, use a skateboard to demonstrate the same thing.
stand on a skateboard with the board not moving. Then jump off the board. Your jumping off is the
action, and the board moving in the opposite direction is the reaction.

Summary: Newton’s Third Law of motion states that for every action, there is an equal and oppo-
site reaction. Throwing the jug forward (action) results in the person with the skates or skateboard to
move in the opposite direction (reaction). This action parallels the hot gases from the burning fuel
that rush out of the rocket (action) results in the rocket moving in the opposite direction (reaction).

Activity Eight - Antacid Tablet Race - Experiment 1

Purpose: Use scientific investigation skills to compare the reaction rates of effervescent antacid tablets
under different conditions, in alignment with the discussion of liquid propellants in the chapter.

Materials: effervescent antacid tablets (4 per group), two Beakers (or glass
or plastic jars), tweezers or forceps, scrap paper, watch or clock with second
hand, thermometer, eye protection, and water (warm and cold)

Procedure: Experiment 1
1. Fill both jars half full with water that is the same temperature.
2. Put on your eye protection.
3. Predict how long it will take for the tablet to dissolve in the water. Drop a
tablet in the first jar. shade in the stop watch face for the actual number of
minutes and seconds it took to complete the reaction. The stopwatch can
measure 6 minutes.

0 15 0 15
30 30
Jar 1 Results 45 Jar 2 Results 45
5 1 5 1
Temperature: _____ 15
Temperature: _____ 15
Your prediction: _____ seconds 30 Your prediction: _____ seconds 30
45 45
4 2 4 2

3 3

Procedure: Experiment 2
1. Empty the jars from the first experiment. Put warm water in one jar and cold in the other.
2. measure the temperature of the first jar. Predict how long it will take for a tablet to dissolve. Drop
a tablet in the jar. shade in the clock face for the actual number of minutes and seconds it took to
complete the reaction.
3. measure the temperature of the second jar. Predict how long it will take for a tablet to dissolve in
the water. Drop a tablet in the jar. shade in the clock face for the actual number of minutes and
seconds it took to complete the reaction.

23
 0 15 0 15
30 30
45 45
5 1 5 1
Jar 1 Results 15
Jar 2 Results 15
Temperature: _____ 30 Temperature: _____ 30
Your prediction: _____ seconds 4
45 Your prediction: _____ seconds 4
45
2 2

3 3

Describe what happened in the experiment and why.

How can you apply the results from these experiments to improve rocket performance?
Summary: The amount of surface area of the tablet and the temperature of the water will affect the
reaction of the tablets. This activity relates to increasing the power of rocket fuels by manipulating
surface area and temperature. When rocket propellants burn faster, the mass of exhaust gases ex-
pelled increases, as well as the speed at which those gases accelerate out of the rocket nozzle. Based
on Newton’s second Law of motion, increasing the efficiency of rocket fuels increases the perform-
ance of the rocket. Expanding the burning surface increases its burning rate. This increases the
amount of gas (mass) and acceleration of the gas as it leaves the rocket engine.

Activity Nine - Rocket Racer

Purpose: Experiment with force and Newton’s Laws of motion in this activity.
Materials: four straight pins, styrofoam meat tray, masking tape, flexible straw, scissors, drawing
compass, marker pen, small round party balloon, ruler, and student sheets (one set per group); 10-
meter tape measure or other measuring markers for track (one for whole class)
Procedure:
1. Distribute the materials and construction tools to each group. If you are
going to construct a second racer, save the styrofoam tray scraps for later.
Hold back the additional materials for the second racer until you need them.
2. Build racer, as per directions below.
(Note) You should plan the arrangement of parts on the tray before cutting
them out. If you do not wish to use scissors, you can trace the pattern pieces
with the sharp point of a pencil or a pen. The pieces will snap out of the styro-
foam if the lines are pressed quickly.
3. Lay out a track on the floor approximately 10 meters long, (or about 33 feet). several
metric tape measures joined together can be placed on the floor for determining how far the racers
travel. Distances should be measured in 10 centimeter intervals.
4. Distance data sheets and a drawing of constructed racer should be prepared to record test runs and
actual runs of races.
5. Test racers as they are completed. Fill in the data sheets and create a report cover with a drawing
of the racer they constructed.
6. If a second racer will be constructed, distribute design pages before starting construction.
Build Racer:
1.Design a pattern to fit on the styroform tray. You need one car body, four wheels, and four hub-
caps. Use a compass to draw the wheels. Lay out your pattern on the tray and then cut them out.
2. Blow up the balloon and let the air out. Tape the balloon to the short end of a flexible straw and
then tape the straw to the rectangle.
3. Push pins through the hubcaps into the wheels and then into the edges of the rectangle.
4. Blow up the balloon through the straw. squeeze the end of the straw. Place the racer on the floor
and let it go.

24
 CAR BODY HUBCAPS

WHEELS

Summary: This activity demonstrates Newton’s Laws of motion. The rocket racer stays at rest unless
the force of air released from the balloon causes it to move forward. It will continue moving forward
until the air is exhausted from the balloon. (1st law) The more air that is placed in the balloon, the
farther the rocket racer travels. (2nd law) Air rushing out of the end of the racers causes the racer to
move forward. (3rd law)
Activity Ten - Newton Car
Purpose: Experiment with a slingshot-like device that throws a film canister filled with various ob-
jects, and demonstrate Newton’s Laws of motion.
Materials: wooden block about 10x20x2.5 cm (about 4x8x1 inch), 3 3-inch #10
wood screws (round head), 12 round pencils or short lengths of similar dow-
els, plastic film canister or equivalent, assorted materials for filling can-
ister (washers, nuts, etc.), 3 rubber bands, cotton string, matches or
lighter, eye protection for each student, metric beam balance
(primer balance), vice, screwdriver, and a meter or measuring
stick or device

Procedure:
1. Tie six string loops the size shown here.
2. Fill up your film canister and weigh it in grams. Record the mass in the
Newton Car Report Chart.
3. set up your Newton Car as shown in the picture. slip the rubber band through the string loop.
stretch the rubber band over the two screws and pull the string back over the third screw. Place
the rods 6 centimeters (about 2.5 inches) apart. Use only one rubber band the first time.
4. Put on your eye protection!
5. Light the string and stand back. Record the distance the car traveled on the chart.
6. Reset the car and rods. make sure the rods are the same distance apart. Use two rubber bands.
Record the distance the car travels.
7. Reset the car with three rubber bands. Record the distance it travels.
8. Refill the canister and record its new mass.
9. Test the car with the new canister mass and with one, two and three rubber bands. Record the dis-
tances the car moves each time.
10. Plot your results on the graph. Use one line for the first set of measurements and a different line
for the second set.
Summary: Besides demonstrating Newton’s First and Third Laws of motion, this activity is an ex-
cellent tool for investigating Newton’s second Law of motion, which states that force equals mass
times acceleration. manipulating different variables, such as the size of the string loop and the place-
ment of the mass on the car, influences the results. By experimenting with a number of variables on
a rocket, scientists can design a rocket that flies according to the purpose for which it was designed.

25
Newton Car Report:
Team Members:
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________

RUBBER BANDS DISTANCE TRAVELED

1
Mass 1
______
2
Grams
3

Describe what happened when you tested the car with one, two, and three rubber bands.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

RUBBER BANDS DISTANCE TRAVELED

1
Mass 2
______ 2
Grams
3
Describe what happened when you tested the car with one, two, and three rubber bands.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Write a short statement explaining the relationship between the amount of mass in the canister, the
number of rubber bands, and the distance the car traveled.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Mass 1= _______grams (weight)
Mass 2= _______grams (weight)
3
Number of Rubber Bands

SAMPLE

0
50 100 150 200
Distance in Centimeters

26
Learning Outcomes
3
- Describe the requirements for achieving the X-Prize.
- Describe SpaceShipOne’s achievements.
- Describe the future flight sequence of SpaceShipTwo.

Important Terms
SpaceShipOne – aircraft with suborbital capability
SpaceShipTwo – SpaceShipOne’s successor that could possibly offer the general public space travel

ROCKETS IN THE SECOND MILLENIUM

In 1995, Dr. Peter H. Diamandis conceived an award, which he called the “Ansari X-Prize” that
would encourage PRIVATE space flight. The requirements were that a non-government-supported
aerospace craft would have to fly to an altitude of 100 km or 62 miles above the surface of the Earth
and return safely. Then, within a period of 2 weeks, the same flight would have to be repeated. On
both occasions, the vehicle was required to carry the weight of three adult humans. For this accom-
plishment, a prize of $10,000,000 would be awarded.
The organizers of the Ansari X-Prize, together with the scientific community, set the altitude of 62
miles, or 100 kilometers, as the line that defines the beginning of space. Twenty-six teams from 7
countries competed for the prize and many attempts to win it were made over a period of 8 years.
On June 21, 2004, mike melvill, test pilot for scaled Composites of mojave Aerospace Ventures,
flew their entry for the competition, SpaceShipOne, on
a record-breaking flight. melvill reached an altitude of
328,491 feet, making him the first private pilot to earn
NAsA’s highly-coveted astronaut wings.
Three months later, on september 29, melvill flew
SpaceShipOne again on the first official mission to
meet the requirements set forth in the rules of compe-
tition for the X-Prize. He accomplished all competi-
tion requirements on that flight. Then, on October 4,
another test pilot for scaled Composites, Brian Binnie,
flew the vehicle to an altitude of 347,442 feet, or 69.2
miles to win the prize. That flight marked the 47th an-
niversary of the soviet Union’s launch of Sputnik.
On November 6, 2004, scaled Composites was
Test flight crew of SpaceShipOne. From left to right,
awarded the $10m prize. since that time, more than
top to bottom, Brian Binnie, Pete Siebold, Michael
$1.3B has been invested world-wide in a new industry Melvill, Douglas Shane. Photography by Bill Deaver.
… private space travel. Image courtesy of Aerospace Ventures LLC

27
 THE NEXT FRONTIER –
PRIVATE SPACE TRAVEL
Commercial Airline-Type Space Travel –
Virgin Galactic
The first thing that comes to mind with the
word “commercial” is, “how much does it cost
to go to space if you’re just a passenger and not
an astronaut?” Initially, it will be $200,000 per

Aeronautical engineer, Burt Rutan, is shown dis-

cussing the SpaceShipOne project with Microsoft’s
The flight profile of SpaceShipOne from release to land- co-founder Paul G. Allen. Permission was given to
ing. Image courtesy of Mojave Aerospace Ventures, LLC Civil Air Patrol by Aerospace Ventures, LLC.

The aerospace “mother ship,” known as “White Knight” is shown here carrying
SpaceShipOne on a test flight. Image courtesy of Mojave Aerospace Ventures, LLC

28
 SpaceShipOne Schematic

SpaceShipOne after
its successful flight
with Mike Melvill as
the pilot.
Image Courtesy of
Mojave Aerospace
Ventures, LLC

person. Virgin Galactic, a company that is a subsidiary of English-based Virgin Airlines and owned
by British billionaire sir Richard Branson, is building the first “airline to space.”
The success of SpaceShipOne prompted the businessman to explore the possibility of offering the
general public space transportation in a specially-built spacecraft known as SpaceShipTwo. Initially,
the venture will take paying passengers on a sub-orbital flight to an altitude of 110 kilometers, or 68
miles, into the thermosphere. SpaceShipTwo will reach 4,200 km/h (2,600 mph) using a single hy-
brid rocket motor, which goes by the name RocketMotorTwo. During the flight, passengers will ex-
perience a short period of weightlessness. The complete flight will take about 2.5 hours, with the
first flights set to begin 2011.
From “ space bases” located near Upham, New mexico, and mojave, California, two crewmem-
bers and six passengers will be taken aloft by the technologically-advanced “mother ship” known as
White Knight Two. The first spaceliner that is taken aloft by White Knight Two, has been christened
Vss (Virgin spaceship) Enterprise. This is a name given to honor the television and movie icon star
Trek’s Enterprise.
In New mexico, there will be a 10,000 foot runway and a completely outfitted terminal facility for
the pioneering space passengers. The state of New mexico has invested close to $200 million dollars
in the project.
For their “ticket,” passengers will board the space craft for a series of safety briefings and then be
taken to an altitude of 50,000 feet. SpaceShipTwo will then separate from the WhiteKnight II and be
rocketed into suborbital space. When the 110 km, or 68 mile, altitude is reached, passengers will be
allowed to experience approximately 6 minutes of weightlessness. The passengers will be allowed to
release themselves from their seats and float around the cabin. The reason for this extended period of
weightlessness is the altitude reached is at the boundary of space. By going to 110 km, and a speed
of mach 3, additional time in space can be realized.

29
 During re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere, Space-
ShipTwo will fold it’s wings upward and be gently
slowed to prepare for a glide to landing at the space
port.
sir Richard Branson unveiled the project on Decem-
ber 7, 2009, at the mojave spaceport, the home base for
Burt Rutan’s scaled Composite’s operation. Branson’s
company, Virgin Galactic, is part of an international
conglomerate known as the Virgin Group. All of the ini-
tial testing and marketing takes place in the United
Sir Richard Branson and Burt Rutan showcase a model of the
WhiteKnight II and SpaceShipTwo for a press conference.

WhiteKnight II and SpaceShipTwo in flight in preparation for launch – Image courtesy of Virgin Galactic

The first space base will be located in the State of New Mexico.

30
A test firing of the SpaceShipTwo rocket at the Mojave facility – Image courtesy of Virgin Galactic

This illustration shows the difference between SpaceShipOne

and SpaceShipTwo in dimensions. Courtesy of Virgin Galactic

31
 After a thrilling venture into space, Virgin Galactic’s
SpaceShipTwo prepares for re-entry and a slower speed
for landing. Image courtesy of Virgin Galactic

states; however, there are plans for other space facilities

in England, scotland, sweden, and Dubai. Initial orders
are for two White Knight IIs and a fleet of five Space-
ShipTwos. The future also includes collaboration with
NAsA for the possibility of launching low orbit satellites.
This can be done at a greater savings of money than
using extremely powerful, and extremely expensive con-
ventional orbital rockets. The future of rocketry for con-
tinued space travel and exploration is only beginning.
The possibilities are limitless and all because of a sim-
ple propulsion principle used in the exciting area of
rocketry! (see associated Activities Eleven, Twelve, and
Thirteen at the end of the chapter.)

Flight profile of SpaceShipTwo

from release to landing

32
 3
Activity Eleven - Bottle Rocket and Bottle Rocket Launcher
Purpose: This activity demonstrates how a rocket works and Newton’s Laws of motion. It also pro-
vides detailed, in-depth instructions to follow, much like the stringent rules governing the Arsari X-
Prize!
Materials for Building Bottle Rocket: 2-liter plastic soft drink bottles, low-temperature glue guns,
poster board, tape, modeling clay, scissors, safety glasses, decals, stickers, marker pens, launch pad
for the bottle rocket launcher. Begin saving 2-liter bottles several days or weeks in advance so that
you will have enough each participant. You also need a bottle rocket launcher to complete this
activity. Instructions for building the launcher are below.

e
Glu
Procedure:

Hot
1. Wrap and glue or tape a tube of poster board around the 2 liter bottle.
2. Cut out several fins of any shape and glue them to the tube.
3. Form a nose cone and hold it together with tape or glue.
4. Press a ball of modeling clay into the top of the nose cone for weight.
5. Glue or tape nose cone to upper end of bottle.
6. Decorate your rocket.
Materials for Bottle Rocket Launcher: four 5" corner irons with 12 3/4" wood screws, one 5"
mounting gate, two 6" spikes, two 10" spikes or metal tent stakes, two 5"x1/4" carriage bolts with 6
1/4” nuts, one 3" eyebolt with two nuts and washers, four 3/4" diameter washers to fit bolts, one #3
rubber stopper with a single hole, one snap-in tubeless tire valve, wood board 12"x18"x3/4", a 2-liter
plastic bottle, electric drill and bits including a 3/8" bit, screw driver, pliers or open-end wrench to fit
nuts, vice, 12' of 1/4" cord, a pencil, and a bicycle pump with psi measurement
Rubber Carriage
Procedure: Stopper Tire Bolt
1. Prepare the rubber stopper by enlarging the hole with Stem
Nut
a drill. Grip the stopper lightly with a vice and gently
enlarge the hole with a 3/8" bit and electric drill. The
rubber will stretch during cutting, making the finished Washer
Mounting
hole somewhat less than 3/8". Plate Nut
2. Remove the stopper from the vice and push the nee- Attach Bicycle
Pump Here
dle valve end of the tire stem through the stopper
from the narrow end to the wide end.
3. Prepare the mounting plate by drilling a 3/8" hole
through the center of the plate. Hold the plate with a Wood Base
vice during drilling and put on eye protection. En- Attachment of Mounting Plate and Stopper
large the holes at the opposite ends of the plates, using
a drill bit slightly larger than the holes to do this. The holes must be large enough to pass the car-
riage bolts through them. (see diagram)
4. Lay the mounting plate in the center of the wood base and mark the centers of the two outside holes
that you enlarged. Drill holes through the wood big enough to pass the carriage bolts through.

33
5. Push and twist the tire stem into the hole you drilled in the center of the mounting plate. The fat
end of the stopper should rest on the plate.
6. Insert the carriage bolts through the wood base from the bottom up. Place a hex nut over each bolt
and tighten the nut so that the bolt head pulls into the wood.
7. screw a second nut over each bolt and spin it about half-way down the bolt. Place a washer over
each nut and then slip the mounting plate over the two bolts.
8. Press the neck of a 2-liter plastic bottle over the stopper. You will be using the bottle's wide neck
lip for measuring in the next step.
9. set up two corner irons so they look like bookends. Insert a spike through the top hole of each
iron. slide the irons near the bottle neck so that the spike rests immediately above the wide neck
lip. The spike will hold the bottle in place while you pump up the rocket. If the bottle is too low,
adjust the nuts beneath the mounting plate on both
sides to raise it. Hold Down
Bottle Bar
10. set up the other two corner irons as you did in the Neck
previous step. Place them on the opposite side of
the bottle. When you have the irons aligned so that
the spikes rest above and hold the bottle lip, mark Corner
Iron
the centers of the holes on the wood base. For more Carriage
Mounting Bolt
precise screwing, drill small pilot holes for each Plate
screw and then screw the corner irons tightly to the
base on the opposite side of the bottle. When you
have the irons aligned so that the spikes rest above
and hold the bottle lip, mark the centers of the holes Wood Base
on the wood base. For more precise screwing, drill Positioning corner irons
small pilot holes for each screw and then screw
the corner irons tightly to the base.
11. Install an eye bolt to the edge of the opposite
holes for the hold-down spikes. Drill a hole and
hold the bolt in place with washers and nuts on
Hold Down
top and bottom. Spike Launch
Release
12. Attach the launch "pull cord" to the head end of Cord
Hold Down
each spike. Run the cord through the eye bolt. Spike
13. make final adjustments to the launcher by at-
taching the pump to the tire stem and pumping
up the bottle. Refer to the launching instruc-
tions for safety notes. If the air seeps out around
the stopper, the stopper is too loose. Use a pair To Pump
of pliers or a wrench to raise each side of the
Completed launcher ready for firing
mounting plate, in turn, to press the stopper with
slightly more force to the bottle neck. When satisfied with the position, thread the remaining hex
nuts over the mounting plate and tighten them to hold the plate in position.
14. Drill two holes through the wood base along one side. The holes should be large enough to fit
large metal tent stakes. When the launch pad is setup on a grassy field, the stakes will hold the
launcher in place when you yank the pull cord. The launcher is now complete.
Launch Safety Instructions:
1. select a grassy field that measures approximately 30 meters, or 98 feet, across. Place the launcher
in the center of the field and anchor it in place with the spikes or tent stakes. If it is a windy day,
place the launcher closer to the side of the field from where the wind is coming so that the rocket
will drift onto the field as it comes down.

34
2. Have each student or student group setup their rocket on the launch pad. Other students should
stand back several meters. It will be easier to keep observers away by roping off the launch site.
3. After the rocket is attached to the launcher, the student pumping the rocket should put on eye pro-
tection. The rocket should be pumped no higher than about 50 pounds of pressure per
square inch.
4. When pressurization is complete, all students should stand in back of the rope for the countdown.
5. Before conducting the countdown, be sure the place where the rocket is expected to come down is
clear of people. Launch the rocket when the recovery range is clear by having one student pull the
pull cord.
6. Only permit the students launching the rocket to retrieve it.

Summary: Energy is given to the stationary rocket when the stored air pressure inside the bottle is
released, causing the rocket to go from a state of rest to a state of motion. (1st law) The force of the
pressure escaping equals the mass of the rocket times its acceleration. Because the mass of the
rocket is changing due to the escaping air pressure, force and acceleration will also be changing dur-
ing flight. (2nd law) The air being forced out of the nozzle of the bottle results in the bottle being
thrust upward. (3rd law)

Activity Twelve - Altitude Tracking

Purpose: Use math skills to determine how high the rocket traveled.

Materials: altitude tracker pattern, altitude calculator pattern, thread or lightweight string, scrap
cardboard or poster board, glue, cellophane tape, small washer, brass paper fastener, scissors, razor
blade knife and cutting surface, meter or measuring stick, rocket, and launcher

Procedure:
Constructing the Altitude Tracker scope
90
80
1. Glue the altitude tracker pattern onto a piece of cardboard.
70
60
Al

Do not glue the dotted portion of the tracker above the it 50

ud
40 0
t
30 20 10

dashed line. e T
racker
2. Cut out the pattern and
s to
cardboard along the out- Attit
ude Tra
cke
r Be
long

This
side edges.
3. Roll the part of the pattern Sample
not glued to the cardboard into Altitude Tracker
a tube and tape it as shown in
the illustration.
4. Punch a tiny hole in the apex of
the protractor quadrant.
5. slip a thread or lightweight string
through the hole. Knot the thread or string on the backside.
6. Complete the tracker by hanging a small washer from the
other end of the thread as shown in the diagram to the right.

Launch rockets and measure

altitude with Altitude Tracker

35
 Roll this section over and tape the
upper edge to the dashed line.
Shape the section into a sighting tube.

90
80
Alti

70
60
tu

50 40
30
de

Tr
20
10 0

ack
This Attitude Tracker belongs to
___________________________.
er

Altitude Tracker Pattern

36
Procedure:
Constructing the Altitude Calculator
1. Copy the two patterns for the altitude calculator onto heavyweight paper or glue
the patterns on to lightweight poster board. Cut out the patterns.
2. Place the top pattern on a cutting surface and cut out the three windows.
3. Join the two patterns together where the center marks are located. Use a
brass paper fastener to hold the pieces together. The pieces should ro-
tate smoothly.
(See next page for pattern.)
?
Procedure:
Using the Altitude Tracker
1. setup a tracking station location a short distance away
from the rocket launch site. Depending upon the ex-
pected altitude of the rocket, the tracking station should

0
90 10
80 20
30

r
70
60 50 40

Al k e
tit
u dT rea c

be 5 meters (16.5 ft), 15 meters (49 ft,) or 30 meters

to
s
ng
lo
r Be
ke
ac
Tr
e
ud
tit
At
is
Th
(98 ft) away. Generally, a 5-meter distance is sufficient 15 meters
for paper rockets and antacid-powered rockets. A
15-meter distance is sufficient for bottle rockets, and a baseline
30-meter distance is sufficient for model rockets. Using the Altitude Tracker
2. As a rocket launches, the person doing the tracking will
follow the flight with the sighting tube on the tracker. The tracker should be held like a pistol and
kept at the same level as the rocket when it is launched. Continue to aim the tracker at the highest
point the rocket reached in the sky. Have a second student read the angle that the thread or string
makes with quadrant protractor. Record the angle.

Procedure:
Determining the Altitude
1. Use the Altitude Calculator to determine the height the rocket
reached. To do so, rotate the inner wheel of the calculator so
that the nose of the rocket pointer is aimed at the angle meas-
ured in step 2 of the previous procedure.
2. Read the altitude of the rocket by looking in the window.
If you use a 5-meter (16.5 ft) baseline, the altitude the
rocket reached will be in the window beneath the 5.
To achieve a more accurate measure, add the
height of the person holding the tracker to cal-
culate altitude. If the angle falls between two-
degree marks, average the altitude numbers
above and below the marks.
0

90

10
80

20

r
90 70 0

Al
80 30

k e
40 60 10
70 60 50 50 30 20
40

Al t i c ti
t u dT rea tu r
dT er a c k e
to
ngs

ot
sg
Belo

no

Summary: This activity makes use of simple

leB
ker

re
Trac

kc
arT
ude

ed
Attit

ut
ittA
This

sih
T

trigonometry to determine the altitude a rocket 30 meters 30 meters

reaches in flight. Accuracy can be increased by baseline baseline
having two people use an altitude tracker at dif-
Two station tracking uses the
ferent locations and averaging the results. average of the two stations

37
 C UL ATO R -
A L BA
C CK
DE

W
I TU

HE
A LT

EL
+
0
90
0 0 0

0.4
57.2
17 1
1.3
3 43
2.6
0.9 28 .
4
85. 85
5
18
2.6
1.3
.6 1
5.3
13 17 0
1.
.7 55
.9
4 8

10
41
2.

11
80
5.
.2
4
2

.8
3

10 5
2.9

8.7
3.5

7.1

82
4.2

32
11
6
5
7

.4

.2
8.7

26
75
10.

15
21.

64
17.9
14

12.6

15
5

.3
4
17

52
.3

70
42
21

20
25.2

35.8

.9
30
25

65
30

60
35

55
40

50
45

Altitude Calculator back

U D E C A LC U L
T IT AT
L O R
A Directions:
1. Rotate the nose of the rocket
to the angle you measured.
BASELINE
5 15 30 m

+ cut
out
cut
out
cut
out

2. Look at the number in the window

for the distance of the tracking
station location from the launch site.
The number will tell you the
altitude of the rocket in meters.

Altitude Calculator front

38
Activity Thirteen - Goddard Rocket
Purpose: Demonstrate Newton’s Laws of motion by creating and experimenting with flight with a
flight-worthy foam rocket that is named after the first man to develop a liquid-fueled rocket in 1926,
Robert Goddard. (This particular rocket resembles Goddard’s 1931 rocket.)

Materials: 14 " length of 1 -3/4" outside diameter foam pipe insulation, a foam meat tray for fin
templates, a # 64 rubber band for propulsion, a nylon cable tie to tie the rubber band in the fuselage
of the rocket, a metal washer, and a hot glue gun to bond the foam parts together
Procedure:
1. Copy the fin template to the right on a copy machine.
2. Place the fin template on the foam meat tray and cut out fins.
3. Place the “fin guide” on page 40 around the foam fuselage
to show where to equally — place the fins.
4. Hot glue the foam fins to the fuselage by putting the
hot glue on the fin only and placing it on the fin
guide.
5. Tie the rubber band to the washer and insert
the washer into the fuselage.
6. Pull a cable tie around the nose with the
end of the rubber band hanging out
and cinch it down tight. Clip the re-
maining tail of the cable tie. Drop a
bit of hot glue over the cut edge of
the cut cable tie to avoid cutting fingers.
7. To launch, put one thumb in the tail pipe of the rocket
and stretch the rubber band with the other.

Summary: The launch of a foam rocket is a good

demonstration of Newton’s Third Law of motion.
The contraction of the rubber band produces an
action force that propels the rocket forward
while exerting an opposite and equal force
on the launcher. The foam rocket receives
its entire thrust from the force produced Goddard
by the elastic rubber band. The thrust Rocket Fins
of real rockets typically continues for
several seconds or minutes, causing
continuous acceleration, until propellants are exhausted. The
foam rocket gets a quick pull and thrusting is over. Once in
flight, it coasts. Furthermore, the mass of the foam rocket
doesn’t change in flight. Real rockets consume propellants
and their total mass diminishes. Nevertheless, the flight
of a foam rocket is similar to that of real rockets. Its
motion and course is affected by gravity and by drag
or friction with the atmosphere. For an in-depth
explanation of how the foam Goddard rocket
works and relates to the forces of flight, read
the “background” information at
http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/295787main_
Rockets_Foam_Rocket.pdf.

39
 Goddard Rocket Assembly

Fin Guide

Fin

The rubber band tied to the

washer is inserted in the
fuselage and secured
with a cable tie. When mounting fins, use the
e hot glue on the meat tray foam,
ag
s el not on the black insulation.
Fu

Close cable tie then snip off extra

piece using toenail clippers.

Cable Tie

Wrap this guide around the 3/4" outside diameter pipe foam tube a little more than 3 "
from the rocket's tail pipe. The two ends should meet at the seam of the foam tube. Put a
small piece of tape on this guide to hold it in place. Hot glue one rocket fin on to the
seam of the foam tube. The arrows show where the other two fins should be mounted.

40
 Aerospace Dimensions

SPACE
ENVIRONMENT

5
MODULE

Civil Air Patrol

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama
 Aerospace Dimensions
SPACE ENVIRONMENT

5 WRITTEN BY
DR. JEFF MONTGOMERY
ANGIE ST. JOhN

DESIGN
BARB PRIBULICK

EDITING
BOB BROOKS
SUSAN MALLETT

PhOTOS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

COURTESY OF NASA AND BOEING

NATIONAL ACADEMIC STANDARD ALIGNMENT

JUDY STONE

PUBLIShED BY
NATIONAL hEADQUARTERS
CIVIL AIR PATROL
AEROSPACE EDUCATION DEPUTY DIRECTORATE
MAXWELL AFB, ALABAMA 36112

ThIRD EDITION
JUNE 2013
 INTRODUCTION
The Aerospace Dimensions module, Space Environment, is the fifth of six modules, which com-
bined, make up Phases I and II of Civil Air Patrol's Aerospace Education Program for cadets. Each
module is meant to stand entirely on its own, so that each can be taught in any order. This enables
new cadets coming into the program to study the same module, at the same time, with the other
cadets. This builds a cohesiveness and cooperation among the cadets and encourages active group
participation. This module is also appropriate for middle school students and can be used by teachers
to supplement sTEm-related subjects.
Inquiry-based activities were included to enhance the text and provide concept applicability. The
activities were designed as group activities, but can be done individually, if desired. The activities
for this module are located at the end of each chapter.

ii
CONTENTS
Introduction .............................................................................................ii

Contents...................................................................................................iii

National Academic Standard Alignment ..............................................iv

Chapter 1. Space ......................................................................................1

Chapter 2. Stars .....................................................................................14

Chapter 3. Our Solar System: Sun, Moon, and More ........................26

Chapter 4. Our Solar System: Planets .................................................38

iii
National Academic Standard Alignment

iv
Learning Outcomes
- Describe the location of space.
1
- Describe characteristics of space in terms of temperature, pressure, and gravity.
- Define microgravity.
- Define cislunar space.
- Distinguish between interplanetary and interstellar space.
- Define galaxy.
- Identify three types of galaxies.
- Define universe.

Important Terms
absolute zero - the point at which all molecules no longer move or have the least amount of
energy; theoretically the absolute coldest temperature
cislunar space - the space between the Earth and the moon
galaxy - an enormous collection of stars arranged in a particular shape
interplanetary space - space located within a solar system; measured from the center of the sun to
the orbit of its outermost planet
interstellar space - the region in space from one solar system to another
Kelvin - unit of measurement based on absolute zero and commonly used by scientists to
measure temperature
microgravity - small gravity levels or low gravity; floating condition
space - region beyond the Earth’s atmosphere where there is very little molecular activity
universe - all encompassing term that includes everything; planets, galaxies, animals, plants, and humans
vacuum - space that is empty or void of molecules
Van Allen belts - radiation belts around the Earth filled with charged particles

since the beginning of time, man has looked to the stars with awe and wonder. Our universe has
always fascinated scientists and other observers. What was once unexplored territory has now be-
come the new frontier. many expeditions, missions, satellites, and probes have traveled into this
overwhelming vastness we call our universe in search of knowledge and understanding. When we
talk about the universe, several words may come to mind. many people think of words like space,
stars, planets, and solar systems. This volume on the space environment will define these terms and
give you a basic understanding of our universe.
You might wonder why this is important. All of our volumes have been talking about aerospace,
and space is certainly a part of this overall concept. We are no longer limited in our thinking or
achieving to the immediate area of Earth’s atmosphere. For years, travel has occurred beyond that
scope. The Us has participated in unmanned and manned space missions for years, and our missions
have included stops at space stations. American astronauts used to assist at the Russian space station
Mir. missions now involve astronauts staying in space for extended periods of time on the Interna-

1
tional space station. It is conceivable that some of us could travel to space during our lifetime. Let’s
take a brief look at some basic information that we should know in our quest for learning about our
space environment and the universe.

SPACE IS A PLACE
First, space is a place. It is part of the universe beyond the immediate influence of Earth and its
atmosphere. This does not happen at a particular point, but, rather, happens gradually. You may have
heard space described as a void or a vacuum, but no place in the universe is truly empty. Eventually
the molecules and atoms become so widely spaced that there is no interaction. We call this space.
The Air Force and NAsA define space as beginning at an altitude of 50 miles (80.5 km), and anyone
who reaches this height is awarded astronaut wings. However, 62 miles, or 100 kilometers, is the
most widely accepted altitude where space begins. An object orbiting the Earth has to be at an alti-
tude of 80 or 90 miles (129 to 145 km) to stay in orbit. so, many consider this to be the beginning of
space. The Earth’s atmosphere gradually thins with an increase in altitude, so there is no tangible
boundary or exact point between the Earth’s atmosphere and space.
space is a part of the universe. The universe includes everything: stars, planets, galaxies, ani-
mals, plants, and humans. Let’s talk about the concept of space first and then expand into a discus-
sion of the universe.

2
CHARACTERISTICS OF SPACE
When we describe space as a physical place we must include its characteristics. What is the tem-
perature like in space? What about pressure? Is there gravity in space?
Outer space is almost a vacuum. A vacuum is defined as a space that is empty, meaning the space
has no, or virtually no, molecules. This is true of outer space. Large bodies such as planets, moons,
and stars have such a large gravitational pull that they prevent molecules from floating around in the
space between these large bodies. There are some wandering gas molecules with extremely low den-
sity floating in outer space, so no place in the universe is truly empty. Because these wandering mol-
ecules are so far apart from one another, though, many people think of space as a vacuum.
Oxygen
Regarding a lack of gas molecules, space is characterized by a lack of oxygen. It would be impos-
sible for us to travel or live in space without oxygen. We compensate for this by including an oxygen
supply on all manned space flight projects.
Pressure
What about the pressure in space? As explained in NAsA’s educational product, Suited for Space-
walking, “In space, the pressure is nearly zero. With virtually no pressure from the outside, air inside
an unprotected human’s lungs would immediately rush out in the vacuum of space. Dissolved gases
in body fluids would expand, pushing solids and liquids apart. The skin would expand much like an
inflating balloon. Bubbles would form in the bloodstream and render blood ineffective as a trans-
porter of oxygen and nutrients to the body’s cells. Furthermore, the sudden absence of external pres-
sure balancing the internal pressure of body fluids and gases would rupture fragile tissues, such as
eardrums and capillaries. The net effect on the body would be swelling, tissue damage, and a depri-
vation of oxygen to the brain that would result in unconsciousness in less than 15 seconds.” We com-
pensate for the lack of pressure by providing pressurized spacecrafts and spacesuits for humans.
Temperature
In terms of the average temperature in the
darkness of outer space, generally the tempera-
ture is near absolute zero. Temperature is based
on the movement of molecules, and absolute
zero is the point at which all molecules stop
moving or have the least amount of energy. Ab-
solute zero is written as 0 K (-273° C or -459°
F), which is theoretically the absolute coldest
temperature that could exist. Kelvin, abbreviated
K, is a unit of measurement based on absolute
zero, and it is commonly used by scientists to
measure temperature. Although there is hardly
any movement of molecules in the darkness and
near emptiness of much of outer space, there is
still cosmic microwave background radiation (a
form of electromagnetic radiation filling the Image credit: NASA

3
universe), which means that the temperature in space is not quite at absolute zero, but rather about
2.725 K (-270° C or -455° F). Keep in mind that this average space temperature of 2.725 K is not the
temperature for every point in space. For example, objects in Earth’s orbit may experience a tempera-
ture of over 393 K (120° C or 248° F) in sunlight areas and lower than 173 K (-100° C or -148° F) in
Earth’s shadow. To combat the temperature extremes, humans are able to control the temperature in-
side a spacecraft or spacesuit. (see temperature illustration on the previous page.)

Gravity
When discussing the characteristics of space, a common misconception is that there is no gravity
in space. most of us have seen pictures of astronauts floating around in space, which leads us to be-
lieve that there is no gravity in space. Floating in outer space occurs because the gravity in space is
much smaller or less than on Earth. small or low gravity is called microgravity.
The prefix micro really means one part in a million, but we use it all of the time to simply mean
something small. That is how we use it when referring to space. To actually go into space where the
Earth’s gravitational pull is one-millionth of that at the surface, you would have to travel 17 times
farther away than the moon. As you know, no human has traveled beyond the moon yet. so, why do
astronauts orbiting the Earth experience a feeling of weightlessness and float? It is because they are
constantly falling around the Earth as they orbit in a state of “free fall.” Rather than traveling to a
distance 17 times farther away than the moon, a microgravity environment can be created by free
fall.
We can create a microgravity environment here on Earth. Imagine riding in an elevator to the top
of a building. When you get to the top, the elevator cables break, causing the elevator and you to fall.
since you and the elevator car are falling together, you feel like you are floating inside the car. You
and the car are acceler-
ating downward at the
same rate due to gravity
alone. If a scale were
present, your weight
would not register be-
cause the scale would
be falling too. NAsA
calls this floating condi-
tion microgravity. While
orbiting the Earth, astro-
NORMAL
nauts experience a mi- WEIGHT
crogravity environment
LIGHTER
as they constantly fall THAN
HEAVIER NORMAL
around the Earth. Be- THAN WEIGHT
cause they are traveling NORMAL
WEIGHT NO MEASURED
at about 17,500 miles WEIGHT

per hour, they are trav- A B C D

eling fast enough to
keep going around and Picture D is an example of microgravity

4
around the Earth.
“Did you know,” as explained in NAsA’s Suited
for Spacewalking, “that if you stepped off a roof
that was five meters high, it would take you just one
second to reach the ground? In a microgravity envi-
ronment equal to one percent of Earth’s gravita-
tional pull, the same drop would take 10 seconds. In
a microgravity environment equal to one-millionth
of Earth’s gravitational pull, the same drop would
take 1,000 seconds or about 17 minutes.” (see asso-
ciated Activities One, Two, Three, and Four at the
end of the chapter.)

Regions of Space
We can further describe space as cislunar, inter-
planetary, or interstellar space. Cislunar space is
the space between the Earth and the moon. This dis-
tance varies from month to month since the moon’s
orbit around the Earth is elliptical. The average dis-
tance between the Earth and its moon is 237,087
miles (381,555 km).
Cislunar space is not a void nor a vacuum. Part
of the Earth’s magnetosphere is found in cislunar
space. The magnetosphere contains protons, elec-
trons, and magnetic lines of force. Radiation storms
emitting from the sun are also located here. Cislu- Dimensions and occupants of cislunar space
nar space also contains meteoroids, asteroids, and
comets, which we will discuss in an upcoming chapter.
so, you can see cislunar space is far from being void. However, it is not overcrowded either. Ac-
cording to astronauts who have been there, space looks like the void it has been called. Astronaut
Anders (Apollo 8) said, “The sky is very, very stark. The sky is pitch black and the moon is quite
light. The contrast between the sky and the moon is a vivid dark line.”
Interplanetary space is measured from the center of the sun to the orbit of its outermost planet.
In addition to the sun, this portion of space in our solar system includes eight known planets, which
we will explore in Chapter 4. It also contains numerous planetary satellites, dwarf planets, a huge
belt of asteroids, charged particles, magnetic fields, dust, and more. This interplanetary space is often
referred to as the solar system. Then, interstellar space is the distance from one solar system to an-
other.
Now, we know a little about what space is like. We should remember that space is a part of the
universe. The universe is the all-encompassing term that includes everything. Although the universe
includes plants, animals, and humans, we want to talk about the part of the universe that includes
galaxies.

5
GALAXIES
so, what is a
galaxy? A galaxy
is an enormous
collection of stars,
and these stars are
arranged in a par-
ticular shape.
There are three
main shapes of
galaxies: elliptical,
spiral, and irregu-
lar. Elliptical is Milky Way Galaxy - spiral galaxy Elliptical galaxy

oval shaped. spiral has arms spiraling outward from a center. Irregular has no particular shape.
Our galaxy is the milky Way Galaxy. The milky Way is a huge collection of stars arranged in a
spiral shape. The picture above shows the milky Way from a deep space view. The milky Way has a
dense central bulge with arms spiraling outward. The center of our galaxy contains older red and yel-
low stars, while the arms have mostly hot, younger, blue stars. scientists estimate that the milky
Way probably contains 100 billion other solar systems and stars.
The universe contains many galaxies and is continually expanding. Our sun, which is the center
of our solar system, is but a tiny spot in our galaxy. In fact, there are 200 billion suns in our galaxy,
and our galaxy is just one of millions of galaxies. The smallest galaxies have about 100,000 stars,
while the largest have about 3,000 billion stars.
Our universe is huge! One way to think about this is by using distance. Distance in space is meas-
ured in light years. A light
year is about 6 trillion miles.
Our galaxy is about 150,000
light years across. Again, our
galaxy is only one of mil-
lions of galaxies. Our uni-
verse is so vast it is almost
incomprehensible. so, let’s
not worry about how big it
is, and instead just take a
brief look at the space envi-
ronment around our planet,
Earth. (see associated Activ-
ity Five at the end of the
chapter.)

Irregular galaxy

6
SPACE ENVIRONMENT AROUND THE EARTH
NAsA’s “Radbelts” Web site explains a great deal about the space environment around Earth
(http://radbelts.gsfc.nasa.gov/). “Earth is surrounded by a magnetic field that looks something like
the field you see
around a toy magnet
when you use iron fil-
ings to make it stand
out better. You have
probably seen this
demonstrated in a sci-
ence class. Earth’s
magnetic field is
shaped something like
a comet, with a long,
invisible tail of mag-
netism stretching mil-
lions of miles beyond
the moon on the op-
posite side of the sun.
This magnetic field
can act like a bottle,
trapping fast-moving
charged particles Van Allen Radiation Belts – Credit: NASA GSFC
within an invisible
magnetic prison. The particles are so numerous that they form into donut-shaped clouds with the
Earth at the center, and stretching thousands of miles above Earth’s surface above the equator. scien-
tists call these the ‘Van Allen Radiation Belts’ because they were first discovered by Dr. James Van
Allen using one of the first satellites launched by NAsA in 1958.
The word ‘radiation’ has to do with energy or matter moving through space. There are many
forms of radiation that astronomers and physicists know about. sunlight is a form of electromagnetic
radiation produced by the sun, but so is ultraviolet radiation, infrared radiation, and gamma radia-
tion. Any heated body produces electromagnetic radiation. We also use the term ‘radiation’ to de-
scribe fast-moving particles of matter. One form of these found in space is cosmic radiation or more
commonly referred to as ‘cosmic rays.’ They are not made of light energy, but are actually the nuclei
of atoms such as hydrogen, helium, iron, and others which travel through space at hundreds of thou-
sands of kilometers per second. some electrons in the cosmic rays travel at nearly the speed of light.
Like other forms of radiation, they carry energy away from the place where they were created. When
they are absorbed, they deliver this energy to the body that absorbs them.
The Van Allen Belts are formed by clouds and currents of particles that are trapped in Earth’s
magnetic field like fireflies trapped in a magnetic bottle. Artists like to draw them as though they
look like dense clouds of gas. In fact, they are so dilute that astronauts don’t even see them or feel
them when they are outside in their space suits. Because you can’t see them from the ground at all,
scientists didn’t know they existed until they could put sensitive instruments inside satellites and
study these clouds directly. They only had a hunch that something like them existed because they
were predicted by certain mathematical models.
The Inner Belt (shown in blue above), between 600 and 3,000 miles (1,000 and 5,000 km), con-
tains high-energy protons carrying energies of about 100 million volts, and electrons with energies of

7
about 1 to 3 million volts. This is the belt that is a real hazard to astronauts working in space.
The Outer Belt (shown in purple), between 9,000 and 15,000 miles (16,000 and 24,000 km), con-
sists of mostly electrons with energies of 5 to 20 million volts. This is the belt that is a hazard to
communication satellites whose sensitive circuits can get damaged by the fast-moving particles.
Where do the particles in the belts come from? One line of thinking says that they might come
from the sun. The sun is, after all, a powerful and abundant source for particles like the ones found
in the belts. A second idea is that they were once cosmic rays from outside the solar system that got
trapped by Earth’s magnetic field as they traveled by. A third idea is that they may be atoms and nu-
clei from Earth’s atmosphere that have been fantastically boosted in energy to millions of volts by
some process we don’t yet understand. The particles are not labeled with their place of origin. This
makes it very difficult for scientists to sort out how each of these ideas actually contributes to the
belts themselves. But if you took a survey of space scientists today, they would probably agree that
the first two ideas are the most likely.
Anyone who works and lives in space, or has satellites working in space, will be very concerned
about the radiation belts. Radiation belts contain very high energy particles that can pass through the
skin of a satellite and damage the sensitive circuitry inside. If the circuitry controls the way the satel-
lite is pointing its antenna, the satellite can veer out of lock with ground-based receivers and be tem-
porarily “lost.” Unless satellite operators can anticipate and correct this problem, the satellite will be
permanently lost. During the current sunspot cycle, which began in 1996, we have lost over $2 bil-
lion in satellites from these kinds of problems. scientists want to learn as much about the radiation
belts as they can, so that they can better predict what will happen to satellites and humans operating
in space.
Radiation belts and the particles that they contain are an important element of the space weather
system. space weather is a term that scientists use when they describe the changing conditions in the
flows of matter and energy in space. These changes can have serious effects on the way that expen-
sive and vital satellites operate. They can also have a big effect on the health of astronauts working
and living in space.
Anytime that satellite technology or astronauts are being affected by forms of radiation in space,
such as fast-moving particles and X-rays, this usually causes some changes to occur. most of the
time these changes are so minor that they have no real consequences either to the way that the satel-
lite operates or the health of the astronaut. But sometimes, and especially during a severe solar storm
or “space weather event,” the conditions in space can change drastically. The term “space radiation
effects” has to do with all of the different ways that these severe conditions can significantly change
the way a satellite operates, or the health of an astronaut working and living in space.
When a high-energy particle penetrates a satellite’s metal skin, its energy can be absorbed by mi-
croscopic electrical components in the circuitry of a satellite. The switch can be changed from “on”
to “off ” momentarily, or, if the energy is high enough, this can be a permanent change. If that switch
is a piece of data in the satellite’s memory, or a digit in a command or program, it can suddenly
cause the satellite to veer out of control until a human operator on the ground can correct this prob-
lem. If the particle happens to collide with one of the pixel elements in the satellite’s star-tracking
camera, a false star might be created and this can confuse the satellite to think it is not pointing in the
right direction. Other satellite effects can be even more dramatic. When severe solar storms affect
Earth’s upper atmosphere, the atmosphere heats up slightly and expands deeper into space. satellites
will feel more friction with the air they are passing through, and this will seriously affect their orbits.
For astronauts, space radiation effects have to do with the amount of radiation (usually x-rays)
that pass through the walls of their spacecraft or space station and penetrate into the body of the as-
tronaut. most people have an instinctive fear of radiation and its potential biological effects. No mat-

8
ter where you live, you receive a free dose each day of environmental radiation which adds up to 360
millirems (4- 5 chest X-rays) per year, and you have no control over this. The daily dosage of radia-
tion on the Space Station is about equal to 8 chest X-rays per day.
But what about the Apollo astronauts who traveled the most intense regions of the belts in their
journey to the moon? Fortunately, the travel time through the belts was only about 30 minutes. Their
actual radiation exposures inside the Apollo space capsule were not much more than the total dose
received by space shuttle astronauts in a one-week stay in orbit. This fact counters some popular
speculations that the moon landings were a hoax because astronauts would have instantly died as
they made the travel through the belts.
In reality, the Apollo astronauts might have experienced minor radiation sickness if they had been
in their spacesuits on a spacewalk, but no spacewalk was ever scheduled for this very reason. The
metal shielding provided by the Apollo space capsule walls was more than enough to protect the as-
tronauts from all but the most energetic and rare particles.” Consider learning more about space radi-
ation and the Van Allen Belts at
http://radbelts.gsfc.nasa.gov/out-
reach/index.html.
The magnetosphere begins at
about 215 miles (346 km) above
the Earth’s surface and extends
into interplanetary space. The
magnetosphere is characterized by
its magnetic field of force, which
surrounds the Earth. This force
field is strongest at the poles and
weakest at the equator.
The magnetosphere’s force
field is affected by solar winds.
solar winds strike the magneto-
sphere with such force that it
forms a bow shock wave. The re-
sulting bow shock wave distorts
the Earth’s magnetosphere. Regions of the Magnetosphere

You have probably heard of the

aurora borealis and the aurora australis. The aurora borealis (or northern lights) flashes brilliant col-
ors in varying patterns across the northern skies, and the aurora australis presents a similar display in
the southern Hemisphere. Observers have determined that these displays occur at heights ranging
from 60 to 600 miles above the Earth’s surface. It has also been determined that these displays are
associated with a zone of electrically-charged layers in the upper atmosphere called the ionosphere.
The ionosphere is a part of the atmosphere divided by its electrical activity. It gets its name from
the gas particles that are ionized or charged. The ionosphere was discovered early in the twentieth
century when scientists learned that radio waves were transmitted in the atmosphere and were re-
flected back.
The ionosphere is filled with ions. Ions are atoms that carry a positive or negative electrical
charge as a result of losing or gaining one or more electrons. These ions concentrate in certain parts
of the ionosphere and reflect radio waves.
The ionosphere is caused by powerful ultraviolet radiation from the sun and the ultra high fre-
quency cosmic rays from the stars. This radiation bombards the scattered atoms and molecules of ni-
trogen, oxygen, and other gases and knocks some of the electrons out of the atoms.

9
Summary
To briefly summarize this chapter, everything is part of the universe. space, stars, planets, galax-
ies, plants, animals, and humans are all part of the universe. Temperature, atmosphere, gravity, mag-
netic fields, and other factors vary at different places within the universe. There are even different
types of galaxies in our universe, but all galaxies are made up of an arrangement of huge masses of
glowing objects: stars. We will shed a little more light on our universe by looking at stars in the next
chapter.

10
 1
STOP! safety Precautions: Water on floors or tile can create a walking hazard. Also, make sure
electrical cords and appliances are removed from the area before doing these activities.
Activity One - Creating the Microgravity of Space
Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to demonstrate that free fall eliminates the local effects of gravity.

Materials: water, plastic-drinking cup, large cookie sheet with at least one edge that doesn’t have a rim,
empty soda pop can, a large pail (catch basin), towels (old bath towels for cleaning spills), and a step lad-
der
Procedure:
1. Place the catch basin in the center of an open area in your meeting room.
2. Fill the plastic cup with water.
3. Place the cookie sheet over the opening of the cup. Hold the cup
tight to the cookie sheet while quickly inverting the sheet and cup.
4. Hold the cookie sheet and cup high above the catch basin.
(This is where you may want to use the stepladder to get higher.)
5. While holding the cookie sheet level, quickly pull the
cookie sheet straight out from under the cup.
6. The cup and the water will fall together.

Summary: This activity creates a microgravity environment similar to what you would find in space.
In this activity, the cookie sheet holds the cup and water in place. Once the cookie sheet is removed, the
water and cup fall together in a state of free fall, simulating microgravity. In space, as an object orbits
the Earth the state of free fall remains constant until the object is acted on by another opposing force.
some sort of drag would lower the speed of the orbit returning the object to Earth. some sort of thrust
would make the object travel faster and end up moving out of Earth’s orbit.

Activity Two - The Can Throw

LA Purpose: This activity also demonstrates microgravity and objects in a state of freefall.
CO
Materials: empty aluminum soft drink can, sharp nail,
catch basin, water, and towels

Procedures:
1. Punch a small hole with a nail near the bottom of an empty soft drink can.
2. Close the hole with your thumb and fill the can with water.
3. While holding the can over a catch basin, remove your thumb to
show that the water falls out of the can.
C OL 4. Close the hole again and stand back about 2 meters (approx 6 ft)
A from the basin. Toss the can through the air to the basin, being
careful not to rotate the can in flight.

11
5. Observe the can as it falls through the air.  The water will not fall out of the can during the fall
through the air.

Summary: This activity reinforced the concept of microgravity and freefall. While the cup is sta-
tionary, the water pours out, pulled by gravity; however, while the cup is falling, the water remains
inside the cup the entire time it falls, as the water is falling at the same rate as the can.

Activity Three - Surface Tension and Microgravity

Purpose: Use observation skills to compare shapes and sizes of
drops of water that are falling freely through the air and that are
lying on a solid surface. This activity demonstrates surface tension
and how it changes the shape of the fluid at rest.

Materials: water, liquid dish detergent, toothpicks, eyedroppers,

wax paper squares (20 x 20 cm or 7.9 inches x 7.9 inches), paper,
and pencil for sketching

Procedures:
1. Fill an eyedropper with water.
2. Carefully squeeze the bulb of the dropper to form a drop at the end.
3. As the water drops through the air, sketch the shape of the water drop. Repeat and sketch several
drops. Compare the shapes and the sizes.
4. Place a small drop of water on a square of wax paper. sketch the shape. measure the diameter and
height as best you can. Add a second drop of water. sketch and measure.
5. Continue adding water to the first drop. What happens to the shape?
6. With the dropper, try to pull the drop over the wax paper. At some point, friction overcomes the
surface tension and the drop breaks up. How large of a drop can you pull in one piece?
7. Add a small amount of liquid detergent to the drop. What happens?

Summary: surface tension is a property of liquids wherein the surface of a liquid acts like a thin,
easily bendable elastic covering. When water drops fall, they are spherical. When the water drop
hits a surface, the molecules are attracted across the surface and inward. This causes the water to try
to pull itself up into a shape that has the least surface area possible – the sphere. Because of gravity,
the drops resting on a surface will fatten out somewhat. If liquid detergent is added, the soap mole-
cules bond better than the water molecules, so the water molecules spread out more. The importance
of surface tension research in microgravity is that surface tension driven flows can interfere with
experiments involving fluids.

Activity Four - Shoot a Cannonball into Orbit

Purpose: Observe how freefall works by launching virtual cannonballs into space, and how objects
stay in orbit around the Earth.

Materials: Computer with internet connection

Procedures:
1. Go to http://spaceplace.jpl.nasa.gov/en/kids/orbits1.shtml.
2. select various amounts of gunpowder and click fire.

12
3. Observe what happens to the cannonball.
4. Use the chart on the next page to explain what happens to the cannonball for each amount of
gunpowder used.
5. In your own words, explain what this activity
teaches you about orbiting the Earth.

Summary: In order for an object to orbit Earth, a

rocket must launch it to the correct height and pro-
vide the object with enough “forward” speed. If
there is not enough “forward” speed, the object re-
turns to Earth; too much speed results in the object
zooming away from Earth. This activity reinforces
the concepts of microgravity, freefall, and orbit.

Amount of
gunpowder What happened
1 bag
2 bag
3 bag
4 bag
5 bag

Activity Five - The Expanding Universe

Purpose: This activity demonstrates the concept of the expanding universe.
Materials: balloon, marker, twist tie or paper clip, measuring tape, paper, and pencil
Procedures:
1. Partially inflate the balloon. Fasten the neck of the balloon with the twist tie or clip.
2. make several dots around the balloon and label each dot with numbers (1, 2, 3, and so on). see di-
agram below.
3. measure and record the distance between each of the dots.
4. Remove the twist or clip, blow more air into the balloon and re-fasten the twist around the neck of
the balloon.
5. measure and record the distance between each of the dots again.
6. Remove the twist, fully inflate the balloon, and re-fasten the twist around the neck of the balloon.
7. measure and record the distance between each of the dots a third time.
8. Discuss what happened to the dots as more air was put into the balloon. Discuss how this is like
the expanding universe.

Summary: This activity simply shows

that when more air is added to the bal-
loon, the dots become farther apart. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
The dots represent stars, so as the air is
expanded, the stars are farther apart.
some scientists believe that the uni-
verse is still expanding.

13
Learning Outcomes
- Define star.
2
- Define nebula.
- Describe the life cycle of a star.
- Interpret a Hertzsprung Russell diagram.

Important Terms
black hole - a region in space where no radiation is emitted
constellation - a grouping of stars, named after mythical figures and animals
light year - the distance light travels in one Earth year
magnitude - measure of the brightness of a star
nebula – giant cloud of gas and dust
parsec – distance equal to 3.26 light years
pulsar - pulsating star that flashes electromagnetic emissions in a set pattern
star - a body of hot gases

STARS IN THE NIGHT SKY

Have you ever looked at the sky on a clear night, picked out a bright shining dot in the sky, and
wondered if you were looking at a star or a planet? A star is a huge mass of hot gases. A star pro-
duces its own light due to nuclear reactions in its core. (A nuclear reaction in a star causes atoms in
the star to change. This process results in the release of energy.) Planets and moons CANNOT create
their own light. Planets and moons that appear as shining dots in the sky are reflecting sunlight. so,
it may be difficult for you to determine if the light you see in the night sky is being reflected from
the object or generated from within the object. When stargazing, you may want to use a star map to
help you identify the stars visible in your location.
Our sun is a star. Our sun is the only star in our solar system, but when we look into the sky on a
clear, dark night, we see a sky painted with a seemingly endless number of stars. Even though all the
stars we see with our eyes are stars that are located in our own milky Way Galaxy, they are very far
away from us. In fact, the name of the closest star to us beyond the sun is Proxima Centauri (also
called Alpha Centauri C). Without a telescope, it cannot be seen in the night sky, and with a tele-
scope, it can only be viewed from the southern hemisphere. Its stellar neighbors, Alpha Centauri A
and Alpha Centauri B, are bright enough to be seen from Earth with the naked eye. Proxima Centauri
is 4.2 light years from our sun, and Alpha Centauri A and B are about 4.4 light years away. But,
what is a light year?

MEASURING DISTANCES
Distances between the stars and solar systems vary and involve such high numbers of miles that it
is staggering. scientists, therefore, do not use miles, kilometers, or even astronomical units (which

14
you will learn about later) to measure distances between stars. Instead, scientists use the unit of
measurement known as light years and parsecs to measure such extreme distances. A light year is
the distance light can travel in one Earth year. This amounts to 5 trillion 878 billion statute miles
(5,878,000,000,000 miles). Just how far is that? The book The Stargazer’s Guide to the Galaxy puts
it into prospective by stating, “You would have to make 32,000 round trips to the sun and back to
travel the distance of one light year.” so, our nearest star, Proxima Centauri, is 4.2 light years (25
trillion miles) away. This means that the light from Proxima Centauri takes a little over four Earth
years to reach us. When the number of light years between locations gets very large, parsecs are
used; one parsec is 3.26 light years, or 19.2 trillion miles.
Why can some stars that are far away from Earth be seen and others cannot? It is due to their
brightness and distance from Earth. A star has a number of properties such as size, mass, tempera-
ture, color, and brightness. Additionally, stars vary in the amount of energy they generate in the form
of light and heat energy. Different amounts of energy released result in stars having different temper-
atures, and the temperature of a star determines its color. so, whether or not a star is visible from
Earth using our eyes only depends on the properties of the star, including the distance of the star
from Earth. (see associated Activity six at the end of the chapter.)

MEASURING BRIGHTNESS
Magnitude is a measure of the brightness of a star. The lower the magnitude number, the brighter
the star. A higher magnitude number indicates a dimmer star. For example, a star of magnitude 1.1 is
brighter than a star whose magnitude is 4.5. some stars have a magnitude with a negative number,
which indicates a really bright star.
There are two different kinds of magnitude for a star: apparent magnitude and absolute magni-
tude. Apparent magnitude is the measure of the brightness of a star as viewed from Earth. Absolute
magnitude is the star’s brightness as it would be viewed from a distance of 10 parsecs, or 32.6 light
years from Earth, regardless of actually how far away the star is from Earth. Absolute magnitude
gives us a better idea of the true brightness of a star. For example, the apparent magnitude of the sun
is -26.72, which indicates a very bright star. The reason the sun appears so bright and has such a low
apparent magnitude is because it is the closest star to Earth. The absolute magnitude of the sun (the
brightness of the sun if it were viewed 32.6 light years from Earth), however, is +4.8. From Earth, a
+4.8 magnitude star would appear
dim.
Astronomers are scientists who
study stars and other celestial bodies in
space. An important tool that as-
tronomers use to graphically organize
information about stars and to see the
relationships among them is the
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, called
the H-R diagram. It is named after a
Denmark astronomer and an American
astronomer who independently devel-
oped the first kind of this type of dia-
gram in the early 1900s. The diagram
plots stars according to their absolute
magnitude and surface temperature.
many H-R diagrams also reveal a
star’s classification. stars are classified Hertzsprung-Russell or H-R Diagram
according to temperature, and a star’s

15
surface temperature is used to place it in one, single-letter classification. The letters O, B, A, F, G, K,
and m each represent stars with a specific temperature range. The letters are arranged in decreasing
temperature, with class O stars being the hottest and blue in color. Class m stars are the coolest in tem-

perature and are the color red. Our sun has a surface temperature of about 5,800 K; therefore, it is clas-
sified as a G star, where stars range in temperature from 5,500-6,000 K. (Reminder: Do not confuse
this measurment of K with the star class of K. K stands for Kelvin and is a unit of measurement used
by scientists to measure temperature.)
Just as people go through different stages from birth to death, stars go through different stages in
their life cycle. H-R diagrams reveal where stars are in their life cycle, a reflected by several charac-
teristics, including temperture. (see associated Activity seven at the end of the chapter.)

Nebulae Horsehead Nebula

A STAR’S LIFE
Galaxies contain giant clouds called nebulae that are spread throughout the galaxy. A nebula is a
cloud of gas and dust. The gases in these nebulae are made up of mostly hydrogen and a small
amount of helium. Nebulae occur in regions where stars are forming, have exploded, or are shedding
their outer layers toward the end of their lives. A nebula may be dark or bright. The dark nebulae are
vast clouds of matter that have not yet formed into stars. The bright nebulae may be studded with
stars and send forth brilliant arrays of color. some bright nebulae, such as the Crab Nebula, are the

16
remnants of supernova stars that have exploded. Nebulae spin and
move and give a galaxy shape. Nebulae can also produce stars.
As a star begins to form, clumps of gases and dust come together.
most stars are composed of hydrogen and helium in their gaseous
state. stars have their own gravity and this gravity brings in and
holds the gases together. The gravity pulls inward and the pressure
from the hot gases drives outward. This creates a balance, prevent-
ing the star from collapsing under its own weight. The intense heat
of a nebulae star releases energy in the form of light and heat. A
star’s fuel is the hydrogen that it is converting to helium. Once the
hydrogen is gone, the star can begin converting helium into carbon,
which is a heavier element than hydrogen. some massive stars can Star balance
even generate elements heavier than carbon. The bottom line, how-
ever, is that once the star’s fuel is gone, the balance between its
gravity and pressure is gone. This will result in the star’s death. Let’s
investigate a little further about the life cycle of stars.

LIFE CYCLE OF STARS

A protostar is the term used to identify a ball-shaped material within a nebula that could become a
star. Just like humans begin as a fetus in the mother’s womb, a star begins as a protostar in a nebula.
During this time, clumps of gas and dust are coming together at a central gravitational point some-
where within the nebula, and the disk of gas and dust surrounding the protostar spins. As gravity
draws in more clumps, more atoms are colliding and generating heat. Nuclear fusion, which occurs
when temperatures are hot enough and pressure is great enough for the nuclei of atoms to fuse to-
gether rather than being repelled, can occur with very light elements at around 1 million Kelvin (K).
This will cause the protostar to glow. Over a long period of time, the protostar may become a star if
its core gets dense enough and hot enough to begin hydrogen fusion. Hydrogen fusion, a type of nu-
clear fusion, occurs in a star at around 10 million K. When hydrogen fusion occurs in a star, the hy-
drogen atoms fuse together to form the heavier element helium. When hydrogen fusion occurs, the
protostar has become a star, and the mass of the new star will determine how long it lives and how it
will die.
Once hydrogen fusion is occurring and the star is no longer growing, a star enters the main se-
quence phase, where it will spend the majority of its life. You might think of this phase as encom-
passing early life through adulthood. During this time the star is burning its fuel, hydrogen. This
results in hydro-
gen atoms fusing Low to Average White Dwarf
together to form Mass Star
helium in the core
of the star. The
Large Mass Star Neutron Star
star will do this
for the majority of
its life. If the star
is a high mass star,
Very Large Black Hole
it may spend only Mass Star
a few million
years in the main
sequence phase. A The fate of a star depends on its mass (size not to scale)

17
high mass star is described as a star that has 8 times or more the mass of the sun. A medium mass
star is described as having less than 8 times the mass of the sun, but at least 0.5 times the mass of the
sun. If a star has medium mass, like our sun, it spends billions of years in the main sequence phase.
Low mass stars are described as having less than 0.5 the mass of the sun. If the star is a low mass
star, it is believed that it will spend hundreds of billions of years, perhaps even trillions of years, in
the main sequence stage. The lower the mass of a star, the longer the star’s life. The higher the mass
of a star, the shorter the life of the star. (A short life is really millions of years, compared to billions
or trillions of years.)

Medium Mass Stars

medium-sized and medium mass stars like our sun will live for billions of years. stars like our
sun will expand into a red giant star toward the end of their lives. A red giant star’s hydrogen fusion
stops in its core, causing the star to begin to shrink inward due to gravity becoming greater than the
gas pressure pushing outward. As this happens, it causes the star to heat up more, causing hydrogen
outside its core to begin fusing. When that happens, the star’s outer layers will expand a great deal.
The surface temperature of a red giant cools to about 3,000 K as the heat spreads across a much
larger surface area. The size of the star makes it appear bright, and the surface temperature of the star
causes it to be red in color. (Remember that the surface temperature of a star affects its color.) The
internal temperature of the red giant will get hot enough to support helium fusion in its core. Once it
has burned all of its helium and once the core is no longer hot enough to support nuclear fusion, the
star will begin to contract again. This time, it will cause such a great amount of energy to be released
that the star will balloon out again. Just how large can a red giant become? It is believed that when
our sun becomes a red giant, it will grow so large that it could expand as far as the orbit of Earth,
and maybe mars! Think of a red giant star as a middle-aged star.
After millions of years, or maybe even close to a billion years living as a red giant star, the sun
will eventually collapse to become a white dwarf, which is the remaining core of the star. (Remem-
ber that it will collapse because its fuel supply is gone, so it can no longer maintain a balance be-
tween gravity pulling material in and the gas pressure going outward.) The outer layers of the once

18
red giant blow off and become a nebula. The clouds of gas and dust can continue to move away re-
vealing just the white dwarf. As a star becomes a white dwarf, it has a glowing hot temperature of
around 100,000 K. White dwarfs have a mass about 1.4 times that of the sun, and for many, their
size will be about the size of the Earth. Although a white dwarf has no more fuel, it will cool very
slowly. This dense star will glow until it has completely cooled, which may take billions of years.
Once it no longer gives off any light, it becomes a black dwarf, marking the end of the star’s life
cycle. since scientists believe that the universe isn’t old enough to contain any black dwarfs yet, sci-
entists report that there are currently no black dwarfs in existence.

High Mass Star

A high mass star will not end its life as a black
dwarf. Once it moves out of the main sequence
phase, it will become a red supergiant. stars with a
solar mass at least 8 times that of the sun will be
able to fuse together heavier elements. As was the
case with the red giant fusing hydrogen outside its
core, a red supergiant will be able to fuse helium
outside of its core, and fuse hydrogen in a layer be-
yond the helium fusion. Different types of fusion
will continue to take place in the core and in the
other layers of the star due to the extreme tempera-
ture and pressure of the massive star. Elements,
such as oxygen, nitrogen, and iron, will be created.
The star’s fuels will eventually run out, and the iron Supernova
atoms will release a huge amount of energy. When
this happens, the massive supergiant will explode. A star that explodes is called a supernova. When
this occurs, matter is blasted out in many directions. This material can be used to create new stars in
new nebulae.
The remaining core of a supernova will either be a neutron star or a black hole. The remaining
core of a supernova becomes a neutron star if it has less than 3 times the mass of the sun. A neutron
star is made up of neutrons, and its initial temperature is around 10 million K. It is difficult to detect
neutron stars, however, because of their small size. They are much smaller than a white dwarf. Re-
member that a white dwarf is about the size of Earth. A neutron star is a sphere that is typically about
12 miles (20 km) in diameter. Although small in size, one teaspoonful of a neutron star would weigh
about a billion tons on Earth. That’s dense!
As NAsA and World Book report, “A neutron star ac-
tually emits two continuous beams of radio energy. The
beams flow away from the star in opposite directions. As
the star rotates, the beams sweep around in space like
searchlight beams. If one of the beams periodically
sweeps over Earth, a radio telescope can detect it as a se-
ries of pulses. The telescope detects one pulse for each
revolution of the star. A star that is detected in this way
is known as a pulsar.” A pulsar is known as a pulsating
star because it flashes electromagnetic emissions in a set
pattern. The astronomers who discovered a pulsar first
thought Earth was being sent signals from intelligent Pulsar is in the center of the supernova Kes 75

19
life in another solar system.
If the remaining core of a supernova has 3 or more
times the mass of the sun, it implodes creating a black
hole. Its gravitational force is so strong, nothing can es-
cape from it. As reported on NAsA’s Imagine the Uni-
verse Web site, “But contrary to popular myth, a black
hole is not a cosmic vacuum cleaner. If our sun was
suddenly replaced with a black hole of the same mass,
the Earth’s orbit around the sun would be unchanged.
(Of course the Earth’s temperature would change, and
there would be no solar wind or solar magnetic storms
affecting us.) To be ‘sucked’ into a black hole, one has Black Hole
to cross inside the schwarzschild radius. At this radius,
the escape speed is equal to the speed of light, and once
light passes through, even it cannot escape. If the sun was replaced with a black hole that had the
same mass as the sun, the schwarzschild radius would be 3 km, or 1.9 miles, (compared to the sun’s
radius of nearly 700,000 km or 434,960 miles). Hence, the Earth would have to get very close to get
sucked into a black hole at the center of our solar system.”
Black holes can be detected by X-rays that are shed as matter is drawn towards the hole. As atoms
move closer to the black hole, they heat up. When the atoms heat up to a few million K, they give off
X-rays. These X-rays are released before they cross the schwarzschild radius, and we can, therefore,
detect them.

Low Mass Stars

As mentioned earlier, low mass stars
have the longest lives. The low mass
stars have a solar mass of about less
than half the mass of the sun down to
about a 0.08 solar mass. They have a
cooler temperature than intermediate
and high mass stars. Red dwarfs are low
mass stars and are the most common
kind of stars in the universe. Our nearest
star, beyond the sun, Proximus Cen-
tauri, is a red dwarf. Red dwarfs cannot
be seen using just our eyes. After their
long duration as a main sequence star,
they will become white dwarfs and
eventually black dwarfs. In a binary star system known as J0806, two dense white dwarf
It is possible for an object with less stars orbit each other. The stars seem destined to merge.
than 0.08 solar mass to form; however,
these objects are known as brown dwarfs, or failed stars. The failed stars are too cool to ever achieve
hydrogen fusion. They are very hard to detect because they are so small and extremely dim.

20
MULTIPLE STARS
Of stars that do form, many
have a second star with which
they share the same center of
gravity. The brighter of the two is
called the primary star and the
other is called the companion
star. About half of all stars come
in pairs with the stars sharing the
same gravitational center. These
are called binary stars. When
looking at the night sky, a star
that looks like a single shining (a) Southern horizon, summer (b) Southern horizon, winter
star could actually be part of a bi-
nary system.
A constellation is a grouping of stars. Hundreds of years ago, early astronomers divided stars into
groups and made imaginary figures out of them. Things like a lion, a scorpion, or a dog were used.
This is how constellations were named. The stars in these constellations are not really related; they
only appear to be as we view them from Earth. There are 88 constellations in use by astronomers
today. some of the more well known ones are: Ursa major (the Big Dipper is part of it), Orion, and
Cassiopeia. (see associated Activity Eight at the end of the chapter.)

Summary
This chapter revealed to you interesting information about stars. stars are huge masses of gases
that give off light and heat energy due to nuclear fusion occurring in their cores. Remember that a
star’s mass will determine how long it will live and how it will die.
The next chapter begins a study on our solar system, looking specifically at our sun, moon, and a
few other celestial bodies, such as comets, meteors, and asteroids.

21
Activity Six - Analyzing Starlight
2
Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to show the difference in wavelengths of various light sources
by making a simple spectroscope.
Materials: You must plan ahead, and this activity involves a cost. To do this activity you must pur-
chase diffraction grating. Edmund scientific, 101 East Glouchester Pike, Barrington, New Jersey
08007-1830 sells it. Their phone number is (609) 573-6250 and their website is www.scientificson-
line.com. Two sheets of diffraction grating measuring 6"x12" costs less than $10. These sheets will
need to be cut; one sheet will make 18 two-inch squares. You also need one cardboard tube per per-
son (paper towels, toilet tissue, or gift wrapping tubes), scissors or hobby knives, cellophane tape,
colored markers or pencils, typing or computer paper, and flashlights or other light sources. (Twenty-
five diffraction gratings mounted in 2"x2" cardboard slide mounts can be purchased for $21.95.
These can be used straight from the package to build a set of spectroscopes.)
Procedures:
1. Cover both ends of a cardboard tube with paper and fasten with tape.
2. make a thin slit in the paper at one end of the tube. (Only a narrow band of light should show
through this slit.)
3. make a small hole (1/8") in the paper at the other end of the tube.
4. Put the diffraction grating over the small hole and fasten it with tape.
5. Point the slit toward an available light source. Use a flashlight or other light source, do not look
directly at the sun.
6. move the tube slowly to the right or left so as to make an image appear.
7. Using a sheet of paper, sketch the light pattern observed using the colored markers or pencils.
8. Observe two other light sources, if possible, and sketch the light patterns observed.
9. Compare and discuss each light-source pattern.
Summary: A diffraction grating is a tool that separates colors in light. Using this tool helps to create
a spectroscope, which will allow you to see the light patterns and color spectrums of different light
sources. stars give off light, and as such, they have different light patterns. The spectroscope can
help you see the light patterns of stars in the night sky.

Activity Seven - Measuring the Brightness of the Stars

Purpose: This activity is designed to determine approximate magnitude of stars.

Materials: 2 pieces of cardboard (or 2 file folders), a strip of clear cellophane, nickel, pencil, scis-
sors or exacto knife, stapler, and ruler

Procedures:
1. Cut two pieces of cardboard, 11” long by 2-3/4” wide.

22
2. Use a ruler to mark one cardboard at five equidistant points: 1-1/2”, 3-1/2”, 5-1/2”, 7-1/2”, and 9-1/2”.
3. Use a nickel to trace a circle over each of the marks, centering the circles between the top and the
bottom edges of the cardboard strip. Carefully cut out the five circles.
4. Trace the cutouts onto the second piece of cardboard. Carefully cut out these five circles, too.
5. Cut 15 squares of cellophane, each 1-1/2”x1-1/2”.
6. Working with one strip of cardboard, cover the first hole with one square of cellophane; cover the
second hole with two squares of cellophane; cover the third hole with three squares of cellophane,
the fourth hole with four squares of cellophane; and cover the fifth hole with five squares of cello-
phane. Use small pieces of tape to secure the squares, as necessary.
7. Carefully place the second piece of cardboard on top of the secured cellophane squares,
being certain to line up the holes in the two pieces of cardboard. staple the cardboard strips to-
gether.

Steps 1 2 3 4

2 3/4"

1 1/2" 3 1/2" 5 1/2" 7 1/2" 9 1/2"

11"
Steps 5 6
One Layer of Clear
Cellophane Two Layers Three Layers Four Layers Five Layers
Tape

Steps 7 8 9

Staple

Magnitude Magnitude Magnitude Magnitude Magnitude

5 4 3 2 1

23
8. Label the hole covered with five squares of cellophane as magnitude 1; label the others in order,
with the hole having only one piece of cellophane over it being labeled as magnitude 5.
9. To use the magnitude strip begin by looking at a star using only your uncovered eye. Then look at
the star through the magnitude strip, looking through hole 1. If you can see the star through hole
number 1, the star is a first magnitude (or brighter) star. If you cannot see it, try looking through
the hole 2. Keep moving down the magnitude strip until you can see the star. stars that are seen
through the 4th hole are fourth magnitude stars; stars that can not be seen through the fifth hole,
but can be seen with the uncovered eye, are sixth magnitude stars.
Summary: magnitude refers to the brightness of a star. Observing stars through the magnitude strip
reveals the approximate magnitude of the stars, ranging from a first magnitude star (very bright and
can be seen through five layers of cellophane) to a sixth magnitude star (dim stars that could not be
seen through the magnitude 5 hole on the magnitude strip, but could only be seen with a clear view
from the uncovered eye). Knowing the approximate magnitude of stars can help better judge approx-
imate age and distance, as explained in the chapter.

Activity Eight - Astronomy In A Tube

Purpose: Become familiar with star patterns (constellations) visible in the night sky.
Materials: an empty Pringles potato chip can with its opaque plastic lid, black construction paper,
hammer, nail, push pin (or similar item), scissors, constellation pattern, silver marker (or similar
writing tool)
Procedures:
1. Draw a constellation pattern from the patterns below on a 2.75 inch circular piece of black con-
struction paper using a silver marker or some other visible writing tool.

24
2. Use a pushpin to make a small hole in the center of each star in your constellation and cut out the
circular paper pattern.
3. Using a hammer, put a nail-sized hole through the center of the metal end of the Pringles can
cover. (sAFETY: Use caution hammering the nail. Adult supervision is recommended.)
4. Place your piece of circular black paper under the plastic lid of the potato chip can, put the lid on
the open end of the can, point the constellation drawing toward a light source, look through the
hole in the metal end of the can, and see the star pattern as it would appear in the night sky.
Summary: stars are arranged in groups which we refer to as constellations. This activity empha-
sizes selected star patterns visible in the night sky. It is hoped that a greater interest in specific con-
stellations will lead to deeper investigation into the wonderment and ever-changing night sky
throughout the year.

25
Learning Outcomes
- Define astronomical unit (AU).
3
- Distinguish between solar flares, solar prominences, and sunspots.
- Describe the moon in terms of temperature, atmosphere, gravity, and terrain.
- Identify the phases of the moon.
- Explain what causes a solar and lunar eclipse.
- Define comet.
- Explain the differences between an asteroid, meteoroid, meteor, and meteorite.

Important Terms
asteroid - a small rocky body orbiting the sun; usually found in the asteroid belt
astronomical unit (AU) - unit of measurement used to measure distances in our solar system
comet - a small, icy body orbiting the sun
meteor - a small streak of light; when a meteoroid enters the Earth’s atmosphere it becomes a meteor
meteorite - a meteor that enters Earth’s atmosphere and actually hits Earth’s surface
meteoroid - clump of dust or rock orbiting the sun
micrometeorite - very small dust-sized bits of matter
photosphere - thin shell of the sun’s outer layer
solar flares - short-lived high energy discharges from the sun
solar prominences - larger energy discharges from the sun that can be thousands of miles high and
last for months
solar system - the sun and the bodies that orbit around it
sunspots - darker, cooler areas of the sun

When you hear "solar system" what do you think of? most of us probably think of the planets
within our solar system. some of us might think about the sun. These are good responses because
they are part of our solar system. What is our solar system? Our solar system is the sun, the planets
and their satellites, asteroids, comets, and any celestial body that comes under the gravitational influ-
ence of our sun. This gravitational influ-
ence means that these bodies orbit the
sun. The word solar means anything per-
taining to or proceeding from the sun.
so, the sun is the key feature of our solar
system. Our solar system, however, is
just one of many in the universe. In
2010, astronomers reported that approxi-
mately 15% of the stars in the milky

26
Way Galaxy may be part of systems like our solar system – and that is just within our galaxy. “With
billions of stars out there, even narrowing the odds to 15% leaves a few hundred million systems that
might be like ours,” said astronomer Andrew Gould.

THE SUN
The sun is the most important element of our solar system. Without its heat and light, the Earth
would be a lifeless, ice covered planet. On Earth, the sun sustains our lives, and it gives energy which
provides food and oxygen. It stirs our atmosphere and initiates our weather.
The sun is a star. All other bodies of the solar system revolve around it. Because of this, the sun is
the point of reference for most facts about our solar system. When people talk about distances in our
solar system, they tell how far something is from the sun. For instance, the Earth is 93 million miles
from the sun. Because distances of most planets from the sun are millions of miles away, scientists
use a unit of measurement called the astronomical unit (AU) to measure distances within our solar
system. Because we are most familiar with the distance from Earth to the sun, the distance of 93 mil-
lion miles (149,668,992 km) is the start for measuring in astronomical units. The distance of 93 mil-
lion miles equals 1 AU. The measurement of 2 AU equals 186 million miles, and so on. so, you may
say either, “The Earth is an average of 93 million miles from the sun,” or, “The average distance be-
tween the sun and the Earth is 1 AU.” Venus, as another example, is about 0.7 AU from the sun. How
far away is Neptune? It is about 30 AU from the sun. Try calculating how many miles that is if 1 AU
equals 93 million miles. You are correct if your answer is about 3 billion miles (2.793 to be exact).
When talking about the size of planets, one often compares them to the size of the sun. The sun is
300,000 times as massive as the Earth. If the sun were hollow, you could fit approximately 1 million
Earths inside it. Our solar system, our world, could not exist without the sun.
The sun is a medium-sized star composed of about 90% hydrogen, 9% helium, and minor amounts
of several other elements. Its diameter is 864,000 miles (1,390,473 km). You could fit 100 Earths
across the diameter of our sun. The temperature of the sun ranges from 7592° F (4,200° C or 4473 K)
in its coolest regions to over 27,000,032° F (15 million degrees C or 15,000,273 K) at its center.
As just mentioned, the sun consists mostly of hydrogen and helium. The hydrogen is converted
into helium by nuclear fusion. This process generates and releases the sun’s energy in all directions,
all of the time. It is generally accepted that the sun is a giant thermonuclear reactor, releasing a
tremendous amount of energy.
The core of the sun is so hot that no solid or liquid molecules can exist. Virtually, all atoms remain
in a plasma state. The energy released within the core has to make its way to the surface, atom by
atom. It’s theorized if the sun’s fusion reaction were to suddenly halt, it would take more than
100,000 years before any effect would show on the surface of the sun.
The very thin shell of the sun’s outer layer is called the photosphere. This is the part of the sun
that gives off light. It is also the visible surface that we see. This shell
is composed mostly of hydrogen and helium, and is very hot. Its tem-
perature is more than 10,000° F.
The outer layers of the sun indicate constant motion and violent
activity. solar disturbances occur all of the time. sometimes they last
for less than a second, and other times they last for years. These solar
disturbances are usually associated with sunspots. Sunspots are
darker, cooler areas of the sun. From these sunspots, solar flares and
solar prominences occur.
Solar flares are short-lived, high-energy discharges, that are po-
tentially dangerous. They can harm satellites, ground systems, space- Sunspots

27
 craft, and astronauts. We monitor the sun’s activ-
ity closely so we can react quickly when flares
occur. The less dangerous electromagnetic radia-
tion from a flare will reach Earth in less than 9
minutes. The more dangerous high-energy parti-
cles may take 15 minutes to 3 days to get here.
space operators must be prepared to act quickly.
As explained in NAsA’s Radbelts website,
“During the Apollo program, there were several
near-misses between the astronauts walking on
the surface of the moon and a deadly solar storm
event. The Apollo 12 astronauts walked on the
moon only a few short weeks after a major solar
The Sun showing solar prominences proton flare would have bathed the astronauts in
a 100 rem blast of radiation. Another major flare
that occurred halfway between the Apollo 16 and Apollo 17 moonwalks would have had a much more
deadly outcome had it arrived while astronauts were outside their spacecraft playing golf. Within a
few minutes, the astronauts would have been killed on the spot with an incredible 7000 rem blast of
radiation.”
Solar prominences are larger and longer lasting high-energy discharges. Prominences can reach
thousands of miles and last for months.
On rare occasions here on Earth, we may experience an event known as a solar eclipse. This occurs
during the daylight hours when the moon moves directly between the sun and the Earth, blocking the
sun for a short time as it continues its orbit around the Earth. This is rare, however, because the
moon’s orbital path around the Earth is tilted at about 5° compared to the orbital path of the Earth
around the sun. You will learn more about this when you read about lunar eclipses. (see associated
Activity Nine at the end of the chapter.)

THE MOON
The Earth has one moon and it is situated in an elliptical (oval-shaped)
orbit around the Earth. Because it is elliptical and not circular, the moon’s
distance from the Earth changes slightly. The distance varies from approx-
imately 252,000 miles (405,555 km) at its farthest point to 221,000 miles
(355,665 km) at its nearest point, with the average distance being close to
240,000 miles (386,243 km). You could fit about 30 Earths between the
Earth and the moon. While the Earth’s diameter is about 7,920 miles The Earth’s Moon
(12,746 km), Earth’s moon has a diameter of about 2,155 miles (3,468
km), which is close to ¼ of the Earth’s diameter. If you could travel to the moon in a car at a speed
of 65 miles per hour, you could reach the moon in about 154 days. The Apollo astronauts who trav-
eled to the moon had to reach a speed of about 25,000 miles per hour to escape Earth’s gravitational
pull. They made it to the moon in about 3 days traveling at an average speed of about 3,418 miles
(5,500 km) per hour. (see associated Activity Ten at the end of the chapter.)
The moon’s gravitational pull is weak compared to that of Earth’s; therefore, the weight of ob-
jects on the moon would be different compared to Earth. The gravitational pull of the moon is 1/6
that of Earth’s. This means, if someone weighs 90 pounds on Earth, the person would only weigh 15
pounds on the moon. Divide your weight by 6 to determine how much you would weigh on the
moon.
Due to this weaker gravitational pull, the moon has no atmosphere. The gravity of the moon is
too weak to trap any gases, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and so on. Because of this,

28
 there is no wind or air of any kind on
the moon. sound travels through air;
therefore, there are no sounds on the
moon. The astronauts who went to the
moon during NAsA’s Apollo Program
were able to communicate due to the
air in their spacesuits and their lunar
lander.
While there are no oceans, lakes,
streams, or polar ice caps on the
moon, scientists had reason to believe
that water ice might exist on the moon
due to evidence from past unmanned
lunar missions. scientists were excited
to find conclusive evidence of water
on the moon thanks to data obtained
from NAsA’s LCROss (Lunar Crater
Observation and sensing satellite)
mission. In 2009, the LCROss probe
collected and transmitted information about a plume of lunar dust and particles created by the impact
of a two-ton rocket slamming into a lunar crater. The crater, which is visible from Earth and is named
Cabeus, is permanently shadowed on the moon’s south pole. This is important because the tempera-
ture of sunlit areas on the moon can reach 250° F (121° C), which means water would quickly evapo-
rate, and the gases would easily escape into space due to the moon’s weak gravitational pull. For
water to exist, it would need to be in the form of water ice, which would only be possible in a dark or
shaded area on the moon, such as the crater Cabeus. The initial data from the LCROss mission re-
vealed approximately 24 gallons of water. As for LCROss, it also slammed into the crater, as
planned, approximately 4 minutes after the rocket. Its hugely successful mission brings to light many
more questions such as, “How did the water ice get there?” “How much water ice is on the moon?”
and “How could we use this resource to benefit human exploration of the moon?”
The moon consists mainly of solid rock covered with dust. This fine dust covers the entire surface
of the moon. There are two theories on how the dust got there. some think the impact of meteoroids
striking the surface pulverized lunar matter into dust, which settled to the surface slowly and evenly.
Others think the dust is cosmic dust from space that the moon’s gravitational pull brought to the sur-
face.
Primarily, the moon has two types of terrain, highlands and lowlands. The highlands are filled
with craters surrounded by mountains, and the lowlands are filled with craters that have been flooded
with molten lava and appear as dark areas called maria (Latin for sea).
The moon has many different kinds of rocks.
We learned this from the lunar landings. moon
basalt is a dark gray rock with tiny holes from
which gas has escaped. It closely resembles
Earth basalt, but contains different mineral com-
binations. On the moon, basaltic lava makes up
the dark, smooth surfaces of the lunar plains,
which cover about half of the visible side of the
moon.
Probably the most common rock on the moon
is anorthosite. This rock is composed almost en-
tirely of one mineral, feldspar. Anorthosite is The surface of the Earth’s Moon

29
found in the highlands of the moon and shows up
from Earth as the light areas of the moon.
Anorthosite is rare on Earth, but is found in
Greenland and is believed to be an ancient rock.
The moon rotates on its axis in the same
amount of time it takes to orbit the Earth (27
days). Therefore, the same side of the moon
(near side) always faces the Earth. One-half of
the surface of the moon is illuminated by the
sun, and the other half is in shadow. However,
the amount of surface we see, the phase of the
moon, depends on how much of the near side of
the moon is in the sunlight. As the moon rotates
around the Earth, its position relative to the sun
changes. As seen from the Earth, this means that Phases of the Moon
a part of the surface of the moon that is in
shadow is facing the Earth. When the moon is on the side
of the Earth nearer the sun, the moon is new. When it is
on the opposite side of the Earth the moon is full. study
the pictures of the moon phases below to help you under-
stand the shapes of the moon that are visible at different
times during the month. (see associated Activity Eleven
at the end of the chapter.)
sometimes, the moon passes directly in Earth’s
shadow. When this happens, part or all of the moon may
not be visible. This is called a lunar eclipse and occurs
when the sun, Earth, and moon line up in just the right
way. If the moon passes through the penumbra, the light
shadow cast by the Earth, the moon is partially eclipsed.
If the moon passes through the umbra, the darkest part of
the shadow cast by the Earth, the moon is totally
eclipsed. When the Earth’s shadow prevents the entire
surface facing the Earth to be blocked, it is called a total lunar eclipse. If the moon rotates around
the Earth each month, why doesn’t a lunar eclipse occur each month? It is because the moon is tilted
about 5° in its orbital path around Earth compared to the orbital path of the Earth around the sun;
therefore, the moon usually passes a little above or below the Earth. As explained at space.com, “To
visualize, think of two Hula Hoops (one inside of the other) — one big and one small — floating on
the surface of a pool. Push the inner one down so that half of it is below the surface and half above.
When the moon gets into the ecliptic — right at the surface of the pool — during its full phase, then
a lunar eclipse occurs.”
A moon day lasts 27 Earth days; the time it takes to orbit the Earth. Daytime on the moon lasts
about 13-14 Earth days, one half the orbit time; the other half being nighttime.
Temperatures on the moon can rise above 250° F (121° C) during the day. Nighttime tempera-
tures can go below -250° F (-157° C).
Although the Earth and stars are beautiful when observing them from the moon, the moon is a
quiet, barren place with a black sky. To date, only twelve astronauts have walked on the moon’s sur-
face as part of six Apollo missions between 1969 and 1972. Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin de-
scribed the moon as “magnificent desolation.” With no atmosphere, no running water, and extreme

30
temperatures, the moon is a gray, lifeless
ball orbiting the Earth. Without spacesuits
and life-supporting vehicles or habitats, hu-
mans could not survive on our moon. (see
associated Activity Twelve at the end of the
chapter.)

OTHER BODIES
Asteroids, comets, and meteoroids are
part of our solar system and therefore orbit
around the sun. Collectively, they are
Asteroids
thought of as debris orbiting in space. You
might wonder why they are important to us.
Well, one reason is safety. space planners and space travelers need to consider these phenomena as
they prepare to go deeper into space. Let’s take a quick look at each of these individually and learn a
little more about them.
Asteroids are chunks of rock that range in size from particles of dust to some that are a few hun-
dred miles across. most asteroids in our solar system travel in an orbit between mars and Jupiter.
This area is known as the asteroid belt.
The first asteroid was discovered by an Italian astronomer, Guiseppe Piazi, in 1801. since that
time, more than 15,000 asteroids have been found and catalogued. scientists speculate that there are
probably millions more of them in our solar system. scientists know of more than 200 asteroids
whose orbits come close to our Earth and are capable of hitting us. However, the closest any have
come is about 100,000 miles (160,934 km).
spacecraft have flown through the asteroid belt and found that large distances separate asteroids.
In October 1991, the asteroid known as Gaspra was visited by the Galileo spacecraft and became the
first asteroid to have high-resolution images taken of it. Gaspra is composed of metal-rich silicates
and looks like a lumpy potato-shaped rock.
In 1997, the spacecraft Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) made a high-speed, close en-
counter with the asteroid mathilde. scientists found mathilde to be a carbon-rich asteroid. NEAR
went on to encounter the asteroid Eros in 1999-2000. Eros had numerous boulders protruding above
the surrounding surface.
Earth-based observations of asteroids continue, too. In may 2000,
scientists observed the boulder Kleopatra with the 1,000 foot telescope
of the Arecibo Observatory. Kleopatra is a metallic, dog bone-shaped
rock the size of the state of New Jersey.
A comet is described as a giant dirty snowball. It is irregularly
shaped with a tiny nucleus composed of frozen gases, water, dust, and
icy lumps. Comets are usually a few miles across. Comets generally
travel around the outer regions of our solar system, but sometimes they
are bumped off their orbit and head toward the sun. As they approach
the sun, comets usually grow in size and brightness. As the comet
moves closer to the sun, the comet’s ice parts begin melting into a
gaseous and dusty tail that can extend for millions of miles.
sometimes, comets remain in their new orbits and repeat their jour-
ney; therefore, scientists can sometimes predict future travel paths of
Comet
comets. For instance, Halley’s Comet reappears every 76 years.

31
 English astronomer sir Edmund Halley first suggested
that comets were members of our solar system. After
studying bright objects in the sky, he predicted the appear-
ance of a comet in 1758.
When it appeared, the comet was named after him.
Halley’s comet continues to make regular appearances in
our skies. It last approached the sun in 1996.
Very small, dust-particle size bits of matter are called
micrometeorites. From this size upward,these tiny parti-
cles of dust and sand orbiting the sun are called mete-
oroids. meteoroids are usually leftover from a comet. If a
meteoroid enters the Earth’s atmosphere it is called a me- Meteor shower
teor. If the meteor is large enough to penetrate our atmos-
phere and actually hit the surface of the Earth it is called a meteorite.
meteorites are not that common, but they have occurred. However, meteors are very common.
Friction causes a meteor to heat and glow and begin to disintegrate leaving a trail of luminous mat-
ter. When there are many meteors seen in the sky within a period of an hour, it is called a meteor
shower. meteor showers are also referred to as shooting stars. They can be seen on just about any
night if you get out in the country away from the city lights.
meteorites are the pieces of matter that remain when debris does not burn up completely as it
passes through the atmosphere and lands on the surface of the planet. scientists believe many mete-
orites hit the Earth each year, but it is rare to actually see it happen. most meteorites are basketball-
size or smaller, but larger pieces can and do impact the surface of the Earth. some meteorites are
small pieces of an asteroid; others have proved to be material blasted off the surface of the moon fol-
lowing an impact on its surface. Other meteorites have been determined to originate on mars.
The recent recovery of a carbonaceous chondrite meteorite from the Yukon has excited scientists
who say that its very primitive composition and pristine condition may tell us what the initial materi-
als were like that went into making up the Earth, moon, and sun. Only about two percent of meteror-
ites are carbonaceous chondrites containing many forms of carbon and organics, the basic building
blocks of life. This type of meterorite is easily broken down during entry into the Earth’s atmos-
phere, so recovery is quite rare. (see associated Activity Thriteen at the end of the chapter.)

Summary
The sun is a star and is the most important element of our solar system. The sun releases a
tremendous amount of energy in the form of heat and light, which is essential for life on Earth. The
moon, on the other hand, does not produce heat or light. Its environment is very different from
Earth’s, and without spacesuits and life-supporting vehicles or habitats, humans could not survive on
our moon.
Our solar system also includes comets, meteoroids, and asteroids. After reading detailed informa-
tion about these objects, you should be able to explain how they are different from one another.
When thinking about our solar system, you probably immediately think of planets. In the last
chapter, we will visit each of the planets in our solar system.

32
Activity Nine - Build a Solar Cooker
3
Purpose: This is the practical way to show how energy from the sun can be used.

Materials: shoe box, aluminum foil, plastic wrap, a skewer, and some hot dogs

Procedure:
1. Line the shoe box with the foil.
2. Insert a skewer through one of the short sides.
3. Insert the skewer through a hot dog (lengthwise) and then stick the skewer into the other short side
of the box.
4. Cover with the plastic wrap.
5. Place the solar cooker in sunlight and let the sun cook your lunch. You could try baking cookies
from refrigerated cookie dough, as well.

Summary: The solar cooker uses sunlight as its energy source. The aluminum foil helps keep the
light and heat from the sun in the cooking area, increasing its intensity. The plastic wrap over the
top allows the sunlight to enter the box, but helps prevent heat from escaping. The temperature in-
side the solar cooker then becomes hot enough to heat the hot dog. A discussion of how solar energy
can be used in our country would be beneficial at this time.

Activity Ten - Earth-Moon Distance

Purpose: This activity will give both a visual and mathematical comparison of the distance to the
moon from the Earth using scale models to represent the actual objects.

Materials: world globe (important that the globe is 12 inches in diameter), tennis ball, string (at
least 30 feet long), reference book or internet site (as noted below), measuring tape, and calculator or
pencil/paper for calculators
Procedure:
1. With the tennis ball representing the moon, ask students to place the tennis ball at a distance from
the globe that represents how far the moon is from the Earth. (Use the information found on page
28 that states that you could fit about 30 Earths between the Earth and the moon.) This will be a
visual representation of the distance from the Earth to the moon.
2. Next, as a mathematical representation of the distance, and a way to actually measure the scaled
distance, ask students to determine the circumference of the Earth by consulting a reference book
or using the internet, or use the summary information on next page. Using this circumference, the
students should use the information on page 28 that tells that the distance from the Earth to the
moon is about 240,000 miles and determine how many times the circumference of the Earth it
would take to measure the distance from the Earth to the moon. To do this, the students should di-
vide the distance to the moon by the Earth’s circumference. (The summary will give the mathe-
matical outcome.)

33
3. Compare the earlier visual idea of the distance between the Earth and the moon with measured
distance based on the Earth’s circumference. To do this, wrap the string around the globe 9.5
times. Then hold one end of the string at the surface of the Earth and stretch the string across the
classroom. The other end of the string represents the distance of the Earth to the moon. measure
the distance.

Summary: The Earth’s circumference is about 25,000 miles. The distance from the Earth to the
moon is about 240,000 miles. When you divide the distance between the Earth and the moon by the
circumference of the Earth you get 9.6 or, averaged 9.5. Using this scale, the distance from the
model Earth to the model moon should be 9.5 times the circumference of the model Earth, or about
30 Earths away, as calculated in the equation below.
mathematically:
C = pd
C = 3.14 x 12”
C = 37.68”
Then, 37.68” x 9.5 = 357.96” or
29.83 ft (about 30 ft, or 30 Earths)

Activity Eleven - Seeing the Moon

Purpose: Demonstrate why we see different portions of the moon (phases of the moon) illuminated
in the sky due to light and shadows.

Materials: a dark room, a bright light source (a table lamp), a small ball (tennis or baseball), and
the demonstrator (a person doing the demonstration for the others)

Procedure:
1. Hold the ball at arm’s length toward the bright lamp.
2. Ensure the room is dark except for the table lamp. With the lamp representing the sun, the head of
the demonstrator becomes the Earth, and the ball is the moon.
3. The demonstrator should stand in place; slowly turning to the left so that the ball in the out-
stretched hand moves in a complete circle. Observers will be able to see the changing phases of
the moon on the ball.

Summary: As shown in the illustration of the phases of the moon on page 30, as the moon makes
its 27-day orbit of the Earth, the amount of sunlight that reaches the moon when it is not in the
Earth’s shadow determines the surface of the moon that can be seen from Earth. The phases of the
moon are said to determine many factors on Earth, such as are found in reference books, called Al-
manacs.

34
Activity Twelve - Lost on the Moon - Survival
Purpose: This activity accomplishes several things: the analysis of the moon’s atmosphere, the
evaluation of the importance of available materials while on the moon, the identification of similari-
ties and differences between the Earth and moon, the use of critical thinking skills, and the promo-
tion of team building.
Background: Your spaceship has just crash-landed on the dark side of the moon. You were sched-
uled to rendezvous with your mother ship 200 miles away, on the lighted surface of the moon, but
the rough landing has destroyed your ship and ruined all but the 15 items listed below.
since your crew’s survival depends upon reaching the mother ship, you must choose the most criti-
cal items available for the 200-mile trek across the moon’s surface. You must determine the "priority"
of survival items and list them. Back on Earth, NAsA would have given you their priority, but no con-
tact can be made. The decision is yours. How would your team skills compare to those of the NAsA
home team? It’s fun to compare your answers with those of NAsA and other teams.
Materials: checklist of items provided, a pencil or pen

ITEMS NASA YOUR ERROR GROUP ERROR

RANKING RANKING POINTS RANKING POINTS
1 Box of matches
2 Food concentrate
3 50' of nylon rope
4 Parachute silk
5 Solar powered heating unit
6 Two 45 caliber pistols
7 One case of Pet milk
8 Stellar map
9 Two 100-pound oxygen tanks
10 Self-inflating life rafts
11 Magnetic compass
12 Five gallons of water
13 Signal Flares
14 First aid kit containing injection needles
15 Solar powered FM transceiver
TOTALS

Procedure:
1. Divide the group into small teams.
2. Hand out a copy of the problem or read it to the teams.
3. Have students rank the 15 items in their order of priority.
4. After the students are done, have them discuss and justify their rankings to the other teams.
5. show the students the NAsA rankings.
6. Calculate the error points for individuals and teams, using the NAsA ranking on the next page.
Calculate error points for the absolute difference between the NAsA ranking and the individual
or group ranking. scoring: 0-26 = Excellent
27-32 = Good
33-45 = Fair
46-112 = still lost on the moon
Summary: An understanding of the lunar environment and an ability to critically think and discuss
ideas are necessary to make good judgments regarding the importance of the items on the survival list.
Working as a team to make these selections is beneficial in making good decisions.

35
Lost on the Moon

36
Activity Thirteen - Meteoroids and Space Debris
Purpose: Demonstrate the penetrating power of a projectile with a small mass and how it differs de-
pending on the velocity (speed and direction).

Materials: two or three raw potatoes (depending on group size), several large diameter plastic
straws (Each person should get a chance to participate.)

Procedure:
1. Hold the raw potato in one hand.
2. While grasping the straw with the other hand, stab the potato with a quick sharp motion. The straw
should completely penetrate the potato. CAUTION - Don’t strike your other hand.
3. Again, hold the potato and now stab it with the straw using a slow push. The straw should bend
instead of penetrating the potato.

Summary: Even a small mass can penetrate many things if its velocity is high enough. This was
demonstrated by the straw penetrating the potato. meteoroids and space debris traveling at high
speeds pose significant hazards, particularly to space walking astronauts. spacesuit material is made
of special layers of materials to help protect astronauts from meteoroids and small space debris.

37
Learning Outcomes
- Define planet.
4
- state basic facts about the planets in our solar system.
- Define and identify dwarf planets.

Officially, our solar system contains eight planets. most of us can probably name them, and are
somewhat familiar with them. You may be thinking, “Wait. I thought there were nine planets.” That
was true until 2006 when the International Astronomical Union (IAU), the governing body of astron-
omy, revised the definition of “planet,” which left Pluto out of the traditional planet category.
The IAU’s definition of planet is "a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the sun, (b) has suffi-
cient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilib-
rium (nearly round) shape, and (c) has cleared the neighborhood around its orbit." Let’s take a few
moments and look at some interesting facts about each planet, as well as Pluto. We’ll start with mer-
cury and go in order of each planet’s distance from the sun.

Mercury
mercury is the closest planet to the sun, yet it is the most difficult
to see because of the sun’s glare on it. (Don’t look for mercury while
the sun is in the sky. It could damage your eyes.) mercury is slightly
larger than the Earth’s moon and is the smallest of the eight planets.
mercury is only 36 million miles (0.39 AU) from the sun and re-
volves around the sun every 88 days. It has a very elliptical orbit, and
it moves about 30 miles (48 km) every second. mercury rotates very
slowly, taking 59 Earth days to rotate on its axis.
mercury, which has no
moons, has a rocky, Mercury
crusty surface with many
craters resembling the craters of the Earth’s moon. many
of these craters were formed when rocks crashed into the
planet. mercury also has many lava flows and quake
faults on its surface. These craters, flows, and faults have
shaped the surface of the planet.
Except for small amounts of helium and hydrogen,
mercury has no atmosphere. scientists believe that mer-
cury has an iron core that extends through most of the
planet. mercury has significant temperature differences.
Its daytime temperature reaches 800° F (427° C), while
The surface of Mercury its nighttime temperatures reach -300° F (184° C).
as seen from Mariner 10
Pictures of mercury’s surface were first taken from

38
the Mariner 10 spacecraft that made flybys in 1974 and 1975, photographing about 45% of the sur-
face of mercury. The pictures displayed mercury’s many craters and loose, porous soil. It also gave
indications that ice existed at its poles, in deep craters, where the sun could not melt it. In the three
Mariner 10 flybys, it was discovered that both a thin atmosphere and magnetic field existed.
In order to learn more about mercury, NAsA created the mEssENGER Program.Launched on
August 2, 2004, mEssENGER conducted its first of three flybys of mercury on January 14, 2008.
Information collected from mEssENGER’s three flybys along with the key images taken from
Mariner 10 helped to produce the first global map of mercury in December of 2009. Beginning an
orbital mission in 2011, mEssENGER is the first spacecraft to orbit mercury. Through the mEs-
sENGER Program, scientists will gain valuable information to better understand mercury’s geologi-
cal history, extreme density, magnetic field, core, poles, and exosphere.

Venus
Next, is Venus. It is the closest planet to Earth in both dis-
tance and size and is often referred to as Earth’s sister. Venus is
67 million miles (0.7 AU) from the sun. It takes 225 days to re-
volve around the sun. It is a very hot planet with temperatures in
excess of 850° F (454° C). In fact, Venus is the hottest planet in
the solar system.
Even with the heat, Venus is covered with clouds. These
clouds are made of water vapor and sulfuric acid, and they rotate
at a different rate than the planet. These clouds rotate every four Venus
days; much faster than the 243 Earth days it takes for Venus to
rotate on its axis. By the way, Venus is the only known planet to rotate in a clockwise manner.
The atmosphere is 96% carbon dioxide and 4% nitrogen. There are also small amounts of water,
oxygen, and sulfur. scientists believe volcanic activity is responsible for the sulfur found in the at-
mosphere. Because of this thick layer of carbon dioxide and the clouds, the heat cannot escape.
Therefore, there is very little temperature change on Venus.
The surface of Venus is a relatively smooth, hot desert. It does have some highlands and craters,
too. Venus is the easiest planet to see at night and is the brightest of all. You can even see it in the
daytime if you know where to look. since it is the brightest planet that can be seen from Earth,
Venus is referred to as the Evening star. Venus has no moons.
since Venus is the closest planet to Earth, it is also the most visited by our spacecraft. Mariner 2,
5, and 10 visited Venus, as did Pioneer 1 and 2. The UssR’s Venera 9 and 10 also visited Venus.
The Magellan spacecraft, launched in may of 1989 aboard the space shuttle Atlantis, was sent to
orbit Venus from 1990-1994. It collected radar images and was able to map more than 98% of the
planet’s surface. As a result of the mission, it was verified that volcanic materials cover most of
Venus.
Venus continues to be visited by spacecraft. The Venus Express, a European space Agency space-
craft that was launched in November of 2005, is scheduled to remain operational until 2012. Also, in
the summer of 2010, Japan launched the Venus Climate Orbiter “Planet-C,” nicknamed “Akatsuki,”
which means “dawn.”Akatsuki should reveal much detail about the climate and atmosphere of Venus.
As explained by Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), “The Venus Climate Orbiter ‘AKAT-
sUKI’ (PLANET-C) is the world’s first planetary meteorological observation satellite to unveil the
mysteries of wind on Venus. It will explore the mechanism of the Venus climate by observing the at-
mospheric movement and cloud formation process.” In learning about Venus, scientists also believe
that they will develop a deeper understanding of Earth’s environment: past, present, and future.

39
Earth
As far as we know, Earth is the only planet that sustains life.
Therefore, it is a unique planet. Earth is approximately 1 AU (93
million miles) from the sun, and it takes the planet about 365
days to make one revolution around the sun, which is one Earth
year. Remember that the average distance from the Earth to the
sun is a straight line from the Earth to the sun. The average dis-
tance that the Earth travels in its orbit around the sun (circumfer-
ence of Earth’s orbit) is about 584 million miles (939,856,896
km). If the Earth has to travel about 584 million miles to make a
complete orbit around the sun, and it takes about 365 days to do
this, can you figure out about how fast the Earth is traveling
Earth
around the sun (not taking into account other factors such as
Earth’s wobble, one’s location on Earth, etc.)? You are
correct if you calculated about 66,700 mph or 19 miles
per second.
Besides speeding around the sun, the Earth also
moves by rotating on its axis. One day on Earth is the
time it takes for the Earth to spin once on its axis, which
is 24 hours. Because the Earth spins on its axis once
every 24 hours, we experience day and night. If Earth’s
circumference at the equator is about 24,901 miles
(40,074 km), and it takes 24 hours for a point on Earth’s
equator to make one complete rotation, about how fast is Tilt and seasons
the Earth spinning on its axis? You are correct if you cal-
culated a little over 1,000 miles per hour (or a little over a quarter of a mile per second).
Earth has four seasons because of the tilt of the Earth on its axis. Earth is tilted about 23.5° on its
axis. Because of this, different parts of the Earth receive different amounts of direct sunlight at differ-
ent times of the year. For example, when the northern hemisphere experiences summer, the northern
hemisphere is tilted more towards the sun, and the rays of the sun hit the northern hemisphere at a
more direct angle. It, therefore, is not the distance between the Earth and the sun that creates the sea-
sons, but rather the tilt of the Earth on its axis.
Twice during the year, Earth experiences a solstice. A solstice occurs when the sun is at its highest
or lowest point in the sky. This occurs in the summer and winter. The summer solstice for the North-
ern Hemisphere occurs about June 21 and the winter solstice occurs around December 21. After the
summer solstice, the hours we receive daylight slowly get fewer and fewer until we reach the winter
solstice, which is the shortest day of the year in terms of daylight. After the winter solstice, the
amount of daylight hours slowly increases until the summer solstice, which is the longest day of the
year in terms of daylight hours.
Twice a year, the Earth experiences an equinox. An equinox occurs when the amount of daylight
hours and nighttime hours are about the same due to the position of Earth in its orbit around the sun,
which causes the concentration of direct sunlight to be closest to the equator. The vernal equinox for
the Northern Hemisphere occurs about march 21 and marks the beginning of spring. The days will
continue to get longer in terms of daylight hours up until the summer solstice, which marks the begin-
ning of summer. The autumnal equinox occurs about september 21 and marks the beginning of fall.
The days will continue to get shorter in terms of daylight hours and cooler as the winter solstice draws
near.
Our atmosphere contains 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, with small amounts of argon, carbon-

40
dioxide, neon, helium, ozone, and hydrogen. This atmosphere provides the oxygen that we breathe
and keeps the temperature of water as liquid, so that life is possible. Our atmosphere also acts like a
protective blanket. It contains clouds, and these clouds, along with the chemical composition of the at-
mosphere, help absorb some of the sun’s radiation.
A common question people have about Earth is, “Why is the sky blue?” NAsA has an explanation
that is fairly easy to understand. “The light from the sun looks white, but it is really made up of all the
colors of the rainbow. When white light shines through a prism, the light is separated into all its col-
ors. Like energy passing through the ocean, light energy travels in waves, too. some light travels in
short, choppy waves. Other light travels in long, lazy waves. Blue light waves are shorter than red
light waves. sunlight reaches Earth’s atmosphere and is scattered in all directions by all the gases and
particles in the air. Blue light is scattered in all directions by the tiny molecules of air in Earth’s at-
mosphere. Blue is scattered more than other colors because it travels as shorter, smaller waves. This is
why we see a blue sky most of the time.”
The surface of our planet is covered with over 70% water, with the Pacific Ocean accounting for
over 50% all by itself. Orbiting Earth is its one moon, as discussed in the previous chapter. The
moon’s gravity pulls on Earth and Earth’s gravity pulls on the moon. This mutual attraction is strong
enough to pull the water in the Earth’s oceans slightly towards the moon, creating tides.
While 70% of Earth is covered in water, the remaining 30% is covered with various land features.
The Earth has anywhere from smooth pastures, to plateaus and small hills, to tremendous mountains. We
have lush forests and barren deserts. Our planet sustains not only human life, but plant life and animal
life, too. From a variety of life forms to landscapes to climates, Earth is an interesting planet to study.

Mars
Of all of the planets, mars probably fascinates us the most. Over
the years, it has been the most publicized in books and movies, and
just about everyone knows it as the Red Planet. This is due to its
red color which can be seen even with the naked eye. This color is
due to the rock and dust covering the surface of mars. It has been
analyzed and found to have a high iron content, so it has a rusty
look. Because of the decreased gravitational pull of mars, the blow-
ing dust on mars rises easily, which also contributes to the atmos-
phere’s reddish pink appearance.
mars is about half as big as Earth and has about 1/9 the mass of
the Earth. Because its gravitational pull is about 1/3 that of Earth’s,
objects weigh only about 1/3 of what they weigh on Earth. For ex- Mars
ample, if something weighed 66 pounds on Earth, it would weigh
about 22 pounds on mars.
mars has farther to travel around the sun than Earth, but it takes about the same time as Earth to
rotate once on its axis. The length of a martian day is about the same as an Earth day at 24 hours 37
minutes. A martian year is about 687 Earth days, which is about twice as long as an Earth year. How
old are you on mars? Divide your age by two for a close estimate.
Although the atmosphere of mars is much less dense than Earth’s, mars has an atmosphere that
supports a weather system. The atmosphere, which consists of 95% carbon dioxide, 3% nitrogen and
traces of oxygen, carbon monoxide, and water, includes clouds and winds. Blowing dust storms
occur periodically over the surface. Daytime surface temperatures near the equator on mars can
reach about 70° F (21° C), while nighttime temperatures can dip to -130° F (-90° C). The average
planet temperature is about - 80° F (-62° C). Although a cold planet overall, mars does have four
seasons due to the tilt of its axis, which is about 25°.

41
 The surface of mars is covered with deserts, high mountains, deep
craters, valleys, and huge volcanoes. One of mars’s volcanoes, Olympus
mons, is the highest known mountain in our solar system. It is about 370
miles (595 km) across and 17 miles (27 km) high. (That is much taller than
mt. Everest which is about 5.5 miles high.) The largest known canyon in
our solar system is mars’s Valles marineras. It stretches over about 1/5 the
circumference of mars, which is about 2,490 miles (4,007 km). If placed on
the continental United states, it would stretch from the west coast to the east
coast. some parts of the canyon reach between four and five miles deep,
compared to the Grand Canyon’s lowest depth of about one mile (1.6 km). Olympus Mons
Another geological feature on mars is its polar ice caps. The polar
ice caps are made of frozen carbon dioxide, or dry ice, and water ice.
The water ice is located below frozen carbon dioxide. The ice caps
wax (get bigger) and wane (shrink) with the seasons, waxing in win-
ter and waning in the summer.
Orbiting mars are its two small moons, Phobos and Deimos.
Named after Greek mythological figures, their names translate to Valles Marineras
fear and panic. scientists believe that these potato-shaped moons are
actually asteroids that got captured by the gravitational pull of mars. Phobos, slightly larger than
Deimos, orbits closer to its planet than any other moon in our solar system, orbiting about 3,700
miles (5,955 km) from the planet. It is believed that in millions of years, Phobos might crash into
mars or break apart before it reaches mars, resulting in smaller pieces of rocks orbiting mars.
mars’s average distance from the sun is approximately 141.6 million miles, which is about 1.5
AU. If you could drive to mars when Earth and mars are closest together, it would take about 66.5
years traveling at 60 mph. Depending on their positions in their orbits, the closest distance between
Earth and mars is about 35 million miles (56,327,040 km), but they can reach a maximum distance
of about 250 million miles (402,336,000 km). The distance between the two planets is critical to
planning missions to mars.
In the mid to late 1960s, the Mariner spacecraft made flybys of mars and took lots of photos. Pic-
tures revealed mars’s surface to be like the Earth’s moon. Then in the mid 1970s another probe,
Viking I, touched down on mars. The primary mission of Viking I and Viking 2 was to determine if
life ever existed on mars. Unfortunately, the experiments were inconclusive even though more water
was found on mars than had been expected.
In July 1997, the space probe called the mars Pathfinder
landed on mars. The next day the Pathfinder’s rover, Sojourner
Truth, began its exploration of the planet. The Sojourner was two
feet long and one foot tall. It studied the surface, analyzed the
soil and rocks, and conducted scientific experiments on mars.
Two other rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, landed on the mar-
tian surface in January 2004. Their missions were extended for
the fifth time in 2007. These rovers were able to study the geol-
ogy of mars, which provides great insight into explanations of
Sojourner Truth the past and present environment of mars. NAsA reported, “Op-
portunity has returned dramatic evidence that its area of mars
stayed wet for an extended period of time long ago, with conditions that could have been suitable for
sustaining microbial life. spirit has found evidence in the region it is exploring that water in some
form has altered the mineral composition of some soils and rocks.” Originally scheduled for a 90-
day mission, these rovers were still operating in 2010.

42
 In July of 2008, a NAsA spacecraft, the Phoenix Mars Lander, confirmed water on mars.
Phoenix had a scoop device that was able to dig up subsurface soil samples. It was also able to heat
the samples and analyze them. “We have water,” said William Boynton of the University of Arizona,
lead scientist for the Thermal and Evolved-Gas Analyzer, or TEGA. “We’ve seen evidence for this
water ice before in observations by the mars Odyssey orbiter and in disappearing chunks observed
by Phoenix last month, but this is the first time martian water has been touched and tasted.” Phoenix
landed on mars on may 25, 2008 in the northern polar plains and operated for five months, two
months longer than scheduled. Its mission not only confirmed water ice on mars, but also provided
more insight into its climate, soil, and history.
supporting both the Spirit and Opportunity rovers and the Phoenix lander is NAsA’s mars
Odyssey orbiter. Along with detecting water ice on mars, the orbiter was launched in 2001 to map
the chemical elements on mars and collect radiation data, the Johnson Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)
in Pasadena, CA reported that “infrared mapping showed that a mineral called olivine is widespread.
This indicated the environment has been quite dry, because water exposure alters olivine into other
minerals.” An instrument on the mars Odyssey found that the mars’s radiation level is two to three
times higher than that around Earth. In addition to these accomplishments, the mars Odyssey helped
study landing sites for Spirit, Opportunity, and Phoenix and provided communication relay support
to them.
Other spacecraft have, are, and will study mars in order to gain more insight into our neighbor,
which some people believe may have the right ingredients for life. Next to Earth, it certainly has the
most favorable conditions of any of the other planets in our solar system. mars is the last in a line of
what is considered the inner terrestrial planets.

Jupiter
Jupiter is the first in the line of the outer, gaseous planets in our
solar system. It is about 483.6 million miles from the sun, which
is about 5.2 AU. (Remember, 1 AU equals 93 million miles.) At
its closest distance to Earth, Jupiter is about 500 million miles
(804,672,000 km) away. so, if you drove about 60 mph, it would
take you hundreds of years, actually close to 1,000 years, to reach
Jupiter.
Jupiter is the largest planet in our solar system. Its diameter is
Jupiter
about 88,700 miles (142,749 km). About 11 Earths could fit
across the diameter of Jupiter. Jupiter is so big that if it were
empty, every planet in our solar system could fit inside it. If you were only putting Earths inside it, it
could hold about 1,320 Earths. Even though Jupiter is the largest planet in our solar system, it still
isn’t as big as the sun. About 915 Jupiters could fit inside the sun.
As far as mass, Jupiter’s mass is so massive that it would take about 318 Earths to equal the mass
of Jupiter. Although it has a huge mass, it has a low density because it is composed primarily of hy-
drogen, the lightest element. Jupiter’s large size, huge mass, and low density create a gravitational
pull on Jupiter that is about 2.5 times that of Earth’s. so, an object weighing 100 pounds on Earth
would weigh about 250 pounds on Jupiter.
A couple of other facts about Jupiter involve its revolution around the sun, its rotation on its axis,
and its temperatures. Jupiter revolves in almost 12 Earth years. Even though Jupiter is huge, it ro-
tates on its axis very quickly, about every ten hours. This causes a flattening effect at the poles and a
bulging effect at the equator. This fast rotation also enhances the weather patterns on Jupiter. It cre-
ates high winds and giant storms on Jupiter, where the temperature ranges from over 60,000° F

43
(33,316° C) at its center, to -220° F (-140° C) at the upper cloud layers.
Jupiter is a gas giant. Hydrogen is the most prominent gas (about 90%), followed by helium,
methane, and ammonia. The outer core of Jupiter is composed of liquid hydrogen and helium, and
these mix with the gaseous atmosphere to form belts of clouds. These belts are very colorful, but
change rapidly due to the high winds associated with the quick rotation of the planet. These belts
make Jupiter look like a striped ball with a giant red spot in the lower half. The Giant Red spot is a
distinguishing feature of Jupiter. This spot is a giant storm that is 30,000 miles (48,280 km) long and
10,000 miles (16,093 km) wide.
A great deal of atmospheric activity on Jupiter is similar to that of Earth. However, Jupiter’s
storms seem to be powered by the planet itself rather than by the sun, as they are on Earth. Jupiter’s
highly-compressed hydrogen at its center causes the planet to emit almost 70 percent more heat than
it absorbs from the sun. This leads scientists to speculate that the source of Jupiter’s stormy turbu-
lence is the planet itself.
To learn more about Jupiter and its moons, spacecraft have
been launched toward this gas giant since as early as the 1970s.
The Pioneer probes, launched in the 1970s, were the first to
visit Jupiter. They discovered that the banded structure of the
atmosphere was not present near the poles. The poles had a
thick blue-sky atmosphere. Detailed studies showed rapid mo-
tions among the clouds and changes in the wind speeds. Begin-
ning in 1979, Voyager probes were launched to study the outer
planets. In 1979, Voyager 1 discovered rings around Jupiter.
Jupiter’s rings are dark and difficult to see, unlike those of sat-
Galileo Spacecraft
urn. It was the spacecraft Galileo that revealed that the rings
around Jupiter are formed by dust.
The Galileo mission was launched in October 1989 with the help of the space shuttle Atlantis. Its
mission was to study Jupiter’s atmosphere and moons. After flybys of Earth and Venus, it captured
the first close-up picture of an asteroid in 1991 on its way to Jupiter. It also discovered the first
known asteroid to have a moon, which was named Dactyl. It observed the comet shoemaker-Levy
crash into Jupiter in 1994. Galileo began exploring Jupiter and its moons in 1995. After several ex-
tensions of its mission, Galileo’s journey finally came to an end on sept. 21, 2003 after disintegrat-
ing in Jupiter’s atmosphere. Galileo provided about 14,000 pictures and returned important
information about Jupiter and its moons.
As of January 2009, Jupiter had 49 officially recognized moons with 14 other moons still being
reviewed for “official” status. Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa are the four largest moons of
Jupiter. These four are called the Galilean moons, named after their human 1610 discoverer, Galileo.
The icy Ganymede moon is the largest moon in our solar system. It is larger than the planet mer-
cury, but not quite as big as mars. NAsA’s Galileo spacecraft indicated the presence of a magnetic
field, making Ganymede the only known moon to have one. In 1996, the Hubble Space Telescope
detected a thin atmosphere containing oxygen, but the atmosphere is too thin to support life.
Callisto is covered with craters, and, in 1999, the Galileo spacecraft detected
a thin atmosphere of carbon dioxide.
Io also has a thin atmosphere, and it has active volcanoes that eject sulfuric
acid. A NAsA reference describes Io as “a giant pizza covered with melted
cheese and splotches of tomato and ripe olives; Io is the most volcanically active
body in the solar system.” NAsA’s Galileo spacecraft revealed that the volcanic
activity on Io is 100 times greater than Earth’s. With the exception of the vol-
Io

44
canic areas, Io has a very cold surface temperature.
Europa appears to be the smoothest celestial body in our solar system and has a weak atmosphere.
“Europa’s oxygen atmosphere is so tenuous that its surface pressure is barely one hundred billionth
that of the Earth,” said Principal Investigator Doyle Hall, of Johns Hopkins. "If all the oxygen on
Europa were compressed to the surface pressure of Earth’s atmosphere, it would fill only about a
dozen Houston Astrodomes. It is truly amazing that the Hubble Space Telescope can detect such a
tenuous trace of gas so far away." It is thought that there is a liquid ocean under Europa’s icy surface.
Based on the information returned from Galileo, it could have two times as much water as all of the
oceans on Earth. Could organisms exist in that ocean?
Other outer planet spacecraft, such as Ulysses, Cassini-Huygens, and New Horizons, have flown
by Jupiter on their way to other destinations. The next Jupiter-specific mission will be Juno which is
scheduled to launch in 2011 and arrive at Jupiter in 2016. As part of NAsA’s New Frontiers mis-
sions, this polar orbiter will study Jupiter’s atmosphere, magnetic field, inner structure, and polar
magnetosphere.

Saturn
About 887 million miles (or 9.5 AU) from the sun, saturn
is the sixth planet in our solar system and second in the line
of outer, gaseous planets. Its diameter is about 74, 898 miles
(120,537 km) across, meaning that about 9.5 Earths could fit
across it. As the second largest planet in our solar system,
saturn could hold about 764 Earths inside it. saturn, how-
ever, is the only planet in our solar system that is less dense
Saturn
than water. This means saturn could actually float in a body
of water, if the body of water was large enough to hold sat-
urn. Objects weigh close to what they weigh here on Earth as the gravitational pull on saturn is
about 1.08 times that on Earth. so, if an object weighed 100 pounds on Earth, it would weigh 108
pounds on saturn.
Like Jupiter, saturn rotates at a very fast 10 hours. However, it takes over 29 years to revolve
around the sun. Also like Jupiter, the combination of fast rotation and gaseous and liquid atmosphere
creates very strong winds, clouds, and storms. The winds of saturn have been known to reach 1,100
miles per hour (1770 km).
When we think of saturn, we think of its rings. The rings are easily the most recognizable fea-
tures of saturn. Through a telescope, the rings are spectacular. They are made of ice chunks, dust,
and rocks ranging from tiny particles to large boulders, or the size of grains of sugar to houses.
The main rings are made up of hundreds of narrow ringlets. The entire ring system is about one
mile thick and extends about 250,000 miles (402,336 km) from the planet. There are seven distinct
rings, each designated by a letter ranging from A to G, around saturn. The first five were discov-
ered by Galileo in 1610, and the final two lettered rings were discovered by the Pioneer space-
craft. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and NAsA also report that “there are also several other
faint unnamed rings made up of very fine icy particles.”
The planet itself has an icy rock core surrounded by metallic hydrogen with an outer layer of hy-
drogen and helium. The hydrogen and helium are mainly liquid and turn to gas as they get to the
outer surface.
Being 9.5 AU from the sun, the temperatures of saturn do not vary as much as many of the other
planets. During the day it gets up to 130° F (54° C) and at night, down to -330° F (-201° C).
Pioneer and Voyager passed by saturn in the late 1970s and early 1980s and produced much in-

45
formation about the planet. For instance, in was found that saturn’s outermost region contained its
atmosphere and cloud layers. saturn’s three main cloud layers are thought to consist of (from top
down) ammonia ice, ammonia hydrosulfide ice, and water ice.
To date, 62 moons have been identified orbiting saturn, but only 53 of them have been named so
far. Titan, one of saturn’s moons, is currently the only moon known to have clouds and a thick at-
mosphere. Its atmosphere is made up of about 95% nitrogen and 3-5% methane, along with some
small amounts of other compounds. It has an orange, hazy sky, and its surface temperature is about
-289° F (-178° C). Its seasons, although all extremely cold, last about 7 years each.
We have learned, and continue to learn, a great deal about saturn and its moons due to the
Cassini-Huygens mission, a joint mission between the European space Agency, the Italian space
Agency, and NAsA. Launched in 1997, the spacecraft arrived at saturn in 2004. The Cassini space-
craft did gravity-assist flybys of Venus and Earth, and performed a flyby of Jupiter as it traveled to
saturn at a speed of 70,700 mph. (If you drove 60 mph using the same path that Cassini took to get
to Jupiter, about 2 billion miles, it would take you 5,600 years.) scheduled to end in 2008, the proj-
ect received two extensions, of which the second extension will keep its mission
going until 2017.
In January 2005, the Huygens probe, which was bolted to the Cassini orbiter,
detached from the Cassini orbiter and landed on Titan. This is the first time a
probe landed on a celestial body in the outer solar system, and Titan is an interest-
ing moon to study. NAsA reported that “Huygens captured the most attention for
providing the first view from inside Titan’s atmosphere and on its surface. The Titan, one of
Saturn’s moons
pictures of drainage channels and pebble-sized ice blocks surprised scientists with
the extent of the moon’s similarity to Earth. They showed evidence of erosion
from methane and ethane rain. Combining these images with detections of methane and other gases
emanating from the surface, scientists came to believe Titan had a hydrologic cycle similar to
Earth’s, though Titan’s cycle depends on methane and ethane rather than water. Titan is the only
other body in the solar system, other than Earth, believed to have an active hydrologic cycle, and that
is known to have stable liquid on its surface.”
Remember, this liquid is not water; it is mostly methane, which, like water, can take the form of a
gas, liquid, and solid. NAsA and JPL’s Cassini Web site reports that “methane, instead of water,
forms Titan’s clouds, rivers, and lakes. Cassini RADAR Team member Dr. Ralph Lorenz has deter-
mined that with Titan’s low gravity and dense atmosphere, methane raindrops could grow twice as
large as Earth’s raindrops, and they would fall more
slowly, drifting down like snowflakes. scientists think it
rains perhaps only every few decades, but when it rains on
Titan, it really pours.”
In a 2009 space.com article, it was stated that “saturn’s
moon Titan may be worlds away from Earth, but the two
bodies have some characteristics in common: wind, rain,
volcanoes, tectonics, and other Earth-like processes all
sculpt features on Titan, but act in an environment more
frigid than Antarctica. ‘It is really surprising how closely
Titan’s surface resembles Earth’s,’ said Rosaly Lopes, a
planetary geologist at NAsA’s JPL in Pasadena, Calif. ‘In
fact, Titan looks more like the Earth than any other body in
the solar system, despite the huge differences in tempera-
ture and other environmental conditions.’ ”
In Feb. 2010, NAsA reported, “Cassini’s travel scrap- Saturn

46
book includes more than 210,000 images: information gathered during more than 125 revolutions
around saturn, 67 flybys of Titan, and eight close flybys of Enceladus. Cassini has revealed unex-
pected details in the planet’s signature rings, and observations of Titan have given scientists a
glimpse of what Earth might have been like before life evolved.”

Uranus
Uranus is about 1.7 billion miles (19.18 AU) from the sun, about
twice as far as saturn. Uranus is the first planet to be located with the
help of a telescope, and it was discovered by an astronomer in 1781. It
has only been since the mid 1980s that we have been able to increase
our knowledge of Uranus. This was due to the Us unmanned Voyager
2 mission which took the spacecraft on a flyby of Uranus in 1986.
Uranus is the third largest planet in our solar system, and, like
Jupiter and saturn, it is a gas giant. Uranus has a rocky core sur-
Uranus
rounded by water, ammonia, and methane, in both ice and liquid form.
The outer layer consists of hydrogen and helium gases. There is also
methane in the upper atmosphere, and this gives Uranus a bluish greenish color.
It takes Uranus 84 years to revolve around the sun, and it rotates in about 18 hours. The average
temperature is about -350° F (-212° C) on Uranus. Its environment is super cold because hardly any
solar radiation reaches Uranus. One unique thing about Uranus is that it spins on its side. scientists
think that possibly some large body may have bumped into it, resulting in its current position. Be-
cause Uranus is tilted 60° on its axis, daylight lasts 42 years followed by 42 years of night. This
means that even though the planet is rotating on its axis every 18 hours, it continues to face the sun-
light for 42 years because of the 60° tilt.
Like saturn and Jupiter, Uranus has rings around it. It actually has 11 very narrow and black
rings. They are made of dust and chunks of rock. They are very dark and hard to see. Additionally,
Uranus has 27 known moons. These moons are made of rocks and ice, and many of the moons, such
as Juliet, are named after characters in literature written by the famous English poet and playwright
William shakespeare. In 2005, the Hubble Space Telescope provided new images and information
about Uranus’s rings and moons.

Neptune
Neptune is the outermost of the gas planets and is the fourth largest
planet in our solar system. It was discovered in 1846 when scientists
determined that something was affecting the orbit of Uranus. Neptune
is about 3 billion miles (30 AU) from the sun, and it takes 165 Earth
years to complete an orbit. so, one year on Neptune equals a little
over 60,000 Earth days, or 165 Earth years. A Neptune day lasts about
19 hours. During the day, daylight on Neptune is about 900 times less
bright than on Earth because Neptune is so far away from the sun,
making high noon on Neptune seem like a dim twilight. Neptune
Neptune and Uranus are so similar they are sometimes called twins. Although a bit smaller than
Uranus, both Neptune and Uranus could each hold about 60 Earths inside them. Neptune’s gravita-
tional pull and average temperature are also very similar to that of Uranus. Neptune has a rocky core
surrounded by water, ammonia, and methane. The atmosphere consists of hydrogen, helium, and
methane. methane absorbs red light, not blue; therefore, Uranus and Neptune appear to have a blue

47
tint, with Neptune’s color being a bit more of a vivid, brighter blue. Regarding methane, pictures of
Neptune show bright clouds of methane ice crystals are present. Like Uranus, we learned a great deal
about Neptune thanks to Voyager 2.
Neptune is a windy planet, the windiest in our solar system. It has recorded winds of 1,500 miles
per hour, which is close to the top speed of a F/A-18 Hornet, which is mach 2. storms similar to
those on Jupiter were found during missions. several large dark spots, or storms, were found during
the Voyager missions. The largest of the storms, the Great Dark spot, was about the size of the Earth.
The original Great Dark spot was gone when Hubble took photographs of Neptune in 1995.
Pictures indicate that Neptune has a very thin ring system, which is hard to detect. The ring sys-
tem around Neptune is narrow and very faint. The rings are composed of dust particles that scientists
believe were made by tiny meteorites smashing into Neptune’s moons.
Neptune has 13 known moons, the largest of which is Triton. Triton is approximately three-
fourths the size of Earth’s moon and circles Neptune in 5.875 days. The strange thing about Titan’s
movement is that it rotates backwards compared to the other moons of Neptune. Voyager 2 showed
active geyser-like eruptions on Triton spewing invisible nitrogen gas and dark dust particles several
kilometers into space.
Thinking about a manned mission to Uranus? You might change your mind after reading this in-
formation from JPL and NAsA: “Trying to land on Neptune is a really bad idea. Like the other three
giant planets, it is a big ball of gas that gradually becomes a hot liquid well below the clouds.
There’s nothing on which to land. Anyone foolish enough to drop below the cloud tops would be
torn by intense winds, frozen by super cold temperatures, and eventually smashed by the sheer
weight of the atmosphere above, which, by the way, is poisonous to humans.”

Pluto
A planet or not a planet? Astronomer Clyde
Tombaugh discovered Pluto in February 1930. Pluto
remained our official ninth planet until 2006 when
the International Astronomical Union (IAU) changed
the definition of “planet.” Pluto then no longer met
all of the requirements to stay in the same league as
the other eight planets. Pluto was removed from
“classical planet” status because it did not meet one Poor Pluto
of the new requirements needed to be a planet. That Credit: MathiasPedersen.com
requirement is that the object must dominate its or-
bital path. Pluto’s orbit actually crosses Neptune’s, and Pluto orbits in an area of icy rock bodies
called the Kuiper (pronounced KY-per) Belt. The Kuiper Belt is located beyond Neptune’s orbit and
reaches a little past the outermost point of Pluto’s orbit to the edge of our solar system.
Pluto was reclassified as a dwarf planet. A dwarf planet is “a celestial body that (a) is in orbit
around the sun, (b) has sufficient mass to assume a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, (c)
has not cleared the neighborhood around its orbit, and (d) is not a satellite.” About two years after
being demoted to dwarf planet, the IAU created a special class of dwarf planets known as plutoids,
which includes and is named after Pluto. Plutoids are dwarf planets that are located beyond Neptune.
All plutoids are dwarf planets, but not all dwarf planets are plutoids. For example, between mars and
Jupiter, there is a dwarf planet called Ceres. It is not a plutoid because it is not located beyond Nep-
tune, as is the case with Pluto.
An interesting characteristic about Pluto is its strange orbit. It is more elongated than any of the
other traditional planets, and sometimes is actually closer to the sun than Neptune. For about 20 of

48
248 Earth years (or just a little over 1/12 of a Pluto year), Pluto’s
orbit cuts inside Neptune’s, making it closer to the sun than Nep-
tune. The last time Pluto’s orbit was inside Neptune’s was from
1979-1999. The next time that will happen will be about the year
2227.
When classified as a planet, Pluto was the smallest of all of the
planets in our solar system. Pluto’s diameter is about 2/3 that of
Earth’s moon, and Pluto is almost 4 billion miles (39.53 AU) from
the sun. Pluto rotates once on its axis in about 6.5 Earth days. A
year on Pluto is about 248 Earth years. Pluto
Pluto is a yellowish plutoid that is dark and frozen. The sun
would appear as a bright shining star in the sky, and the average temperature on Pluto is estimated to
be about -350° F (-212° C).
Pluto is believed to have a rocky core with a water and ice layer above the core. The surface is
made up of methane frost.
Hydra, Nix, and Charon are Pluto’s three known moons. (Yes, dwarf planets can have moons.)
Charon is half the size of Pluto, making it difficult to tell the two apart. Charon’s rotational period is
the same as Pluto’s, so they travel in synchronous orbit together. However, they spin in opposite di-
rections.
so little is known about Pluto and other plutoids, such as Eris, makemake (pronounced mAH-
kee-mAH-kee), and others because they are so far away from Earth. much of what we know is be-
cause of Earth-based observations and the Hubble Space Telescope. We hope to learn more about
these objects and the outer edge of our solar system, and we are counting on the New Horizons or-
biter to help us. The New Horizons piano-sized spacecraft was launched in 2006. It will reach Pluto
in 2015 and spend time studying Pluto and its moons before traveling further out to study other ob-
jects in the Kuiper Belt.

Summary
We have eight planets and a number of dwarf planets that make up our solar system. Our solar
system includes so many objects: our sun, planets, and moons. It also includes other celestial bodies
such asteroids, comets, and meteoroids. Our solar system is just a small part of our galaxy which is
just a small piece of the great big universe. (see associated Activity Fourteen and Fifteen at the end
of the chapter.)

49
Activity Fourteen - How Old Are You?
4
Purpose: Use math skills to determine your age on other planets

Materials: chart provided, pencil, paper, and calculator

Procedures:
1. Calculate your age in Earth days. One year = 365 days.
2. Calculate your age in Earth days for the other planets in the solar system.
3. Then convert the Earth days into Earth years. Example: 14 years old on Earth = 365 x 14 = 5110
Earth days.

Summary: No two planets in our solar sys-

Earth one year = 365 days
tem take the same amount of time to make
Mercury one year = 88 Earth days
one revolution around the sun; therefore, a
Venus one year = 243 Earth days
person’s age on Earth would not be the same
Mars one year = 687 Earth days
if he/she lived on another planet. For exam-
ple, a person who was 12 Earth years old Jupiter one year = 11.5 Earth years
(4,380 Earth days) would be almost 50 years Saturn one year = 29.5 Earth years
old on mercury and just a little over 1 year Uranus one year = 84 Earth years
old on Jupiter. Neptune one year = 165 Earth years

50
Activity Fifteen - Creating a Clay Model of the Solar System

Purpose: Use math skills and clay to create a visual scale model of the solar system.

Materials: 8 index cards, marker, 3 pounds of clay (or dough)

Procedures: Using a marker, label the 8 index cards with the Check your work!
names of the 8 planets. Then using 3 pounds of modeling clay,
follow the 7 steps listed below. When you finish making
step 1. Divide the clay into 10 equal parts (tenths). your 8 planets, you
• Use 6 tenths to make Jupiter. should double-check
• Use 3 tenths to make saturn. your work!
• Use the remaining clay (1 tenth) in step 2.
Use a metric ruler to
step 2. Divide the remaining clay into tenths.
measure the diameter
• Add 5 tenths to saturn.
of your clay planets in
• Use 2 tenths to make Neptune. millimeters (mm).
• Use 2 tenths to make Uranus.
• Use the remaining clay (1 tenth) in step 3. The diameter of your
step 3. Divide the remaining clay into fourths. planets should be close
• Add 3 fourths to saturn. to the “scale diameter”
• Use the remaining clay (1 fourth) in step 4. measurements in the
step 4. Divide the remaining clay into tenths. chart.
• Use 2 tenths to make Earth.
• Use 2 tenths to make Venus.
• Add 4 tenths to Uranus.
• Combine the remaining clay (2 tenths) and use in step 5.
step 5. Divide the remaining clay into tenths.
• Use 1 tenth to make mars.
• Add 4 tenths to Neptune.
• Add 4 tenths to Uranus.
• Use the remaining clay (1 tenth) in step 6.
step 6. Divide the remaining clay into tenths.
• Use 7 tenths to make mercury.
• Add 2 tenths to Uranus.
• Use the remaining clay (1 tenth) in step 7.
step 7. Divide the remaining clay into tenths.
• Add 9 tenths to Uranus.

Summary: No two planets are exactly the same size. This

activity makes it easy to compare and contrast the size of the
planets in our solar system to one another.

51
52
Aerospace Dimensions

SPACECRAFT

6
MODULE

Civil Air Patrol

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama
Aerospace Dimensions
SPACECRAFT

6 WRITTEN BY
DR. JEFF MONTGOMERY
DR. BEN MIllspauGh

DEsIGN
BaRB pRIBulICK

IllusTRaTIONs
pEGGY GREENlEE

EDITING
BOB BROOKs
susaN MallETT

phOTOGRaphY aND phOTOGRaphIC IMaGEs

BOEING, Nasa

NaTIONal aCaDEMIC sTaNDaRD alIGNMENT

JuDY sTONE

puBlIshED BY
NaTIONal hEaDQuaRTERs
CIVIl aIR paTROl
aEROspaCE EDuCaTION DEpuTY DIRECTORaTE
MaXWEll aFB, alaBaMa 36112

ThIRD EDITION
JuNE 2013
 INTRODUCTION
The Aerospace Dimensions module, Spacecraft, is the sixth of six modules, which combined,
make up Phases I and II of Civil Air Patrol’s Aerospace Education Program for cadets. Each module
is meant to stand entirely on its own, so that each can be taught in any order. This enables new cadets
coming into the program to study the same module, at the same time, with the other cadets. This
builds a cohesiveness and cooperation among the cadets and encourages active group participation.
This module is also appropriate for middle school students and can be used by teachers to supple-
ment sTEm-related subjects.
Inquiry-based activities were included to enhance the text and provide concept applicability. The
activities were designed as group activities, but can be done individually, if desired. The activities
for this module are located at the end of each chapter.

ii
CONTENTS
Introduction .............................................................................................ii

Contents...................................................................................................iii

National Academic Standard Alignment ..............................................iv

Chapter 1. Unmanned Spacecraft ..........................................................1

Chapter 2. Manned Spacecraft.............................................................16

Chapter 3. Living and Working in Space ............................................31

International Space Station

iii
National Academic Standard Alignment

iv
Learning Outcomes
- Define satellite.
1
- Describe an orbit.
- Define apogee and perigee.
- Identify sputnik.
- Define a space probe.
- Describe the related parts that make up a satellite system.
- Describe the global positioning system.
- Describe the X-37’s potential uses.

Important Terms
apogee - the highest point of an orbit
COMSAT - communications satellite
GNSS - Global Navigation satellite systems, the term used for navigational satellites
GOES - Geostationary Operational Environmental satellite
GPS - Global Positioning system, a navigational system used by all areas of society
ITSO - International Telecommunications satellite Organization, the world’s largest commercial
satellite communications provider; now called INTELsAT
LANDSAT - satellite that locates natural resources and monitors conditions on the Earth’s surface
NAVSTAR GPS - as of 2010, the only fully-operational GNss
orbit - the path a satellite takes around a celestial body
perigee - the lowest point of an orbit
satellite - natural or artificial object in space that orbits the Earth
space probe - satellites that either fly by, orbit, or land on a celestial body, other than Earth
Sputnik - the first artificial satellite (from Russia)

SATELLITES
Origin
The word satellite comes from the French language meaning a guard
or attendant. In 1611, while studying the planets and stars, the German
astronomer, Johannes Kepler, discovered several objects moving around
Jupiter. He named them satellites of Jupiter — the guardians of the giant
planet.
In today’s world, most of us realize the impact satellites have on our
lives. We know that they affect our televisions and our telephones, and
Johannes Kepler
even help us in predicting the weather. They are a part of our daily lives.
Today, astronomers still use the term satellite for natural objects in space. An example of a natural
object in space is the moon. In fact, the moon is the Earth’s only natural satellite.

1
 In 1957, the Russians Number of Artificial Satellites
launched Sputnik, the first
25,000
artificial (manmade) satel-
lite. since then, as- 10,000
tronomers have used the 1,000
term satellite for either a 100
natural or an artificial ob- 10
ject in space. We com-
monly call any object that 1
orbits the Earth a satellite. before
1957 1957 1970 1995 2010
Artificial Satellites
As mentioned earlier, the Earth has only one
natural satellite, but as you can tell from this chart,
there are thousands of artificial satellites. since
1957, about 40 countries have launched more than
24,000 artificial satellites. Today, there are only
about 3,000 usable satellites orbiting the Earth.
There are approximately 5,000-6,000 other man-
made objects still orbiting Earth, but they are un-
usable and considered space junk. Because
satellites normally only stay in orbit for 5-20
years, the rest of the 24,000 have fallen out of
orbit and incinerated during reentry into Earth’s
atmosphere.
In the early days of artificial satellites, the
satellites were unmanned. These unmanned satel-
lites are sometimes referred to as unmanned
spacecraft. These satellites or spacecraft have
many different missions and are placed in cate- Telstar I
gories based on those missions. some of those cat-
egories are communications, navigation, Earth
observing, and weather.
In 1958, the first communication satellite
(COMSAT), Score, taped messages from orbit to
Earth. It operated for only 13 days, but our nation
was excited. In 1962, Telstar 1 became the first
commercial satellite. It retransmitted as many as
60 two-way telephone conversations at one time.
Today, the COmsAT business is huge and grow-
ing. National and international corporations are fi-
nancing the construction, launch, and operation of
several types of COmsATs, including direct tele-
vision and video conferencing.
TDRSS (COMSAT)
The International Telecommunications
Satellite Organization (ITsO) is the world’s largest commercial satellite communications provider.
Now called INTELsAT, it manages a constellation of communications satellites to provide interna-
tional broadcast services. In 1989, they launched a satellite that accommodated 15,000 two-way

2
 Syncom IV Communications Satellite Mariner 10 Mars Observer

voice circuits and two television channels

simultaneously. Now, the ITsO (INTEL-
sAT) consists of 53 satellites and provides
services to more than 200 countries.
Another COmsAT is the Tracking and
Data Relay satellite system (TDRss). The
TDRss consists of nine active satellites
and provides a simultaneous full-time cov-
erage for the space shuttle and other
NAsA low-Earth-orbiting spacecraft. This
system relays data and communications
between the satellites and Earth.
NAsA established a Deep space Net-
work (DsN) which consists of an interna-
tional network of antennas that supports
interplanetary spacecraft missions and as-
tronomy observations for exploration of
the universe. There are three deep space
communication facilities placed approxi-
mately 120 degrees apart. This allows
Image of a GPS Satellite on orbit about the Earth them to provide continuous comrnunica-
tions for planetary spacecraft.
Communication satellites provide reliable and timely
communications information around the world. The commu-
nications payload consists of the electronics and controls that
ensure all signals are received, amplified, and retransmitted
error-free to the appropriate destination. successful commu-
nication links require a direct line of sight with both the
transmitting and receiving stations on Earth or other satel-
lites. Communication today normally involves an intermedi-
ate ground station rather than a direct satellite link.
By the late 1960s, navigational satellites came into exis-
tence. The first navigational satellite, Transit, was developed to
Transit Navigational Satellite
provide Polaris missile submarines with the ability to fix accu-

3
 NAVSTAR Global Positioning System

rate positions. Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) is the term now used
for navigational satellites. GNss allows receivers to determine location (latitude,
longitude, and altitude) to within a few meters and provides precise time, as well
as position. As of the summer of 2010, the United states NAVSTAR Global
Positioning System (GPS) was the only fully-operational GNss.
Another category of satellites is the natural resources satellites. They locate
natural resources and monitor other conditions on the Earth’s surface. This is the
task of the LANDSAT series of satellites. some of the missions of Landsats are:
measure and record radiant energy, monitor agricultural conditions, aid urban
planners in future development, and manage coastal resources.
Another area where satellites have had a dramatic impact on our lives is in
weather. Weather satellites have significantly upgraded the capability and accuracy
of weather information. This, in turn, gives us timely information which we
can use for making daily decisions. The pictures we see on television GOES 8 weather satellite
atop an Atlas I rocket being
weather reports come from Geostationary Operational Environmental prepared for launch in 1994

LANDSAT 4 image of the Gulf Coast

LANDSAT: a Earth Observing Satellite of southern Louisiana and Mississippi

4
 Satellites (GOES). GOEs gives us pictures of the Earth’s
surface, pictures of clouds, and information which helps
with weather forecasting.
NAsA sent the first weather satellite, Tiros I, into
space on April 1, 1960. It sent back an image of a hurri-
cane that same day. Weather satellites have come a long
way since then. The weather satellites of today have
tremendously added to the accuracy of our weather fore-
casters. They provide the technology and information that
have particularly helped with forecasting severe weather.
Accurately predicting severe weather saves property and
lives.
Over the years, satellites have been used for obtaining
scientific information in an effort to gain a better under-
standing of space. Here are a few of the most important
satellites and their missions. Explorer was the first and
Early hurricane imagery from Tiros I
oldest Us satellite series. Explorer 1 was launched in
1958. It discovered the Van Allen Radiation Belts. Later that year, Explorer 3 provided more infor-
mation about radiation in space and investigated the presence of micro meteoroids. In 1959, Ex-
plorer 6 gave us our first photograph of Earth from space.
One group of satellites, the Orbiting solar Observatory (OsO), provided continuous solar obser-
vations for most of the 1960s and 1970s. The OsO series also furthered our studies of x-rays,
gamma rays, and ultraviolet rays.
satellites or spacecraft that either fly by, orbit, or land on a celestial body, other than Earth, are
called space probes. We’ve had several probes that we should briefly mention. The Rangers were the
first probes to take pictures of the moon in preparation for the Apollo landings. The Mariner series
flew by Venus and mercury and gave us pictures of the clouds of Venus and mercury’s cratered sur-
face.
In the 1970s, the Pioneer probes
gave us pictures of Jupiter and saturn.

Pioneer leaving our solar system Mariner II

5
In 1975, the Viking series
explored the environment
of mars. The Vikings ana-
lyzed and photographed
the surface of mars with
the primary emphasis on
the search for life. In the
late 1970s, Voyager 1 and
2 also encountered Jupiter
and saturn. The Voyagers
provided greatly im-
proved pictures and data
of these two planets.

Satellites as a
System
satellites as a system
refers to a satellite’s re-
lated parts in a set or a
system. These systems are Pictures of Saturn and Jupiter provided by Voyager
made up of people, the
space environment which is orbited, subsystems that support the spacecraft in space, an Earth-bound
and a space command and control system, and, finally, a means to get the spacecraft to orbit — a
launch.
There are many people involved in the design, manufacture, launch, and operation of any satel-
lite. Plus, this system also includes the customers. As users of the information, they define the over-

Spacecraft
Satellite Sub Systems

The System of
The Satellite Environment
Satellite Constellations
Constellation System

Launch

Command and Control People

6
all purpose and requirements for the
satellites.
The space environment is something
we can’t control. It is extremely danger-
ous for both humans and satellites. For
satellites, atmosphere is a concern be-
cause low Earth orbiting satellites must
battle atmospheric drag, and of course
gravity, which will continue to pull the
satellites toward Earth. Radiation,
charged particles, and solar flares are
also potentially dangerous for satellites.
Radiation is heat energy emitted from
the sun that is both good and bad. The
heat gives energy to the solar-powered
satellites, but can bring harm to the Space Environment
satellite’s protective coatings over time.
The same is true with charged particles and solar
flares. Over time these phenomena can harm the
satellite’s protective shields and damage electri-
cal equipment.
micrometeorites and space debris can also
harm satellites. some 20,000 tons of natural ma-
terials make it into the Earth’s atmosphere every
year. most of it burns up, but some does hit the
Earth. manmade debris or junk is also a threat. It
is estimated there are over a billion tiny pieces of
junk, such as slivers of metal and paint chips in
space. Why do we care? We care because in 1983
a paint chip of .008 inches hit the space Asteroids

shuttle Challenger and caused a crater

twenty times its size (.16 inches) in an
orbiter window. Traveling at over 1500
miles per hour at impact, a paint chip has
tremendous energy. Efforts are underway
to minimize the amount of debris each
mission leaves behind.
The subsystems refer to the support
that is given to the spacecraft in space.
These include the structure, the propul-
sion system, attitude control, the power
system, thermal control, and a command
and control system.
The first aspect that ties the subsys-
tems together is the satellite’s mission.
The mission defines the satellite’s pur-
Image of a propulsion system being
pose, what services will be provided, used for acceleration in deep space
why the satellite is being built, and how

7
it should be designed. The first step of the design is to determine the payload requirements. The pay-
load refers to the sensors and instruments used to perform the mission, which also determine the
other requirements of the satellite.
The structure of a satellite is like a building. It has a frame and windows, and it is insulated to
help control the temperature. It must be sturdy enough to survive the launch, yet light enough to get
into orbit. It supplies the support for the other subsystems.
The propulsion system provides the boost to get the satellite into orbit. It takes an enormous
amount of power to get into the correct orbit and stay there.
To make minor corrections in direction, the attitude control system is used. It steers and controls
where the satellite is pointed.
Obviously, the power is another important subsystem, and electrical power is the essential ingre-
dient. The main source of electricity while the satellite is in orbit is the sun. The solar power is col-
lected from the satellite’s solar cells and converted to energy to power the satellite.
A satellite experiences extreme temperature differences while in orbit. There are times when the
Earth moves between a satellite and the sun. When this happens, the temperature drops dramatically.
many measures can be used to control the temperature, but the most common are insulation and
heaters. Both of these help keep the temperature within safe limits. This temperature data is all part
of the thermal control subsystem.
The command and control function of a satellite is a communication system. The command por-

A folded TDRSS Satellite

TDRSS Satellite tucked neatly into
the Cargo Bay of the Space Shuttle

The Satellite unfolds until its antennas and solar panels

stretch to dimensions larger than the size if a house.

8
tion is the signal from the ground station to the satellite. The commands sent to the satellite are com-
puter programs. The satellite collects the information and sends it back to the ground station. This is
called telemetry and this is the information that tells a controller how the satellite is functioning.
The last part of the system is the launch, which gets the satellite into orbit. The mission require-
ments determine the orbit needed to accomplish the mission. To meet these requirements, a satellite
must be launched from a particular launch site at a particular time. There is a launch window in
which this can occur, but it is usually a short period of time. There may be only one or two launch
windows per day.

Orbits and Trajectories

Satellites orbit the Earth

An orbit is the movement or path a satellite takes around a ce-

Copernicus
lestial body. We commonly call any object that orbits the Earth a
satellite. studying the orbital motion of satellites helps
us understand the capabilities and limitations of these
satellites.
Greek astronomer Ptolemy (A.D. 127-145) gave us
the first theory of motion of celestial bodies. His the-
ory, the geocentric theory, placed the Earth at the cen-
ter of the universe. He was wrong, but it was the first
organized concept of the motion of celestial bodies.
Celestial bodies are planets, stars, comets, and any
other large objects in space.
In the 1400s, Copernicus developed a heliocentric
theory of the universe. This theory placed the sun at
the center, and all the rest of the universe revolved
around it. Copernicus was not entirely correct, because
the universe does not revolve around the sun as do the
planets and other objects inside our solar system.
These ancient astronomers determined that the mo-
tion of celestial bodies was not random. Kepler (infor-
mation and photo on page 1) studied the motion and Telemetry

9
 measured the movement of planets.
In the 1600s, he created rules of
motion which we call Kepler’s
laws. All celestial bodies, including
artificial satellites, obey Kepler’s
Varying Ellitical orbital shapes laws. Kepler’s First Law states: The
orbit of each planet is an ellipse,
with the sun at the focus.
In an elliptical orbit, the satel-
lite’s altitude, velocity, and speed
are not constant. Therefore, the
shape varies. The shape can range
from being very elliptical to almost
circular. During an orbit, the orbit-
ing object reaches a high point and
a low point. Its highest point is
called the apogee, and its lowest
point is called its perigee. The
Elliptical orbits
apogee represents the point where
the object is the farthest away from the body being orbited. The perigee represents the point where
the object is the closest.
several years after Kepler, sir Isaac Newton developed his laws of motion. Newton’s Laws of
motion are very helpful to understanding the movement of satellites. These laws are discussed in de-
tail in module Four, Rockets. However, Newton’s First Law of motion, called the law of inertia,
helps to explain how a satellite stays in orbit and how it leaves an orbit. The first law states that an
object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion remains in motion unless acted on by an unbal-
anced force. Another of Newton’s laws, the Law of Universal Gravitation, explains the gravitational
attraction or pull between bodies in the universe. The Earth’s gravitational force is always toward the
center of the planet. The Earth’s gravity is the dominant force affecting the motion of a satellite in an
Earth orbit.

Apogee Perigee

Elliptical orbit

Gravity

The Earth’s gravitational force pulling

toward the center of the planet
Gravity pulling the bullet toward the center of the Earth

10
 Gravity gives the orbit its shape. An example of a bullet fired from a gun helps to explain this. As
the bullet is traveling in a straight line, gravity pulls the bullet toward the center of the Earth. The
combination of the bullet’s speed and gravity creates a curved flight path. (see associated Activities
One and Two at the end of the chapter.)

The Spacecraft as a Vehicle

To get a better understanding of spacecraft and spaceflight, one must first have a basic knowledge
of the environment in which this craft will operate. From an altitude of approximately 62 miles
above the surface of the Earth,
space is extremely hostile. The
pressure is near zero and the
temperature in deep space can
approach
-400°F.
If a spacecraft is going to op-
erate in that environment, with-
out a “pilot” or “crew,” it will,
for all purposes, be a robot. If
the vehicle is unmanned, then it
must be controlled from a com-
mand center on Earth. The
spacecraft can be scientific,
technological, or a weapon of
war.
To initiate a spacecraft mis-
sion, it must first be launched
from one of many sites around The Hubble Space Telescope: a space vehicle that needs many
the world. If the flight plan is subsystems working together to keep it operating for years
designated as “suborbital,” the
spacecraft will be programmed
to re-enter the atmosphere and return for a land-
ing on the Earth’s surface.
If a mission is scheduled to go beyond the
Earth’s gravity, it can remain in orbit around the
Earth (like the GPs satellites). It can also ex-
plore the solar system and beyond if space agen-
cies, like NAsA and the European space
Agency (EsA), have the funding. Unmanned ex-
ploration can extend into galactic space.
One example of deep space exploration re-
cently was the flight to mercury which occurred
in January of 2008. NAsA’s MESSEngER
spacecraft gave scientists an entirely new look at
a distant planet once thought to have characteris-
tics similar to those found on our moon. After a
journey of more than 2 billion miles and three MESSENGER spacecraft
and a half years, MESSEngER went into orbit

11
around mercury, and provided scientists with a better understanding of our solar system.
There is a phrase that states “form follows function.” This means that a form, living or inanimate,
will have a certain shape if it is to
function well in a given environ-
ment. A classic example is the
shark. It is designed for high speed,
high maneuverability, and very low
hydrodynamic (water) drag. Com-
pare the shark to a fighter plane,
such as the F-16. The aircraft is
very sleek, has large control sur-
faces for maneuverability, and has
low aerodynamic drag. space, on
the other hand, has only minute
amounts of water or air molecules
and the dynamic drag is very low.
That is the reason most spacecraft Image of the Helios spacecraft: designed to operate in an
are very unusual in shape. They can environment with extremely low temperature,
be disks, blocks, rectangular, cylin- extremely low pressure, and no aerodynamic drag
drical, etc. An example is the He-
lios spacecraft. It is capable of flying at thousands of miles per hour, yet it is not designed to
encounter any form of drag.

The Gray Nurse Shark as an

example of “form following function”

The F-16: designed to pass through the air with a very low aerodynamic drag

The Unmanned Spacecraft That Functions Like A Manned Vehicle

NAsA’s X-37 is an advanced technology flight demonstrator, which may help define the future of
space transportation. The X-37 will test and validate technologies in the environment of space, as

12
well as test system performance of the vehicle during orbital flight, reentry, and landing. The X-37
will aid in the design and development of NAsA’s Orbital space Plane. This aerospace craft is de-
signed for several missions, but one of the most significant is to provide a crew rescue and transport
capability to and from the International space station.
The X-37 will operate at the speed of mach 25 and test technologies in the hostile space environ-
ment without posing a threat to a human flight crew. Among the technologies to be demonstrated
with the X-37 are improved thermal protection systems, avionics, the autonomous guidance system,
and an advanced airframe.
As part of the X-37 project,
the Boeing company’s Phan-
tom Works division in Hunt-
ington Beach, CA, is
developing two vehicles: the
X-37 approach and landing test
vehicle and the X-37 orbital
test vehicle. These autonomous
space planes, which will have
no crew, will play a key role in
NAsA’s effort to dramatically
reduce the cost of sending hu-
mans and life-support systems
into space.
The X-37 is becoming
American’s military space The X-37 Space Plane
plane that can be
used for space-
based surveillance
and reconnais-
sance. The on-
board engine is the
Rocketdyne AR-
2/3, which is fueled
by hydrogen perox-
ide and the jet fuel,
JP-8.
The X-37 was
originally designed
to be carried into
orbit in the space
shuttle cargo bay,
but underwent re-
design for launch
on a Delta IV or
comparable rocket
after it was deter-
mined that a shuttle The X-37’s unmanned, remote-controlled landing back on Earth

13
flight would be uneco-
nomical.
The original vehi-
cle, which was used in
earlier atmospheric
drop glider tests, had
no propulsion system.
Instead of an opera-
tional vehicle’s pay-
load bay doors it had
an enclosed and rein-
forced upper fuselage
structure to allow it to
be mated with a moth-
ership. most of the
thermal protection tiles
were made of inexpen-
sive foam rather than
ceramic; a small num-
ber of the X-37’s tiles
were actual Thermal
Protection shield Cutaway image of the X-37
(TPs) tiles. TPs blan-
kets were used in areas where heating would not have been severe enough to require tiles.
On April 7, 2006, the X-37 made its first free-glide flight. During landing, an anomaly caused the
vehicle to run off the runway and it sustained minor damage. Following an extended down time
while the vehicle was repaired, the program moved from the mojave Desert, CA, to Air Force Plant
42 (KPmD) in Palmdale, California for the remainder of the flight test program.
On November 17, 2006, the Us Air Force announced it would develop the X-37B from the origi-
nal NAsA X-37 A. The Air Force version is designated X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle (OTV). The X-
37B was continued in development by the Air Force Rapid Capabilities Office and includes
partnerships with NAsA and the Air Force Research Laboratory. Boeing is the prime contractor for
the OTV program. The first orbital flight of the X-OTV-1 occurred on April 22, 2010 on an Atlas V
rocket from SLC-41 at Cape Canaveral Air Force station in Florida. This mission marked the begin-
ning of military operations in space.
From Sputnik 1, which was launched on October 4, 1957, to the present, the exploration of un-
manned space flight continues. Whether it be for pure science or military superiority, the limit has
been raised to include the final frontier of space. Aerospace education is no longer just a study of
man and his/her exploration of the unknown, but also of vehicles that can go to other planets and re-
turn data that can eventually bring us closer to how the universe came about. It is hard to imagine
what life will be like 1,000,000 years from now, but almost daily what was science fiction is now be-
coming science fact.

14
Activity One - Escape Velocity
1
Purpose: This activity will demonstrate what it takes to achieve
escape velocity, such as to leave the gravitational pull of the Earth to
enter another area of space.
Materials: cardboard trough (shaped like an m ), two supports of
equal size (books or blocks), piece of glass (windowpane), steel ball
bearing, and two strong bar magnets
Procedure: Be sure to study the diagram before you begin the activity to
place the items in the correct positions.
1. Tilt the trough slightly upward and release the ball bearing toward the first magnet. What happens?
Does the steel ball have enough escape velocity to pull free of the first magnet?
2. To increase the speed of the steel ball, increase the upward tilt of the trough even more and release
the ball near the upper end. What happens as the steel ball coasts through space, and approaches the
second magnet?
Summary: Escape velocity is commonly described as the speed needed to “break free” from a gravi-
tational field. The more speed that is applied to the space vehicle (steel ball) in this activity, the
greater the chance of escaping the gravitational pull of Earth (the first bar magnet) as you coast
through space (glass pane) and approach the moon (the second bar magnet) with its own gravity field.
High velocity is needed for a satellite to go into orbit in space.

Activity Two - Why Do Satellites Stay in Orbit?

Purpose: This activity will demonstrate why satellites stay in orbit around the Earth.
Materials: a large thread spool, string, five metal washers, a nylon stocking, and a small rubber ball
Procedure:
1. Cut a piece of nylon to put around the rubber ball.
2. Tie one end of a string around the nylon.
3. Put the other end of the string through the spool and attach the washers to it.
4. Hold the spool in one hand; the washers in the other.
5. Begin to whirl the ball over your head.
6. Gradually let go of the washers. As you increase the speed of the ball, the washers move
closer to the spool. As you slow down, the washers begin to fall away from the spool.
7. While the ball is whirling, have someone cut the string between the washers and the
spool. The ball will fly away from the spool in a straight line due to its inertia. The ball is
held in orbit around the spool by the string. This corresponds to the force of gravity on a
satellite, which causes an inward pull.
Summary: The forward motion of the ball is its momentum. If the gravity of the string were not act-
ing on the ball, the ball would continue in one direction. The swinging of the ball gives it its forward
motion. When these two forces are equal, the ball remains in orbit, without falling into or flying
away from the Earth (you). When the gravity (washers) is removed, the forces become unbalanced
and the ball will fly off in a straight line. A satellite’s forward motion is controlled by rockets. When
the rockets are not fired, inertia keeps the satellite going in one direction. When the rockets are fired,
the velocity is increased and the satellite can be propellled out of orbit.

15
Learning Outcomes
2
- Identify various manned space flight projects and their missions.
- Identify the American and Russian joint manned spacecraft mission.
- Describe the accomplishments of Alan shepard and Neil Armstrong.
- state specific facts about the Hubble space Telescope.
- Discuss the overall mission of the International space station.
- Identify various space shuttle launches and their missions.
- Describe China’s effort in space.

Important Terms
Apollo - Us manned spaceflight project that put man on the moon
Apollo-Soyuz - manned spaceflight project linking American and soviet spacecraft in space
Gemini - Us manned spaceflight project that achieved the first walk in space, and the first two-man
capsule
Mercury - Us first manned spaceflight project
Skylab - Us manned spaceflight project that put a laboratory into space
Space Shuttle - Us space Transportation system (sTs) for transporting into space and returning to Earth

FIRST IN SPACE
The soviet Union’s space flight programs
developed along the same lines as the American
programs and occurred approximately the same
times. However, the soviets had several firsts in
the space race.
In 1957, the soviets launched the first satel-
lite, Sputnik, into space. After that, the soviets
launched nine more Sputniks in about 3 1/2
years. The last two were accomplished in prepa-
ration for their first manned space flight.
The soviets also put the first man in space in
April 1961. major Yuri Gagarin was the first
man to escape the Earth’s atmosphere. Although
he only stayed up for one orbit, he described
sights no human eyes had ever seen before.
Then in June 1963, the soviets put the first Yuri Gagarin, the first human in space

16
woman, Valentina Tereshkova, into space. she com-
pleted 48 orbits and was in space for three days before
returning safely to Earth.
In march 1965, Russian Cosmonaut, Alexei
Leonov, became the first person to “walk in space.” He
spent 20 minutes outside of his spacecraft. This oc-
curred about two months before the Americans
“walked in space.”
The soviets launched their first space station, Salyut
1, in April 1971. The soviets sent seven salyuts into
space to complete their space station missions. Salyut 7
fell back to Earth in 1991.
The soviets next space station model was Mir, the
Russian term for peace. Mir was launched in February
1986. Mir did not carry as many specific instruments,
so there was more room and comfort for the cosmo-
nauts (the Russian term for American astronauts). In
1998, the United states sent several space shuttles to
The Soviet Space Station, Mir
dock with Mir. American astronauts spent over two
years aboard Mir on different occasions.
Mir was scheduled to fall to Earth in 1999. However, the soviets boosted Mir so that it would stay in
space longer. In 2001, as Mir’s rocket boosters propelled it out of orbit, it burned up entering the Earth’s at-
mosphere. Its remains ended up in the Pacific Ocean. This ended a 15-year 2.2 billion mile journey and the
historic era of the Russian space station program.

PROJECT MERCURY
The United states launched its first satellite in 1958, and by 1961 the Us was ready to attempt
manned spaceflight. America’s first manned spaceflight program was called Project Mercury. mer-
cury’s mission was to find out if a human could survive space travel, and
what, if any, effects would space travel have on the human body.
Project mercury lasted two years and consisted of six manned flights. The
first flight involved
sending one astronaut
into space. This first
flight was suborbital
and lasted for only 15
minutes, but on may
5, 1961, astronaut
Alan shepard became
the first American in
space. Project mer-
cury’s third manned
flight was also its first
Alan Shepard in
orbital flight. During Cutaway image of the Mercury capsule Mercury flight suit.

17
 this flight, astronaut John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth.
He remained in orbit for four hours and fifty-five minutes, while orbiting the
Earth three times.
On the final mercury
flight, astronaut Gordon
Cooper orbited the Earth
22 times and stayed in
space for about 34 hours
and 20 minutes. Project
mercury answered the
basic questions about sur-
vival in space. Project
mercury accomplished its
mission.

John Glenn entering his capsule, Friendship 7

PROJECT GEMINI
The next manned spaceflight project was Project Gemini. There were a
total of 10 Gemini flights between 1965 and 1966. Gemini was the first
two-man capsule, and during one of the missions, astronaut Ed White
Freedom 7, ready to achieved the first Us “space walk.” Additionally, Gemini allowed for the
carry Shepard into space first rendezvous and docking of a manned spacecraft with another satellite.
The Gemini flights gathered additional information about the effect of
spaceflight on the human body. The astronauts studied the effects of weightlessness and were in-
volved in an exercise program. At times, they removed their space suits and relaxed in shirtsleeves.
Because the flights lasted for several days, the astronauts were able to establish routines for sleeping
and eating. Enough information was gathered to convince scientists that a space flight could safely
last for several weeks or even months. These Gemini flights were very valuable in America’s plan to
place a man on the moon.

Gemini IV’s astronaut Ed White

The two-man Gemini capsule during a 22-minute space walk

18
 PROJECT APOLLO
After the Gemini missions
were completed, Project Apollo
took center stage in America’s
space program. From the early
1960s, it was known that Apollo’s
mission would be to put a man on
the moon. so, the Apollo flights
were conducted with that overall
goal in mind. several of the early
Apollo flights traveled to the
moon, orbited it, and returned to
Earth. It was not until Apollo 11
that the mission was accom-
plished. Apollo 11 landed on the
moon, and on July 20, 1969, Neil
Armstrong was the first man to
Neil Armstrong, the first human to walk on the Moon walk on the moon.
A few minutes later, Edwin
“Buzz” Aldrin also stepped off the ladder of
the Lunar module and joined Armstrong on
the moon. many have called that landing the
greatest scientific and engineering accom-
plishment in history. After Apollo 11, there
were six more Apollo flights to the moon.
Five of them resulted in successful moon
landings.
The only flight of the six that didn’t land
on the moon was Apollo 13. Apollo 13 had to
be aborted due to an explosion in the space-
craft. However, Apollo 13 did make a suc-
cessful emergency landing back on Earth.

The Apollo 11 astronauts, Edwin E. "Buzz"

Aldrin joins Armstrong on the Moon Aldrin, Michael Collins, and Neil A. Armstrong

19
PROJECT SKYLAB
Project Skylab, the next spaceflight
project, used a lot of leftover equipment
from the Apollo missions. Skylab’s mis-
sion was to put a laboratory into space.
scientists had been interested in continu-
ing their studies of the effects of long-du-
ration space flights using a manned
orbiting laboratory. This was accom-
plished when Skylab was launched in
may 1973.
Skylab had about the same amount of
room as a three-bedroom house. It also
contained all of the food, water, and oxy-
gen needed to support the entire mission.
Three different crews spent time in the
lab. The first crew manned Skylab for 28
days. The second crew spent 58 days Skylab
aboard the laboratory. The final crew
spent 84 days in space. The main lesson that came from Skylab was that people could live and work in
space for at least three months with no ill effects.

PROJECT APOLLO-SOYUZ
After the Apollo flights, the last manned
space launch before the space shuttle was the
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. This occurred in
July 1975 and involved a linkup in space of
American and soviet manned spacecraft. This
was a unique moment in history. These two su-
perpowers that had been involved in a well-pub-
licized space race for 15 years, met and shook
hands in space. This was indeed a special mo-
ment.
The two crews docked together and spent two
days moving between the capsules helping each
other with scientific experiments. Among the
American crew were former mercury and
Gemini astronauts. Among the soviet crew was
Alexei Leonov, the first man to “walk in space.”
This joint venture truly was an historic event.
Apollo-Soyuz marked the end of an era. It
marked the end of the expendable spacecraft. A
new era was being ushered in, the era of the
reusable space vehicle, the space shuttle.

Image of the Apollo-Soyuz project

20
SPACE SHUTTLE
The United states space Transportation system (sTs), commonly known as the space shuttle Pro-
gram, has served the country well for 30 years. However, as this module is being prepared, plans are to
discontinue the program in 2012. Proposed new space programs are in the planning stages to replace the
aging system. more about those new programs will be discussed later in this chapter but, first let’s dis-
cuss the space shuttle Program and its accomplishments over the years.
From 1975 until 1981, the Us didn’t have any astronauts in space, but that changed with the space
shuttle. In April 1981, the Space Shuttle was launched. The space shuttle provided a system for trans-
portation into space and a return back to Earth. This has been a major advantage of the shuttle since it
can be used again and again.
The space shuttle consists of three main parts: the orbiter, the solid rocket boosters, and the external
tank. The orbiter looks like an airplane and is about the same size as a DC-9 jet. The orbiter carries the
crew and the payload. The other two parts are required to launch the shuttle into space. The boosters
burn away and the tank separates early into the flight.
When the shuttle was first built it could remain in space for 14 days. That time has increased to 30
days now. When it is time for the shuttle to return to Earth, the astronauts fire the two orbital maneuver-
ing engines, which slow down the shuttle. The shuttle then reenters the Earth’s atmosphere.
The first space shuttle was actually the Enterprise, but it was only used for flight tests. It was not de-
signed for going into space. The other five space shuttle spacecraft have all gone into space and have
been used for a variety of missions. They are the Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and En-
deavour.
The first four flights of the Columbia were mainly tests. most of the concern centered around how the
Columbia would handle reentry into the
Earth’s atmosphere and how its protective
shields would perform. sTs-5 was the first
real operational flight, and it occurred in No-
vember 1982. From orbit, the sTs-5
launched two satellites.
Over the years, the space shuttle has been
used in many ways to further our knowledge
of space. The first American woman in space,
Dr. sally Ride, was aboard the Challenger for
sTs-7. sTs-9 delivered the first European

The Rollout of the Space Shuttle Challenger Dr. Sally Ride, first American woman in space,
before it’s first launch in 1983 with the crew of the Challenger mission STS-7

21

Two astronauts repairing and servicing
the Hubble Space Telescope
Atlantis launching Galileo probe into space
22
space Agency spacelab into space.
sTs-13 placed the Long Duration Ex-
posure Facility (LDEF) into space to
conduct experiments. A few years
later, the LDEF was retrieved and the
many experiments analyzed.
On January 28, 1986, less than two
minutes after takeoff, the Challenger
(sTs-51L) exploded. The entire crew
of seven died. A leak in one of the
solid rocket boosters was the cause.
After the Challenger accident, the
shuttle program was suspended for
over two years. After design changes
were made, and safety procedures and
precautions taken, on september 29,
1988 the space shuttle flights re-
sumed.
In April 1990, the shuttle Discov-
ery deployed the Hubble Space Tele-
scope. The Hubble Telescope is
operating at over 300 miles above the
Earth and is free of any atmospheric
interference. Therefore, the objects
are seen much more clearly than from
ground observations. The telescope is ex-
pected to operate until at least 2014 due to
servicing provided by three separate space
shuttle missions.
Atlantis, with mission sTs-34, placed
the galileo probe into space. The galileo
probe investigated Jupiter and its moons
until 2003. In 1993, sTs-55 carried the Eu-
ropean developed Spacelab into orbit. many
useful experiments were conducted from
the Spacelab.
In July 1994, Payload specialist Chiaki
mukai became the first Japanese woman to
fly in space. she was part of sTs-65 that
performed more than 80 experiments that
delved into life sciences, space biology,
human physiology, and radiation biology. In
February 1995, Pilot Eileen Collins became
the first female shuttle pilot. Later in 1995,
the 100th Us human space launch occurred
when sTs-71 was launched. sTs-71 also
marked the first Us space shuttle and
Russian space station Mir docking.
 In 1996, five space agencies (NAsA/Us; European space Agency/Europe; French space
Agency/France; Canadian space Agency/Canada; and Italian space Agency/Italy) and research scientists
from 10 countries worked together on the primary payload for sTs-78. more than 40 experiments were
conducted on microgravity science, human physiology, and space biology. sTs-78 was the first to con-
duct comprehensive sleep studies and task performance in microgravity.
In 1998, the ninth and final space shuttle-Mir docking took place, and then later in 1998, John Glenn
returned to space. John Glenn had been the first American to orbit the Earth in 1962, and after a success-
ful career in the Us senate, he became the oldest human to venture into space when he was part of the
crew aboard sTs-95. John Glenn was 77 years old when he returned to space. In December 1998, the
first International space station (Iss) flight occurred with sTs-88. This was the first of several missions
to construct the Iss. (You can read more about the Iss in later chapters of this module.)
sTs-93 was launched in 1999 and commanded by Commander Eileen Collins. This was the first
space shuttle in history to be commanded by a woman. she was the first woman pilot and eventually
the first woman commander in space.
In 2001, as part of sTs-102, astronauts susan Helms and Jim Voss conducted the longest spacewalk
in shuttle history. The spacewalk lasted 8 hours and 56 minutes. Then in 2002, mission specialist Jerry
Ross, aboard sTs-110, became the first human to fly in space seven times.
On February, 1, 2003, sTs-107 Columbia and her seven-member crew were lost during re-entry over
Texas. Damage was sustained during launch and this created a hole allowing hot gases to melt the wing
structure. The resulting investigation and modifications interrupted shuttle flight operations for more
than two years.
In may 2009, the sTs-118 crew included Barbara morgan, and she became the first teacher to visit
space. morgan had been the backup teacher when the 1986 Challenger disaster occurred. Also in 2009,
sTs-125 conducted the final servicing mission for the Hubble space Telescope. Hubble’s lifespan was
extended until at least 2014.
As mentioned at the beginning of this section, the sTs program is coming to an end. A special space
shuttle mission scheduled for sTs-133 will be piloted by Eric Boe, a former CAP spaatz cadet and cur-
rent CAP senior member.
This will be Eric Boe’s
second mission aboard a
space shuttle. This will
mark the 36th shuttle mis-
sion to the Iss, the 133rd
shuttle flight, and the final
flight of the Discovery or-
biter.
The space shuttle has
been the workhorse of
America’s space program
since 1981. The shuttle
has carried many astro-
nauts to successful mis-
sions and these missions
have greatly increased our
knowledge of space. (see
associated Activity Three Eileen Collins STS 93 Mission Commander
at the end of the chapter.)

23
MANNED SPACEFLIGHT – THE HUMAN VENTURE CONTINUES
The Timeline of Manned Space Flight – 1961-2010*

Russia / UssR United states China Total

1961–1970 16 25 41
1971–1980 30 8 38
1981–1990 24 37 61
1991–2000 20 63 83
2001–2010 20 31 3 54
Total missions 110 164 3 277
*As of August 2010

A CURRENT PICTURE
As has been discussed, and as the chart above indicates, Russia and the United states have been
active in spaceflight programs since the 1960s. For many years the two countries have worked side
by side achieving major accomplishments in the exploration of space. many other countries have
also been active in space, particularly with the development of the International space station (Iss).
Countries such as, Canada, Japan, and Brazil and many others have contributed to the development
of the Iss. But there is another country that hasn’t been part of the Iss, but is now very active in
pursuing space, and that country is China.
In 2003, China launched its first manned spacecraft, ShenZhou 5, and then followed that with two
more manned spacecraft missions in 2005 and 2008. China is also developing a spacecraft docking
system that should be ready in 2010 or 2011. Then, China intends to place an astronaut on the moon.
many observers believe that will happen in the next few years. so, China is aggressively catching up
to Russia and the United states.
meanwhile, Russia’s current space priorities include developing new communications, naviga-
tion, and remote sensing spacecraft. Russia’s current space budget remains unchanged with approxi-
mately 50% spent on their manned space program. Russia has indicated that they want to complete
their segment of the Iss and also are considering missions to the moon and mars. Russia is also
working on new rocket launchers to support their missions.
The United states space program is at a crossroads. The current Constellation program is under
review and may be cancelled. Its goal of returning to the moon and then on to mars may be in jeop-
ardy. The Us is currently considering continu-
ing pursuit of mars and/or concentrating on
commercial spaceflights. With the end of the
space shuttle program, immediate political de-
cisions will determine the direction and extent
of America’s future space involvement. Trips
to the Iss are still a distinct possibility, but
American astronauts may be traveling on
Russian rockets. On the other hand, the Ares I
crew launch vehicle and the Orion capsule
may still carry American astronauts to the Iss.
As of the preparation of this module, these dif-
ficult decisions had not been made. (see asso-
ciated Activity Four at the end of the chapter.) China Astronaut

24
Activity Three - The Space Shuttle Glider
2
Purpose: This activity creates a model of the space shuttle glider (orbiter) and allows experimentation
with how the shuttle glides in for a landing.
Materials: old file folders (1 makes 2 gliders), glue sticks or hot glue, scissors
Procedure:
1. Copy the templates shown on following pages on color copier.
2. Glue the templates to heavy paper or file folders.
3. Using scissors, neatly cut out all parts. G LU E
S T IC K
4. Cut 13 V-shaped notches in the fuselage to create tabs along outside edge.
5. Fold tabs out.
6. Glue or tape three nose weights to underside of your glider. Use fourth nose weight
provided, if needed for extra trim after assembly.
7. Fold fuselage along middle line.
8. starting at the nose, glue or tape fuselage to deck and wing assembly. match tabs on fuselage exactly
to the ones printed on the deck and wing assembly.
9. To close the nose, glue or tape the two halves together using tabs provided.
10. Fold vertical stabilizer assembly.
11. Fold out tabs A and B. Except for tabs A and B, glue or tape vertical stabilizer assembly to make one
solid piece.
12. Attach, with glue or tape, vertical stabilizer to fuselage, matching tab A with
point A and tab B with point B.
Preflight Instructions:
For best results, launch your shuttle glider with a
gentle, level toss. Bend the Body Flap up
slightly for greater lift.
Summary: The space shuttle glider is a
scale model of the actual space shuttle
orbiter in the space Transportation sys-
tem (sTs). As the glider is put to-
gether, discussion can revolve around
such terms as fuselage, tail and wing as-
sembly, and vertical stabilizer assembly.
These terms can be compared to airplane Space Shuttle Glider
parts. The fuselage is the main body of the Assembly Example
aircraft that holds crew, passengers, and the cargo
(called the payload). The actual shuttle’s wing span is 78
ft. The shuttle’s vertical tail consists of a structural fin surface,
the rudder/speed brake surface, a tip, and a lower trailing edge. The rudder
splits into two halves to serve as a speed brake. Like the fin of an aircraft, the vertical stabilizer keeps the
shuttle on course in the Earth’s atmosphere, and helps it to steer.

25
Space Shuttle Glider Bottom

26
 Line of
Fold

Cut 13
Notches

Fold Up
Tabs

Space Shuttle Glider

Fuselage Assembly

Line of
Fold
27
Deck and Wing
Assembly

28
 Vertical Stabilizer Assembly

t t
a a
b b
a b

Glider kit designed for NAsA by

Kentron Hawaii, Ltd.
Artist: Roland O. Powell

29
Activity Four - See How the Earth Looks to an Astronaut
Purpose: This activity will help you understand the perspective of an astronaut as he/she views Earth
from space.

Materials: 16" Earth globe and a 4" moon globe

Procedure:
1. Using the summary information below, calculate the distance
between the Earth and the moon using a model where the
Earth is 16 inches in diameter and the moon is 4 inches in di-
ameter. (The Earth is 30 Earth diameters from the moon, or
about 40 feet.)
2. measure the distance from your calculation. Inflate a 16-inch Earth
from space globe.
3. Have one person hold the Earth globe at the beginning point of the distance meas-
urement you made.
4. Have another person hold the moon globe at the ending point of the distance
measurement you made.
5. standing with the person holding the moon globe, you can “look back” at Earth and have an idea of
the view of our planet from space.

Summary: The distance from the Earth to the moon is 240,000 miles on average, because the moon is
in an elliptical orbit around Earth (due to the gravitational pull of the sun). so, sometimes, it is closer to
the Earth than other times. The circumference of the Earth is 25,000 miles. Considering the size of the
Earth, the moon is about 9.5 Earth circumferences away from the moon. In relation to the scaled Earth
and moon in this activity, that means if the circumference of the 16” diameter Earth globe is 50.24”
(C=πd), then the distance from the Earth globe to the moon globe should be 9.5 x 50.24” = 477.28” or
39.77 ft (about 40 ft).

30
Learning Outcomes
- Describe Space Station Alpha.
3
- Explain the differences between Mir and Skylab.
- Define Spacelab.
- Describe the significance of Salyut 1.
- Describe the living and working conditions in space.
- Describe the different space suits.
- Define and give examples of spinoffs from the space program.
- Describe possible future space endeavors.

Important Terms
Mir - Russia’s space station of the 1980s and 1990s
Salyut - Russia’s first space station
Skylab - first space station of the Us
Spacelab - European space Agency’s first space station

SPACE STATIONS
The idea of a permanent space station has been with us since the beginning of the space race. The
benefit of having a way station en route to the moon or the planets has been recognized for some
time. For scientific, research, and even military reasons, a permanent space station has been consid-
ered a necessity.
Russia launched the first space station,
Salyut 1, in April 1971. Russian astronauts Soyuz TM
docked and stayed on board for three weeks. Spacecraft Docking
Compartment
Salyut 1 stayed in space for six months,
Hatch
then burned up when it reentered the Work
Compartment
Earth’s atmosphere. Toilet and
Russia continued to launch several Washing Area

space stations in the Salyut series. many Satellite

of the missions resulted in Russian as- Antenna
Control
Center Propulsion
tronauts staying in space for 1-2 Compartment
months. Salyut 6 and 7 both stayed in Docking Port
space about four years. The as- Portholes
for Progress
Supply Vehicles
tronauts stayed aboard Salyut 7
Exercise
for a record 234 days. Bicycle Treadmill Rendezvous
Antenna
The success of the Salyut Work and
Solar panels Dining Table
series brought on the next
model of Russian space sta- The Mir Space Station

31
tion, the Mir. Mir
was launched in
Environmental
February 1986 and Control System
Entry Hatch &
was about the same Airlock Interface
Skylab Student
size as Salyut. How- Experiment
ED-52 Web Formation
ever, Mir didn’t Operational Mode
Locker Stowage
carry as much scien-
tific equipment, so it Food Freezer Water Supply
had more privacy,
comfort, and space FORWARD
Waste Mgt
COMPARTMENT Odor Filter
for the astronauts.
French Ultra-violet
In 1998, Mir was Experiment Body Weight Device
frequently in the Earth Observation
Window
news. This was due WASTE MGT
WARD ROOM COMP
to several malfunc- Skylab Student
Fecal Urine
Sampling
Experiments
tions that were oc-
curring. The United Food Table SLEEP
states sent the space EXPERIMENT COMPARTMENT
COMPARTMENT
shuttle to Mir sev- Waste Tank
eral times to help Waste Disposal
Shower
with repairs. In fact, Micrometeoroid
Shield
American astronauts
spent over two years
aboard Mir on differ- Radiator
ent missions. Mir
was scheduled to fall
back to Earth in
1999. However, The
Russians boosted
Mir to stay in space Skylab Orbital Workshop
longer. so, despite
early problems Mir remained in space until 2001.
The first Us space station was Skylab. As mentioned earlier, it was launched in may 1973 two
years after Salyut. Three different crews lived in the Skylab. The last crew stayed for 84 days, which
was the longest of the crews. During their stays, the crews conducted many experiments. They
demonstrated that people could live and work in space. No other crews visited Skylab, but it re-
mained in space for six years before reentering Earth’s atmosphere and falling back to Earth. most of
Skylab burned up on reentry, but some pieces landed in the Indian Ocean and were recovered.
The European space Agency developed a “short-term” space station called Spacelab, which was
a reusable laboratory used inside the payload bay of a space shuttle. Spacelab was used on over 20
space shuttle missions between 1983 and 1998, providing an environment dedicated to scientific re-
search and hands-on experiments.

32
 Spacelab on board the Space Shuttle Columbia

INTERNATIONAL
SPACE STATION (ISS)
The Iss is an internationally
developed research facility being
assembled in low Earth orbit.
After several years of planning
and preparation, the first mission
to assemble the Iss took place in
November 1998. The Iss is
scheduled for completion in
2011. It is the largest interna-
tional scientific project in history
with sixteen countries contribut-
ing to this massive undertaking.
The countries involved are:
UsA, Russia, Japan, Canada,
Brazil, and 11 European coun-
tries.
The purpose of the Iss is to
achieve long-term exploration of
space and to provide benefits to
the people of Earth. since No- The International Space Station on orbit
vember 2000, a continual human
presence has existed on the Iss.
Astronauts began by staying a few days on the Iss and some have now extended that stay to a few
months. During this time, hundreds of scientific experiments have been conducted on the Iss.
Human research, microgravity, life sciences, physical sciences, and astronomy are a few of the pri-
mary fields that have been studied.
The Iss is the largest satellite in space and can be seen from Earth with the naked eye. It orbits
the Earth at an altitude that varies from 173 miles (278 km) to 286 miles (460 km) at a speed of

33
17,227 miles per hour. The Iss constantly loses altitude due to atmospheric drag but is boosted
several times a year to regain its higher altitudes. It completes 15.7 orbits in a 24-hour period.
You can track the Iss to determine when you can view it as it flies overhead. Go to
http://www.spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/sightings/ for sighting opportunities.

LIVING AND WORKING ON SPACE STATIONS

What is it like inside a space station? Well, first of all, microgravity or near weightlessness exists
inside the Iss. We have probably all seen pictures of astronauts floating around inside of space sta-
tions. This is not really a problem. Astronauts have learned how to cope with near weightlessness.
They can hold on to the walls, or they can wear special cleats, or they can even strap themselves in if
they want.
The air inside the Iss is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen. This works better than breathing pure
oxygen. Also, the temperature is regulated so that the astronauts are comfortable in t-shirts and
shorts or sport shirts and pants.
On the Skylab, the crews had a dining room, a toilet area, and bedrooms.
The astronauts could eat either hot or cold food. They would place their feet
and legs in restraints and could actually sit and eat. As for sleeping, the astro-
nauts had sleeping bags placed vertically on the walls. They could fasten them-
selves in and go to sleep.
Living on the International space station (Iss) is similar to the previous
space stations, but also different. First of all, the food has gotten better. Astro-
nauts pick their menus months ahead of time knowing how important their diet
is in space. The Iss has a microwave and a refrigerator, so even though dehy-
drated food is still used, so is frozen food. Drinks and soups are still sipped
through plastic bags and straws. solid food is eaten with a knife and fork on
trays with magnets to prevent them from floating away. Foot restraints
Working is also a part of life inside a space station. Astronauts
have their housekeeping chores to perform. Plus, they have their re-
search and experiments to conduct. sometimes they have satellites
to deploy or retrieve, or maybe they have to repair a satellite. Physi-
cal activities are a normal daily occurrence on the flights. so, there
is plenty to keep the astronauts busy.
Near weightlessness causes loss of bone and muscle mass, so ex-
ercise is very important to astronauts. To prevent this muscle loss,
astronauts exercise daily. The Iss is equipped with two treadmills
and a stationary bicycle. Astronauts must strap themselves to the
equipment to keep from floating away. The negative effects of near
weightlessness reverse quickly once astronauts return to Earth. Near weightless in space
sleeping in the Iss is similar to earlier space stations. Astronauts
still sleep in wall-mounted sleeping bags that zip them into the bag. They also have arm restraints to
keep their arms from floating above their head while they sleep.
Astronauts spend most of their waking moments conducting scientific experiments and observa-
tions. They are also involved in maintaining the Iss and repairing equipment, as necessary. Gener-
ally, the astronauts work for 10 hours during the weekdays and 5 hours on saturday. The rest of the
time they either relax or do catch-up activites. The Iss doesn’t have a shower, so the astronauts take
sponge baths or clean themselves with washcloths and wet towels. Each astronaut has a personal hy-
giene kit with toothbrush, toothpaste and shampoo. (see associated Activities Five and six at the end
of the chapter.)
34
 Eating with food Eating with food strapped Exercising muscles to keep them
strapped to lap to cabin ceiling from wasting away in microgravity

A nice warm shower A shave Sally Ride in a sleep restraint

EXTRAVEHICULAR ACTIVITIES (EVA)

These last few paragraphs have discussed life inside a space station. Now, let’s spend a little time
discussing life outside the space station. many times a space shuttle mission would include repair-
ing a satellite. This involved going outside of the shuttle. The general term used for going outside of
the shuttle is Extravehicular Activity.
Russian Alexei Leonov accomplished the first EVA or “space walk” in march 1965. He was out-
side of his spacecraft for about 20 minutes. Less than three months later, Ed White was the first
American to “walk” in space. This occurred in June 1965. White was outside the spacecraft for 22
minutes traveling at 18,000 miles per hour. since 1965, there have been many EVAs in space.
One recent EVA involved the Hubble Space Telescope. Astronauts made repairs to the Hubble
Telescope during an EVA. These successful repairs will allow the telescope to stay in space longer.
“spacewalks” have become a very routine part of most of the Iss missions. There have been well
over 250 “spacewalks.” The longest one occurred in 2001 when the “space walk” of astronauts
susan Helms and Jim Voss lasted for 8 hours and 56 minutes. They were part of the sTs-102 Dis-
covery crew and despite the numerous “spacewalks” that have occurred since 2001, this record still
stands.

35
SPACE SUITS
Obviously, a subject that
comes to mind when talking
about space walks is space
suits. space suits have changed
a lot over the years. Let’s take a
look at the evolution of the
space suit. space suit design
began in the 1930s with high- An EVA near Skylab An Atlantis EVA
altitude flyers. These suits were
really pressure suits. Over the
next 30 years, the technology
improved. However, the early
astronauts of Project mercury
still wore pressure suits.
During the Gemini flights, a
lightweight, easily-removable
space suit was developed. It was
during Gemini 7 that space suits
were taken off inside of the
spacecraft for the first time.
Prior to that, astronauts left
them on during the entire flight.
Initially, the space suits
were very immobile. It was
hard for the astronauts to move
around. However, as the space
flights progressed and more
Taking a look at the Hubble Space Telescope
was expected of the astronauts,

Pressure suits worn by the seven Lightweight space suits A more advanced suit for moon
Mercury astronauts wore by Gemini astronauts walking for the Apollo astronauts

36
the space suits got better. Comfort and
mobility became higher priorities.
The Apollo moon suit was more ad-
vanced than previous suits. The astronauts
carried their oxygen on their backs and
could communicate, as well. The suit also
had a supply of drinking water and a col-
lection point for going to the bathroom.
All of these space suits consisted of
several layers of material. This protected
the astronauts during EVAs. For instance,
the Apollo suit protected the astronaut in
temperatures of over 250° F, while also
protecting against harmful radiation.
All of these space suits were made
specifically for the individual astronaut.
That changed with the space shuttle. The
shuttle suit was much easier to put on.
The astronauts dressed one layer at a
time. The shuttle suit was made of sev- The Manned Maneuvering Unit
eral parts that could accommodate a man
or a woman. It was also reusable and expected to last for 15 years.
In 1984, the astronauts used the manned maneuvering Unit (mmU) for the first time. This unit fit
on the back of the astronaut’s space suit and allowed him or her to move around without being tied to
the spacecraft. The mmU was used on three missions, all of which occurred in 1984. After the
Challenger tragedy in 1986, the use of the mmU was discontinued due to safety concerns. An im-
proved version of the mmU, the simplified Aid for EVA Rescue (sAFER), was first flight-tested dur-
ing sTs-64 in 1994. It was developed for use in case a tethered astronaut performing as EVA became
untethered.
As you can see, space suits have come a long way. The improvements in the suits have allowed the
astronauts to do much more in space, and do it more efficiently. To see NAsA ideas for future space-
suits, “Google” future spacesuits on the internet. You will be amazed at the future technology planned
to protect mankind in space. (see associated Activities seven and Eight at the end of the chapter.)

THE FUTURE IN SPACE

Due to our enduring fascination with space, indications are that space travel will continue into the
unforeseeable future. We have come a long way since Russia launched Sputnik in 1957, and with
each additional mission we seem to learn more and more. In many people’s minds, this increased
knowledge justifies a persistent, progressive space program.
For almost the last 30 years, the United states’ space Transportation system (sTs), has been the
primary mode of space transportation. The space shuttle is scheduled to retire in 2011. What will re-
place it? As of the preparation of this module the answer is unclear. Indications are that the Interna-
tional space station (Iss) will remain in space until at least 2020. so, it’s easy to assume trips will
be made to the Iss. Russia and the United states are seeking more cooperation in space travel, and
using a Russian space shuttle to take American astronauts to the Iss is being considered.
In 1999, the X-37 Orbital Test Vehicle began as a NAsA project and was transferred to the Us
Department of Defense in 2004. The X-37’s first test flight was in 2006 at Edwards Air Force Base,

37
California, and then its first orbital flight was in

Credit: NASA/Marshall
April 2010 using an Atlas V rocket. Its successful
return to earth resulted in two more missions, one
in 2011 and another in 2012.
In 2006, the Us Air Force announced it would
develop its own version of the X-37. They called it
the X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle (OTV), and it was
designed to remain in orbit for up to 270 days at a
time. The OTV-1 was launched in 2010 and
placed in low Earth orbit for testing. It circled the
Earth every 90 minutes on an orbit of from 249 to
262 miles above Earth. In December 2010, the
OTV-1 landed at Vandenberg AFB, CA, after 224 The X-37 in the clouds
days in space, becoming America’s first au-
tonomous orbital landing onto a runway. OTV-2 and OTV-3 missions have continued with efforts to
test new space technologies. The missions have been classified.
NAsA has looked beyond 2020 and has envisioned something like the Spaceliner. This vehicle
would take off like a plane, most likely on a rail system, and be powered by air-breathing rockets and
ramjets. The spaceliner is being designed to take about 50 passangers to 47-50 miles above Earth and
then glide back to Earth at hypersonic speeds of more than 15,000 mph. This would enable passengers
to fly from Europe to Australia in 90 minutes. The spaceliner is aiming to fly passengers by 2050.
This is one idea, but the technological challenges are daunting and funding must be available. Regard-
less, if space travel continues, it is the goal to make it cheaper, safer, and more reliable.
Another distinct possibility is commercial space travel. Virgin Galactic and scaled Composites
are working together to make commercial space travel a reality. scaled Composites is the company
that in 2004 won the $10 million X-Prize for flying at a altitude of 62 miles or 100 kilometers, re-
turning safely to Earth, and then repeating the flight within two weeks. The spacecraft was called
SpaceShipOne. Now, the two companies are building a spacecraft called SpaceShipTwo that will take
passengers into space. Initially, tickets can be purchased for $200,000. The spacecraft is designed to
seat six passengers and two pilots and fly to about 68 miles, or 110 kilometers. The passengers will
experience a 2 ½ hour flight with several minutes of near weightlessness. Already, countries are
placing orders for the SpaceShipTwo.
After about 50-100 test flights,
SpaceShipTwo is expected to take
passengers in 2014.
Regardless of the direction it
takes, the United states will probably
stay heavily involved in space for
many years. Additionally, Russia has
announced a renewed interest in
space, and China is coming on strong
and wants to increase its involve-
ment. China has even expressed in-
terest in placing a person on the
moon. so, with these and other coun-
tries involved, the exploration of
space should remain an important
issue for the world for many years. Future Transatmospheric Aircraft

38
SPINOFFS FROM THE SPACE PROGRAM –
Putting Space Technology To Work Back On Earth
Our day-to-day lives have been touched by many space technologies. It has been recorded that
since the mid-seventies, over 1,600 documented NAsA inventions have benefitted our quality of life
and has provided Americans with a large number of jobs.
many have heard that Tang, Velcro, and microcomputers were all spinoffs of space technology.
Actually, this is not the case; however, there have been some achievements that are very common-
place in our daily lives. A few examples, put into an easy-to-understand form are:

TV Satellite Dish
NAsA developed ways to correct errors in the signals coming from satel-
lites. This technology is used to reduce noise (that is, interference to picture
or sound) in TV signals coming from satellites.

Medical Imaging
NAsA developed ways to process signals from spacecraft to produce
clearer images. (see more on digital information and how spacecraft send
images from space on the internet.) This technology also makes possible
these photo-like images of the inside of the human body.

Vision Screening System

This uses techniques developed for processing space pictures to examine
eyes of children and find out quickly if they have any vision problems. The
child doesn’t have to say a word!

Ear Thermometer
Instead of measuring temperature using a column of mercury (which ex-
pands as it heats up), this thermometer has a lens-like a camera and detects
infrared energy, which we feel as heat. The warmer something is (like your
body), the more infrared energy it puts out. This technology was originally
developed to detect the birth of stars.

Fire Fighter Equipment

Fire fighters wear suits made of fire-resistant fabric developed for use in
space suits.

Smoke Detector
This was first used in the Earth orbiting space station called Skylab
(launched back in 1973) to help detect any toxic vapors. It is now used in
most homes and other buildings to warn people of fire.

Sun Tiger Glasses

This comes from research done on materials to protect the eyes of
welders working on spacecraft. Protective lenses were developed that block
almost all the wavelengths of radiation that might harm the eyes, while let-
ting through all the useful wavelengths that let us see.

39
 Automobile Design Tools
This is a computer program developed by NAsA to analyze a space-
craft or airplane design and predict how parts will perform. It is now
used to help design automobiles. This kind of software can save car
makers a lot of money by letting them see how well a design will work
even before they build a prototype.

Cordless Tools
Portable, self-contained power tools were originally developed to
help Apollo astronauts drill for moon samples. This technology has led
to the development of such tools as the cordless vacuum cleaner, power
drill, shrub trimmers, and grass shears.

Aerodynamic Bicycle Wheel

A special bike wheel uses NAsA research in airfoils (wings) and de-
sign software developed for the space program. The three spokes on the
wheel act like wings, making the bicycle very efficient for racing. sur-
prisingly, this technology has also helped in the design of more aerody-
namic bicycle helmets.

Thermal Gloves and Boots

These gloves and boots have heating elements that run on recharge-
able batteries worn on the inside wrist of the gloves or embedded in the
sole of the ski boot. This technology was adapted from a spacesuit de-
signed for the Apollo astronauts.

Space Pens
The Fisher space Pen was developed for use in space. most pens de-
pend on gravity to make the ink flow into the ball point. For this space
pen, the ink cartridge contains pressured gas to push the ink toward the
ball point. That means you can lie in bed and write upside down with
this pen. Also, it uses a special ink that works in very hot and very cold
environments.

The Most Famous Spinoff

Football helmets use a padding of Temper Foam, a shock absorbing
material, that was first developed for use in aircraft seats. It is the most
recognized and widely-used NAsA spinoff. Temper Foam, whose origin
dates back to 1966, was developed to absorb shock and offer improved
protection and comfort in NAsA’s airplane seats. It has paid its divi-
dends to Earth repeatedly, and in many different ways. It has padded the
helmets of the Dallas Cowboys throughout the 1970s and 1980s, protected bedridden patients from
bedsores, and comforted the feet of thousands wearing stylish shoes that incorporate the cushioning
material in their insoles.
Four decades later, the world has come to realize that there are no bounds to Temper Foam’s ben-
efits. Though the rights to the technology have been shared amongst various manufacturers, the orig-
inal product maker is still going strong, pushing Temper Foam into new arenas, including
automotives, amusement parks, prosthetics, sleep items, and modern art.

40
 Ski Boots
These ski boots use accordion-like folds, similar to the design of space
suits, to allow the boot to flex without distortion, yet still give support and
control for precision skiing.

Failsafe Flashlight
This flashlight uses NAsA’s concept of system redundancy, which means
always having a backup for the parts of the spacecraft with the most impor-
tant jobs. This flashlight has an extra-bright primary bulb and an independ-
ent backup system that has its own separate lithium battery (also a NAsA
developed technology) and its own bulb.
Invisible Braces
These teeth-straightening braces use brackets that are made of a nearly
invisible translucent (almost clear) ceramic material. This material is a spin-
off of NAsA’s advanced ceramic research to develop new, tougher materials
for spacecraft and aircraft.
Edible Toothpaste
This is a special foamless toothpaste developed for the astronauts to use
in space (where spitting is not a very good idea).
Joystick Controllers
Joystick controllers are used for lots of things now, including computer
games and vehicles for people with disabilities. These devices evolved from
research to develop a controller for the Apollo Lunar Rover, and from other
NAsA research into how humans actually operate (called "human factors").
Advanced Plastics
spacecraft and other electronics need very special, low-cost materials as
the base for printed circuits (like those inside your computer). some of these
"liquid crystal polymers" have turned out to be very good, low-cost materi-
als for making containers for foods and beverages.

spinoff technology has had a large impact within the field of medicine. Thousands of lives have
been saved with the development of procedures and machines such as:
1. A NAsA-developed chemical process was responsible for the development of kidney dialysis
machines.
2. The need to find imperfections in aerospace structures and components, such as castings,
rocket motors, and nozzles, led to the development of a medical CAT scanner which searches
the human body for tumors or other abnormalities. CAT stands for Computer Tomography scan.
3. It is well known that the near weightlessness experienced while living in space can lead to
physical deterioration, cardiovascular problems, and muscle atrophy. A space exercise machine
led to the development of a physical therapy and athletic development machine used by foot-
ball teams, sports clinics, and medical rehabilitation centers.
4. A hospital food service system employs a cook/chill concept for serving food. The system al-
lows staff to prepare food well in advance, maintain heat, visual appeal, and nutritional value,
while reducing operating costs.
Because of budget changes and the amount of funding available to space exploration, it is diffi-
cult to predict what the future will be in aerospace technology. However, we, as Americans, can say
that our space adventure over the past 50 years has been of great benefit to all mankind.

41
 3
Activity Five - Investigating Near Weightlessness
Purpose: This activity will use the scientific method and in- String Handle
quiry to experiment with the concept of near weightlessness.
String with wooden
Materials: ping-pong ball, golf ball, plastic Dixie cup, bead attached
round wooden bead or a metal nut, and a piece of string

Procedure:
1. Cut the string into two pieces, one long and one short.
2. Attach the longer piece to the rim of the plastic cup like a
Plastic cup
pail handle.
Golf Ping-Pong
3. Attach the wooden bead or metal nut to one end of the Ball Ball
shorter piece by tying a knot at the end to hold the bead on the string.
4. start with the ping-pong ball and the golf ball. Hold one ball in each hand. From the same height and
at the same time, drop the two balls. Observe the results.
5. set the plastic cup on a table.
6. Hold the string with the bead at the end over the cup. Let go of the string and observe. What happens?
7. Now carefully stand on a chair or stool. Hold the string handle of the cup. Hold the end of the bead
string in the same hand, with the string in the middle of the handle so the bead hangs over the cup.
8. Hold the cup and the ball high and drop them together. What happens this time?
9. Discuss as a group what was expected to happen and what actually happened for each action.

Summary: Galileo (1564-1642) was a scientist who achieved many accomplishments in the fields of as-
tronomy and physics. Galileo was the person who discovered that all objects fall at a constant rate of
speed on Earth, no matter what their size or weight. Due to Galileo’s experiments, today we have an ac-
curate picture of how the near “weightlessness” in space works. Near weightlessness occurs when two
objects (the bead and the cup) are free-falling in gravity. But what keeps the space shuttle from free
falling to the Earth like the cup and the bead? A spacecraft can maintain its free fall for a very long pe-
riod of time by traveling fast enough -- about 7.5 kilometers (4.7 miles) per second — horizontally, so
that even though it is being pulled toward the center of the earth, its free-fall path is parallel to the earth’s
curvature. In other words, the spacecraft continually falls all the way around the earth. This microgravity
or sensation of weightlessness refers to an environment in which the local effects of gravity have virtu-
ally been eliminated by free-fall.

42
Activity Six - How Does Motion Cause Disorientation?
Purpose: This activity will demonstrate how our senses help orient us in
space and how motion causes disorientation.

Materials: swivel chair, blindfold, pencil, and a friend

Procedure:
1. Ask a friend to sit in a swivel chair and put on a blindfold. The friend
places arms out in front of the body, holding a pencil in an upright posi-
tion.
2. Ask your friend to point the pencil in the direction of rotation as you
turn the chair. slowly stop the chair. Then turn the chair in the opposite direc-
tion. Watch the pencil.
3. stop the chair. Watch the pencil. In what direction did your friend point the pencil after the first rotation?
When the chair was stopped? After the second rotation? Discuss how our senses help orient us in space.

Summary: The results of this activity are that motion causes disorientation and sight is one of our
senses that help us stay oriented. In space, there is a disorientation resulting from the conflict between
the signals coming from the vestibular system (consisting of the semicircular canals and the special or-
gans of the inner ear), which no longer correspond with the visual and other sensory information sent to
the brain and the new spatial reality. The normal concepts of "up" and "down" no longer apply. This
same disorientation is demonstrated in the activity because of the blindfold and the
spinning of the chair.

Activity Seven - Keeping Cool

Purpose: This activity will demonstrate how a spacesuit liquid cooling
system works to moderate body heat.

Materials: 2 empty coffee cans with plastic snap-on lids, 2 ther-

mometers (must be able to read a full range of temperatures from
freezing to boiling), black spray paint, floodlight and light fixture,
plastic aquarium tubing (6 meters), masking tape, 2 buckets, ice,
water, stopwatch or watch with a second hand, graph paper, and
metal punch or drill

Procedure:
1. spray paint the outside of both cans black and permit them to dry.
2. Punch a hole in the center of each lid and insert a thermometer.
3. Punch a second hole in one of the lids large enough to admit the aquarium tubing. Also punch a hole in
the side of that can near its base.
4. Form a spiral coil with the plastic tubing along the inside wall of the can with the hole punched in its
side. Be sure that the coil doesn’t touch the thermometer directly. Do not pinch the tube. Extend the
tube’s ends out of the can, one through the hole in the can and the other through the hole in the lid. The
upper end of tube should reach into the elevated water bucket and the other should hang down from
the side of the can toward the lower bucket.

43
5. set up the floodlight so that it will shine on the sides of the two cans. make sure the light is equidis-
tant from the two cans.
6. Fill one bucket with ice and water. make sure there is enough ice to chill the water thoroughly.
7. Elevate the ice water bucket on a box or some books next to the can with the tubing.
8. Insert the long end of the aquarium tubing into the bottom of the ice water bucket. Using your mouth,
suck air from the other end of the tube to start a siphoning action. Permit the water to drain through
the tubing that runs through the black can into a second bucket on the floor.
9. Immediately turn on the floodlight so that both cans are equally heated.
10. Begin recording temperatures, starting with an initial reading of each thermometer just before the
light is turned on and every 30 seconds thereafter until the water runs out.
11. Plot the temperature data on graph paper, using a solid line for the can that held the ice water and a
dashed line for the other can. Construct the graph so that the temperature data are along the Y (verti-
cal) axis and the time data along the X (horizontal) axis.
12. Compare the slope of the plots for the two cans.

Summary: In spacesuit design, one of the challenges is to maintain a comfortable temperature inside the
suit when the temperatures in space are so extreme. This activity demonstrates how chilled water can
keep a metal can from heating up even when exposed to the strong light of a floodlight. An astronaut’s
body heat, released from exertion during extravehicular activities, can quickly build up inside a space
suit, leading to heat exhaustion. Body heat is controlled by a liquid cooling garment made from stretch-
able spandex fabric and laced with small diameter plastic tubes that carry chilled water. The water is cir-
culated around the body. Excess body heat is absorbed into the water and carried away to the suit’s
backpack, where it runs along a porous metal plate that permits some of it to escape into outer space.
The water instantly freezes on the outside of the plate and seals the pores. more water circulates along
the back of the plate. Heat in the water is conducted through the metal to melt the ice directly into water
vapor. During the process, the circulating water is chilled.

Activity Eight - Bending Under Pressure

Purpose: This activity simulates the mobility of a spacesuit arm.

Materials: 2 long balloons, 3 plastic bracelets or thick

rubber bands

Procedure:
1. Inflate one balloon fully and tie it.
2. Inflate the second balloon, but while it is inflating, slide the bracelets
or bands over the balloon so that the balloon looks like sausage links.
3. Compare the "bendability" of the two balloons.

Summary: maintaining proper pressure inside a spacesuit is essential

for survival. However, pressure produces problems. An inflated spacesuit is hard to bend. Designers
have learned to strategically place breaking points at appropriate places to make the suit bend more. In
this activity, the rings serve as the breaking points. These rings create joints. Further spacesuit research
has shown that built-in ribs, like a clothes dryer or vacuum cleaner hose, promote easier bending.

44