NCERT Notes: Medieval History-The North

Indian Kingdoms-The Rajputs

The North Indian Kingdoms - The Rajputs
The Ancient Indian history came to an end with the rule of Harsha and Pulakesin II. The
Medieval period lies between the 8th and the 18th century A.D.

The medieval period can be divided into two stages:

Early medieval period: 8th – 12th century A.D.

Later Medieval period: 12th-18th century.

About the Rajputs

They are the descendants of Lord Rama (Surya vamsa) or Lord Krishna
(Chandra vamsa) or the Hero who sprang from the sacrificial fire (Agni Kula
theory).
Rajputs belonged to the early medieval period.
The Rajput Period (647A.D- 1200 A.D.)
From the death of Harsha to the 12th century, the destiny of India was mostly
in the hands of various Rajput dynasties.
They belong to the ancient Kshatriya families.
They are foreigners.

There were nearly 36 Rajput’ clans. The major clans were:

1. The Pratiharas of Avanti

2. The Palas of Bengal
3. The Chauhans of Delhi and Ajmer
4. The Rathors of Kanauj
5. The Guhilas or Sisodiyas of Mewar
6. The Chandellas of Bundelkhand
7. The Paramaras of Malwa
8. The Senas of Bengal
9. The Solankis of Gujarat

The Pratiharas 8th-11th Century A.D

 The Pratiharas were also called as Gurjara.
They ruled between 8th and 11th century A.D. over northern and western
India.
Pratiharas: A fortification- ​The Pratiharas stood as a fortification of India’s
defence against the hostility of the Muslims from the days of Junaid of Sind
(725.A.D.) to Mahmud of Ghazni.

Rulers

Nagabhatta I (725-740 A.D.)

Founder of the Pratihara dynasty with Kanauj as it’s capital.

Vatsaraja and Nagabhatta II

Played a vital role in merging the empire.

Mihirabhoja

The most powerful Pratihara king.

During his period, the empire expanded from Kashmir to Narmada and from
Kathiawar to Bihar.

Mahendrapala (885-908 A.D.)

Son of Mihirabhoja, was also a powerful ruler.

He extended his control over Magadha and North Bengal​.

Decline of the Pratiharas

Rajyapala was the last Pratihara king.

Vast empire was reduced to Kanauj.
The Pratihara power began to decline after Mahmud of Ghazni attacked the
kingdom in 1018 A.D.
After the decline of the Prathiharas their feudatories Palas, Tomars,
Chauhans, Rathors, Chandellas.
Guhilas and Paramaras became independent rulers.
There was complete anarchism in Bengal between 750-760 A.D.
Pala Dynasty

Gopala (765-769 A.D.)

Founder of Pala Dynasty and he also restored order.

Ruled over Northern and Eastern India.
He expanded the Pala dynasty and extended his power over Magadha​.

Dharmapala (769-815 A.D.)

He is the son of Gopala and succeeded his father.

He brought Bengal, Bihar, and Kanauj under his control.
He defeated the Pratiharas and became the master of Northern India.
He was a steadfast Buddhist and founded the famous Vikramasila University
and several monasteries.
He also restored the Nalanda University.

Devapala (815-855 A.D.)

Devapala is the son of Dharmapala who succeeded his father.

He kept the Pala territories intact.
He captured Assam and Orissa.

Mahipala (998-1038 A.D.)

The Palas became powerful during his reign.

The Pala dynasty declined after the death of Mahipala.

Govinda Pala

He is the last Pala King.

Tripartite Struggle for Kanauj
The Tripartite Struggle for Kanauj was between the Pratiharas of Central India,
the Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of Deccan.
As all these three dynasties wanted to establish their supremacy over Kanauj and
the fertile Gangetic Valley.
The Tripartite Struggle lasted for 200 years and weakened all of them which enabled
the Turks to overthrow them.

The Tomars of Delhi

The Tomars were the feudatories of the Pratiharas.
They founded the city of Delhi in 736 A.D.
Mahipala Tomar captured Thaneshwar, Hansi and Nagarkot in 1043 A.D.
Chauhans captured Delhi in middle of the 12th century and the Tomars became
their feudatories.

The Chauhans of Delhi and Ajmer

The Chauhans declared their independence in the 1101 century at Ajmer and
they were the feudatories of the Pratiharas.
They captured Ujjain from the Paramaras of Malwa and Delhi in the early part
of the 12th century.
They shifted their capital to Delhi.
Prithvtraj Chauhan was the most important ruler of this dynasty.

Rathors of Kanauj (1090-1194 A.D.)

The Rathors established themselves on the throne of Kanauj from 1090 to

1194 A.D.
Jaichand was the last great ruler of this dynasty.
He was killed in the battle of Chandwar in 1194A.D. by Muhammad of Ghori.

The Chandellas of Bundelkhand

Established them in the 9th century.

Mahoba was the capital of Chandella during the period of Chief Yasovarman
Kalinjar was their important fort.
The Chandellas built the most famous Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in 1050
A.D. and a number of beautiful temples at Khajuraho.
Paramal the last Chandella ruler was defeated by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in
1203A.D.

The Guhllas or Sisodiyas of Mewar

The Rajput ruler Bapa Rawat was the founder of the Guhila or the Sisodiya
dynasty and Chittor was its capital.
 During the period of Rana Ratan Singh of Mewar.
In 1307 A.D.Ala-ud-din khilji invaded his territory and defeated him.
Rana Sangha and Maharana Prata the Sisodiya rulers gave a tough fight to
the Mughal rulers of India.

The Paramaras of Malwa

The Paramaras were also the feudatories of Pratiharas. They declared their
independence in the 10​th​century and Dhara was their capital.

Raja Bhoja (1018-1069)

He was the most famous ruler of this period.

He constructed a beautiful lake more than 250 sq. miles near Bhopal.
He set up a college at Dhara for the study of Sanskrit Literature.

The reign of the Paramaras came to an end with the invasion of Ala-ud-din Khilji.

Nature of the Rajputs

The Rajputs were great warriors and chivalrous by nature.

They believed in protecting the women and the weak.

Religion

The Rajputs were staunch followers of Hinduism.

They also patronized Buddhism and Jainism.
During their period the Bhakti Cult started.

Government

The Rajput government was outdated in character.

Each kingdom was divided into a large number of Jagirs held by the
Jagirdars.
Major literary works of this period

Kalhana’s Rajatarangin
Jayadeva’s Gita Govindam
Somadeva’s Kathasaritasagar
Chand Bardai, the court poet of Prithviraj Chauhan, wrote Prithviraj Raso in
which he refers to the military exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan.
Bhaskara Charya wrote Siddhanta Shinomani, a book on astronomy.

Rajasekhara

The court poet of Mahendrapala and Mahipala.

His best known works were Karpu ramanjari , Bala and Ramayana.

Art and Architecture

During this period

Mural paintings and Miniature paintings were popular.

Temples at Khajuraho
Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneshwar
The Sun Temple at Konark
The Dilwara Temple at Mount Abu

End of the Rajput Power

There was no strong military power during the Rajput period to keep the
warring princes in check and to co-ordinate their activities against foreign
invasions.

NCERT Notes: Medieval History – THE

KINGDOMS OF THE DECCAN
THE KINGDOMS OF THE DECCAN
The Deccan or the Dakshinapatha regions are the part of Southern India.
The Vindhya and Satpura mountains, the Narmada and Tapti rivers, and the
dense forests separate the Deccan from Northern India.
The Deccan part witnessed the rise of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas
during the medieval period.
This period also witnessed the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate like the
Khiljis and the Tughluqs into South India.

The Chalukyas (6th -12th century A.D.)

The Chalukyas period can be broadly divided into three and they are:

1. The ​Early Western Chalukyas​ (6th-8th century A.D.)

2. The Later Western Chalukyas (10th-12th century A.D.)
3. The Eastern Chalukyas (7th-12th century A.D.)

The Early Western Chalukyas (6th-8thcentury A.D.)

They rose into power in the 6​th​ century A.D in Karnataka.

Vatapi (modern Badami) in the Bijapur district was their capital.
Jayasimha and Ramaraya, Pulakesin-I (543-566.A.D) were humble rulers of
the early Western Chalukyas.

Pulakesin II (610-642 A.D.)

Pulakesin II is the real founder and greatest ruler of this dynasty

He defeated Gangas, Malavas and Gurjaras.
In 637 A.D he defeated Harsha’s attack in the north.
He struggled constantly with the Pallavas in the south.
Pulakesin II defeated the Pallava King Mahendravarma I after which he
crossed the Cauvery.
Made friendly alliances with the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas.
Pulakesin II lost his life during the war.

The other important rulers of this dynasty

Vikramaditya-I
Vijayaditya
 Vikramaditya II

Kirtivarman II (746 AD – 753 AD)

He is the last Chalukya King of Badami.

Later Western Chalukyas of Kalyani (10th -12th century A.D)

The founder of this dynasty brought the Rashtrakuta rule to an end.

The important rulers of this dynasty are:

Someshwara-II
Vikramaditya-VI
Vikramaditya-VI
Someswara IV was the last ruler

Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (7th -12th century A.D)

Vishnu Vardhana brother of Pulakesin-II was the founder of the Eastern

Chalukya Empire of Vengi.
Kulothunga Chola (1071-1122 A.D.) is one of their descendants.
He was crowned as a Chola ruler.

Contributions of the Chalukyas

1. They followed Hinduism.

2. Ravikirti a Jain, the court poet of Pulakesin-II composed the Aihole
Inscription.
3. Great patrons of architecture
4. 70 Vishnu temples in Aihole were built; hence Aihole has been called the
‘Cradle of Indian Temple architecture.
5. Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal
6. Telugu literature developed during this period.

The Virupaksha temple

Lokamahadevi built this temple and she was the queen of Vikramaditya II.
In front of the Hall of the Priests or Antarala there is a pillared Mandapam or a
meeting place for the people.
 The Virupaksha temple is built on the model of the Kailasanatha temple at
Kancheepuram.

The Rashtrakutas (8th-10th century A.D.)

The Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra (11th -14th Century A.D.)

Vinayaditya ​(1006 -1022 A.D.)

Vinayaditya carved out a trivial territory of Mysore with Sosavir as capital and
ruled over it.

Vishnuvardhana​ (1108–1152 A.D.)

He was the first distinguished ruler of Vinayaditya’s family.

He shifted his capital to Dwarasamudra.
He captured Gangavadi from Kulothunga Chola and Gangavadi served as a
buffer state between the Chalukyas and the Chola Empire.

Vira Ballala – II ​(1173-1220 A.D.)

Vira Ballala – II the next important ruler of the dynasty.

He defeated Billama V of Yadava Dynasty.
He detained the independence of the Hoysalas.

Narasimhan-II ​(1220-1235 A.D.)

Narasimhan-II lost the territory between Krishna and Tungabhadra to a

Yadava ruler, Singhana.
He defeated Maravarman Sundara Pandya
Restored Rajaraja-III to the Chola throne.
He erected the pillar of victory at Rameshwaram.

Ballala III ​(1291-1342 A.D)

Ballala III was the last great ruler of this dynasty.

In 1310A.D. he was defeated by Malik Kafur.
In 1342 A.D. he fell victim to the Sultans of Madurai.

Ballala IV

His son Ballala IV continued his struggle with the Muslims.

 With his death the Hoysala Kingdom came to end.

Contributions

The Hoysalas paved the way for the rise of Mysore into a big Kingdom.
They were great patrons of art, architecture and literature.
The Hoysalas encouraged Kannada literature.

The Kakatiyas of Warangal (12th -14th Century A.D.)

Prola-II (1110 -1158 A.D.)

The Kakatiya ruler captured the territory between the Krishna and the
Godavari from the Chalukyas and ruled over it with Hanumakonda as his
capital.

Prataparudra-I (1158-1196.A.D.)

He was son of Prola II shifted the capital to Warangal.

Ganapathi (1199-1261. A.D.)

He was the next remarkable ruler of this dynasty.

He captured territories up to Kanchi from the Cholas.
He invaded Kalinga and Western Andhra.

(Rudrambha) (1261 -1291 .A.D.)

She was the daughter of Ganapati.

She abdicated the throne in favour of her grandson Prataparudhra-II

Prataparudhra-II (1291-1326 A.D.)

Malik Kafur invaded Warangal in 1309 A.D, during his rule.

Prataprudra – II paid Malik Kafur an immense treasure in return.

Ulugh Khan

Ulugh Khan, the son of Ghiasud-din Tughluq captured Warangal in 1323 A.D.
and sent Prataparudra II to Delhi
His successors continued their struggle with the rulers of the Tughluq dynasty

Vinayakadeva
 He is the last nominal ruler of this dynasty.
He was sentenced to death by Muhammad Shah I.

KOHINOOR (the famous diamond belonged to Kakatiyas)

KOHINOOR​ unearthed in Kollur on the banks of the Krishna River belonged

to the Kakatiyas.

Contributions

1. The Kakatiyas encouraged literature, art and architecture.

2. The thousand Pillar temple at Hanumakonda was built during their period and
stands as an everlasting contribution.

The Yadavas of Devagiri (850–1334 A.D.)

The Yadavas of Devagiri claimed their descent from the epic hero Lord
Krishna.
They were known as Sevunas because they ruled over Sevuna, the region
from Nasik to Devagiri (Daulatabad).

Bhillama V (1 1 75-11 90 A.D.)

The Yadava ruler took advantage of the declining power of the Later Western
Chalukyas of Kalyani and rose to power.
He defeated Someswara-IV and declared his independence.
He came into conflict with Vira Balalla-II (1173-1220A.D.), a Hoysala ruler.
He lost his life in the battle of Lakkundi.

Jaitrapala (1191-1210 A.D.)

He was son of Bhillama V

He defeated Kalachuris, Gurjaras and Kakatiyas.

Singhana (1210-1247A.D.)

He was son of Jaitrapala.

He was the most distinguished ruler of this dynasty.
He defeated Mahadeva, a Kakatiya ruler.
He also defeated Vira Ballala-II, the Hoysala ruler and expanded his dominion
beyond the River Krishna.
 He invaded Gujarat many times and captured Kolhapur which belonged to
Silhara dynasty.

Krishna (1247-1260 A. D)

Krishna was grandson of Singhana and succeeded him.

Mahadeva (1260-1271 A.D)

He was brother​ Krishna.

He captured North Konkan and ended the Silhara dynasty.

Ramachandra Deva (1271-1 309 A.D.)

He was the last great ruler of this dynasty.

Ala-ud-din-Khilji defeated him and made him as a vassal of the Delhi
Sultanate.

Sankara Deva (1309 – 1312 A.D.)

He was the son and successor of Ramachandra Deva

Malik Kafur defeated and killed him in 1312 A.D.
Harapala, brother-in-law of Sankara Deva raised the flag against
the Khiljis.
Mubarak, son of Ala-ud-din Khilji defeated and killed Harapala.

Thus the Yadava dynasty came to an end.

Contribution of the Yadavas

Devagiri fort

1. Built during the reign of the Yadavas.

2. It was one of the strongest forts in India.
3. The Juma Masjid and Chand Minar was added by the Delhi Sultans later.

End of the Deccan Kingdoms

The attacks on the Deccan Kingdoms by the Sultans of Delhi ever since the
rule of Ala-uddin Khilji led to their decline.
NCERT Notes for UPSC Exams:
Rashtrakutas (755 – 975 AD)
Origin

The Rashtrakutas called themselves descendants of Satyaki.

There is difference of opinion about their origin among the historians.
From some of the inscriptions of the Chalukya kings it is known that the
Rashtrakutas were feudatories of the Chalukyas.
Rashtrakutas were Kannada origin and their mother tongue was Kannada or
Kanarese.

The Rashtrakuta Empire

The Rashtrakuta Emperors
 Rashtrakuta Emperors (753-982)

Dantidurga (735 – 756)

Krishna I (756 – 774)

Govinda II (774 – 780)

Dhruva Dharavarsha (780 – 793)

Govinda III (793 – 814)

Amoghavarsha (814 – 878)

Krishna II (878 – 914)

Indra III (914 -929)

Amoghavarsha II (929 – 930)

Govinda IV (930 – 936)

 Amoghavarsha III (936 – 939)

Krishna III (939 – 967)

Khottiga Amoghavarsha (967 – 972)

Karka II (972 – 973)

Indra IV (973 – 982)

Founder

Dantivarman or Dantidurga (735 - 756)

Dantivarman or Dantidurga (735 – 756) was the founder of the Rashtrakutas dynasty.

Dantidurga occupied all territories between the Godavari and Vima.

He is said to have conquered Kalinga, Kosala, Kanchi, Srisril, Malava, Lata etc. and
occupied Maharashtra by defeating Chalukya King Kirtivarma.

Rulers

Krishna I (756 - 774)

Krishna I ​succeeded Dantidurga.

 He conquered the territories that were still under the Chalukyas
He also occupied Konkan.
Krishna I also defeated Vishnuvardhana of Vengi and the Ganga king of
Mysore.
He was a great patron of art and architecture.
The Kailash Temple at Ellora was built by the Rashtrakuta King Krishna I.

Govinda II (774 - 780

Govinda II ​son of Krishna I succeeded.

Dhruva (780 - 793)

He defeated Gurjara-Pratihara King Vatsyaraja, the Pallavas of Kanchi and

the Pala King Dharmapala of Bengal.

Govinda III (793 - 814)

Dhruva son of Govinda III succeeded the throne.

He defeated the great Gurjara King Nagabhatta II.
Pala King Dharmapala and his protégé Charayudh sought the help of
Govinda III.
His kingdom spread up to the Vindhyas and Malava in the north and the river
Tungabhadra to the south.

Amoghavarsha I (814- 878 A.D.)

The greatest king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty was Amoghavarsha I son of

Govinda III.
Amoghavarsha I set up a new capital at Manyakheta (now Malkhed in
Karnataka State) and Broach became the best port of the kingdom during his
reign
Amoghavarsha I was a great patron of education and literature.
Amoghavarsha was converted into Jainism by Jinasena, a Jaina monk.
 Suleman, an Arab merchant, in his account called Amoghavarsha I as one of
the four greatest kings of the world, the other three being the Caliph of
Bagdad, the king of Constantinople and the emperor of China.
Amoghavarsha ruled for 63 years.

Krishna II (878 - 914)

Son of Amoghavarsha, succeeded the throne.

Indra III (914 -929)

Indra III was a powerful king.

He defeated and deposed Mahipala

Krishna III (939 – 967)

The last powerful and efficient king of the Rashtrakutas.

He also succeeded in conquering Tanjore and Kanchi.
He succeeded in defeating the Tamil kings of Chola kingdom.

Karka (972 – 973)

The Rashtrakuta King Karka was defeated and deposed by Taila or Tailapa,
the Chalukya king of Kalyani.

Rasjtrakutas Administration

divided rashtras (provinces) ​-contolled by rashtrapatis

Rashtras divided into ​vishayas or districts governed by ​vishayapatis
subdivision was ​bhukti consisting of 50 to 70 villages under the controlof
bhogapatis
Village headmen carried on village administration.
Village assemblies played a significant role in the village administration.

Literature under Rashtrakutas

Rashtrakutas widely patronized the Sanskrit literature.

Trivikrama wrote Halayudha composed ​Kavirahasya during the reign of
Krishna III.
Jinasena composed ​Parsvabhudaya, a biography of Parsva in verses.
Gunabhadra wrote the ​Adipurana, the life stories of various Jain saints.
Sakatayana wrote ​Amogavritti a grammar work.
Viracharya – a Great mathematician of this period wrote Ganitasaram.
During the period of the Rashtrakutas the Kannada literature saw its
beginning.
Kavirajamargacomposed by Amogavarsha’s was the first poetic work in
Kannada language.
Pampa was the greatest of the Kannada poets and ​Vikramasenavijaya is his
famous work​.
Santipurana was another great work wrote by Ponna another famous
Kannada poet.

Art and Architecture

The art and architecture of the Rashtrakutas can be found at Ellora and
Elephanta.
The most remarkable temple Kailasanatha temple at Ellora was built by
Krishna.

Kailasanatha Temple

The temple is carved out of a massive block of rock measuring 200 feet long,
and 100 feet in breadth and height.
The central face of the plinth has imposing figures of elephants and lions
which gives an impression that the entire structure rests on their back
 It has three-tiered sikhara or tower which resembles the ​sikhara of the
Mamallapuram ​rathas
There is a pillared hall with 16 square pillars in the interior of the temple
A sculpture of the Goddess Durga is engraved as slaying the Buffalo demon.
In the interior of the temple there is a pillared hall which has sixteen square
pillars.
The sculpture of the ​Goddess Durga​ is shown as slaying the Buffalo demon.
In another sculpture Ravana was making attempts to lift Mount Kailasa, the
abode of Siva.

Elephanta

Originally called as Sripuri, Elephanta is an island near Bombay.

The Portuguese named it as Elephanta after seeing the huge figure of an
elephant.
The sculptures in Ellora and Elephanta has close similarities
There are huge figures of ​dwara-palakas at the entrance to the sanctum​.
Trimurthi is the most magnificent figure of this temple​. The sculpture is six
metres high and said to represent the three aspects of Shiva as Creator,
Preserver and Destroyer.

Other facts of Rashtrakutas

Vaishnavism and Saivism flourished during their period.

Active commerce witnessed between the Deccan and the Arabs.
They stimulated the Arab trade by maintaining friendship with them.

NCERT Notes: Medieval History – Arab

and Turkish Invasions
Arab and Turkish Invasions
Prophet Muhammad ​(570-632 A.D)

He is the founder of Islam.

He grew up in the deserts of Arabia.
His first coverts were the Arabs.
Sind and Multan were conquered by the Arabs 712 A.D.

Muhammad-bin-Qasim

Al-Hajjajj, the Governor of Iraq​ sent Muhammad-bin-Qasim​ to India

He Conquered ​Sind​ with the permission of Caliph Walid

Battle of Rewar

Fought between Muhammad-bin-Qasim and ​Dahir the ruler of Sind

Dahir was defeated. Sind and Multan was captured.
Muhammad-bin-Qasim​ called Multan as ‘The City of Gold’

Administrative System

Sind and Multan were divided into number of Iqtas or districts by

Muhammad-bin-Qasim and Arab military officers headed the Iqtas.
The sub-divisions of the districts were administered by the local Hindu
Officers.
Jizya was imposed on non-Muslims.

Muhammad-bin-Qasim’s Army

25,000 troops with 6000 Camels, 6000 Syrian horses, 3000 Bactrian Camels
and an artillery force with 2000 men, advanced guards, and five catapults.

End of Muhammad-bin-Qasim

Caliph Walid was succeeded by Caliph Sulaiman.

He was an enemy of Al-Hajjaj, the Governor of Iraq.
Muharrimad-bin Qasim was the son-in-law of Al-Hajjaj, so he dismissed him
and sent to Mesopotamia as a prisoner where he was tortured to death.
For more than 150 years, Sind and Multan continued to remain as the part of
the Caliph’s Empire.

Effects of Arab Conquest

The subjugation of Sind made way for Islam into India.

 The art of administration, astronomy, music, painting, medicine and
architecture were learnt by Arabs from our land and they spread astronomy,
Indian Philosophy, and numerals to Europe.

Turkish Invasion

In the 8th and 9th centuries, the Turks dominated the Caliphs of Baghdad
They extended their dominion beyond Sind and Multan into India and finished
the work begun by the Arabs.

Rani Bai’s heroic defence

The wife of Dahir and the other women of Sind put up a heroic defence within the
Fort of Rewar.

Indian Impact

Brahma Siddhanta

Brahma Siddhanta a Sanskrit work of Brahma Gupta was translated into Arabic in
which the names of Indian Scientists like Sindbad, Bhala, Manaka are mentioned.
In a hospital at Baghdad, Dhana was appointed as chief Medical officer.
A serious disease of Caliph Harun-al-RashidManaka, a physician cured .

Mahmud of Ghazni (971 to 1030)

In 1000 A.D. Mahmud of Ghazni invaded India

He was the first Turkish to invade India.
He returned to Ghazna with enormous wealth after defeating
Jaipala, the ruler of Hindu Shahi Dynasty
Fateh Daud of Multan
Anandpala of Nagarkot
the Chandelas, the rulers of Mathura
Kanauj, and Gwalior.
Mahmud’s significant invasion in Hindustan was against the Somnath temple
in 1025 A.D., located on the coast of Kathiawar and Raja Bhima Dev the ruler
of Kathiawar and his followers escaped from the place.
Mahmud of Ghazni’s Character Estimation

Mahmud of Ghazni was one of the greatest Muslim rulers of Asia.

He patronised art and letters and scholars like Firdausi and Alberuni.

End of Ghazni’s rule in India

Ghazni’s rule declined by 1186 A.D. and the Mahmud of Ghori grew up.

Muhammad of Ghori (1149 – 1206)

He was the third Muslim ruler who invaded India.

He became the ruler of Ghori.

Muhammad of Ghori​ ​invasions

He first invaded India in 1176 A.D.

First Battle of Tarain (1191 A.D.)

He seized the fortress of Bhatinda in 1189 A.D. and then progressed into the
kingdom of Prithviraj Chauhan.
Muhammad of Ghori was defeated by Prithviraj in the first Battle of Tarain in
1191 A.D. and recovered Bhatinda.

Second Battle of Tarain (1192 A.D.)

In the second battle of Train, the joined forces of the Rajput rulers under
Prithviraj were defeated by Muhammad of Ghori.
Prithviraj was held as a prisoner and later put to death.
The Turkish rule began for the first time in Indian history with end The Second
Battle of Tarain.
Qutb-ud-din Aibak was appointed as the commander by Muhammad of Ghori

Rajput Uprisings

There were many Rajput mutinies between 1193 and 1198 A.D.
Qutb-ud-din-Aibak defeated them and brought many regions under his
control.
Muhammad ​of Ghori made Delhi as the capital.

Battle of Chandwar (1194 A.D.)

 Muhammad of Ghori defeated Jaichandra, the greatest Rajput ruler of Kanauj
and killed him in the battle.

Conquest of Bengal and Bihar

Muhammad-bin-Baktiyar Khilji, one of the commanders of Muhammad of

Ghori destroyed Vikramasila in 1202 and Nalanda Universities in 1203A.D.

Death of Muhammad of Ghori

He was assassinated on 25​th​ March 1206 A.D. in Central Asia by some Shia
rebels and Khokhars.
He is considered to be the real founder of the Turkish Empire in India
because of his various invasions and subjugations of the Rajput territories in
North India.

NCERT Notes: Medieval History –

Sultanate of Delhi
Sultanate of Delhi
The period from 1206 A.D. to 1526 A.D. came to be known as the Sultanate period.
This period witnessed many dynasties and various rulers.

Some of the major dynasties and rulers this period witnessed are listed below.

Sl.
No Dynasty Name
.

1 Slave (Ghulam) or Mamluk Dynasty

2 Khilji Dynasty

3 Tughluq dynasty
 4 Sayyid Dynasty

5 Lodi dynasty

Slave (Ghulam) or Mamluk Dynasty

Ruler Period Events

(1206–121 Founder of Mamluk Dynast and Slave of

Qutb-ud-din Aibak
0) Muhammad Ghori

(1210–121
Aram Shah Eldest son of Qutb-ud-din Aibak
1)

(1211–123
Shams-ud-din Iltutmish Son-in-law of Qutb-ud-din Aibak
6)

Rukn ud din Firoz (1236) Son of Iltutmish

(1236–124 Daughter of Iltutmish and Grand Daughter of

Razia Sultana
0) Qutb-ud-din Aibak.

(1240–124
Muizuddin Bahram Son of Iltutmish
2)

(1242–124
Alauddin Masud Son of Rukn-ud-din Firoz
6)
 (1246–126
Nasiruddin Mahmud Razia’s Brother who had died in 1229)
6)

(1266–128 Father-in-law of Nashiruddin mahmud and

Ghiyas-ud-din Balban
6) the most powerful ruler of the Slave Dynasty

(1287–129
Muiz ud din Qaiqabad Grandson of Ghiyasuddin Balban
0)

Kayumars 1290 Son of Muiz-ud-din Qaiqabad

Khilji Dynasty

Rulers Period Events

Founder of the Khilji Dynasty and son of Qaim

Jalal- ud- din Firoz Khilji 1290–1296
Khan

Jalal ud din Firoz Khilji’s Nephew and the most

Ala-ud-din Khilji 1296–1316
powerful ruler of Khilji period

Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah 1316–1320 Son of Alauddin Kilji

Tughluq Dynasty

Rulers Period Events

 Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq 1321–1325

Muhammad binTughluq 1325–1351 Also called as Muhammad Shah II

Mahmud Ibn Muhammad 1351 (March)

Firuz Shah Tughlaq 1351–1388 Cousin of Muhammad bin Tughlaq

Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq II 1388–1389

Abu Bakr Shah 1389–1390

Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III 1390–1393

Ala ud-din Sikandar Shah I 1393

Mahmud Nasir ud din 1393–1394 Also called as Sultan Mahmud II

Nasir-ud-din Nusrat Shah Tughluq 1394–1399 Grandson of Firuz Shah Tughlaq

Nasir ud din Mahmud 1399–1412 Son of Mahmud Nasir-ud- din

Sayyid Dynasty

Rulers Period
 Khizr Khan 1414–1421

Mubarak Shah 1421–1434

Muhammad Shah 1434–1445

Alam Shah 1445–1451

Lodi Dynasty

Rulers Period Important points

Bahlul Lodi 1451–1489 Founder of the Lodi Dynasty

Most prominent ruler of the Lodi Dynasty, founded Agra

Sikander Lodi 1489–1517
city

Defeated by Babur in the First battle of Panipat (in

Ibrahim Lodi 1517–1526
1526) and thus ended the Delhi Sultanate

NCERT Notes: Medieval History –

Sultanate of Delhi – Mamaluk Dynasty
Qutb-ud-din-Aibak (1206-1210A.D.)

Muhammad of Ghori appointed Qutb-ud-din Aibak as his commander and his

rule marked the emergence of Mamaluk rule.
In Quranic term Mamaluk means slave.
He rose into power on 24th June 1206 A.D.
 He is the founder of the Mamaluk Dynasty.

His Achievements

He prevented Ala-ud-din Muhammad, the Shah of Khwarizm from occupying

Ghazni and Delhi.
He prevented the Rajputs from recovering their territories.
He defeated Ali Mardan Khan of Bengal, Qubacha and Yalduz.
Quwat-ul-lslam mosque at Ajmer was built by Qutb-ud-din Aibak.
He also built Dhai Dinka Jhonpara mosque at Delhi.
He began the construction of Qutb Minar at Delhi.
He also patronized Hassan Nizami and Fakhre Mudir.
He was also known as Lakh Bash (Giver of Lakhs) for his generosity.

Iltutmish (1211 -1236 A.D.)

He was born in the Illbari tribe of Central Asia.

He was sold as slave to Qutb-ud-din-Aibak and later become son-in-law of
Aibak.
He killed Aram Shah, the son of Aibak and became king in 1211A.D.
He built the Turkish Kingdom in North India.

Conquests of Iltutmish

Iltutmish defeated Yalduz and put him to death.

He captured Bhakkar and brough Bengal under his control.
He put down the revolt of the the Khilji Maliks of Bengal in 1230 A.D.
He declined to give shelter to Jalal-ud-din Mangabarni, the Shah of Khwarizm
Iltutmish recaptured Ranthambore and Mandor and also Udai Singh.
Iltutmish re-established his power over Badaun, Kanauj, Benaras and
Katchar-the doab region between the Ganga and the Yamuna
Qutb Minar was built in honour of Sufi Saint Khwaja Qutb-ud-din Baktiyar
Kaki
Iltutmish completed the construction of Qutub Minar (which was started by
Aibak)

End of Iltutmish

He nominated his daughter Raziah as his successor before his death.

Administration

Iltutmish set up Iqtas under Iqtadars.

 Iltutmish army was maintained by Chahalgan or ‘A Corps of Forty’.
He was the first Turkish ruler to introduce Arabic coinage.

Coins of Iltutmish

Tanka – silver coin, weighed 175 mgs and had an Arabic inscription on it.
Jital – Copper coin and it was introduced by Iltutmish.

Sultana Raziah (1236-1240 A.D.)

Raziah was the first woman ruler of Sultanate period.

She defeated and killed Firoz Shah who ascended the throne after the death
of Iltutmish.
She successfully restored the prestige of the Turkish Kingdom in India.
Her rule ended in 1240A.D. because of a conspiracy by the Turkish nobles.
The successors of Raziah were weak and hence Balban rose to power in
1265A.D.

Successors of Raziah

Bahram Shah 1240-1242A.D

Alaud-din Masid 1242-1246A.D
Nasir-ud-din Mahmud 1246 -1264A.D.

Balban 1265-1 287A.D.

Balban an llbari Turk became the ruler in 1265A.D.

He believed in the Divine Right Theory of Kingship.
He introduced Poibos- a form of salutation to the king by kissing his feet in
the court.
According to Lanepoole, “Balban, a slave, water carrier, huntsman, general,
statesman and Sultan-is one of the most striking figures among the notable
men in the long line of Kings of Delhi”.

Internal policies

Balban curtailed and destroyed the ‘Corps of Forty’

He introduced a well organised spy system.
A separate military department called Diwan-i-arz was established.
Many military posts were set up at Bhojapur, Patiali, Kampil and Jalali

Divine right Theory

The ruler was considered as a representative of God on earth.

 Balban suppressed Tughril Khan, who declared his independence and
recovered Bengal.
Balban was a great patron of learning
He patronized Amir Khusrau who is called as the ‘Parrot of India’ and Amir
Hasan.

End of Balban

He was shocked when his son Mahmud was killed during an encounter with
the Mongols.
He died in 1287A.D.

End of the Mamaluk Dynasty

Kaiqubad, grandson of Balban succeeded him who was incompetent.

Kayumar, the infant son of Kaiqubad was made as the ruler and Jalal-ud-din
Khilji became the regent of the infant king.
Later he became the ruler of Delhi by killing Kaiqubad and Kayumar.

NCERT Notes: Medieval History –

Sultanate of Delhi – Khilji Dynasty
KHILJI DYNASTY
Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji (1290-1296 A.D.)

He was the founder of Khilji Dynasty.

He was also called as “Clemency Jalal-uddin” as he followed peace and
wanted to rule without violence.

Domestic Policies of Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji

He suppressed ​Malik Chhajju’s revolt at Kara

He appointed Ala-ud-din Khilji his nephew and son-in law at Kara as the
Governor

Mongol Invasion
 In 1292 A.D. Jalal-ud-din defeated and arrested the Mongols who moved up
to Sunam.

End of Jalal-ud-din

Jalal-ud-din was treacherously murdered by Ala-ud-din Khilji his son-in-law.

Jalal-ud-din’s policy of peace was not liked by many.

Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296-1316 A.D.)

In 1296 A.D. Ala-ud-din Khilji succeeded Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji and

ascended the throne.

Ala-ud-din Khilji Invasions in the North

Ala-ud-din Khiliji’s generals Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan conquered Gujarat.
He captured Ranthambore and killed Hamir Deva its ruler.
He also captured Chittor, Malwa, Mandu, Ujjain, Dhar, Chanderi, Marwar and
Jalor

Ala-ud-din Khilji Invasions in the South

He was the first Sultan who attacked South India.

He sent Malik Kafur his most reliable general against the rulers of the south.
Prataprudra-ll of Warangal, Ramachandra Deva the Yadava ruler of Devagiri,
and Vira Ballala-lll the Hoysala rulers were defeated.
He constructed a mosque in Rameswaram.
The kingdoms of the south acknowledged the power of Ala-uddin khilji and
decided to pay tribute to him.

The Mongol Invasion

Ala-ud-din successfully resisted the Mongol invasion more than 12 times.

Domestic Policies of Ala-ud-din Khilji

Ala-ud-din followed the Divine Right Theory of Kingship.

He introduced four ordinances to prevent repeated revolts.
He impounded pious grants and free grants of lands
He restructured the spy system.
He banned social parties and wine.
He introduced a permanent standing army.
He introduced the system of branding of horses and descriptive roll of
individual soldiers to prevent corruption.
 He fixed the prices of necessary commodities which were less than the usual
market rates.
He strictly prohibited black marketing.
Revenue was collected in kind and not in cash.
He followed a harsh policy towards the Hindus and he imposed Jizya, a
grazing tax and house tax on Hindus.

Marketing System

Officers called Diwan-i-riyasat were appointed in the offices called

Shahana-i-mandi to standardize the market.
Merchants should have to register themselves in the office (Shahana-i-mandi)
before selling their goods at the fixed rates.

Ala-ud-din-Khilji’s Estimate

He was the first to bring the standing army system.

He constructed Alai Darwaza, Fort of Siri, and the Palace of a thousand
pillars.

Successors after Ala-ud-din-Khilji

Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah (1316-1320 A.D.)

Nasir-ud-din Khusrav Shah (1320A.D.)

His successors were weak.

End of the Dynasty

Ala-ud-din Khilji died in 1316 A.D.

Successors of Ala-ud-din-Khilji were weak rulers.
Eventually, in 1320 A.D. the Governor of Punjab Ghazi Malik led a group of
nobles, conquered Delhi and captured the throne.
Ghazi Malik sworn the title of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq at Delhi and founded the
Tughluq Dynasty, a new line of rulers.

NCERT Notes: Medieval History –

Sultanate of Delhi – Tughluq Dynasty
Tughluq Dynasty
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq or Ghazi Malik (1320 - 1325 A.D.)

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq or Ghazi Malik was the founder of the Tughluq

dynasty.
He is from a humble origin.

Domestic and Foreign Policies

Ghiyas-ud-din reinstated order in his empire.

He gave more importance to postal arrangements, judicial, irrigation,
agriculture, and police.
In 1320A.D. he ascended the throne
He brought Bengal, Utkala or Orissa, and Warangal under his control
The Mongol leaders who invaded North India were seized and confined by
him.

End of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq​ ​rule

In 1325 A.D. Ghiyas-ud-din was crushed to death while attending an event for
his victories in Bengal.
Junakhan, the crown prince succeeded him.

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325-1361A.D.)

In 1325 A.D. Junakhan, the crown prince sworn the title

Muhammad-bin-Tughluq.
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq stood upright for administrative and political
unity of India.
In 1327 A.D. he captured Warangal.

Domestic Policies

To fill the empty treasury, he raised taxes in the Doab region.

Many people ran away to the forests to avoid heavy taxes due to which
cultivation was neglected and severe food shortage occurred.
He shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri to protect his capital and ordered
the common people and government officials to shift to Devagiri, after many
difficulties he ordered them to return to Delhi.
He introduced the copper currency system.
The value of coins dropped; hence he had to withdraw the copper token
currency.
 To conquer Khurasan , Iraq, and Tranoxiana he raised an army of 3, 70,000
men.
Mohammed-bin-Tughluq’s national treasure had a great burden due to the
policy of huge presents given to Tamashirin, the Mongol leader in order to
avoid Mongol Invasion.
Mohammed-bin-Tughluq’s domestic policies were good but due to the out of
action measures they failed.
The decline of the Delhi Sultanate is claimed due to his makings of hasty
decisions and out defective rules.

Firoz Tughluq (1 351-1 388 A.D.)

In 1351A.D. Firoz Tughluq was the son of of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq’s

younger brother.
He succeeded the throne.

Administrative Reforms

He withdrew all Taquavi (agricultural) loans granted by

Mohammed-bin-Tughluq.
He raised the salary of the revenue officers.
He brought to an end to all unlawful and unjust taxes.
He collected four important taxes such as
1. Kharaj- 1/10 of the produce of the land
2. Khams- 1/5 of the warbooty
3. Jizya-Poll Tax
4. Zakat-Tax on Muslims for specific religious purposes
He constructed 150 wells, 100 bridges, and 50 dams, and also dug many
irrigation canals.
He constructed towns like Firozabad Hissar, Jaunpur, and Fatehabad.
Firoz banned all kinds of damages and torture.
He levied Jizya on the Brahmans.
He established hospitals (Dar-ul-shafa), Marriage Bureau, (Diwani-i-kherat)
and an Employment Bureau.
He also extablished Diwan-i-lstibqaq to give financial aid to the poor.

Foreign Policy

Firoz Tughluq ​surrounded Bengal in 1353 A.D. and 1359A.D.

He seized Jainagar.
He devastated the Jagannath Temple at Puri.
An Estimate

Firoz proved his prominence by

His generous measures and contributions to the affluence of the people.

Futuhat-i-Firoz Shahi​ is an ​autobiography of ​Firoz Tughluq​.
He patronized scholar Zia-ud-din Barani.
During his reign a number of Sanskrit books on medicine, science and arts
were translated into Persian.
Kutab- Feroz Shahi – a book which dealt with Physics

Later Tughluqs - successors of Firoz

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq Shah II

Abu Bakr Shah,
Nasir-ud-din Mohammed Tughluq

End of Tughlug Dynasty

The successors of Firoz were not very strong and powerful.

By the end of the 14th century, most of the territories became independent.
Only Punjab and Delhi remained under the Tughluqs.
Timur invasion took place during the Tughlug period.

Timur's Invasion (1398 A.D.)

The fabulous wealth of Hindustan attracted Timur the ruler of Samarqand.

During the period of Nasir-ud-din Mohammed Tughluq he invaded India.
In 1398 A.D. Timur, he captured Delhi and caused annihilation by pillaging
and slaughtering people.

NCERT Notes: Medieval History –

Sultanate of Delhi – Sayyid and Lodi
Dynasties
Sayyid and Lodi Dynasties
THE SAYYID DYNASTY (1414-1451 A.D.)
Khizr Khan (1414- 1421 A.D.)

He was the founder of Sayyid Dynasty

He did not swear any royal title.
He was the Governor of Multan.
He took advantage of the disordered situation in India after Timur’s invasion.
In 1414 A.D. he occupied the throne of Delhi.
He brought parts of Surat, Dilapur, and Punjab under his control.
But he lost Bengal, Deccan, Gujarat, Jaunpur, Khandesh and Malwa.
In 1421 he died.
Mubarak Shah Khizr Khan’s son succeeded him.

Mubarak Shah (1421-1434A.D.)

Mubarak Shah crushed the local chiefs of the Doab region and the Khokhars.
He is first Sultan ruler to appoint Hindu nobles in the court of Delhi.
He constructed “Mubarakbad” City on the banks of the river Jamuna.
Muhammad Shah Mubarak’s nephew succeeded him.

Muhammad Shah (1434-1445 A.D.)

He defeated the ruler of Malwa with the help of Bahlul Lodi the Governor of
Lahore.
He conferred Bahlul Lodi with the title ​Khan-i-​Khanan for helping in
defeating the ruler of Malwa.
Later Ala-ud-din Shah succeeded him.

Ala-ud-din Shah (1 445-1457 A.D.)

He was a weak ruler.

In 1457 A.D. Bahlul Lodi the Governor of Lahore captured Delhi and made
Ala-ud-din Shah to step down from the throne and sent him to Badaun.
In 1478 A.D. Ala-ud-din Shah died in Badaun.

LODI DYNASTY (1451 to 1526)

Bahlul Lodi {1451 -1489 A, D.)

Bahlul Lodi was the founder of Lodi Dynasty.

The Lodi Dynasty is the last ruling dynasties of the Sultanate period.
He was a wise statesman who knew his limits.
He took various measures to gratify his nobles.
 He conquered Etawa, Gwalior, Mewat, Sakit, and Samthal.
He died in 1489 A.D.
Bahlul Lodi was a wise ruler, he never sat on the throne and he used to sit on
the carpet in front of the throne with his nobles to gain their recognition and
support.

Sikandar Shahi (1489-1517 A.D.)

Sikandar Shahi was the son of Bahlul Lodi.

He swore the title Sikandar Shah and ascended the throne.
He set up a well-organized spy system.
He developed agriculture and industry.
He was an orthodox Muslim.
He put severe restrictions on the Hindus.
Sikandar Shah enjoyed “Shehnai” Music.
A work on music names “Lahjati-Sikandar Shahi” was created during his
reign.

End of Lodi Dynasty ​(1517-1526 A.D.)

Ibrahim Lodi succeeded Sikhandar Lodi.

He was an intolerant and adamant ruler
He had humiliated many nobles and killed some nobles cruelly.
He also treated his son Dilwar Khan Lodi cruelly.
Daulat Khan, ​the most powerful ​noble of Punjab, who was discontended ​with
Ibrahim Lodhi, invited ​Babur the ruler of Kabul ​to​ ​invade India​.
Babur invaded India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat in
1526 A. D.

NCERT Notes: Medieval History –

Administration under the Delhi Sultanate
Administration under the Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate period extended from 1206 A.D. to 1526 A.D. for almost
320 years.
Administration was based on Islamic laws.
A Theocratic and a Military State.
Ministers to Sultan

Wazir – Prime Minister and Finance Minister

Diwani-I-Risalt – Foreign Affairs Minister
Sadr-us-Suddar – Minister of Islamic Law
Diwan-l-lnsha – Correspondence Minister
Diwan-I-Ariz – Defence or War Minister
Qazi-ul-quzar – Minister of Justice

Central Administration

The Sultan was the head of the empire.

He cherished vast powers.
Also other officials were appointed to take care of the administration.

Provincial Administration

The empire was divided into a number of Iqtas.

Iqtadars administered the Iqtas.
Iqtas further were divided into smaller units called Parganas, Shiqqs, and the
villages.
Amil or Munsif – Important official of the Pargana​.

Local Administration

The village was the smallest unit of administration.

The village administration was carried out by local hereditary officers and the
Panchayats
The Panchayat looked after education, sanitation, justice, revenue etc.
The Central Government did not interfere in the village administration.

Revenue Administration

Land revenue was the main source of income.

Judicial Administration

The Sultan was the highest judicial authority.

Qazi-ul-quzar – the Chief Judicial officer.
A Quazi was appointed in every town.
Criminals were punished severely.

Military Administration
 The Sultan was the Commander of the army
The four divisions of the army were
1. The Royal army
2. Provincial or Governor’s army
3. Feudal army and
4. War Time army

Social life of the Sultanate period

The people in the society were divided based on their nationality and they are:

Foreign Muslims
Indian Muslims
Hindus

Economic conditions of the people

The people were mainly involved in agriculture and industry

Textile industry was the primary industry.
Paper Industry, metal work, pearl diving, ivory and sandal works , stone
cutting, Sugar industry were the other industries of this period.

Textiles

Indian textiles were in great demand in foreign countries.

Bengal and Gujarat were famous for their quality fabrics.
Cotton, woollen and silk of different varieties was produced in large
quantities.
The clothes had gold, diamonds, pearls, silver and stone works.

Contributions of the Delhi Sultanate

Art and Architecture

Delhi Sultans had a great taste for architecture.

Architectures were a blend of Indian and Islamic styles.

The three well developed styles were

1. Delhi or Imperial Style

2. Provincial Style
 3. Hindu architectural style

Architecture during Mamaluk Period

Qutubminar
Quwat-ul-lslam mosque
the tombs of Nasir-ud-din Muhammad
Balban Siri the new town in Delhi

Architecture during Khilji Period

Dargah of Hazrat Nizam – ud – din Aulia

The Alai Darwaza

Architecture during Lodi Period

The Lodi Garden

Moti Masjid in New Delhi, and
The tomb of Sikandar Lodi

Literature

The Sultanate of Delhi period witnessed some great scholars and some are:

Alberuni
Amir Khusrau
Zia-ul-Barani

Many Sanskrit works were translated into Arabic and Urdu language originated during
the Sultanate period.

Scholars of sultanate period

Alberuni

An Arabic and Persian Scholar patronized by Mahmud of Ghazni.

He learnt Sanskrit and translated two Sanskrit works into Arabic.
He was impressed by the Upanishads and BhagavatGita.
In his work Tarikh-ul-Hind, he had mentioned the socio-economic conditions
of India.
Amir Khusrau
 He was a great Persian poet.
He is said to have written four lakh couplets.
He was a great singer and was given the title ‘Parrot of India’.
Impact of Turkish Conquest

The Turkish conquest of India had its impact on various fields.

It paved way to a centralized political organization.
It re-established relations with the rest of Asia and parts of Africa.
A permanent army was established.
Trade was established due to the uniform legal system, tariff regulations and
currency.
Persian became the court language and brought uniformity in the
administration.

Disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate

The disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate had begun during the Tughluq
period.
The invasion of Timur and the incompetent and intolerant nature of some of
the Sayyid and Lodi rulers led to the collapsing of the Delhi Sultanate.
The rulers of the Vijayanagar and Bahmani Kingdom in the South were the
first to break free from Delhi.
Other regions like Assam, Bengal, Khandesh, Gujarat, Jauripur, Kashmir,
Multan, Malwa, Sind, and Orissa also became independent.
Babur ended the Lodi Dynasty by defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the first Battle of
Panipat in 1526 A.D., which brought the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate in
India.

NCERT Notes: Medieval History – The

Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1 672 A.D.)
The Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1 672 A.D.)
By the end of the Sultanate Period, Multan and Bengal were the first territories to break
away from the Delhi and declared independent and many other territories in the Deccan
region rose to power.
The Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1 672 A.D.)

Harihara and Bukka is the founder the Vijayanagar City in 1336 A.D. on the
southern banks of Tungabhadra
They made Hampi as the capital city.
They served under Vira Ballala III, the Hoysala King

Vijayanagar Empire was ruled by four important dynasties and they are:

1. Sangama
2. Saluva
3. Tuluva
4. Aravidu

Harihara I

In 1336 A.D. Harihara I became the ruler of Sangama Dynasty

He captured Mysore and Madurai.
In 1356 A.D. Bukka-I succeeded him

Krishnadeva Raya (1509-1529 A.D.)

Krishnadeva Raya of the Tuluva dynasty was the most famous king of the
Vijayanagar Empire
According to Domingo Paes a Portuguese traveller “Krishnadeva Raya was
the most feared and perfect king there could possibly be”.

Krishnadeva Raya‘s Conquests

He conquered Sivasamudram in 1510A.D and Raichur in 1512A.D

In 1523 A.D. he captured Orissa and Warangal
His empire extended from the river Krishna in the north to River Cauvery in
the south; Arabian Sea in the west to Bay of Bengal in the east

His Contributions

An able administrator.
He built large tanks and canals for irrigation.
He developed the naval power understanding the vital role of overseas trade.
He maintained friendly relationship with the Portuguese and Arab traders.
He increased the revenue of his government.
He patronized art and architecture.
It was during his period the Vijayanagar Empire reached its zenith of glory.
 Krishnadeva Raya was a great scholar.
Ashtadiggajas: A group of eight scholars adorned his court and they were:
i. Allasani Peddanna – the author of Manucharitram, he was also
known as Andhra Kavitapitamaha
ii. Nandi Thimmana – the author of Parijathapaharanam
iii. Madayagari Mallana
iv. Dhurjati
v. Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Kavi
vi. Pingali Surana
vii. Ramaraja Bhushana
viii.Tenali Ramakrishna

Battle of Talikota (1 565 A.D.)

The successors of Krishnadeva Raya were weak

The combined forces of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda and Bidar declared
war on Vijayanagar during the rule of Ramaraya
Ramaraya was defeated. He and his people were killed mercilessly.
Vijayanagar was pillaged and ruined.

The Glories of the Vijayanagar Empire

Administration

Well-organized administrative system

The king was head of all powers in the state.
Council of Ministers – to assist the King in the work of administration.
The Empire was divided into six Provinces.
Naik – a Governor who administered each Province.
The provinces were divided into districts and the districts were further divided
into smaller units namely villages.
The village was administered by hereditary officers like accountants,
watchmen, the weightsmen, and officers in charge of forced labour.
Mahanayakacharya: He is an officer and the contact point between the
villages and the Central administration.

The Army

The army consisted of the infantry, cavalry and elephantry.

The commander-in-chief was in charge of the army.
Revenue Administration

Land revenue was the main source of income

The land was carefully surveyed and taxes were collected based on the
fertility of the soil.
Major importance was given to agriculture and in building dams and canals.

Judicial Administration

The king was the supreme judge.

Severe punishments were given for the guilty.
Those who violated the law were levied.

Position of Women

Women occupied a high position and took an active part in political, social
and literary life of the empire.
They were educated and trained in wrestling, in the use of various weapons
of offence and defence, in music and fine arts.
Some women also received education of high order.
Nuniz writes that the kings had women astrologers, clerks, accountants,
guards and wrestlers.

Social life

The society was systemized.

Child marriage, polygamy and sati were prevalent.
The kings allowed freedom of religion.

Economic conditions

Controlled by their irrigational policies.

Textiles, mining, metallurgy perfumery, and other several industries existed.
They had commercial relations with, the islands in the Indian Ocean,
Abyssinia, Arabia, Burma, China, Persia, Portugal , South Africa, and The
Malay Archipelago.

Contribution to Architecture and Literature

The Hazara Ramasami temple and Vittalaswamy temple was built during this
period
The bronze image of Krishnadeva Raya is a masterpiece.
Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu and Kannada literature were developed.
 Sayana wrote commentaries on Vedas.
Krishnadevaraya wrote Amuktamalyada in Telugu and Usha Parinayam and
Jambavathi Kalyanam in Sanskrit.

Decline of the Empire

The rulers of the Aravidu dynasty were weak and incompetent.

Many provincial governors became independent.
The rulers of Bijapur and Golconda seized some areas of Vijayanagar.

NCERT Notes: Medieval History – The

Bahmani Kingdom (1347-1 526 A.D.)
The Bahmani Kingdom (1347-1 526 A.D.)
The Bahmani Kingdom was the most powerful Muslim kingdom.

Political History

Hasan Gangu Bahmani was the founder of Bahmani Kingdom.

He was a Turkish officer of Devagiri.
in 1347 A.D. he established the independent Bahmani kingdom.
His kingdom stretched from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal, included
the whole of Deccan up to the river Krishna with its capital at Gulbarga.

Muhammad Shah-I (1358-1377.A.D.)

He was the next ruler of the Bahamani Kingdom.

He was an able general and administrator.
He defeated Kapaya Nayaks of Warangal and the Vijayanagar ruler Bukka-I.

Muhammad Shah-ll (1378-1397.A.D.)

In 1378 A.D. ​Muhammad Shah-ll​ ascended the throne.

He was a peace lover and developed friendly relations with his neighbours.
He built many mosques, madrasas (a place of learning) and hospitals.

Feroz Shah Bahmani (1397-1422 A.D.)

He was a great general

 He defeated the Vijayanagar ruler Deva Raya I.

Ahmad Shah (1422-1435 A.D.)

Ahmad Shah succeeded Feroz Shah Bahmani

He was an unkind and heartless ruler.
He conquered the kingdom of Warangal.
He changed his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
He died in 1435A.D.

Muhammad Shah-lll (1463-1482 A.D.)

In 1463A.D. ​Muhammad Shah-lll​ became the Sultan at the age of nine

Muhammad Gawan became the regent of the infant ruler.
Under Muhammad Gawan’s able leadership the Bahmani kingdom became
very powerful.
Muhammad Gawan defeated the rulers of Konkan, Orissa, Sangameshwar,
and Vijayanagar.

Muhammad Gawan

He was a very wise scholar and able administrator.

He improved the administration, systematized finances, encouraged public
education, reformed the revenue system, disciplined the army and eliminated
corruption.
In 1481 Muhammad Gawan persecuted by the Deccan Muslims who were
jealous of him and sentenced to death by Muhammad Shah.

The Five Muslim Dynasties

Muhammad Shah-lll died in 1482

His successors were weak and the Bahmani Kingdom disintegrated into five
kingdoms namely:
1. Bijapur
2. Ahmednagar
3. Bera
4. Golconda
5. Bidar

Administration
 The Sultans followed a Feudal type of administration.
Tarafs – The kingdom was divided into many provinces called Tarafs
Tarafdar or Amir – Governor who controlled the Taraf.

Golgumbaz

Golgumbaz in Bijapur is called the whispering gallery because when one

whispers, lingering echo of the whisper is heard in the opposite corner.
This is so, because when one whispers in one corner, a lingering echo is
heard in the opposite corner.

Contribution to Education

The Bahmani Sultans gave great attention to education.

They encouraged Arabic and Persian learning.
Urdu also flourished during this period

Art and Architecture

Numerous mosques, madarasas and libraries were built.

The Juma masjid at Gulbarga The Golconda fort

The Golgumbaz at Bijapur
The Madarasas of Muhammad Gawan

Decline of Bahmani Kingdom

There was a constant war between the Bahmani and Vijayanagar rulers.
Inefficient and weak successors after Muhammad Shah III.
Rivalry between the Bahmani rulers and foreign nobles.

NCERT Notes: Medieval India – Bhakti

Movement (c. 8th to 18th Century)
Bhakti Movement (c. 8th to 18th Century)
The Medieval Bhakti Movement was the direct result of the spread of Islam in India. The
Bhakti Movement in Medieval India is of diverse way.
The preaching of Sufi teachers shaped the thinking of Bhakti Reformers like
Ramananda, Kabir, and Nana.

Sufism

Sufism was a liberal reform movement within Islam. It spread into India in the 11​th
century but had origin in Persia.

Shaikh Ismail
Shaikh Ismail of Lahore was the first Sufi Saint who started
preaching his ideas.
Khwaja Muinuddin Chisthi
He was one of the most famous Sufi Saints who settled in Ajmer which
became the centre of his activities.
He had a number of disciples who are called Sufis of the Chisthi Order.
Bahauddin Zakariya
He is another renowned Sufi Saint who was influenced by
Shihabuddin Suhrawardi another famous mystic.
He founded the Sufis of the Suhrawardi Order.
Nizamuddin Auliya
He belonged to the Chisthi Order who is regarded to be a mighty
spiritual force.

About Sufism

Sufism highlighted the essentials of love and devotion as the effective means
of the realization of God.
Sufis believed service to humanity was equal to service to God. According to
the Sufis, Love of God meant Love of Humanity.
In Sufism, self-discipline is essential to gain knowledge of God with a sense
of insight.

Major differences between the Sufis and Orthodox Muslims:

Sufis Orthodox Muslims

the Orthodox Muslims stress on external

The Sufis highlight on inner purity.
conduct
 The consider love and devotion as the only
They believed in blind observance of rituals.
means of attaining salvation.

Sufism also taught a spirit of tolerance among its followers.

Ideas of Sufism

Sufism emphasized on good actions, meditation, performance of prayers and

pilgrimages, repentance for sins, fasting, charity and suppression of passions
by austere practices.
The liberal and unorthodox features of Sufism had a profound influence on
Medieval Bhakti Saints.

Bhakti Movement in South

The Bhakti Movement originated in the seventh-century in Tamil, South India (now parts
of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards. It swept over east and north India
from the 15th century onwards, reached its peak between the 15th and 17th century
CE.
The Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu

The Alvars and Nayanars led some of the earliest bhakti movements (c. sixth
century).
Alvars – those who are “immersed” in devotion to Vishnu
Nayanars – leaders who were devotees of Shiva
They travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil praising their gods.
The Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste
system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the
 system. This is supported by the fact that bhaktas or disciples hailed from
diverse social backgrounds ranging from Brahmanas to artisans and
cultivators and even from castes considered “untouchable”
The Nalayira Divyaprabandham (“Four Thousand Sacred Compositions”) –
one of the major anthologies of compositions of the 12 Alvars compiled by the
10​th​ Century
It was frequently described as the Tamil Veda, thus claiming that the text was
as significant as the four Vedas in Sanskrit that were cherished by the
Brahmanas.
From a composition of an Alvar named Tondaradippodi a Brahmana
mentions Chaturvedins – Are strangers and without faithfulness to your
service.
Tevaram – a collection of compiled and classified in the 10​th century on the
basis of the music of the songs of Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar.
Women Devotees

Andal

A woman Alvar ​the compositions of Andal were widely sung (and continue to
be sung to date).
Andal saw herself as the beloved of Vishnu; her verses express her love for
the deity.

Karaikkal Ammaiyar

Another woman, Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva, adopted the path

of extreme asceticism in order to attain her goal.
Sankara

Sankara started a Hindu restoration movement giving a new placement to

Hinduism.
He was born in Kaladi in Kerala.
His doctrine of Advaita or Monism was too abstract to appeal to the common
man.
The Advaita Concept of Nirgunabrahman (God without attributes) received
contradictory reaction with the emergence of the idea of Sagunabrahman
(God with attributes).
Ramanuja

He was born at Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai.

 He preached Visishtadvaita in the12​th​ century.
According to him God is Sagunabrahman.
He encouraged Prabattimarga or path of self-surrender to God.
He invited the downtrodden to Vaishnavism.
Madhava

Madhava is from Kannada region whose preaching prevailed in the 13​th

He spread Deviator dualism of Jivatma and Paramatma.
His philosophy was that the world is not an illusion but a reality. God, soul,
matter are unique in nature.
Nimbarka and Vallabhacharya

They were also other preachers of Vaishnavite Bhakti in the Telungana

region
Surdas

He was the disciple of Vallabhacharya

He popularized Krishna cult in north India
Mirabai

She was a great devotee of Krishna.

She became popular in Rajasthan for her bhajans.
Tulsidas

He was a worshipper of Rama.

He composed the famous Ramcharitmanas, the Hindi version of Ramayana.

Ramananda

He was born at Allahabad.

Initially he was a follower of Ramanuja.
Later he founded his own sect and preached his principles in Hindi at
Banaras and Agra.
Ramananda was the first to employ the vernacular medium to spread his
ideas.
He opposed the caste system and chose his disciples from all sections of
society irrespective of caste.
Ramananda’s disciples were:

Kabir
Raidasa, he was a cobbler
Sena, he was a barber
Sadhana
Dhanna, he was from a Jat farmer
Naraharai, he was a goldsmith
Pipa, he was a Rajput prince
Kabir

Kabir was the most famous disciple of Ramananda.

He was brought up by a Muslim couple who were weavers by profession.
He had a curious mind in learning new things and he learnt much about
Hinduism in Benares.
Kabir’s aim was to reunite Hindus and Muslims and form harmony between
them.
He is regarded as the greatest of the mystic saints.
His followers are called ​Kabirpanthis​.

In the 14th and 15th centuries, Ramananda, Kabir and Nanak remained the great
apostles of the Bhakti cult.

They aided the common people to shed age-old superstitions and attain salvation
through Bhakti or pure devotion.

Criticized all forms of worship of idols.

Guru Nanak

Guru Nanak was born in Talwandi near Lahore.

He was a disciple of Kabir.
He was founder of the Sikh Religion.
He condemned caste difference and rituals like bathing in holy rivers.
He established a centre at Kartarpur named Dera Baba Nanak on the river
Ravi. His idea of religion was highly practical and strictly moral.
His one of the famous sayings was “Abide pure amidst the impurities of the
world”.
Guru Angad

Guru Angad ​also known as Lehna was appointed by Guru before his death.
 Guru Angad compiled the compositions of Guru Nanak in a new script known
as Gurmukhi and added his own compositions as well.
Guru Arjan

He was the 5th Guru.

He compiled the writings of the three successors of Guru Angad who wrote
under the name of “Nana”.
He was executed by Jehangir in 1604.
Guru Gobind Singh

He was the 9th Guru.

In 1706, he authenticated the compilation which was added with the writings
of other figures like Shaikh Farid, Sant Kabir, Bhagat Namdev and Guru Tegh
Bahadur, which is now known as Guru Granth Sahib.

The town of Ramdaspur (Amritsar) had developed around the central Gurdwara called
Harmandar Sahib (Golden Temple) by the beginning of the 17th century. It was almost
self-governing and also referred as ‘a state within the state’ community.
Chaitanya

Chaitanya was another renowned saint and reformer of Bengal who

popularised the Krishna cult.
He believed that a devotee can feel the presence of God through song and
dance and love and devotion.
Gnanadeva

He was the founder of the Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra in the 13​th

It was called as Maharashtra dharma.
He wrote Gnaneswari a commentary of Bhagavat Gita.
Namadeva

In the 16​th​ Century Namadeva preached the gospel of love.

He opposed idol worship and dominance of priests.
He crticized the caste System.
Ekanatha

He was a prominent Marathi Sant, a scholar and religious poet of the Varkari
Sampradaya.
He opposed caste differences and was kind towards the lower castes.
 He is known as a bridge between his predecessors Dnyaneshwarand
Namdev and the later Tukaram and Ramdas.
Tukaram

Tukaram was another Bhakti saint of Maharashtra and was a contemporary

of Sivaji.
Tukaram also referred to as Sant Tukaram, Bhakta Tukaram, Tukaram
Maharaj, Tukobaand Tukobaraya.
He was a 17th-century poet-saintof the Bhakti movement in
Tukaram is best known for his Abhanga- devotional poetry and kirtans –
community-oriented worship with spiritual songs.
His poetry was devoted to Vitthala or Vithoba, an avatar of Hindu god Vishnu.
Responsible for creating a background for Maratha nationalism
Nathpanthis, Siddhas, and Yogis

They condemned the ritual and other aspects of orthodox religion and the
social order, using simple, logical arguments.
They encouraged renunciation of the world.
To them, the path to salvation lay in meditation and to achieve this they
advocated intense training of the mind and body through practices like
yogasanas, breathing exercises and meditation.
These groups became particularly popular among “low” castes.
Importance of the Bhakti Movement

Bhakti movement provided a spur for the development of regional languages

such as Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Kannada, etc.
The lower classes rose to a position of great importance.
 The Bhakti movement gave equal importance to men and women which gave
way to the importance of women in society.

NCERT Notes: Medieval India – Mughal

Empire – Babur (1526-1530)
MUGHAL EMPIRE - BABUR (1526-1530)
Mughals belonged to a branch of the Turks called Chaghtai, which is named after the
second son of Chingez Khan, the famous Mongol Leader.
The Foundation of the Mughal Empire in India was laid by Babur, who was a Chagthai
Turk.

Babur (1526-1530)

Babur is the founder of the Mughal Empire in India.

He is a descendant of Timur (from his father’s side) and Chingez Khan (from
his Mother’s side).
His original name was Zahiruddin Muhammad.
In 1494 at the age of 11, Babur succeeded his father Umar Shaikh Mirza as
the ruler of Farghana (now a province of ChineseTurkistan).
Daulat Khan, ​the most powerful noble of Punjab, who was discontented with
Ibrahim Lodhi, invited ​Babur ​to invade India.
Took interest in conquering India and launched four expeditions between
1519 and 1523.

Babur's Military Conquests

In 1504, Babur occupied Kabul.

In 1524, Babur occupied Lahore buthad to retreat to Kabul after ​Daulat Khan
turned against him.
In November1525, Babur attacked and occupied Punjab again.
On 21​st April 1526, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the first Battle of Panipat
and quickly occupied​Delhi ​and Despite of vast and superior troop Ibrahim
Lodi lost in the battle due to Babur’s superior strategy and use of artillery.
The First Battle of Panipat marked the foundation of Mughal dominion in
India.
Babur occupied Delhi and sent his son Humayun to seize Agra.
Babur proclaimed himself as “Emperor of Hindustan”.

Rana Sangha

Rana Sangha of Mewar was a great Rajput warrior.

He​gave the toughest resistance to ​Babur’s expansion​ plans​.
OnMarch 16, 1527, ​Rana Sangha, ​along with rulers of Marwar, Amber,
Gwalior, Ajmer and Chanderi and Sultan Mahmood Lodi (whom Rana
Sangha had acknowledged as ruler of Delhi) met Babur in a decisive contest
at ​Kanhwa, ​a village near Agra. The aim was to prevent the imposition of
another foreign repression on ​Babur ​succeeded over them by using similar
tactics as in the Battle of Panipat and assumed the title Ghazi.
In 1528, Babur captured Chanderi from another Rajput ruler Medini Rai.
 On May 6, 1529, Babur met the allied Afghans of Bihar and Bengal on the
banks of ​Gogra,​near Patna and defeated them. With this ​battle, Babur
occupied a considerable portion of northern India.
Babur ​met the allied Afghans ofBihar and Bengal on the banks of ​Gogra,
near Patna, and inflicted a crushing defeat on them. In the next year, Babur
defeated the Afghans in the Battle of Gogra in Bihar.
On December 26, 1530, ​Babur ​died at Agra, at the age of His body was first
laid at ​Arambagh ​in Agra, but was later taken to Kabul, where it was buried
in one of his favourite gardens.

Estimate of Babur

Babur was a great statesman and a man of solid achievements

He was also a great scholar in Arabic and Persian languages.
Turki was his mother tongue.
He wrote his memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Baburiin Turki language.

NCERT Notes: Medieval India – Mughal

Empire – Humayun (1530-1556)
MUGHAL EMPIRE - HUMAYUN (1526-1530)
Humayun was the eldest son of Babur.
He was lacking wisdom, discretion, and strongdetermination and diligence of
his ​Thus, as a king he was a failure.
Humayun means “fortune” but he remained the most unfortunate ruler of the
Mughal Empire.
Six months after his succession,​Humayun ​besieged the fortress of ​Kalinjar
in Bundelkhand, gained a decisive victory over Afghans at ​Douhrua ​and
drove out ​Sultan Mahmood Lodhi from ​Jaunpur, ​and even defeated
Bahadur Shah ​of Gujarat. His victories, however, were short-lived due to
weakness of his character.
Humayun had three brothers, Kamran, Askari and Hindal
Humayun divided the empire among his brothers but this proved to be a great
blunder on his part.
Kamran was given Kabul and Kandahar.
Sambhal and Alwar were given to Askari and Hindal respectively.
 Humayun captured Gujarat from Bahadur Shah and appointed Askari as its
governor
But soon Bahadur Shah recovered Gujarat from Askari who fled from there.
In the east, Sher Khan became powerful. Humayun marched against him and
in the Battle of Chausa, held in 1539, Sher Khan destroyed the Mughal army
and Humayun escaped from there.
Humayun reached Agra to negotiate with his brothers.
In 1540, in the Battle of Bilgram or Ganges also known as Battle of Kanauj,
Humayun was forced to fight with Sher Khan alone and after losing his
kingdom, Humayun became an exile for the next fifteen years.
In 1952, during his wanderings in desertsof Sindh, ​Humayun ​married
Hamida Banu Begum, ​daughter of Sheikh Ali Amber Jaini, who had been a
preceptor of Humayun’s brother Hindal.
On November 23, 1542, ​Humayun’s wife gave birth toAkbar ​at
Amarkot’s Hindu chief ​RanaPrasad ​promised ​Humayun to ​help him to
conquer ​Thatta and
However, Humayun could notconquer Bhakker or secure Thus, he left India
and lived under the generosity of ​ShahTahmashp of Persia.
Shah of Persia agreed to help Humayunand lend him a force of 14,000 men
on a condidtion to confirm to ​Shia creed, to have the Shah’s name
proclaimed in his ​Khutba and to give away ​Kandhar ​to him on his success.
In 1545, with Persian help ​Humayun ​captured ​Kandhar ​and ​Kabul but
refused to cede ​Kandhar ​to ​Persia​.
Humayun sought help from the Iran ruler.
Later, he defeated his brothers Kamran and Askari.
In 1555, Humayun defeated the Afghans and recovered the Mughal throne.
After six months, he died in 1556 due to his fall from the staircase of his
library.
Humayun was kind and generous, though he was not a good General and
warrior.
He also loved painting and wrote poetry in Persian language.

NCERT Notes: Medieval India – Sur

Dynasty (1540-1555)
SUR DYNASTY or SUR Interregnum (1540-1555)
Sher Shah’s Administration

Sher Shah was the founder of Sur Dynasty.

His original name was Farid.
He was the son of Hasan Khan, a jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar.
He was given the title Sher Khan for his bravery under the Afghan Rule of
Bihar.

Sher Shah Sur (1540-1545)

Sher Shah Sur’s conquests include Bundelkhand, Malwa, Multan, Punjab,

and Sind.
His empire occupied the whole of North India except Assam, Gujarat,
Kashmir, and Nepal.
Though his rule lasted for only 5 years, he has organized an excellent
administrative system.
The king was aided by four important ministers.
Diwan –i- Wizarat or Wazir – in charge of Revenue and Finance
Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army
Diwan-i-Rasalat – Foreign Minister
Diwan-i-Insha – Minister for Communications
Sher Shah’s empire was divided into forty seven Sarkars
Each Sarkars was further divided into various parganas and in charge of
various officers.
Shiqdar – Military Officer
Amin – Land Revenue
Fotedar – Treasurer
Karkuns – Accountants
Iqtas – various administrative units
Under Sher Shah, the land revenue administration was well organized.
Land survey was sensibly done.
All cultivable lands were classified into three classes – good, middle and bad.
The state’s share was one third of the average produce and it was paid in
cash or crop.
Sher Shah introduced new silver coins called “Dam” and they were in
circulation till 1835.
Police was competently restructured and crime was less during his regime.
Shah borrowed many ideas like the branding of horses from Alauddin Khalji
 Sher Shah had also developed the communications by laying four important
highways.
Sonargaon to Sind
Agra to Burhampur
Jodhpur to Chittor
Lahore to Multan

Estimate of Sher Shah

Sher Shah remained a pious Muslim and generally tolerant towards other
religions.
He also employed Hindus in important offices.
The old fort called Purana Qila and its mosque was built during his period.
He also built a Mausoleum at Sasaram, which is considered as one of the
master pieces of Indian architecture.
The famous Hindi work Padmavat by Malik Muhammad Jayasi was written
during his reign.
In 1545, Sher Shah died and his successors ruled till 1555 later which
Humayun reconquered India.

NCERT Notes: Medieval India – Akbar

(1556-1605)
AKBAR (1556-1605)
Akbar’s position was in dangerous when he succeeded his father Humayun
as Delhi was seized by the Afghans.
In 1556, in the second battle of Panipat, Akabar defeated Hemu and the army
of Hemu fled which made the victory of Mughal decisive.
During the first 5 years of Akbar’s reign, Bairam Khan acted as his regent.
Later, Akbar removed Bairam Khan and sent him to Mecca but Bairam Khan
was killed by an Afghan on his way.
 The military conquests of Akbar were extensive.

Akbar’s Relation with Rajputs

Akbar married the Rajput Princess, the daughter of Raja Bharmal.

For four generation, the Rajuputs served the Mughals and many served in the
positions of military generals as well.
Akbar appointed Raja Man Singh and Raja Bhagawan Das in the senior
position of the Mughal Administration.
 Though majority of the Rajput states surrendered to Akbar, the Ranas of
Mewar continued to confront even though they were defeated several times.
In 1576, the Mugahl Army defeated Rana Pratap Singh in the battle of
Haldighati, following the defeat of Mewar, other leading Rajput leaders
surrendered to Akbar and accepted his
Akbar’s policy towards Rajput was combined with a broad religious toleration.
He abolished the pilgrim tax and later the jiziya.

Akbar’s Religious Policy

It’s Akbar’s religious policy that made way to his name in the history pages.
Akbar was a pious Muslim but after marrying Jodha Bai of Amber, he
abolished pilgrim tax.
In 1562, he abolished jiziya.
He allowed his Hindu wives to worship their own gods.
In 1575, Akbar built Ibadat Khana (House of worship) at his new capital
Fatepur Sikri and invited scholars from all religions like Christianity, Hinduism,
Jainism, and Zoroastrianism.
He did not like the intrusion of the Muslim Ulemas in political matters.
In 1579, he delivered the “Infallibility Decree” and proclaimed his religious
powers.
In 1582, he propagated a new religion called Din Ilahi or Divine Faith.

About Din Ilahi

The new religion believed in one God.

It had all the good points of every religion.
Its foundation was balanced.
It didn’t endorse any philosophy.
It aimed at bridging the gap that separated different religions.
The new religion had only 15 followers including Birbal.
Akbar did not compel anyone to join his new religion.
However, the new religion proved to be a failure, after Akbar’s death.

Land Revenue Administration

With the help of Raja Todar Mal, Akbar experimented on the land revenue
administration, which was completed in 1580.
The land revenue system was called Zabti or Bandobast system or Dahsala
System.
 The revenue was fixed on the average yield of land measured on the basis of
previous ten years.
The land was divided into four categories
1. Polaj (cultivated every year)
2. Parauti (once in two years)
3. Chachar (once in three or four years)
4. Banjar (once in five or more years)
Payment of revenue was made generally in cash.

Mansabdari System

Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system in his administration

Under this system every officer was assigned a rank (Mansab)
Lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5000 for the nobles.
Princes of royal blood received even higher ranks.
The ranks were divided into two – Zat and Sawar.
Zat means personal and it fixed the personal status of a person.
Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen of a person who was
required to maintain.
Every sawar had to maintain at least two horses.
All appointments, promotions and dismissals were directly made by the
emperor.

NCERT NOTES: Medieval India – Akbar’s

Successors’
Akbar's Successors: Jahangir (1605-1627), Shah Jahan (1627-1658), Aurangazeb
(1658-1707)
Jahangir (1605-1627)

In 1605, Prince Salim succeeded with the title Jahangir (Conqueror of World) after
the death of Akbar.
He defeated and imprisoned Son Khusrau.
​He also beheaded Guru Arjun, the 5​th​ Sikh Guru and one of the supporters of

Khusrau.
 One of his supporters, Guru Arjun, the fifth Sikh Guru, was beheaded.

Nur Jahan
In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa who was known as Nur Jahan (Light of
World).
Asaf Khan elder brother of Nur Jahan was appointed as Khan-i-Saman, a post
reserved for the nobles.
In 1612, Asaf Khan’s daughter, Arjumand Banu Begum (later known as Mumtaj),
married Jahangir’s third son, prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan).

Shah Jahan (1627-1658)

Shah Jahan launched a continued war in the northwest frontier to recover Kandahar
and other ancestral lands.
His Deccan policy was more successful.
He defeated the forces of Ahmadnagar and seized it.
Both Bijapur and Golkonda signed a treaty with the emperor.
Shah Jahan engraved four Mughal provinces in the Deccan – Khandesh, Berar,
Telungana and Daulatabad

War of Succession

The last years of Shah Jahan’s reign were clouded by a bitter war of succession
among his four sons
1. Dara Shikoh (crown prince)
2. Shuja (governor of Bengal)
3. Aurangazeb (governor of Deccan)
4. Murad Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat)
Aurangazeb emerged victorious in this struggle
He entered the Agra Fort after defeating Dara
He forced Shah Jahan to surrender
Shah Jahan was confined to the female apartments in the Agra fort and strictly put
under watch
Shah Jahan lived for eight long years lovingly nursed by his daughter Jahanara.

​Aurangazeb (1658-1707)

Aurangazeb was one of the ablest kings of the Mughal.

He assumed the title Alamgir, World Conqueror.
In his first ten years of reign, his military campaigns were a great success.
 But in the latter part of his reign, he faced serious difficulties.
The Jats and Satnamis and also the Sikhs revolted against him due to his harsh
religious policy.
The Deccan policy of the Mughals started from the reign of Akbar.
Aurangazeb, as governor of Deccan, followed a belligerent Deccan policy.
He concentrated on the northwest frontier in his first 25 years as the Mughal emperor
In the same time, Sivaji, the Maratha Ruler carved an an independent Maratha
kingdom in the territories of north and south Konkan.
Aurangazeb decided to invade Bijapur and Golkonda to hold the spread of the
Marathas.
He defeated Sikandar Shah of Bijapur and seized his kingdom.
He proceeded against Golkonda and eliminated the Kutb Shahi dynasty.
The destruction of the Deccan kingdoms was a political blunder by Aurangazeb.
The barrier between the Mughals and the Marathas was removed and there ensued a
direct confrontation between them.

Religious Policy

His ideal was to transform India into an Islamic state.

He created a separate department to enforce moral codes under a high-powered
officer called Muhtasib.
Drinking was prohibited. Cultivation and use of bhang and other drugs were banned
Aurangazeb forbade music in the Mughal court
He discontinued the practice of Jarokhadarshan
He also discontinued the celebration of Dasarah and royal astronomers and
astrologers were also dismissed from service
When he began a policy of destroying Hindu temples.
The celebrated temples at Mathura and Benares were reduced to ruins.
In 1679, he reimposed jiziya and pilgrim tax.
The celebration of Muharram was stopped
His invasions against the Deccan sultanates were partly due to his hatred of the Shia
faith
He was also against the Sikhs and he executed the ninth Sikh Guru Tej Bahadur.
His religious policy was responsible for turning the Rajputs, the Marathas and Sikhs
into the enemies of Mughal Empire
It had also resulted in the rebellions of the Jats of Mathura and the Satnamis of
Mewar.
Therefore, Aurangazeb was held responsible for the decline of the Mughal Empire.
Personality and Character of Aurangazeb
Aurangazeb was an orthodox Sunni Muslim.
In his private life, Aurangazeb was diligent and disciplined
He was very simple in food and dress.
He earned money for his personal expenses by copying Quran and selling those
copies.
He did not consume wine.
He was proficient in Arabic and Persian languages.
He was devoted to his religion and conducted prayers five times a day.
He strictly observed the Ramzan fasting.
He misunderstood the true nature of the Maratha movement and provoked them.
Also, he failed to solve the Maratha problem and left an open sore.
His policy towards Shia Deccan Sultanates also proved to be wrong.
His antagonistic policies towards non-Muslims did not help him to rally the Muslims
to his side and strengthened political enemies of the Mughal Empire.

Causes for the Downfall of the Mughals

The Mughal Empire declined rapidly after the death of Aurangazeb.

Taking this advantage, in 1739, Nadir Shah imprisoned the Mughal Emperor and
looted Delhi.
The religious and Deccan policies of Aurangazeb contributed to its decline.
The weak successors and demoralization of the Mughal army were also the reasons
for the decline.
The financial difficulties due to continuous wars led to the decline.
The neglect of the sea power by the Mughals was felt when the Europeans began to
settle in India.
Further, the invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali weakened the Mughal
state.

NCERT Notes: Medieval India – India

under the Mughals
INDIA UNDER THE MUGHALS
Economic and Social Life
 The socio-economic conditions of India are mentioned by many European
Travellers and trader who came to India and their accounts contain a mine of
information.
Generally, most of the accounts describe the wealth and prosperity of India
and also the lavish life of the nobles.
There are accounts of foreigners as well that give information about the
poverty and sufferings of the ordinary people such as peasants and artisans.

Mughal Nobility

The Mughals were nobles and most of them were foreigners like Turks and
Afghans and formed a privileged class.
The Mughal nobles were paid high salaries but their expenses were also the
same.
Each noble had a large number of servants, horses, elephants etc.
Wealthy people dressed in silk and cotton clothes and the poor people
dressed minimal.
One of the foreigners Nikitin mentions that the people in the Deccan were
bare-footed indicating the high cost of leather.
The common people food was pulses, millets and rice.
In coastal region fish was common.
Milk and milk products were surplus, salt and sugar were expensive, while
ghee and oil were cheaper.

Agriculture

One of the estimate claims that at the beginning of the 17​th​ century India’s
population was about 125 million.
A large variety of crops such as barley, gram, pulses, rice, and wheat were
cultivated.
Commercial crops such as indigo, oil-seeds, cotton and sugarcane were also
cultivated.
During the seventeenth century two new crops, viz., tobacco and maize were
added.
On a note, no new agricultural technique was introduced during this period.
India was able to export food items like rice and sugar to the neighbouring
countries.

Growth of Trade
 The Indian trading classes spread across the country and were in large
numbers.
Seth and Bohra – Long distance traders
Banik – Local traders
Banjaras – Another class of traders specialized in carrying bulk goods, they
also moved long distances with their goods on the back of oxen.
Bulk goods were also taken through rivers on boats.
The Guajarati merchants included the Hindus, Jains and Muslims.
In Rajasthan, Oswals, Maheshwaris, and Agarwals came to be called the
Marwaris.
The most important trading communities in south India
The Chettis on the Coramandal coast
the Muslim merchants of Malabar
Bengal – Exported sugar, rice as well as delicate muslin and silk.
Gujarat – Was an entry point of foreign goods from where fine textiles and silk
were taken to north India.
The major imports into India were certain metals such as
tin and copper
war horses and
luxury items such as ivory
The import of gold and silver balanced of trade.
In the seventeenth century, the growth of foreign trade resulted in the
increased import of gold and silver.

Cultural Development under the Mughals

The Mughal period witnessed a significant and widespread development in

cultural activity.
It was evident in the sphere of art and architecture, painting, music and
literature.
The Mughals brought Turko-Iranian culture into India and the Indian traditions
were blended Turko-Iranian culture.

Art and Architecture

The Mughals were fond of laying gardens with running water. Some of the
Mughal Gardens are:
Nishat Bagh in Kashmir
the Shalimar Bagh at Lahore
the Pinjore garden in the Punjab
 During the reign of Sher Shah, the mausoleum at Sasaram in Bihar and the
Purana Qila near Delhi were built.
Large scale construction of buildings started with the dawn of Akbar
He built many forts and the most famous one was the Agra Fort. It was built in
red sandstone.
His other forts are at Lahore and Allahabad.
Shah Jahan built the famous Red Fort at Delhi with its Rang Mahal,
Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khaswas
Akbar also built a palacecum-fort complex at Fatepur Sikri (City of Victory).
Many buildings in Guajarati and Bengali styles are also found in this complex.
Guajarati style buildings were probably built for his Rajput wives.
The most magnificent building in it is the Jama Masjid and the gateway to it
called Buland Darwaza or the Lofty Gate.
The height of the gateway is 176 feet. It was built to commemorate Akbar’s
victory over Gujarat.
Other important buildings at Fatepur Sikri are Jodha Bai’s palace and Panch
Mahal with five storeys.
During Akbar’s reign, the Humayun’s tomb was built at Delhi and it had a
massive dome of marble.
It may be considered the precursor of the Taj Mahal.
Akbar’s tomb at Sikandara near Agra was completed by Jahangir.
Nur Jahan built the tomb of Itimaddaulah at Agra.
It was constructed wholly of white marble with floral designs made of
semi-precious stones on the walls. (Pietra dura)
This method became more popular during the reign of Shah Jahan.
Taj Mahal
The Pietra Dura method was used on a large scale in the Taj
Mahal.
Taj Mahal is considered as jewel of the builder’s art.
It contains all the architectural forms developed by the Mughals.
The chief glory of the Taj is the massive dome and the four slender
minarets
The decorations are kept to the minimum.
The Moti Masjid at Agra was built entirely in white marble. The Jama Masjid
at Delhi was built in red stone.
Many features of Mughal tradition can be seen in the Golden Temple at
Amritsar.

Paintings and Music

 The foundation for the Mughal painting was laid by Humayun while staying in
Persia.
He brought with him two painters – Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad to India.
Akbar commissioned the illustrations of several literary and religious texts.
He invited a large number of painters from different parts of the country to his
court.
Both Hindus and Muslims joined in this work.
Baswan, Miskina and Daswant attained great positions as Akabar’s court as
artists.
Illustrations of Persian versions of Mahabharata and Ramayana were
produced in miniature form.
Art Studio established by Akbar. Historical works such as Akbar Nama also
remained the main themes of Mughal paintings
Mughal paintings reached its climax during the reign of Jahangir.
He employed a number of painters like Abul Hasan, Bishan Das, Madhu,
Anant, Manohar, Govardhan and Ustad Mansur
Music had also developed under the Mughals.
Akbar patronized Tansen of Gwalior.
Tansen composed many ragas.
Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also fond of music.

Language and Literature

Persian language became widespread in the Mughal Empire by the time of

Akbar’s reign.
Many historical works were written during this period.
They include Ain-i-Akbari and Akabar Nama authored by Abul Fazl.
The leading poet of that period was his brother Abul Faizi.
The translation of Mahabharata into the Persian language was done under
his supervision.
Utbi and Naziri were the two other leading Persian poets
Jahangir’s autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiriwas famous for its style
He also patronized many scholars like Ghiyas Beg, Naqib Khan and
Niamatullah
Shah Jahan also patronized many writers and historians like Abdul Hamid
Lahori, author of Padshah
Nama and Inayat Khan who wrote Shah Jahan Nama.
His son Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavat Gita and Upanishads into the
Persian language
Regional languages such as Bengali, Oriya, Rajasthani and Guajarati had
also developed during this period.
Many devotional works including the Ramayana and Mahabharata were
translated into regional languages.
The most influential Hindi poet was Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of
the Ramayana, the Ramcharitmanas.