Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Produced by: Agriculture and
Consumer Protection
Title: Storage and Processing of Roots and Tubers in the Tropics...
Français More details
Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
5.1 Processing Of Cassava
5.2 Processing of other Root and Tuber Crops
Chapters 2 and 3 discussed the high moisture content characteristic of roots and tubers
which makes them difficult to store for any length of time. Also they are bulky and difficult to
handle and transport to distant markets. With cassava these problems are increased by
compounds of cyanide in the leaves and roots which have to be removed before they can be
consumed. Over many years traditional processes have evolved which yield a more durable
product and in many instances a more convenient product for domestic use. In many village
communities root crops remain a staple and hence are often the main part of the meal.
Village scale processing of root crops is therefore an important part of women's daily work.
This chapter describes the substantial efforts that have been made to upgrade local
processes, but many communities still only have access to traditional methods which
although appropriate are laborious. Commercial processes are being developed, often based
on traditional operations, to bring processed roots and tubers to a world wide market.
The more important traditionally processed products include dried chips and flours, and in the
particular case of cassava, nongelatinized flours, both fermented and unfermented,
fermented pregelatinized grits and pregelatinized flours.
5.1 Processing Of Cassava
5.1.1 Production of dehydrated chips
5.1.2 The processing of cassava into gari
5.1.3 The processing of cassava into "farinha de mandioca"
5.1.4 The production of cassava bread
5.1.5 The production of attieke
Cassava is the most perishable of roots and tubers and can deteriorate within two or three
days after harvesting (see section 4.1). Additionally, the roots need to have the cyanogenic
glucocides reduced to a level which is acceptable and safe for consumption. For these
reasons cassava is usually sold as a processed product whilst other roots and tubers are
most frequently sold as fresh produce. Appendix 5.1 lists some of the traditional foods
produced by processing cassava but this discussion is limited to the more popular cassava
products, notably gari, farinha, cassava bread and attieke.
Traditionally, the bulk of cassava products are processed by women at village level, working
independently or organized into informal groups or cooperatives. These women have
developed an empirical knowledge of the physical and chemical characteristics and the
functional properties of the cassava starch. The traditional processing techniques are
laborious; washing, peeling, resting, fermenting and heat treatments are typical of the
processes used in the production of gari in Ghana and the fufu flour in Benin. As well as
producing food for domestic consumption, cassava processing is a rural enterprise which
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 1/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
adds value to the product and increases the marketing opportunities for small and semi
subsistence farmers. More recently in many areas there is a tendency for the women's' role
to be displaced with the introduction of mechanisation. For example in West Africa the
introduction of mechanised graters had greatly improved the productivity of gari processing,
making this an attractive economic activity to both men and women, so that the farming of
cassava, once a "women's' crop", has repeatedly been taken over by male members within a
household, leaving the females having to look for alternative opportunities for their personal
income.
Processed cassava products can be divided into two main groups:
Dry products; (chips, gari, farinha, cassava bread). These are generally the
least timeconsuming to produce and the most practical processed form, with a
longer storage shelf life. They are also the most economically remunerative for
the processors
Moist products; (attieke, chikwangue, batons). These take longer to prepare
than the dried product, in some cases much longer, and their shelf life is
relatively short.
5.1.1 Production of dehydrated chips
Dried cassava chips or sticks are produced in many African countries. The production
method is simply slicing or cutting the roots into pieces and drying them in the sun. When
bitter varieties (see section 1.4.1.2) are used to make the chips they are normally soaked in
water for one to three days, either before or after slicing. Dried cassava pieces are known as
kokonte in Ghana, lafun in Nigeria, etho or dombe in Sierra Leone and njambo in the
Gambia. The following operations are carried out in their production
5.1.1.1 Peeling
Cassava must be peeled to remove the inedible outer parts of the root consisting of the corky
periderm and the cortex (see Figure 1.1). These are known to contain most of the toxic
cyanogenic glucosides, the ratio of glucocides compared to the starchy flesh varying between
510 : 1. Hence, for a root composed of 15% peel with a total cyanide content of 950 mg/kg
(fresh weight basis) and 35 mg/kg in the flesh, 83% of the total cyanide is removed by
peeling (Bencini, 1991). (See also section 1.4.1.2)
At the village level, peeling is usually done manually using a knife. In varieties which are easy
to peel, the peel is slit along the length of one side of the root and the knifeblade and fingers
are used to roll back the peels from the fleshy portion of the root. In more difficult varieties to
peel, the two layers of peel are whittled with a knife in a motion reminiscent of sharpening a
pencil. This operation is less satisfactory as it usually results in the removal of some flesh
along with the peels and some of the peels are left on the root.
Hand peeling is slow and labour intensive but it still yields the best results. The output of one
person is about 25 kg/hour of peeled roots with a loss of 2530% of weight in the peels
(Bruinsma et al. 1983). Many attempts have been made to upgrade the peeling operation by
using simple machines or by chemical action but many are reported to be ineffective and
wasteful. Hot solutions of sodium hydroxide (Lye) can be used to loosen the skin to facilitate
later peeling, such as removal by water spray or scrubbing with brushes. The desired effect
can be obtained by a careful combination of lye concentration, temperature and time of
immersion. But, the process is anything but simple and is more appropriate for small
commercial operations.
Table 5.1 Examples of processed cassava (Adapted from: Muchnik and Vinck, 1984)
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 2/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
5.1.1.2 Chipping
The objective of chipping is to expose the maximum surface of starchy flesh and encourage a
rapid drying. Villagers have learned that the best drying, in terms of quickness and quality of
the end product, is achieved when the peeled cassava is thinly sliced. Not only are thick
pieces more difficult to dry, the surface will dry whilst the inside is still wet and because of the
dried outer cells have shrunk the rate of moisture diffusion from the inside is greatly reduced
and the time of complete drying considerably extended.
The shape of the chip influences how fast it dries. Because cassava chips are white they
reflect much of the sunlight that falls on them. Hence in sundrying systems the chips are
dried more by the passage of air over them than by the direct effects of the sun's rays. The
initial drying of the chips occurs as the water on the chip surface evaporates and is then
replaced by water vapour diffusing from the inner layers of the chips. Although diffusion and
the rate of drying are fastest in small chips, when they are in a thick layer they can easily
become compacted, which prevents free air movement through the mass. As a result, for
effective drying the chip's shape should permit air to readily pass through a large mass of
chips. The optimal chip geometry for natural drying is a bar 5 x 1 x 1 centimetres (Cock
1985).
The tool used by villagers is often only a heavy knife with which it is difficult to make slices
sufficiently thin for rapid drying. As the operation itself is tedious and there is always the risk
of the operator cutting their fingers, pieces are usually thick, more than 10 mm.
Notwithstanding, hand chipping is still adequate where only up to 50kg of roots are dealt with
in one day.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 3/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
A number of small mechanical cutting machines have been developed to improve chipping.
The Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Food Science in the Philippines3 has
designed a simple slicer which is said to cut sweet potatoes much faster and of a more
consistent thickness than manual methods and is claimed to be equally successful with
cassava. The roots are held on a cutting platform against a plate which controls the thickness
of the slice. Slices are then cut off with the pivoting blade (Figure 5.1). Other designs include
a metal blade mounted in a framework or a metal disc which incorporates a cutting blade,
both types being rotated by hand or powered by peddling a bicycle type mechanism. Figure
5.2 illustrates a hand operated cutter developed by CIP. The root is pressed down against
the disc with one hand whilst the other hand turns the handle and rotates the disc. P.T. Kerta
Laksana of Indonesia4 has made a pedaldriven sliced fitted with one large slicing blade
which is claimed to have a capacity of up to 500 Kg per hour. All these machines produce
thinner and more uniform slices than chipping by hand.
[3 Reported in Root Crop Processing (1993) Food Cycle Technology Books,
Intermediate Technology Publications Ltd. London.
4
ibid]
Figure 5.1 Simple chipping devices
Philippines Root crop slicer
Indonesian pedal operated cassava slicer
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 4/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
CIP potato cutter
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 5/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
5.1.1.3 Soaking
Soaking in water is often done for one to three days, either before or after the chipping
operation during which some fermentation takes place that gives the chips the sour flavour
favoured by some consumers. Soaking also allows residual hydrocyanic acid in the cassava
to diffuse out, making the product safer for human consumption. The National Root Crop
Research Institute in Nigeria suggests that optimal hydrocyanic acid reduction can be
achieved through a combination of 15 minutes soaking and 2 minutes blanching of the
cassava chips.
5.1.1.4 Drying
Sundrying of cassava chips is carried out on any convenient flat surface; on roofs, concrete
surfaces, mats or along roadsides. The objective is to produce dry cassava chips which are
clean, have a white colour, are free from extraneous matter and can be safely stored for long
periods. Many factors affect the rate of drying of cassava chips:
thickness of the slices;
the loading rate, i.e. quantity of chips per unit area of drying surface;
air temperature and relative humidity, and;
wind speed.
With traditional sundrying little can be done to change or control the conditions of wind,
which affects air movement over the chips, the air temperature or relative humidity. During
the drying process there are two discrete phases; in the first phase the chips lose moisture
very quickly down to about 20% mc, wind speed passing over the chips is more important
than air temperature and relative humidity. Under cloudy weather or even at night, the first
drying phase can be completed so long as there is sufficient air movement through the chips.
In the second phase drying is much slower and needs a relative humidity of not higher than
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 6/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
65% to dry the chips to a moisture content of 13% which is considered safe for long term
storage. Except during periods of actual rain, in most places the temperature will increase
sufficiently during the day to reduce ambient humidity to the required level to complete this
second stage of drying.
This explanation underscores the difficulties of drying chips during the rainy season when the
relative humidity of the air is frequently above 80% and when drying the chips may take
several days. Contamination then becomes a major problem, from the growth of
microorganisms, toxins developed by microorganisms of which aflatoxin is a notorious
example, insect eggs, faeces and detritus. Discolouration of the chips detracts from their
appearance and noxious odours and offflavours are unacceptable to the consumer.
Improved drying methods for chips which reduce the duration of the drying period to a
maximum of two days would be a great advantage
A combined research programme by The Asian Institute of Technology, the NRI and CIAT
has shown that drying rates can be greatly improved by placing the cassava chips in
suspended trays with a bottom of wooden slats or chicken wire. The trays allow more air to
flow through the mass of the chips and eliminate the need to turn the chips periodically. With
careful scheduling the time to dry cassava chips can be held to 24 hours. Cassava chips
made during the day should be loaded onto the trays in the late afternoon. During the night,
even though the relative humidity may be high, the chips lose moisture. On the following day
the difficult final drying to about 13% mc occurs during the early afternoon when the relative
humidity is lowest (Cock 1985).
The use of solar dryers could constitute a major improvement on the drying of cassava chips
(Figure 5.2). Solar dryers of the cabinet type and of the hothouse types are reported to be in
use in Nigeria. The cabinet type, often referred to as a Brace dryer, is usually a wooden
structure covered with plastic sheets which form the solar collector. On days with adequate
sunshine, average temperatures are of the order of 65° to 75°C, which is suitable for a
variety of products, such as vegetables, grain, meat as well as cassava chips. While this type
of dryer is cheap to construct and have been tried in many situations around the world they
so not seem to have achieved wide acceptability. The hothouse type is a passive directgain
system, which can be built with burnt bricks or mudblocks, transparent sheets and black
paint; and of any size to suit a farmer's needs. Drying temperatures vary between 40° and
60°C.
Figure 5.2 a Brace solar dryer
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 7/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
Figure 5.2 b Cassava drying in a hot house solar dryer
Wood fired dryers also represent a simple drying technique which can alleviate the
constraints of drying chips during the rainy season (Figure 5.3). One of the first to be
developed was the Brook drum dryer which is basically a large tray supported on a block or
mudbrick base which has air inlets in its sides. A flue made of empty 200 litre metal drums
passes under the tray through which hot air flows from a firebox to a chimney. Air entering
the side inlets is heated by passing over the metal drum flue. Natural convection creates
enough pressure differential to move the heated air through the drying crop without any
mechanical device. This type of drier is not very efficient in its use of fuel and was designed
when firewood was cheaper and more plentiful than nowadays. Although this type of dryers
may be beyond the financial reach of most farmers, they may be suitable for cooperatives or
groups of women processors.
Figure 5.3 A kiln type dryer, the Brook dryer
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 8/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
5.1.1.5 Storage of the dried chips
Once the chips are dried to a moisture content of 13% or lower they can be stored for
several months, provided they are kept dry, and particularly are not exposed to high ambient
relative humidities. Crossinfestation by insect and pests from other stored products is to be
avoided. In West Africa the chips are sometimes parboiled before drying them which is
considered to enhance the storability of the chips. Polyethylenelined jute bags have been
used successfully to store dried cassava chips.
5.1.2 The processing of cassava into gari
Gari is a fermented and gelatinized dry coarse flour, very popular in West Africa and a staple
food in Nigeria, Ghana, Benin and Togo. Its ability to store well and its acceptance as a
"convenience food" is responsible for its increasing popularity in the urban areas of West and
Central Africa. It is often consumed as the main meal in the form of a dough or a thin
porridge. Both are prepared in the household by mixing dry gari with hot or cold water and
cooking and are served with soup or stew. Gari is also eaten as a snack when mixed in cold
water with sugar, and sometimes milk. It swells three to four times its volume when mixed
with cold water.
The traditional production of gari is a long and tedious process. Five distinct operations are
required: peeling, grating, fermentation and pressing, sieving, frying and drying (Figure 5.4).
Table 5.2: Operations in the production of gari and the losses incurred at each
operation from an initial 100 kg of fresh unwashed roots
Operation Loss of material
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm Residual MC % 9/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
These operations are traditionally carried out entirely by women, usually starting very early in
the morning harvesting, peeling and washing the roots in the field, then carrying the cleaned
roots to the village where the rest of the operations are carried out.
5.1.2.1 Grating
The grating operation is usually carried out manually, but poweroperated graters of various
makes and models are being more widely used
Traditional method
Hand grating is invariably considered the most tedious and painful operation of the whole
process. The women who still grate the cassava manually, when asked about the problems
of gari processing, will simply show the palms of their hands. To hand grate one tonne of
fresh peeled cassava roots generally requires 1015 man days of effort. (Cock 1985).
The cassava is usually grated at least one hour after washing in order that excess water can
drain off the peeled and washed cassava, otherwise the roots are too slippery and too
difficult hold during grating. The manual grater is usually only a piece of galvanized metal
sheet or even a piece of flattened can or tin, punched with about 3mm diameter nails leaving
a raised jagged flange on the underside. This grating surface is fixed on a wooden frame
(Figure 5.4) and the cassava pieces are pressed against the jagged side of the metal and
rubbed vigorously with strong downward movements. Particular care has to be taken and
some skill is required "not to also grate the fingers" but still accidents sometimes happen.
This traditional technology can be improved by mounting the grating surface on a wooden
table at a convenient height so the rubbing action is horizontal rather than in a downward
slant when the grating surface is supported against the operators legs It is not possible to
completely grate a whole cassava piece, 3% to 5% of the cassava has to be left ungrated
(Flach 1990, Bencini 1991). A skilful person is able to produce only about 20 kg/hour. In 1990
manual graters were sold for US$2 to $3 each in village markets of the northwest province
of Cameroon (Flach, 1990).
Figure 5.4 The traditional grater fabrication and use (Muchnick and Vinck, 1984)
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 10/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
Mechanized grating
Sometimes a group of processors will purchase their own mechanically powered rasping or
grating machine or a private contractor will travel within a group of villages grating cassava
for a fee. There are two types in common use: i) modified hammer mills and ii) graters using
an abrasive disc. The abrasive surface can be either cylindrical or a flat disc (figure 5.5) and
is frequently a galvanized metal sheet with nailpunched holes, as in the hand grater, and
attached to a wooden frame. It is said the grating surface normally wears out with six months
of regular use and must be replaced otherwise the output of the machine is significantly
reduced. One further disadvantage with this rudimentary grating surface is the difficulty of
cleaning it after use. Debris becomes lodged in the holes and within the torn flanges and
becomes a substrate for microbial growth and the possible subsequent contamination of the
grated cassava which could affect the subsequent fermentation.
Many of the simple graters in use have been developed by local institutions. In the early
1970s a cassava grater was developed in the Intermediate Technology Development
Group's workshop in Nigeria made from simple workshop spare parts and using hacksaw
blades mounted on a vertical disc. It was driven by somebody peddling. The "Wadwha" disc
grater was developed in vertical disc. It was driven by somebody peddling. The "Wadwha"
disc grater was developed in Ghana and consisted of a disc shaped wooden block to which a
perforated metal sheet was nailed. The disc was driven by a 5 hp diesel engine and a
throughput of one tonne of cassava was claimed. The Tikonko Agricultural Extension Centre
in Sierra Leone developed a vertical drum grater. The outer surface of the drum was covered
with a sheet of perforated metal and as it rotated the cassava was pressed against the
grating surface by a wooden block. The drum was powered by a 4 hp electric motor or diesel
engine. In general capacities range between 300kg to 1,000kg per hour (Bencini, 1991). In
Cameroon many of the cylindrical power graters used in villages are based on the design of
CENEEMA which has some unique design features intended to improve grating efficiency
and output without necessarily increasing the power requirement. There are, however, many
variations in design, power transmission, capacity and type of construction. (Fig 5.5).
Figure 5.5 Simple mechanized graters
Wadwha disc grater
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 11/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
Vertical drum grater
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 12/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
Pedal grater
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 13/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
The body of these graters can of wood, galvanized metal sheet, mild steel or aluminium. The
inside parts of the hopper and the chute should not have exposed steel (iron) because iron
causes a bluish tinge to develop on the grated mash. Where the hopper or the grating
cylinders are made of wood, they should be lined with aluminium or galvanized sheeting to
make thorough cleaning easier.
5.1.2.2 Fermentation and dewatering
Traditional method
In the traditional operations fermentation and pressing (dewatering) are done in one
operation. The grated mash is packed inside baskets, jute bags or perforated plastic sacks
and left to ferment for 14 days. The duration of the operation affects the colour, taste and
texture of the gari. This duration can be reduced by seeding the freshly grated mash with
previously fermented liquor as a starter, provided that it can be mixed thoroughly.
Fermentation takes place in two phases. Initially the starch in the roots is hydrolysed by
Corynebacterium to give sugars. These are metabolised to organic acids which hydrolyse the
cyanogenic glucosides in the cassava and releases HCN. When sufficient acid has been
formed the second phase, characterised by Geotrichum candida growth, begins. From the
sugars the mould produces the aldehydes and esters that give gari its typical flavour
(Bruisma et al 1983). During dewatering some soluble cyanide and organic acid is removed
with the press liquor It also contains some starch and may be used as a base for stews and
soups or the starch can be recovered by allowing the liquor to settle and decanting off the
liquid.
Figure 5.6: Traditional method of pressing and fermentation (Muchnik and Vinck
1984)
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 14/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 15/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
During the fermentation period the container is put under pressure by piling heavy stones on
it, by strongly twisting the neck of the sacks and pressing the bag or sack between wooden
poles tightened by ropes (Figure 5.6). In the latter cases the bag or sack is retightened
every day as the liquor flows out of the cassava mash. Neither of these methods is
considered as effective as the tipiti as used in South America. In this case the mash is held in
a tube of a rather complicated basket weave, the diameter of which expands as it is
compressed and shrinks as the tube is extended. One end of the tipiti is secured high in a
tree and the other end is fastened to a lever which is subjected to a heavy downward pull by
ropes, heavy stones or even by somebody sitting on it (Cock 1985).
Improved or small commercial methods
In larger scale operations pressing takes place after fermentation. The grated mash is left to
ferment for one to four days in its container. Pressing is done using one of a number of
designs of screw or hydraulic press which need access to simple workshops for their
construction (Figure 5.7 a and b). The Technology Consultancy Centre in Ghana developed
a parallel board press in which a pulp filled bag is placed between two parallel boards which
are screwed together to apply pressure to the bag. This idea has been extended to a screw
press which can take several bags, but its construction requires heavy metal components.
Some authorities consider it will normally take 2030 minutes for the grated mash to reach
the required level of 45%50% moisture content (Muchnik and Vinck 1984, Flach 1990,
Bencini, 1991), but others suggest that in the larger presses it may take three to four hours
(ITGD 1993).
Figure 5.7 Examples of improved pressing methods
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 16/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
5.1.2.3 Sieving
After pressing the dewatered cassava mash is a solid cake which has to be broken up and
sieved to remove the large lumps and fibre (from the central vascular strands) and to obtain
an homogenous product. Uniform particle size is important because it makes for a more
uniform roasting of individual particles during the frying operation, smaller particles taking
less time and less energy in roasting.
Traditionally sieving is done manually using sieves made from palm leaves, bamboo or raffia
cane. The sieving operation is not very difficult or arduous compared to some of the other
gari processing operations. Perhaps for this reason there is little advanced sieving equipment
at village level but mechanical sieves are included even in small commercial operations.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 17/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
Sieves are usually single or double screen trays which oscillate by means of an eccentric
cam driven by small electric motor or powered by some means from the engine driving the
plant.
5.1.2.4 Frying and drying
Traditional method
Garification and drying are combined in the "frying" of the gari. At village level gari is fried in
shallow castiron pans, or in the more traditional areas in earthenware pans, over an open
wood fire (Figure 5.8). The sieved cassava mash is spread thinly in the pan in 23kg batches.
A piece of calabash is often used to press the mash against the hot surface of the pan but it
must be scraped quickly and stirred constantly to keep the material moving to prevent it
burning until frying is completed when it reaches a temperature of 80° to 85°C. The rapid
heating partially gelatinises the gari which is dried during the operation of frying. The process
takes 3035 minutes, with the moisture content of the final product reduced to about 18%
(Muchnik and Vivier 1984, Bencini 1991).
Gari frying is a complex procedure which, in traditional processing, depends for its success
almost entirely on the skill of the operator. Simply stirring the cassava mash over a fire could
yield a product which may look like gari but will not be acceptable to consumers. Assessing
the point at which the grains are completely gelatinized and the frying complete is a very
subjective judgement and depends on the experience and skill of the operator. Experienced
gari processors know when garification is complete simply by the appearance of the particles
and by the feel of the texture whilst stirring.
A traditional fireplace consists of three large stones supporting the frying pan. This causes a
great deal of discomfort to the operators due to exposure to heat and smoke from the fire
and steam from the wet cassava mash. At the same time the system is very inefficient in its
use of fuel, energy consumption per unit of dried gari is considered to be very high. Even
enclosing the fire on three sides will improve fuel consumption and reduce the smoke
blowing into the faces of the operator. The inefficiency of frying and firewood consumption
are the most important issues in traditional gari production that need to be addressed most
urgently.
The FAO postharvest project in Cameroon introduced improved fireplaces for the frying
operation (Figure 5.9) consisting of an elongated fireplace built of burntclay bricks and with a
three metres high chimney at one end to remove smoke and fumes from the fire. The
traditional cast iron pans for frying are set into the top of the fire place. The improved
fireplace are said to reduce wood consumption by 55% and the frying time by about half.
Another development of note is the "village gari frying stand" developed by the Rural Agro
Industrial Development Scheme in Nigeria. It is a rectangular tray roaster with a thickwalled
aluminium frying pan. Coal is the recommended fuel, but wood or sawdust can also be used.
A chimney helps draw air over the fire which reduces the effects of smoke and heat on the
operator. A long wooden stirrer or rake is used to turn the gari and prevent it burning. It can
be used indoors or outdoors as required and although expensive it is claimed to need very
little maintenance.
Figure 5.8 Traditional fireplaces for gari frying (Source: A. Diop)
Figure 5.9 Improved methods of manual gari frying (Source: AmoaAwua and
Djokoto, 1991)
FAO Cameroon fryer
Village gari frying stand
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 18/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
Figure 5.10 Semimechanized gari processing plant
Mechanised frying and drying
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 19/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
A mechanical "garifier" or a mechanised system of frying and drying usually takes the form of
a mildsteel drum or trough with rotary rakes and paddles fixed to a steel shaft slowly rotating
on the axis of the drum. The rakes or paddles sweep the gelatinising mash from the trough
wall to prevent sticking and burning and at the same time move the material through the
length of the garifier which is frequently inclined from the feeding hopper towards the
discharge sprout. In a design of the Federal Institute of Industrial Research, Oshodi (FIIRO)
in Nigeria a gas or wood fire below the hopper produces a wall temperature of about 250°C
with the hot gasses contained within a housing of mudblocks or burntclay bricks. The
cassava mash gelatinizes while being moved over the heated surface of the metal trough
which takes about 15 minutes. The gelatinized cassava is further dried and is discharged at
about 10% moisture content, suitable for long term storage in plastic bags. The machine has
been on trial in several countries and the output was established at 100 kg/hour of dried gari.
5.1.3 The processing of cassava into "farinha de mandioca"
Farinha de mandioca, as it is called in Brazil, is a processed cassava product particularly
popular in the northeast of the country. Originally it was a food product developed over
several centuries by the Indians of tropical America as a process for detoxifying bitter
cassava and storing it for longer periods than was possible with fresh cassava. It is a product
quite similar to gari, with the same individual operations involved in its production except that
the fermentation time is shorter. There are indications that gari production was introduced in
Africa by freed slaves returning from Brazil, bringing the knowledge of farinha production
with them.
The traditional technology of farinha production has developed in line with the need to feed a
rapidly growing urban population. The Portuguese introduced machinery which adapted well
to the traditional system, notably for the grating and pressing operations. Now in Brazil, two
distinct farinha production systems coexist, farina grossa and farina d'agua. Both processes
are essentially the same except that in the latter the roots are submerged in pools of water
for several days before peeling (Muchnik and Vinck 1984, Cock 1985).
Casas de farina, (Table 5.3) are informal, small scale family enterprises operating close to
supplies of raw material. They use family labour and produce an average of 150kg per day
for both domestic consumption and for marketing. The only mechanised operation is grating.
Over 70,000 casas de farina are estimated to be operating in the northeast of Brazil. Both
small and medium sized fully mechanised factories have been established to respond to the
large and increasing demand from the urban markets that the casas de farina alone cannot
satisfy. As long ago as 1970, 880 of these factories were said to be in operation.
5.1.4 The production of cassava bread
Cassava bread, which is also called cassavae in the francophone Caribbean countries and
casabe in Spanish Caribbean countries, is a white, flat, circular, porous food product made
by baking moist cassava mash. It is a very popular food in South and Central America and
the Caribbean.
Table 5.3 Comparison of the characteristics of casas de farinha and the farinha
factories (Adapted from Muchnik and Vinck, 1984).
Casas de farinha Small and medium scale
factories
Number of units 70,000 to 80,000 (estimate) 1,248 (based on survey in
1970)
Linkage between production Based on small family enterprises, with Supply based on purchases
and processing supply of raw material from own of raw material. Clear
production; cassava production and separation between raw
processing constitute a single economic material production and
unit. processing.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 20/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
The bread is made by spreading a layer of nonfermented cassava mash, produced in the
same process as gari, (peeling fresh roots, grating, pressing and sieving but not fermented),
over a heated metal or ceramic plate and baking it on both sides (Figure 5.11) at a
temperature of about 160°C. Some processors sprinkle cassava mash on the metal plate
and if it turns brown, then it is considered to be at the proper temperature. After baking the
fresh cassava bread is sundried on raised platforms for few hour to improve its keeping
quality, before being packed in paper or polyethylene bags for marketing, which is frequently
sold in the retail market directly from the bakers and traders vehicles. Some processors may
add salt and peanut paste or garlic before baking (Carrizales, 1991).
Figure 5.11 The baking and retailing of cassava bread
5.1.5 The production of attieke
Attieke is a fermented and gelatinized cassava meal which has its origins in the south of Côte
d'Ivoire, but which is now the most popular cassava product in the country. In 1984 the
consumption of attieke in Abidjan alone was estimated at 7080 tons per day (Muchnik and
Vinck 1984) and the market demand has continued to grow at a considerable rate. The
demand is largely met by an army of thousands of women processors and traders. Attieke is
generally consumed with meat, incorporated into a vegetable sauce or mixed with milk.
The operations involved in its production are essentially the same as for gari; peeling and
washing, chopping (into 34cm cubes), mashing or grating, fermenting, dewatering, sieving,
granulating, drying and steaming. The production process is very long and at times tedious,
most of the operations at present still being done by hand except for mashing.
5.1.5.1 Mashing and fermentation
Traditionally, mashing is done with a mortar and pestle or using hand graters similar to those
for gari processing. Now most of the processors involved in the commercial production of
attieke use machines, generally hammer mills, on a toll basis for mashing the cassava cubes.
A starter to accelerate fermentation, made by boiling and fermenting cassava anaerobically
i.e. inside a plastic bag, is added during mashing in the proportion of 5% to 10% by weight.
About 1% by weight of oil palm is also added during this operation.
5.1.5.2 Dewatering granulating and gelatinising
The mashed cassava is kept in large baskets lined with jute and left to ferment for 1015
hours before being dewatered using similar methods as in the case of gari. The dewatered
cassava mash, which has a moisture content of 55% to 60%, is hand sieved and then
granulated into round and smooth particles by continuous circular hand stirring movements.
This operation is very slow with an output of only about 5 kg/hour per person. The grains
obtained are sundried for about an hour.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 21/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
After this short drying period, which may in some cases be omitted, the grains are steamed
for about 30 minutes by putting the batch of granules inside a steamer. Often this is only a tin
container with holes punched in the bottom and placed over a pot of boiling water with the
join between the pot and the steamer sealed with wet clay. The grains are stirred with a
spatula from time to time to prevent them from sticking. When they are completely gelatinised
they turn yellowish and translucent
The moisture content of attieke is greater than 50%, and its shelf life is only two to four days.
Since the early 1980s attempts have been made to produce attieke at the level of an
industrial plant at Toumodi, Côte d'Ivoire. It aims to produce two tons of attieke and two tons
of cassava flour per day. Whilst the technical aspects of the production have reportedly been
solved and it is now considered possible to produce attieke with a moisture content of 8% to
10%, with a shelf life of several months (Muchnik and Vinck, 1984), there remains the
problems of the product's acceptability by traders and consumers and its economic
competitiveness against traditional attieke and imported cereals.
5.2 Processing of other Root and Tuber Crops
5.2.1 Traditional methods
5.2.2 Improved methods of production of dehydrated chips
In contrast to cassava of which a large proportion is consumed in a processed form, other
roots and tubers (yams, potatoes, sweet potatoes and cocoyams) are normally stored and
consumed as fresh produce. But on some occasions they also are processed into dried chips
with the aim of prolonging the storage life, especially for that portion of the crop which has
been affected by injuries or diseases.
5.2.1 Traditional methods
Many simple methods have been devised based on local resources to extend the storage life
of roots and tubers. At family and village levels, the fresh or precooked roots or tubers are
simply peeled, cut into chips and sundried by being spread out in the open, on a mat or any
clean surface. Drying may take up to one week or more, depending on the weather. The
dried chips are ground into flour before being incorporated into the traditional foods. Yams in
Nigeria, potatoes in Peru, sweet potatoes in Cameroon and Tanzania are traditionally
processed in this way, the smaller tubers or those damaged or partially decayed being
particularly selected for the purpose.
5.2.2 Improved methods of production of dehydrated chips
In order to satisfy the demand by urban consumers for a high quality product the same
considerations apply to the production of high quality dried chips or flakes as in the natural
drying of cassava chips (section 5.1.1). The improved methods for drying cassava chips have
been applied to the drying of yams, potatoes, sweet potatoes and cocoyams. But dried chips
of these roots and tubers can be affected by discolouring compounds which do not occur in
cassava. The discoloration of the dried chips occurs in three ways (Straw and Booth,
undated):
Enzymatic darkening,
Aftercooking darkening,
Browning during drying and storage.
Enzymatic darkening is caused by the oxidation of phenolic compounds
resulting in a brown to blueblack discoloration which affects the quality and
appearance of the final product. Cooking before peeling and slicing will destroy
the enzyme and prevent this type of discoloration. If it is not possible to cook the
chips immediately after slicing immersing the chips in water helps to slow down
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 22/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
the enzymatic reaction, adding salt (3% w/w) to the water will further slow down
the reaction. When the freshly cut chips have to be kept for prolonged period a
preferred treatment is dipping for five minutes in a 0.10.2% sodium bisulphite
solution, or 10 minutes in a 0.5% sodium metabisulphite solution.
Aftercooking darkening is the result of the oxidation of ferrous iron present in
the tuber to ferric iron. Roots and tubers chips which are still warm after being
boiled, parboiled or blanched should not be left exposed to air but should be
cooled as quickly as possible, for example by immersion cold water. Lowering
the pH also prevents the oxidation taking place; in practice this is done by
dipping the chip in a solution of 0.4% citric acid.
Browning usually takes place during the drying and storage of the chips. This is
the result of the reducing sugar combining with free amino acids. The reaction
occurs more rapidly at temperatures above 55°C. It is, therefore, important to
keep the drying temperature as low as possible.
5.2.2.1 The potato processing technology developed by CIP
CIP has developed simple processing machinery for the production of dehydrated potatoes,
including a washer, peeler, slicer and dryer. The peeler is a metallic cylinder rotating on a
horizontal axis. The cylinder is punched from the outside at about 7 mm centres leaving
jagged raised flanges inside creating a rough abrasive surface. The cylinder is loaded with
potatoes and rotated at about 60 revolutions per minute and the rough internal surface
effectively scrapes the peel from the potatoes (Figures 5.12). Water is fed into the cylinder to
wash out the peelings. The peeler can be turned by hand or a small motor. A batch of 20 kg
takes about 20 minutes.
Figure 5.12 CIP potato hand washer and motorised peeler (Straw and Booth,
undated)
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 23/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
The potatoes are cooked by steaming or are blanched before being sliced and dried. The
CIP slicing machine has been modified and is successfully used as a cassava chipper
(section 5.1.1.2, fig 5.1) For potatoes it comprises a rotating steel disc with protruding cutting
blades that cut potato slices about 2 mm thick. It was designed to be hand operated and it is
claimed has an output of 150 kg/hr but this is more likely to be achieved when the machine is
modified for motor drive.
The drier is simply a range of twotier wooden racks inclined at an angle of 30 degrees to the
prevailing wind. The racks hold drying trays containing the loosely spread potato slices. They
are intended to be built inside a structure, covered with clear plastic, effectively a simple solar
drier, and surrounded by screens in the hope of keeping out insects and birds, but sufficiently
open to allow free passage of air. This simple dryer creates internal temperatures 1520°C
warmer than ambient. The drying of the slices down to 10% moisture content is done in 14
18 hours depending on weather conditions.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 24/25
1/29/2017 Chapter 5 Processing of Roots and Tubers
5.2.2.2 Drying sweet potatoes in Cameroon
An FAO postharvest project in Cameroon introduced an improved method for the
dehydration of roots and tubers which was adapted from the CIP design. It was intended for
use at village level and involved washing, peeling, slicing, blanching, cooling and drying.
The principle modification is in the design of the washerpeeler. This is made from a 200litre
capacity metal drum. The inside surface of the drum is covered with abrasive carborundum
grits made up of a layer of sifted riversand followed by a layer of silicon carbide grit No 12.
This gives a very abrasive surface that very effectively scrapes the peel from the tubers. The
drum is carried on a steel pipe passing through the horizontal axis of the drum which rotates
about this pipe. The pipe is perforated and water is passed though it into the drum to wash
the potatoes and remove the peelings. The drum and axle are mounted on a suitable
framework. It is rotated by hand at about 60 RPM, with a batch of 20 kg and has a capacity
of about 250 kg/hr.
The bicycleoperated slicer is a modified version that developed by the Society for
Development of Appropriate Technology (SOTEC) in Bareilly, India.
Blanching of the slices is done by dipping the product for five minutes in boiling water to
which some citric acid and sodium metabisulphite is added. After cooling in cold water baths,
the slices are spread to dry on elevated wooden platforms. Drying normally takes one to two
days depending on weather conditions.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415E/x5415e05.htm 25/25