Mirrors Prisms and Lenses

MIRRORS ,
PRISMS AND
LENSES
A TEXT BOOK OF GEOMETRICAL OPTI S
—
C
BY
A S P C SOUTHALL
J ME . .
ASSOCIATE P RO SSOR
FE OFSICS CO M IA
PHY RS T LU B UN IVE I Y
OR RI CI S M T O S
,
AU T H OF T HE P N PLE AN D E H D
OM TRICA O TICS
O F GE E L P
Na n fi n rk
THE MACMILLAN C OMPANY
1 9 18
A ll r i g hts r es eg ved
'
C I 19 18
MAC M I LLAN C OM PANY
O PYR GH T ,
B Y T HE
Se t u p an d ee
l c tro typ e d . e ee e
Pub lish d D c mb r , 1 9 1 8.
(0
,
8 4
PRE FACE
In s pit e of the exist en ce o f a n umber of e xcellen t wo r k s

o n ge o m et r ic a l o ptics
,
the n eed o f a te x t -b o o k which will ser ve
as a n in t r o ducti o n t o the the o r y o f m o de r n o ptic a l in st r u
m en ts appe ar s t o be ge n e r ally r ec o gn i z ed ; an d the p r esen t

vo lum e which is the o utgr o wth o f a c o ur se o f lectu r es o n
o ptics give n in C o lu m bi a Un ive r sit y
,
,
h a s been w r itten in
the h Ope th at it m ay an swer this pur po se In a cer t ain .
sen se it m ay be c o n sider ed as an a b r idgm en t o f m y t r eatise

o n The Pr i n ci p les a n d M e thods of Geometr i ca l Op ti cs but ,
the r e ader will als o fi n d her e a c on sider able m ass o f m o r e or

less n e w an d o r igin a l m ater i al which is n o t c on t a in ed in the
lar ger b o o k I h ave en deavor ed h o wever t o keep steadily
.
, ,
in mi n d the li m it ati o n s o f the cl a ss o f studen ts fo r wh o m

the w or k is prim ar ily in ten ded an d t o em pl oy ther efo r e, ,
o n ly the si m plest m athe m atic a l p r o cesses as far as p o ssible .
With this o bj ect in view I h ave pu r p o sely en te r ed in t o m uch

det ail in the e ar lier an d m or e elem en t ary po r ti o n s Of the
subject fo llo win g in fa ct the m eth o d which h as been fo un d
,
t o be m o st s atisfa ct o r y with my o wn pupils ; but I ven tu r e

t o h o pe th a t the b o o k m ay be n o t with o ut i n te r est a ls o t o
r e a de r s wh o a l r e a d y p o ssess a ce r t a in kn o wledge o f t he
subj ect .
R ece n t ye ar s h ave wit n essed e xt r ao r din ary p r o gr ess in

b o th Ophth alm o l o gy an d a pplied o ptics No t m an y pe r so n s
.
ar e a w ar e o f the r a pid r ate at which spect a cle O ptics in p a r ,
t icular is devel o pi n g in t o a sever e scien tific pu r suit ; a n d

,
ther e ar e cert ain p o r ti on s o f this vo lum e which I thi n k will

be helpful t o the m o dern o culist an d O pt o m et r ist Thus .
,
fo r e xam ple I h ave been at s o m e p ain s t o e x pl ain the fun d a

,
m e n t a l p r in ciples o f O phth almi c le n ses a n d p r is m s .
In ge n e ra l ho weve r I h ave n ecess ar il y h ad t o o mi t m uch

, ,
V
v i Pr e fa c e
th at is es sen t ial t o a thorough kn o wledge of t he t heo ry o f

o p t ic a l in st r u me n ts .In fa ct in the sp a ce at m y dispo s a l
,
it h as been fo un d qui te im po ssible t o desc r ibe a sin gle o n e

o f these i s t r u m e n ts in det ail In the l a tte r p o r ti o n o f the
n .
b o o k the the o ry o f the chr om at ic an d sphe r ic al abe rr ati o n s

is t r eated as b r iefly as p o ssible ; an d I h ave given Von Seidel s ’
fo r m ul ae fo r the five sphe ric al aber r ati on s in the c a se o f a

syste m o f in fi n itely t hin le n ses c hi efly bec ause these fo r m ul ae
,
ar e e x ceedin gly useful in the p re lim in ar y desig n o f an o ptic a l
syste m But a c o m plete discussi on o f these subj ects w o uld

.
lie far beyon d the pl an o f t hi s v o lum e .
The pr o blem s appen ded t o e a ch ch apter wer e o r igin ally

c o ll ected fo r the use of m y pupils an d ar e gen er all y o f a ve r y
ele m en t ar y descr ipti on A few o f them h ave been a d a pted
.
f o o ther t ext bo o k s bu t in such c ases I h ave n o w l o st sight

r m -
,
o f their s o u r ces .
If per ch an ce thi s b o o k sh ould help t o st imul ate the stud y

o f o ptics in o ur c o lleges an d un ive r sit ies the a uth o r will feel,
a bun d an tl y r ep a id . Un for tun at ely at p r ese n t ge o m et r ic a l

,
o ptics w o uld s ee m t o be a kin d o f C in de r ell a in the cu r r i o
ulum o f physics r egar ded perh ap s with a cer t ain fr ien dly
,
t o le r ati on as a m athe m atic a l disciplin e n o t with o ut va lue ,
but h ar dly per m itted t o t ake r an k on e qual term s with h e r

si s t e r b r an ches o f ph y sic s On t he c on t r ar y it m ight be in
.
,
ferr ed th at an y sy st em o f kn o wledge which h a d alr e ad y

pl a ced at the dispo s al o f scien tific in vestigat o r s such in
c o m p ar able m e an s o f r esear ch a s ar e p r o vided by m o dern
O ptic a l in st r um en ts an d which h a s fo un d so m an y useful
,
a pplic ati o n s in the a rts o f b o th pe a ce an d war w o ul d be de ,
se r vin g Of the hi ghest r ec o gn iti on an d w o uld be fo ster ed an d

en c o ur aged in all p o ssible w ays Acc o r d in g t o the m axim
.
,
f a s e st e t a b has te doce ri the f a ct th a t fr o m the tim e o f Fr a n n
h o fer the G erm an s h ave n o t ceased t o cultivat e this field o f

,
”
theo r etic al an d a pplied scien ce with n o t able a chievem en ts ,
is cer t ain ly n o t With o ut sign ific an ce fo r us in this c o un t r y

an d in E n g l an d . I n deed b o th in En gl an d an d in Fr an ce
, ,
Pr e fa c e
a pp ar en tly due t o the exigen cies o f war sch o o ls of appli ed ,
o ptics h a ve r ece n tly bee n o r g an i z ed .
N e ar ly all o f the di a gr a m s in this vo lu m e we r e d r awn b y

m y fr ie n ds Pr o fess o r J o seph Hud n ut D r B A Wo o te n an d
, ,
. . .
Mr J G Sp ar kes t o wh o m I am m uch in debted I desi r e

. . .
, .
a ls o t o e xp r ess m y g ra teful a ckn o wledg m e n ts t o m y c o l
le ague Pr o fess or H W Far well fo r n um er o us valu able

,
. .
,
c riticis m s fr o m tim e t o ti m e an d especially fo r aid in m ak in g

the ph o t o gr aphic illust r ati on s in C h apter II .
An y suggesti o n s o r c o r r ecti o n s which m ay i m p r o ve an d

exten d the usefuln ess o f the b o o k will be app r eci ated
JA ME S P C S O U T HA L L
.
. . .
C o lu m bi a Un ive r sit y ,
N e w Yo r k N Y , . .
,
Apr il 4 1 9 1 8
, .
C O NT E NT S
C HA P TE R I
Li g hts an d S h a do ws
S C TI ONS
E
—
1 11 .
1 . i o us Bo die s
Lum n .
2 T a sp e tr n d Op aq ue B di e s
ar n an o
P o p ag atio o f Li g h t
.
3 Re c tili e n ar r n
Sh ado ws E c lip s e s e t c
.
0 Wa v e T h eo y o f Li g h t
, ,
1
r
5 HUYGE NS S C o st uctio o f t h e Wa v e-F on t
3
’
n r n r
5Rays o f Lig ht are No rmal to th e Wave Surf c e

9
1
- a
The Di e ctio a d Lo c atio n o f a Lum i o us Po in t

.
0
9 r n n n .
5 Fi e ld o f Vi e w
9 .
1 0 Ap p are t Si e
. n z
1 1 Th e Eff e c ti v e R ays
. .
Pr ob lem s
C HA P TE R II
Re fl e c ti on of Li g h t Pl a n e M irr o r s
CTI ONS
.
S
5
E
—
12 2 .
12 Regul ar an d Diffuse Re flecti on
efle ctio n
.
13 Law of R
HUYC E N s s C o n stru c ti o n o f t h e W v e F o t i c ase
.
14
’
a - r n n
o f Reflectio n at a Pl
.
e Mi o r
5
an rr .
1 . Im ag e in a Pla e Mirr o r n
16 T he Field o f View o f a Pla e Mi o n rr r
Suc c essiv e Refle c tio s f om T wo Pla e Mi o s

. .
17 . n r n rr r .
18 . Imag es in a System of Two I clin ed Mir o rs n r
ix
X 1
C on t t en s
S C TI ONS
E AG S
P E
19 C o ns tru cti o n t h o f a Ray Reflected

of th e Pa in to
t h e Eye fr om a Pair of I cli ed Mi rr o rs
.
n n
20 Rectan gul a C o m b i ati o n s o f Plan e Mirr o s

r n r
2 1 Appli catio n s o f t h e Pl an e Mi r r o r
.
. .
22 Per le Lumi e e a d H elio st at r n
23 Measur em en t o f t h e A g le o f a P ism
. .
. n r
24 Measu e o f An gul ar De fle c t io n s b y Mi rr o
. r r an d
Sc ale
5
H ADLE Y S Sextan t
.
’
2 .
Prob lem s
C HA P TE R III
Re fr a c ti on of Lig h t
S E CTIONS
2 6 39 — .
ight fr om O e Medi um t o An other

“
Pa ssage of L n .
27 Law o f Refr ac tio n
Exp e im e tal P o o f o f t h e Law o f Refr a ction

. .
'
28 r n r
R ev er sib ility o f t h e Li g h t Pat h

.
29
Lim itin g V alues o f t h e I dex o f R ef c tio n
. .
30 n ra
H U YGE NS S C o stru c ti o n o f a Plan e Wav e R efr a cted

. .
’
31 . n
at a Pl a e Surfac e n
Mec h an i cal Illustr ation o f t h e Ref action of a Pla e

.
32 r n
Wa v e
.
33 Ab so lute In dex of R efra ction

C o n stru cti on o f t h e R efrac ted Ray
. .
34
Dev iati on of t h e R ef a cted Ray
.
36 To tal Refle ction

Exp erim e tal Illu st ati o s o f To tal Refle c tion
.
37 n r n
G en e ali ati on o f t h e Laws o f R efle c tio n a d R e

. .
38 r z n
fr ac tion Prin cip le o f Least Tim e (FE RMAT S

.
’
.
Law)
Th e ti al Len g t h o f t h e Light-Pat h the
.
39 Op c an d Law
S
.
of MA LU .
Pr ob lem s .
C on t t en s xi
C HA P TE R I V
Re fr a c tion at a Pl an e Surfac e an d al so thr o ug h a Plat e
with Pl an e Par alle l Fa c e s
S E C I ONS
T
40—47 .
Trigon ometric C alculation o f Ray Refr acted at a

40 .
Plan e Surf ace .
41 Imag ery in a Plan e Ref ac tin g Sur fac e b y Rays r
whi c h Meet t h e Surfac e Ne ar ly No rmally

.
—
9 6 98
Imag e of a Poin t Form e d b y Ra ys tha t are Oh
lique ly Ref a c te d at a Plan e Surfa ce
r
43 Th e Im ag e-Lin es of a N arr ow B un dl e o f Rays R e

.
fra cted Ob li quely at a Plan e

44 Pat h o f a Ray Refra cted Thr ough a Slab wit h Plan e
.
Par all e l Si des

5
4 Seg men ts o f a St aig h t Li n e r
46 App a e t Po siti on o f an Ob j e ct see t hr o ug h a

.
r n n
Tran spa e t Slab who se Pa allel Sides a e Per

.
5
r n r r
p e n di c ul ar t o t h e Li e o f Sig ht n —
10 1 07
47 Multiple Im ag es in t h e two Pa allel Fa ces o f a Plate
. r
G lass Mi o r rr
Pr ob lem s
C HAP TE R V
R e fr a c ti on t hr o ug h a Pr i sm
S E CTI ONS
48— 6 2 .
48 Defi n itio n s etc

h h h
.
49 C o n str uc tio n o f Pat is

5 evi ti
. of a Ra y T r o ug a Pr m .
is
5 i I ie e
0 Th e D. a on o f a Ray b y a Pr m
i e e e
5Mi i
1 . G ra z ng nc d nc an d G r a z n g E m rg nc
e ti
5 vi ti y f the
2 n m um D v ia on
t h e is
. .
5 ef ti
3 De a o n awa rom Edg e of Pr m
l eW v h h is
.
5
5T i et i l l ti
4 R ra c on of a P an a e T r o ug a Pr m
th
.
g on o m
5
. r r c Ca cu a on of t h e Pa of a Ray in
a Pr in cip al Se ctio n of a Pr m is . 1 24, 1 2
xii C on t t en s
S CTIONS
5 5
E
To tal Reflection at t h e Secon d Face of the Prism 1 2 —128

5
6
Perp en di c ular Em ergen ce at t h e Sec on d Face o f
. .
7
t h e Prism
.
5 C ase wh en t h e Ray T ave ses t h e Pr ism Symm e t

.
8 . r r
r ically
5 Min im um De vi tio
.
9 . a n .
60 Dev i ation o f Ray b y T hi Prism n
Power o f an Op h t h lmi c Prism

.
61 . a C en trad an d .
~
Prism-Di o p try 1 3 4 38
-1
62 . Po sitio n an d Po we o f a R esulta t Prism E quiv a

r n
len t to T wo Thi n Prism s
C HA P TE R VI
Re fl e c tio n an d R e fra c ti o n of Par axial Rays at a Sph e n c al
Surfac e
S E CTI ONS
—
63 86 .
63 In tro duction Defin i tion s No tation etc

6 4 Refl ectio n o f Pa axial Rays a t a Sp h erical Mirr o r
. .
, ,
5
r
Defin ition an d Me ani n g o f t h e Do ub le Ratio

. .
6 .
66 Persp ectiv e Ra ges o f Po i ts n n
6 7 T h e H armo n ic Ran ge
. .
6 8 Appli c atio n t o t h e C ase o f t h e Reflection o f Par

.
ial Rays at a Sp he ic al Mirr o r

.
ax r 1 64-16
6
6 9 Fo c al Po i t a d Fo cal Len g t h o f a Sp h e ica l Mirr o r
.
n n r 1 6 6—1 6 8
7 0 Grap hi c al Met h o d o f Exhi b itin g t h e Im ag ery b y
.
Par axi al Rays 1 68—1 7 1

E xtra-Axial C o j ug ate Po in ts n
—
17 1 17 5
Th e Lateral Mag n ifi c atio n 1 76
Field o f View o f a Sp h eric al Mi r o r
.
r —
1 76 1 7 9
Refractio n o f Paraxi al Rays at a Sp h eri c al Surfa c e . . 1 7 9—1 82
Reflectio n C o n si der ed as a Sp ecial C as e o f R e fr ac
tion
76 C on stru ctio n o f t h e Po in t M C o n j ugate to t h e
.
’
.
Axi al Po in t M
C on t t
en s xiii
SE CTIONS PA GE S
77 . cal Po in ts (F F ) of a Sp herical Refracti g
The Fo ,
’
n
Surfac e 1 86—1 90
7 8 Ab s c issa-E q uati o Referr ed to t h e Ve rtex o f t h e
n
Sp h eri c al Ref ac ti g Sur fac e as O i g i n

.
r n 190 1 9 1 r
79 The Fo c al Le g th s f f o f a Sp h e i l Ref ac tin g

,
’
. n ,
r ca r
Surface 1 9 1 4 93
80 Ext a-Axi al C o n j ug ate Po in ts ; C o n j ug ate Pl an es
.
o f a Sp h eric al Ref ac tin g Sur fac e

.
r 1 93 1 94
8 1 C on struc tio n o f t h e Poin t Q whi c h wit h esp e c t t o
.
,
’
r
a Sp h eri cal Ref a c tin g Surfa c e is C o n j ug ate t o

.
th e Ext a-Axi al Po in t Q
-
r 1 94 -1 96
82 Latera l Mag n i fi c ati on fo r c ase o f Sp h eric al R e
.
f actin g Surfac e
r
83 Th e Fo c al Pl an es o f a Sp h erical Refr actin g Sur

.
f ce
a —
1 97 1 99
84 C on st uctio o f Par axi a l Ray Refr ac ted at a Sp h er
. r n
i cal Surfac e
5
1 99 200
Th e Im ag e-Equatio n s in t h e case o f Ref action of
.
,
8 r
Paraxial Rays at a Sp h eri cal Surfac e

.
call ed SM ITH-HE LMH O LTz Fo rm ula

.
86 Th e so—
.
C HA P TE R VII
Re fr ac tio n of Par axi al R a y s thr o ug h an In fi n ite ly Thin
Le n s
S CTI ON S
E
87—98 .
87 Fo rm s o f Len ses
The Opti c al C en te 0 o f a Le s su o un de d b y t h e
.
88 r n rr
sam e Medium o n b oth side s

.
—226
223
89 The Ab s c issa-Formula o f a T hin Len s referr ed t o
th e Axi al Po in t o f the Le s as Orig i
.
,
n n .
90 Th e Fo c al Po i ts o f a In fin i t e ly T hi Le s
n n n n
C o n stru c tion o f t h e Po i t M C o j ug ate t o t h e

.
’
91 n n
Axial Po in t M with r e sp e ct t o a In fi n it e ly T hin

.
. n
Len s . 232 234

—
xiv C on t t
en s
S E CTIONS P AGE S
92 . Ex t Axial C on j ugate Po in ts Q Q ; C on j ugate
ra- ,
’
Pl an es 234-23 6
Later al Magn i fi catio n in case o f Infi n i t e ly T hin
.
93 .
Len s
C h ar c te o f t h e Im ag ery m a T hi n Len s
.
5
94 a r
Th e Fo cal Len g th s f f o f a In fi n i t e ly Thin

.
’
9 .
,
n
Len s
96 . C e t al C o llin eation o f Ob j e c t-Sp ac e an d Im a g e
n r
Sp a ce
97 . C e tr a l C o llin eation
n G eom etrical C o n
st ru c t io n s
98 F . ield o f View o f an In fi n it ely T hi n L en s

Pr o b lem s
C HA P TE R VII
C h an g e of C urv atur e of th e W av e -fr o n t in R e fl e c tion an d
Re fr a c tion Di optr y S yste m
S CTI ON S
.
5
E
— —
2 8 29 9
55
99 1 1 0 .
C on cern in g C ur vatur e its Measure —
5
99 an d 2 8 26
o f a Sp h e ica l Wav e a t a Plan e Sur fac e
.
1 00 R ef ac tio n r r
—
26 2 69
o f a Sp h er i ca l Wave at a Sp h eri c al Sur
. .
1 01 Ref ac tio
. r n e
face —
2 69 27 4
1 02 Reflectio n o f a Sp h eric al Wave at a Sp h erical
.
Mirr o r 2 4—
7 276
h h
.
l
.
1 03 Refr actio n o f a S
.
p he n c a W ave t r o u g an In
fin itely Thi Len s n .

—
27 6 2 7 9
1 04 Redu ed Distan c e —
5
c 2 79 2 8 1
1 0 T h e R efr acti g Po wer
.
. n . 28 1 284
—
1 06 R educ ed Ab s c iss a an d R educ ed Ve g e ce —

2 84 2 86 r n
1 07 T h e Di o p try as Un it o f C ur vatur e
.
. 28 —
6 288
108 Len s-G auge 288 289
araxi a l Rays t hr o ugh a Th in Len s
. ”
,
1 09 Refr ac tio n o f P
.
System
1 1 0 Prism atic Po wer o f a Th in Len s
.
—
29 1 29 . 5
Pro b lem s
C on t t
en s xv
C HA P TE R I X
Asti g mati c Le n se s
S CTIONS
E
—
111 11 6 .
111 C ur v a urt e an d Refractin g Po we r o f a No rm al Se c

tio of a C u v
.
n r e d R e fr a c ti n g Surfa c e
Su rfac e s o f Re v o luti o
.
C ylin d i cal an d T o ri c Sur

5
1 12 . n . r
fac e s . 30 —3 10
1 13 . R e fr a c ti o n o f a Na r o w B u dl e Of Rays i c iden t
r n n
No rm ally o n a C ylin dri al Ref actin g Surface c r .
Thin C ylin dri c al an d T o ri c Len ses

5
1 14 .
11 . T a spo sin g o f C ylin dr i cal Le n ses

r n .
1 16 . Ob li q ue ly C ro ssed C ylin de r s
Pr ob lem s
C HA P TE R X
G e o m e tr i c a l T h e o ry of th e S ym m e tric al O pti c al
In strum e n t
S CT ON S
E I
1 1 7 124
— .
1 17 G r ap hi
l Meth o d o f t ac i g th e Pat h o f a Pa axial
ca r n r
Ra y t h o ug h a C e te e d Syst e m o f Sp h e i c l R e
.
r n r r a
f a ti g Surfac e s
r c n
C al c ul atio o f t h e Pat h o f ial Ray t h o ug h

.
1 18 n Pa a ra x r
a C en ter ed System o f Sp h e i ca l Ref a c tin g Sur

.
r r
faces
1 19 T he So—c alled C a di l Po i ts o f r Op ti al System
na n an c
C o n st uc ti o o f t h e I m g e-p o i t Q c o j ug ate t o an
.
’
120 r n a n n
Ext ra-Axi al Ob j e t Po i t Q
.
c - n
C o st uc tio n o f t h e No dal Po i ts N N
'
12 1 n r n
The Fo c al Le g t h s f
.
, ,
'
1 22 n
Th e I m g e E quatio n s in t h e c ase of a Symm et i c l

.
1 23 . a - r a
Op ti c al Syste m 34 —
4 349
1 24 . Th e Mag n ifi catio n -Ratio s a d t he ir Mutual Re la n
'
tio n s
Prob lems
xv i C on t t
en s
C HA P TE R XI
C o mpo un d Sys t e ms . Thi c k Le n se s an d C o mb in ation s of
Le n se s an d M irr or s
S C T ONS
5 5
E I
—
12 1 32 —
3 6 396
5 55
.
12 . Fo rm ul ae for C omb in atio n of Two Optical Systems 3 6—3 9

1 26 Fo rm ul a for C om b in atio n o f T wo Op ti cal System s
in term s o f t h e Ref actin g Po wer
.
5
r —
3 60 36 2
Thick Len ses Bo un de d b y Sp heri cal Sur faces
.
5
1 27 . 36 2 36 .
-
T he so -called Ve tex Refr ac ti on

”
1 28 . r o f a T hi c k Le n s 3 6 36 6 ,
1 29 C om b in ati on o f T wo Len ses —

366 370
Op tica l C o sta ts o f G ULLSTR AND S Sc h em atic Eye 3 70—3 74
.
’
1 30 n n
C om b in atio n o f T hr ee Op tic al System s

.
13 1
“
.
1 32 . Thi c k Mirr o r ”
C HA P TE R X II
Ape rtur e an d Fie l d of O ptic al Syst e m
S E CTIONS P AG S E
—
1 33 143 .
—
397 424
1 33 i tation o f
L mi u les by Diap hr ag ms o r Stop s
R y B nd
a - —
3 9 7 399
1 34 Th e Ap ertur e-Stop an d t h e Pup ils o f t h e System
.
399—401
5
. .
13 Illust ation s
. r . 4014 04
1 36 Ap er tur e-An gle C ase o f T wo or Mo r e En t an c e -Pupils
. . r 404—406
1 37 Field o f View
. . 406—409
1 38 Field o f View o f System C o ns isti g o f a Thin Len s n
an d t h e Eye
.
1 39 The C hi ef Rays
“
.
14 0 T h e so c alled
- B lur -C irc les (o r C irc les o f Diffu
sion ) in t h e Screen -Plan e
.
414—
41 6
1 41 Th e Pup il-C en ter s a s C e te s o f Pe sp e c tive o f
n r r
j
.
O b ect -S p a ce an d I m a g Sp ac e
e-
2 Pr o p er Distan c e o f Viewin g a Ph o to g ap h
.
14 r
1 43 Pe specti v e E lo gatio n o f Im age

.
. r n
14 4 T e le ce n t ric System s
.
Pr ob l e m s .
C on t t
en s
C HAP TE R XIII
t
Op ic al Syste m of th e E ye . Mag n ifyin g Po we r of O pti c al
In str um e n ts
S CTIONS
55
E
14 —1
9
5The um
.
14 H an Eye
t h e E ye
. .
146 Op ti cal C on stan ts of
147 Ac c omm o datio o f t h e Eye

.
1 48 Far Po in t an d Near Po i t o f t h e E ye
.
1 49 Decr ease o f t he Po we o f A c c o mm o datio n wit h In

.
. r
c easin g Ag e
5
r
1 0 C h a g es o f Re f c ti g Po we r i Acc omm o dati o n

.
5
. n ra n n .
1 1 Amp litu de o f Ac c o mm o datio

5
n
1 2 Vari o us E p e ssi s f o t he Re f c ti on o f t h e Eye

.
5
. x r on r ra .
1 3 Emm et op ia d Am e tr o p i a
5
. r an
1 4 C o e c ti o Ey e G lasse s
5
5
. rr n -
Visual An g le
5
1 . .
1 6 Si e o f Retin al Im g e
5
z a
1 7 App ar e t Si e o f a Ob j e c t see Th ro ug h an Op ti c al
.
5
. n z n n
In strum e t
5
n 44 9 42
—
1 8 Mag n ifyi g Po we o f a nOptic al In strumen t Used r n
in C o j un c tio wit h t h e Ey e
.
5
n n
1 9 Mag n ifyi g Po wer o f a Teles c o p e

. n
Pr o b lems
C HAP TE R XI V
Di spe r sion an d Ac hr o mati sm
S CTI ONS
E
1 60—1 74 .
1 60 D p r o n is e si by a Prism
i s o f t h e So la Spec t um
.
1 6 1 Da r k L n e r r
Relation b etween t h e C o l o r o f t h e Li g ht an d t h e F e
.
162 r
h h Wav e s
.
q u e n c y o f Vi b ra ti on o f t e Lig t - —
473 476
1 63 . In de x o f Refrac tion as a Fun ctio o f t he Wav e n
47 6 , 477
xv iii C on t t
en s
S E CTI ONS
I tion ality o f Disp ersio n
5
1 64 rra
Dispe si v e Po wer o f a Medium

.
16 . r
1 66 Opti c al G lass
C hr om ati c Ab erratio a d A c hr om atism
. .
1 67 n n
Op ti c al Ac hr om atism “
Ac tini c Ac hrom a
.
" ”
1 68 . an d
”
t ism
1 69 Ac hr om atic C omb in ation o f Two Thi Prism s n
1 70 Di ect Visio n C o m b i ation o f T wo Th in

.
r n
1 7 1 C alculation o f AM I C I P ism wit h Fi n ite An g les

.
1 72 KE SSLE R Di e c t Visio n Quadrila te a l Prism

. .
r r
1 73 Achr om atic C omb in atio n o f T wo Thi n Le n ses

. .
1 74 Ac hr o m atic C omb in ation of N o T hin Len ses

. .
. in
C on t act
C HA P TE R XV
Rays of Fin i te S l o pe Sph e r i c al Ab e rr ation , Astig mati sm
.
o f O b li que B un d l e s , e tc
SE CTION S
.
5
1 7 —1 93
5
.
17
h e ic l S
.
C o n str u cti o n ef acted at

55
1 76 . of a R ay R r a Sp r a ur
face 09— 12
1 77 . Th e Aplan atic Po in ts of a h e i l Ref
Sp r ca ra ctin g Sur
1 78 Sp he i l Ab er atio n Alon
r ca r x g t h e A is
Sp h e i
.
1 79 . r ca l Z o es n
Trigo om etri c al C al c ulation o f a Ray Refracted at a

55
1 80 . n
Sph eri c al Surface 1 6— 1 9

Pat h o f Ray t h o ug h a C en te e d System o f Sp h e ri
.
55
1 81 . r r
c al R ef ac tin g Surfa ces Num eric al C al c ulation

555
r .
—
1 9 22
T h e Sin e-C o n dition o r C o n ditio n o f Apl an atism
5
55
2 2— 2
1 82 . .
1 83 . C austi c Surfaces . 2 ,
26
1 84 Meri di an a d Sagittal Se c tio s of a Narro wB un dle
n n
o f R ays b efo r e an d afte r Refr actio n at a Sp h eri c al

.
55
‘
Surfac e —
2 6 29
C on t t
en s
S E C TI O N S AGE S
5
P
18 . Fo rmu la sitio n o f t h e Image
fo r Lo catin g the Po
Po in t Q o f a Pe il o f Sag ittal Rays Ref a c ted at
55
‘ ’
nc r
a Sp h eri c l Su f c e a r a 29 , 30
Po sitio o f t h e I m ag e Po i t P o f a Pe c il o f M e
55
’
1 86 n - n n
idian Rays R e f c t e d a t a Sp h eri c a l Su f e

.
r ra r ac —
30 33
Me asur e o f t h e Astig m tism o f N a o w B un dl e
55
1 87 . a a rr
o f Ra ys 4
33 , 3
1 88 . Im ag e -Li e s (o Fo c al Li es) o f a Narr ow Astig
n r n
m ti c B un dle o f R ays
a
1 89 . T he Astig m atic Im ag e Surfac e s -
1 90 . C urv at u e o f t he I m g e
r a .
19 1 C om a
t h o s o py
. . .
192 Disto rti o n ; C o n diti o n of Or c
I S T he Fi v e Ab e atio s
.
1 93 . S E DE L
’
or y of th e rr n
Prob l em s
MIRRORS ,
PRISMS AND LENSES
C HA P TER I
LI GH T S AN D SHAD OW S
1 . Lumin ous Bo die s The extern al w o r ld is r evealed t o
.
—
the eye by m e an s of li ght With the r isin g sun n ight is

.
ch an ge d in t o day an d an im als veget ables an d m in er als in

, ,
all the ir m an ifo ld v ar ieties o f f o r m a n d sh a de an d c o l o r ,
which wer e quite in visible in the d ar k ar e n o w r eve aled t o ,
view Wher ever the ey e turn s t o g a z e ther e c o m es t o it

.
,
fr om far or n e ar a m essen ger o f light c o n veyin g in form ation

a b o ut the Obj ect which is u n de r i n specti o n In an abs o lutel y .
d ar k r o om eve rythin g is in visible bec ause the eye c an p e r

.
c e iv e o bj ects o n l y whe n they r a di a te o r r eflect light i n t o it .
In the st r ict se n se a s o u r ce o f light is a self-l um i n o us b o d y

w hich shin es b y its own light such as the sun o r a fixed st ar
,
o r a c a n dle -flam e ; but fr e que n tl y the te r m is a pplied t o a
b o dy which m er ely r eflects o r t r a n sm its light which h as

fall en upo n it fr o m s o m e o ther b o d y as fo r exam ple the , , ,
m o on an d t h e pl an ets which a r e illum in ated b y the light

fr om the sun In this latter sen se the blue sky an d the
.
clouds which Shin in g b y light der ived o r igin ally fr om the

, ,
sun , c o n t r ibut e the gr eater p o rtion o f wh at is m ean t by

d aylight ar e t o be r egar ded as light-so ur ces A po in t .
so ur ce o f li ght o r a lum in o us p o i n t is in r e alit y a s m all ele

,
m en t o f lum in ous sur fa ce o f r el atively n egligible dim e n sio n s

o r else a b o d y lik e a st ar at such a v a st dist an ce th a t it ap
'
pear s lik e a p o in t .
2 Tr an spar e n t an d O paqu e Bo di e s — In ge n e r al when

. .
light falls o n a b o dy it is p ar tly tu r n ed b a ck o r r efl ected at

,
o r ve ry n e ar t he su r fa ce o f the b o dy p ar tl y abs o r bed withi n

,
2 Mirr or s ,
Pr ism s an d Le n se s 2
the b o d y an d p ar tly tran sm itted th r o ugh it An ab so lut ely

,
.
bla ck b o d y whic h a bs o r bs all the light th a t falls o n it d o e s

n o t exist ; the best e xam ple we h ave is affo r ded b y a b o d y
wh o se sur fa ce is c o ated with l am p-bla ck T h e c o lo r Of a .
b o dy as seen b y r eflected light is expl ain ed b y the fa c t th at

p ar t o f the in ciden t light is abs or b ed wher e a s o n ly li ght ,
ch ar a cte r istic o f the c o lo r in questio n is c a st o ff o r r eflected

fr om the b o dy Thus when sun light falls o n a piece of r e d
.
,
fl an n el it is r o bbed o f all its c on stituen t c o lo r s ex cept r e d

,
an d thus it h a ppe n s th a t the c o l o r b y which we desc r ibe

,
the b o dy is in fa ct due t o the li ght which it r ej ects If the .
piece o f re d fl an n el wer e illum in ated b y pur e blue light it ,
w o uld appear bl ack o r in visible .
A subst an ce such as air o r w ater o r gl a ss which is p e r ,
v ro us t o light is s aid t o be tr an sp aren t No n e o f the light

,
.
th at t raver ses a per fectly t r an sp ar en t b o dy will be abs o r bed ;

a n d o n the o the r h an d a pe r fectly Op a que b o d y is o n e which
'
, ,
su ffe r s n o light at all t o be t r an s m itted thr o ugh it NO .
s ubst an ce is eithe r a bs o lutel y t r an sp ar e n t o r a bs o lutely
Op aq ue . These term s ther efo r e a s applied t o a ctu al b o dies

, ,
a r e m er el y r el ative a n d so whe n we say th a t a b o dy is O p a q ue

, ,
we m e an o n ly th at the light t r an sm itted th r o ugh it is so

slight as t o be p r a ctic a ll y in a pp r eci a ble N atu r a ll y o n e .
,
thin ks o f clear w a ter as t r an sp ar en t an d o f m et allic sub

st an ces ge n e r a ll y a s O p a q ue ; but a suf ficie n tl y l ar ge m a s s
o f w ater will be fo un d t o be i m pe r vi o us t o light wher e a s , ,
o n the o ther h an d g o ld le af t r an s m its g r een light

,
A per .
fe c tly t r an sp ar en t b o dy w o uld be q uite in visible b y t r an s

m itt e d light a lth o ugh its p r esen ce c o uld be detected by
,
o bse r vin g the dis t o r ti on in the appe ar an c e o f b o dies viewed
thr o ugh it .
Ag ain ther e ar e s om e subst an ces which whi le they ar e

'
n o t t r an sp ar e n t in the o r di n ar y sen se a r e f ar fr o m bein g ,
O p a que such f o r ex am ple a s gr o u n d gl a ss al ab a ste r p o r

, , , , ,
c e l ain,
m ilk bl o o d s m o ke which c o n t ai n i m bedded o r sus
, , ,
pen ded in them fi n e p ar ticles of m atter o f a differ en t o ptic al

3] R tili
ec n e ar t
Pr op a g a io n of Lig h t 3
quality fr om that o f the surr o un din g m ass Light d o es .
pen et rate thr o ugh m ater i als o f thi s n atur e in a m or e o r less

irr egular fashi o n an d a cc o r din gly they ar e descr ibed as
,
tr an slu cen t In the i n ter i o r o f such g ra n ul ar st r uctur es o r

“clo udy m edia light un dergo es a so -called in tern al diffused
.
r eflecti o n o r sc atte r in g ; so th a t while it m ay be po ssible t o
discern the pr esen ce o f a b o dy t hr o ugh an in terven in g m ass

o f such m ate r i al the f o r m o f the O bj ect will be t o s o m e e x
,
ten t in distin ct an d un r ec o gn i z able .
An op ti cal medi um is an y sp a ce whether filled o r n o t,
with p on derable m atter which is per vio us t o light In g e o

,
.
m et r ic al o ptics it is ge n era lly a ssum e d th at the m edi a ar e

n o t o n l y h o m o gen e o us an d iso t r Op ic (m e an i n g the r eby th at
the subst an ce p o ssesses the s am e pr o per ties in all dir ection s ) ,
a s f o r e xam ple air gl a ss w ate r a n d v a cuum but pe r fectly

, , , , ,
t ran sp ar e n t as well .
3 R e c tilin e ar Pr opag ation of Li g h t — When an O p aque

. .
b o dy is in ter p o sed between the o bser ver s eye an d a s o ur ce ’
o f light , it is well kn o wn th at all p ar ts o f the la tter which

lie o n st r aight lin es c o n n ectin g the pupil o f the eye with
p o in ts o f the Op a que o bst a cle will be hid fr o m view We .
c an n o t see r o u n d a c o r n e r ; we c an l o o k th r o ugh a st r aight
tube but n o t th r ough a c r o o ked o n e A child t akes n o te o f

.
such fa cts a s these am o n g the ve r y e a r liest o f his e x pe r ien ces
an d r ec o g n i z es with o ut difficulty the t r uth o f the c o mm o n
say in g th at
“ light t r avels in st r aight li n es which in the ”
,
lan gu age o f scien ce is c alled the law o f the r ectilin ear pr Opa
g at io n o f light . The light th at c o m es t o us fr om a st ar
t raver ses the v ast str etches o f in ter stellar sp a ce in st r aight
lin es un til it r e a ches the e arth s atm o spher e which is c om
’
,
p o sed o f l ayer s o f air Of i n cr ea sin g de n sity fr om the upper

por tion s t o war ds the sur fa ce o f the e arth ; so th at the m e
dium th r o ugh which the light p a sses in t hi s sh o r t r em ain der
o f its d o w n w ar d j o u r n ey is n o l o n ge r iso t r Op ic a n d he n ce , , ,
als o this p ar t o f the light p ath will in ge n e r a l be n o l o n ge r

, ,
st r aig ht but cu r ved b y a g r a du a l an d c o n ti n u o us ben din g

4 Mirr or s ,
Pr isms an d Len se s 3
fr o m the less den se l ay ers o f air t o the m or e den s e layers

belo w This explai n s why it is n ecess ary fo r an o bser ve r
.
o n the e ar th s su r fa ce l o o ki n g th r o ugh a l o n g n arr o w tube

’
a t a st ar n o t di r ectl y o ve r he a d t o p o in t the tube n o t a t the
st ar itself but at its app ar en t pl a ce in the sky which depen d s ,
o n the di r ecti o n which the light h a s whe n it e n te r s the eye ;
an d c o n seque n tly
,
in a ccu r a te deter m in ati o n s o f the p o si
,
tion o f a heave n ly b o d y the a st r o n o m er is always c ar eful

,
t o t ake a cc o u n t o f the a pp a r en t displ a ce m e n t due t o this

so -c alled
“a t m o sphe r ic r efr a cti o n an d a p r in cip al r e a s o n
,
why a st r o n o m ic a l o bser v at o r ies ar e n e ar l y a lw ay s l o c ated

o n high m o u n t ai n s is t o o bvi a t e a s m uch as p o ssible t h e
distur bin g i n fluen ce o f the a tm o spher e In aim in g a r ifle

“
.
o r in a n y o f the o r di n ar y p r o cesses w e c a ll sightin g which ,
are at the b a sis o f s o m e o f the m o st delic a te m eth o d s o f
m e a su r em en t kn o wn t o us we r ely with abs o lute c o n fide n ce

,
o n this p r o ved l aw o f expe r ie n ce c o n ce r n i n g the r ecti lin e ar
pr o p agatio n o f light ; an d in fa ct the m o st c on clusive de m

, ,
o n st r at io n th a t a l i n e is st r a ight c o n sists in sh o wi n g th at it
is the p ath which light pu r sues The n o ti on o f a r ay of “ .
light is der ived fr o m this law an d an y lin e alo n g which

”
,
light travels is t o be r eg ar ded as .
a r ay o f light Acc o r din g t o this .
ide a ther efo r e the r a ys of li g ht

, ,
in an i sotr op i c m edium ar e
str ai g ht li n es .
A very st r iki n g p r o of o f the

F 1 — R t il i P p g ti r ectili n e ar p r o p ag ati o n o f light
f Lig ht
IG . . ec n e ar ro a a on
O ’
is affo r ded by pla cin g a lum i

n o us o bj ect (Fig 1 ) in fr on t o f an O p aque s c r e e n in which
.
ther e is a ve ry sm all r o un d apertur e If n o w a sec o n d scr een .
o r a white w a ll is pl a ced p ar allel t o the fi r st sc r e e n o n the
o the r side f it the e will be c ast

o r ,
o n it a so -c alled in verted
im age o f the o bj ect the si z e o f which will be pr o p o r ti o n al t o
,
the dist an ce between the t wo scr ee n s Fr om e a ch po in t o f .
the lumin o us o bj ect r aysg o out in all direction s an d a n arrow ,

3] Pin h o le C am e r a 5
c o n e o f these r ays will t r aver se the pe r fo r ated sc r een thr o ugh
the o pen in g an d illum in ate a s m all ar e a o n the o ther scr ee n ,
a n d thus eve r y p ar t o f the o bj ect will be depicted in this way
by little p atches o f light arr an ged in a figur e which is sim il ar

in fo r m t o the o bject but which is c o m pletely i n ve r ted sin ce
, ,
n o t o n ly t o p an d b o tt o m but r ight a n d left ar e r eve r sed in
c o n sequen ce o f the r ect ili n e ar p aths o f the r ays o f light It .
m ay be r em a r ked th at this im age is n o t an o ptic al i m a ge in

the str ict sen se o f the term (see but the phen om en on
c an be e x pl ain ed o n ly o n the supp o siti o n th at light p r o ceeds
in str aight lin es If a n o ther sm all o pe n in g wer e m ade in the

.
fro n t scr ee n ver y n e ar the fir st h o le ther e w o uld be t wo,
im ages fo rm ed which w o uld p ar tly o ver l a p e a ch o ther so th at ,
the r esult an t im age w o uld be m o r e o r less blur r ed an d if we ,
h ave a sin gle l ar ge ape r tur e we c o uld n o lo n ger see an y

,
distin ct im age at all

The p i n hole camer a in ven ted b y GIAMB A TTI S TA D E LLA
.
PORTA (c 1 43 . 5 a n d s o m eti m es c alled POR TA S c am e r a

,
’
,
is c o n str ucted o n the pr i n ciple o f the exper im e n t which h as

j ust been descr ibed It is ver y useful in m akin g a cc ur ate
.
ph o t o gr aphic c o pies o f the ar chitectur al det ails o f buildin gs ,
bec ause the im age which is Obt ain ed is en tir el y fr ee fr o m

dist ortion .
In the pi n h o le c am er a the r e is a cer t ai n r el ati o n betwee n

the si z e of the pin h o le an d the dist an ce o f t he sen sitive pl ate
Acc o r din g t o A B N E Y in o r der t o get the best r esults with
.
a n a pp ar atus o f this ki n d the di am ete r o f the pi n h o le o ught
t o be dir ectly p r o p o r ti o n al t o the squ ar e -r oo t o f the dist an ce

o f the pl a te fr o m the a pe r tu r e th at is , ,
wher e x an d den o te the dist an ce o f the pl ate an d the di

y
am e t e r o f the pi n h o le r espectivel y ,
an d k de n o tes a c o n
,
st an t the v alue o f which will depen d o n the un it o f len g th

,
.
Thus if a: an d y a r e m e asur ed in i n ches la= 0 008 ; in ce n ti
5
.
, ,
m et er s k = 0 01 27
, . .
6 Mirr ors ,
Prisms an d Le n se s 4
4 Shadows , Ec lipse s , e tc
. The form s o f sh ad o ws ar e also
.
e asily expl ain ed o n the h yp o thesis th at light pr o ceeds in

str aight lin es fo r the o utlin e o f the sh ad o w c ast b y a b o dy
,
is p r ecisely sim il ar t o th at o f the O bj ect as viewed fr o m the

pl a ce whe r e the s o ur ce o f light is Thus f or e xam ple the .
, ,
FI G 2 — S h a do w (u m b r a ) of pq g lo b e E il lu m in a t e d b y
p
. . o a ue
o in t-so u r c e S .
sh a d o w o f a spher e held f t p t s ur ce o f light

in ron of a o in - o
h a s the fo rm o f a cir cle a n d the sh ad o w c ast b y a c ir c l ilar

,
disk will h ave the o utli n e o f an ellipse o f gr e ater an d gr e ater

eccen t r icit y as the disk is tur n ed m o r e an d m o r e n e ar l y
e dge o n t o war ds the light
- Pa ssi g a sh o p wi n d o w o n
n - .
Su n d ay whe n the sh ade is dr awn d o wn if the sun is shin in g ,
FI G 3 — S h a do w (u m b r a d p e n um b r a ) of pq g lo b e E
p
. . an o a ue
ill u m in a t e d b y t w o o in t -so ur c e s S1 , 8 2 .
on the win d o w o n e c an r e ad the sh ad o w of the sign p ain ted

,
o n the gl as s quite as distin ctl y as the S ig n itself The ih .
t e r p o sit io n o f an o p a q ue b o d y betwee n a s o u r ce o f light a n d

a w all n o t o n l y d ar ke n s a p o r ti o n o f the w all o r c asts its
sh a do w ther e but it c on ver ts an en tir e r egi o n of sp a ce b e

,
tween it an d the w all i n t o a d ar k t r a ct either wh olly o r p ar

4] Shado ws 7
t ia lly sc r ee n ed fr om the light Thus fo r exam ple the sp a ce

.
A (Fig 2) behi n d the b o dy E which is c om pr ised within the

, ,
co e
n o f r ay s p r o ceed g f
in r o m the p i t s o ur ce S th at ar e
o n -
in ter cept e d b y E gets n o light fr om S a n d this wh olly un ,
illum in ated r egi o n is c alled the umbr a o r t r ue sh ad o w When .
ther e ar e t wo lum in o us p o in ts S an d S? (Figs 3 an d 1 the .
r egi o n o f sh ad o w behin d the O p a q ue b o dy E c o n sists o f the
FIG 4 h
-S a do w
(um b r a d p e n um b r a ) of pq g lo b e E
p
. . an O a ue
il lum in a t e d b y t w o o in t-so u r c e s S 1 , S3 .
umb ra A which is wh o lly sc r een ed fr o m b o th s o ur ces o f ligh t

a n d the SO -c a lled p en umb r a o r p a rti a ll y illu m i n ated sp a ce
c om po sed of a sp a ce B 1 whi ch gets light o n ly fr o m SI a n d

a sim il ar sp a ce B 2 which gets light o n l y fr o m S Po in ts lyin g 2.
beyon d the p en umbra will r eceive light fr o m b o th s o ur ces .
If the light -s o u r ce has an appr eciable si z e light will pr o ,
c e e d fr o m e a ch o f its shin in g p o in ts in all dir ecti o n s
5
Sup .
p o se fo r exam ple th at an O paque glo be E (Fig ) is pl a ced

,
.
then the d ar k b o dy will

,
in fr o n t o f a lu m i n o us gl o be S :
in ter cept all r ay s th at fall within the c o n e which is t an gen t
e xter n ally t o the t wo sphe r es a n d c o n seque n tly the p o r
, , ,
tio n A of this c on e which lies behin d E will be c om pletely

8 Mirr o r s ,
Prisms an d Le n ses 4
scr e en ed f r o m all p o in ts o f the s our ce S so th a t thi s p ortion ,
c o n stitutes the umbr a wher e n o light c om es In thi s c ase .
a ls o the r e a r e t wo pe n u m b ra l r egi o n s B 1 a n d B 2 whi ch ar e
p artially illum in ated but t h e ill um in atio n i s n ot un iform

, ,
FI G 5 h .
— S
. a do w (u m b r a an d p enu m b r a) of O pq
a ue g lob e E
ill u mi n a t e d b y l u m in o u s g l o b e S .
but in cr ea ses g r a du a lly fr o m t o t a l d ar kn ess a t the o uter

b o r de r s o f the um br a in t o the c o m plete illumin ation o f the
r egi o n o utside the sh a d o w The sh ad o w c a st o n a scr een
.
b y an Op a que b o dy exp o sed t o an exten ded s o ur ce of light

h as n o sh a r p o utli n e but f a des b y im per ceptible gr a d a ti o n s
in t o the b r ight sp a ce o utside As t o the u mbr a it te r min ate s
.
,
in a p o in t a t a ce r t a i n dist an ce x behin d t h e O pa q ue b o d y ,
p r o vided the diam eter o f the l atter is less th an th at o f the

lum in o us glo be in fr o n t O f it th at is p r o vided R is g r eater
, ,
th an r wher e R r de n o te t h e r adii o f lum in o us an d O p a qu e

, ,
gl obes r espectively If the dist an ce d between the cen ter s

.
the len gt h a:
,
o f the two gl o bes is kn o wn of the umb r a m ay

,
be c alcul ated fr om the pr o p ort i o n

R d+ x
r x
when ce we fi n d
Thus fo r exam ple the diam ete r o f the sun is

, , tim es
th at o f the e ar th an d the dist an ce betwee n the
, t wo b o dies
5
] Wa v e The o ry of Li g h t 9
is 9 3 m illio n s m ilesAcc o r d in gly the umbr a o f the e arth

5
of .
,
is fo un d t o exten d t o a dist an ce o f m o r e th an 8 7 000 m il es

behin d it So m etim es the m o o n wh o se dist an ce fro m the
.
e ar th is ab o ut 240 000 m iles e n ter s in side the sh ad ow an d ,
bec o m es then t o t a lly eclipsed When the m oo n is o n ly

"
par tly in side the ear th s umbr a ther e is a p ar tial eclipse o f

’
,
the m o o n On the o ther h an d if the e ar th o r an y p ar t o f it

.
,
c om es in side the m o o n s sh ad o w ther e will be an eclipse

’
,
o f the sun visible fr o m p o in ts o n the e ar th th at ar e in the
shad o w .
The an gul ar di am eter o f the sun is 3 2 when ce it is '
e asy t o c alcul ate tha t the len gth o f the umbr a o f a n o p aque
5
glo be in sun light is ab o ut 1 0 tim es the di am eter o f the gl obe .
On the o the r h a n d if the light -s o ur ce is s m alle r th an the

,
in ter po sed Obj ect the umbr a in ste a d o f c o n t r a ctin g t o a

, ,
p oin t widen s o ut i n defin itely ; a n d thus wher e a s the sh ado w

, ,
c ast o n the Opp o site wall by a ha n d hel d in fr o n t o f a b r o ad

fi r e is s m alle r th an the o bj ect the sh a d o w m ade by the s am e
,
h an d in fr o n t o f a sm all s o ur ce o f light like a c an dle-flam e
5
m ay be p r o digi o us in exte n t .
. Wav e Th e o r y o f Li g h t — T he te r m r ay a s we h ave
.
,
e m pl o yed it is a pu r ely ge o m et r ic a l c o n cepti o n

,
but in o r ,
din ary usa ge a r ay o f light im plies gen er a lly a n ex ce e din gly

n ar r o w be am o f light s uch as is supp o sed t o be o bt a in e d
when sun light is a dm itted in t o a d ar k r o o m thr o ugh a p in

h ole Op en in g in a shutter But when the exper im en t is
.
c ar efully m ade t o t ry t o is o l ate a so —c alled r ay o f light in

this fashio n n e w a n d u n expected difficulties a rise an d
, , ,
c o n tra r y t o o ur pr ec on ceived n o tion s we are disc o n certed ,
by fin din g th at the sm aller the O pen in g in the shutter the ,
m o r e difficult it bec o m es t o r e ali z e the ge o m et r ic al c o n c e p

tion which is c o n veyed b y t he w o r d r ay “ In fa ct in c o n .
”
,
se que n ce O f this ex pe r i me n t an d o ther s o f a sim il ar kin d ,
we begin t o per ceive th at the st atem en t o f the law o f the

r ectili n e ar p r o p ag ati o n o f light n e e ds t o be m o dified ; fo r
a m o n g o the r phe n om e n a we disc o ve r th at when light p r o

10 Mirr o r s ,
c ee ds thr o ugh a very n arr o w a per tur e in a sc r een it d o es ,
n o t p a ss thr o ugh it just a s th o ugh the sc r e e n we r e n o t p r e s
e n t but it sp r e a ds o u t l ate r a lly fr o m the p o in t o f pe r fo r a

,
tio n in all dir ecti o n s beyo n d the sc r ee n p r o c e edin g in fa ct , , ,
ver y m uch as it m ight do if the o pe n in g in the sc r een wer e

the se at o f a n e w an d in depen den t s o ur ce o f li ght .
The tr uth is as h as been a scer t ain ed n o w fo r a lon g tim e

“
, ,
light is p r o p ag ated n o t b y r ay s at all but by waves ; an d ”
if in ge n er al it is fo un d th at light d o es p r o ce e d in st r aight
, ,
lin es a d d o es o t be d ar o u d c o r n er s as s o u d w aves do
n n n n n -
,
the expl an ation is bec ause the waves o f light ar e ex cessively

sh or t c sider ably less th a o e t e th o us an dth o f a cen ti
o n
,
n n n -
m ete r Wave le n gths o f light ar e usu ally spec ified in te rm s

-
“te th m eter o r an AN G S TROM un it
.
a u it c a lled a
” ”
O f n n -
,
which is the hun d r ed m illi on th p ar t o f a cen tim eter (see

—
1 6 2) th a t is 1 AN GS T ROM un it m eter
10
,
10 00001
c m . The wave len gth o f the d e epest r e d light is fo un d t o
-
be ab ut 7 66 7
o o f thes e u its a d t e w av e len gth o f light
n n h -
c o rr esp o n din g t o the ext r em e vio let e n d o f t he spectrum

is a little m or e th an h alf the ab o ve value o r 39 70 u n its .
Acc di g t the wave th eo r y t he phen om en a o f ligh t

o r n o -
ar e depe n de n t o n a n h yp o thetic a l m edium c alled t he ether

“
,
which m ay be c om p ar ed t o an i m p alp able an d all-p e r

vadin g j elly th at n ot o n ly fill s em pt y sp a ce but pen etr ates
fr eely thr o ugh all mater i al subst an ces soli d li quid an d , ,
gas eo u s an d t hr o ugh which p ar ticles o f o r din ary matter

,
m ove e asil y with o ut app ar e n t r esist an ce for it is im p o n ,
de r ab le an d e x c e edin gly el a stic an d subtle in s om uch th at ,
n o o n e h as ev e r succeeded in o bt a in in g d ir ect eviden ce o f
its exist en ce It is this ether which is the vehi cle by whi ch

.
light-e n e r gy is tran sm itted an d thr o ugh whi ch w aves of

light ar e in c e ss an tly thr o bbin g with p r o digio us but m e asur
able vel o cit y which in v a cu o is a b o ut 300 m i lli o n m ete r s pe r
,
sec on d o r ab o ut 1 86 000m iles p e r sec o n d .
6 H uyg e n s s C o n str uc ti o n of th e Wav e -Fr o n t -The gr e at

.
’
.
Dutch p hil o s o pher H U Y G E N S (1 6 29 wh o was a c on tem

6] Con s t r u c tion o f W v a
e -Fr o n t 1
p o r ary o f NE W TO N S (1642
’
-
17 is usu ally r egar ded
an d wh o
as the f o u n de r o f th e wa ve -theo r y o f light en co un ter ed his ,
g r e atest diffi culty in t r yi n g t o give a c o n sisten t a n d s atis

fa ct o r y ex plan atio n o f the a p p ar e n t r ecti lin e ar p r o p ag ati on o f
light His m o de o f r ea s o n in g as set fo r th in hi s Tr eatise
.
“
,
o n Light published in 1 690 while by n o m ean s fr ee fr om

,
O b j ecti o n ,
leads t o a sim ple g eometr i ca l c on stru cti on Of the
wa ve f r on t which c o rr esp o n ds with the k n o wn fa cts in r eg ar d
-
t o the p r o cedur e o f light .
Le t 0 (Fig 6 ) design ate the p o siti o n o f a p o i n t s o u r ce o f

.
-
light fr o m which as ce n ter or o r igin ether waves p r o ceed in

a n is o t r o pic m edium with
equ al speeds in all dir e c

tio n s At the e n d o f a
.
cer t ain tim e the distur b

a n c e s will h ave a r r ived
at all the p o i n ts which
lie o n a Spher ic a l su r fa ce
0 1 desc r ibed ar o u n d 0 as
cen te r an d at the in st an t
,
in questi o n this sur fa ce

will be the l o cus o f all the
p ar ticles in the m edium
th at a r e in this in itia l
ph ase o f ex cit atio n an d ,
FIG 6 — H G SS . t ti
. fw v
UY EN
’
c o n s ru c on o a e
f t
so it r ep r ese n ts the wa v e
ron ’
this m m e nt N w cc di n g t o H U Y G E N S eve r y
f r on t a t o o
. a o r ,
p o in t in the wave-fr o n t bec o m es imm ediately a n e w s o u r ce

o r ce n te r fr o m which so -c alled sec o n d ar y w aves o r w a ve
lets sp r ea d o ut These i n n um e r able r ipples o r w avelets

.
!
st ar tin g t o gether fr o m all the p o in ts affected by the

pr in cip al wave o verl ap an d in ter fer e with e a ch o ther
an d H U Y G E N S i n fe r r ed th a t thei r r esult an t sen sible e ffects
,
ar e p r o duced o n ly at the p o i n ts o f the su r f a ce which at an y
given i n st an t t o uches o r as we say en vel o ps all the sec o n d ary

, ,
wave fr o n ts an d th at acc or din gly the n e w p r i n cip al wave

-
,
12 Mir r o rs ,
fr o n t will be this en vel o pin g sur fa ce ; so th at the effect is

the s am e as th o ugh the o ld w ave-fr o n t ha d exp an ded in t o
the n e w the distu r b an ce m ar chin g fo r war d alo n g a st r aight
,
lin e in an y given dir ecti on Obvio usly in an u n o bstructed

.
,
is o tr o pic m edium such ,
as is her e suppo s e d .
,
the en vel opin g sur fa ce

o r n e w w av e -fr o n t wi ll
be a spher e c o n cen tr ic
with the o ld wav e
fr on t an d the st r aight ,
lin es th at r adiat e o ut
fr o m the cen ter will b e
the p aths o f the dis
t ur b an c e .
N o w if a pl an e scr een
MN (Fig 7 ) is . in ter
p o sed in fr o n t o f t he
a dv a n cin g w aves an d ,
if ther e is an Open in g
FI G w7 —v H G mS S t h t hti mf ph mi l AB in the scr een ea ch
. . UY EN
’
c o n s ru c on o s er ca
,
ap es
sc r e e n
g
.
g
a ss p g rou
p 01 1 113 i
O
n the
e n
o pe n in
a
g
between A wh1 0h 1 s ,
n e ar est t o the s o u r ce O a n d B which is far thest fr om it

, , ,
will bec om e in turn a n e w cen ter o f distur b an ce when ce

sec o n d ar y sphe r ic a l waves will be p r o p agated i n t o the r e
gio n o n the o the r side o f the sc r een Sin ce the distur b an c e .
will h ave arr ived at the p o in t A befo r e it has r e a ched a p o in t

X between A an d B the sec o n d ary w ave e m an atin g fr o m
,
A will at the e n d o f a given tim e t h ave been t r avellin g for

a l o n ge r tim e th an the sec o n d ar y w ave c o m i n g fr o m X If .
the r a dius o f the wavelet ar o un d X at the t im e t is den o t e d

by r an d if t h e dist an ce OX is put e qu al t o x the n d = w+ r
, ,
will den o te the dist an ce fr o m O which the distu rb an c e will

h ave g on e at the e n d o f the tim e t; an d sin c e this dist an c e
is c o n st an t wher e a s th e dist an ces den o ted b y x an d r ar e
,
"
7] Ry a s No r m a l t o Wa v e Sur fa c e
- 13
vari able s depe n din g o n the p o siti on o f the p o in t X it is

eviden t th at the far ther X is fr om O that is the gr e ater
,
, ,
the value o f x the sm alle r will be the r adius r

, d a: of
the sec o n d ar y wavelet ar o un d X The en vel o pin g Sl ir fa ce in

.
this c a se is seen t o be th at p art o f the spher ic a l su rfa ce de

scr ibe d ar o un d 0 a s cen ter with r adius equ al t o d which is i n
t e r c e p t e d b y the c o n e
which has 0 for its vertex
a n d the O pe n in g AB in
the scr een f o r a section .
Within this c o n e a cc or d
in g t o H U Y G E N S S V iew
,
’
,
the distur b an ce is p r o pa
g ated exa ctly as th o ugh
the per fo r ated sc r een h ad
n ot b e e n in ter p o sed ,
wher e as p o in t s o n the far

Side O f the sc r een a n d FI G 8 H G NS S -
f pl
’
ti
w v m g th h p
. . t UY E c o n s ru c on o an e
o utside this lim iti n g c o n e p a es g i g i

a ss rou o en n n a
sc r e e n
a r e n o t affected at all
.
It is pl ain th at this m o de o f expl a n ati o n is equivale n t to

the hyp o thesis o f the r ectilin e a r p r o p agatio n o f light .
If the lum in o us p o in t O (Fig 8) is so far away th at the

.
dim en sio n s o f the o pe n in g AB in the sc r een m ay be r eg ar ded

a s v an ishi n gly s m a ll in c o m p ar is on with the dist an ce o f the
s o ur ce the st r aight lin es d r awn fr o m O t o the p o in ts A X B

, , ,
in the O pen i n g in the sc r ee n m ay be r eg ar ded a s p a r a llel ,
a n d the w ave -fr o n t in this c a se will be pl an e i n ste a d o f
spher ic al th at is the w ave-fr o n t is a spheric al sur fa ce with

,
a n ex ceedi n gl y g r e a t ra dius a s c o m p ar ed with the dim e n

,
si o n s o f the a pe r tu r e in the sc r ee n .
7 R ays o f Ligh t a r e N o r m al to th e W av e -S ur f ac e — The

. .
m o st o bvi o us o b j ecti o n t o H U Y G E N S c o n st r ucti o n is Wh at

’
,
r ight h as he t o a ssu m e th a t the pl a ces o f se n sible e ffects a r e
the p o in ts o n the su r fa ce which is t an gen t t o o r en vel o p s

the seco n dary waves ? An d why is the light n o t p r o p agated
14 Mi rr o rs ,
b a ckw ar ds fr o m these n e w cen ter s as well as forwar ds ?

Mo r e o ver whe n the o pe n in g in the scr een is ver y n arr o w
, ,
it is fo un d as h as been al r e a dy st ated
, th at this c o n
st r ucti o n d o es n o t c o rr esp o n d at all with the Observed fa cts .
It is en tir ely bey o n d the S COp e o f this b o o k t o attem pt t o

an swe r these q uesti o n s he r e o r t o desc r ibe eve n b r iefl y the
r e m ar k able an d c o m ple x phe n o m e n a o f diffr a c ti on (which

is the n am e given t o these eff ects due t o the ben din g o f the
light -waves ar o un d t h e edges o f o p a que Obst a cles ) For .
a n a de q u ate discussi o n o f thes e m atte r s the r e a de r m us t
c on sul t a m or e a dvan ced t r eatise o n physic al o ptics Suffice .
it t o say th at the w ave-theo r y o f light an d especially the

pr in ciple o f in ter fer en ce as devel o ped l on g after H UY G E N S S
,
5
’
death (169 ) b y Y O U N G (1 7 7 3 1 829) an d FRE S N E L (1 7 88

—
1 827 e n ti r ely supp o r ts the ide a o f the r ectilin e ar p r o p ag a

tio n of light as c o m m o n ly un der st oo d ; n o twithst an din g
the fa c t th at this law a s in deed is the c a s e with n ear ly all
,
so -c a lled n atu r a l l aws h a s t o be a ccepted with ce r t ain r ese r

,
v a t io n s ; but f o r tun atel y these l atte r do n o t c on cer n us at

, ,
p r esen t .
Acc o r din gly a lum in o us p o in t is s aid t o em it light in all

,
di ectio s a d the so c alled light rays in an is ot r o pic m edium

r n n ,
- -
ar e st r a ight li n es r a di at in g fr o m the ce n te r o f the sp h e r i
c al w a ve -su r f a ce These r ay s m ay subse quen tly be ben t

.
a b r uptl y i n t o n e w di r ecti o n s in t r ave r sin g the b o u n d ary

betw ee n o n e is o t r o pic m edium an d a n other an d un der such ,
cir cum st an ces the wave-sur fa ces m ay cease t o be spher ic al ;

but n o m atter wh at m ay be the form o f the w ave-su r fa ce ,
the di r e cti on f
o the r a y a t any p oi n t i s to b e c on sider ed a lways as
n or ma l to the wa ve r on t tha t p a sse s thr ou g h tha t p oi n t ( see
39)
In an iso t r Op ic m ediu m
the w aves always m ar ch at r igh t
a n gles t o thei r o wn fr o n t a n d the so -c a lled r ay s o f li ght in
,
ge om et r ic a l o ptics ar e in fa ct the sh o r test o ptic al r o utes

, ,
a l o n g which the distu r b an ces in the ethe r a r e p r o p ag ated
fr om pl a ce t o pla ce With the aid o f the p rin ciple o f in ter

.
fer en ce (alluded t o ab o ve) an d b y the use o f t h e higher

8] App ar e n t Pl a c e o f Li g h tS - o ur c e 1 5
m athem atics , it m ay in deed be sh own th a t t h e effect p r o
du c e d at a n y p o in t P in the p ath o f a r ay o f light is due
a l m o st ex clusively t o p r evi o us distur b an ces which h ave
o ccu r r ed successively a t a ll the p o i n ts a l o n g the r ay w hi ch
lie between the s o u r ce a n d the p o in t P in questi o n an d th at ,
d istu r b an ces a t o the r p o in ts n o t lyi ng o n the r ay which g o es

thr o ugh P ar e pr a ctic ally with o ut in fl uen ce a t P th at is thei r , ,
eff ects ther e ar e m utu ally c o un ter a cted An d thus we a rr ive .
a ls o a t the so c a lled p r i n ci p le of the mu tu a l i n dep en den ce of

-
r a ys of li g ht which is a ls o o n e o f the fu n d am e n t a l l aws o f

,
ge om etr ic al o ptics Fr o m this p o i n t o f view a r ay o f light

.
is t o be r eg ar ded a s s o m ethin g m o r e th an a m er e g e om e t
r i c al ficti o n a n d a s h av in g in s o m e r e a l se n se a ce r t a i n physi
c al existe n ce a lth o ugh it is n o t p o ssible t o is o l ate t h e r ay

,
fr o m its c o m p an io n s .
8 T h e D ir e c ti o n an d Lo c ati o n o f a Lumi n o u s Po in t
. .
When a r ay o f light c o m es i n t o the eye the n atu r al i n fer ,
en ce as t o its o r igin is th at the s o ur ce lies in the dir ection fr o m

which the r ay p r o ceeded Ther e is n o difficulty in p o in tin g o ut
.
c o rr ectly the dir ecti on o f an o bj ect which is viewed th r o ugh

an is o t r o pic m edium ; but if the m ediu m we r e n o t is o t r o pic ,
the app ar en t dir ectio n o f

the o b j ect m ight n o t be ,
a n d p r o b ably w o uld n o t
be its r e al dir ectio n

,
.
Thus o win g t o the e f

,
fe e ts o f a tm o spher ic r e
FIG 9 —D i
pit
ti d l ti f l mi
fra ctio n t o which allu
,
. . re c on
n o us
an
o n
o ca
.
on o a u
sio n h as been m ade al

r eady the sun is seen ab ove the h o r i z o n befor e it has
a ctu ally r ise n an d so als o in the eve n i n g the su n is still
,
visible fo r a few m o m en ts afte r sun set Fo r the s am e r e aso n .
a st ar a ppe a r s t o be n e a r e r the z e n ith th an it r e a lly is

'
In ge n e r al h o weve r whe n a r ay SA (Fig 9 ) e n te r s the .
ey e at A it is c o rr ectly i n ferr ed th at the s o u r ce S lies s om e

, ,
wher e on t h e st r aigh t lin e AS but whether it is a ctu ally

,
,
16 Mir r o rs ,
situated at S o r farther o r n ear er c an n o t be det erm in ed b y

m e an s Of a si n gle r ay If the eye is t r a n sferr ed fro m A t o
.
a n o the r po in t B the s o u r ce wi ll a ppe ar n o w t o lie in the n e w

,
dir ecti o n B S If the spect at or views the s o ur ce with b o th

.
ey es sim ult an e o u sly o n e eye at A an d the o th e r at B o r if usin g

'
, ,
o n l y o n e e y e he m o ves i t q ui ckl y fr o m A t o B the p o siti on ,
o f the s o u r ce at S will be l o c a ted a t the p o i n t o f in ter secti o n
o f the st ra ight lin es AS a n d B S ; an d this dete r min ati o n will
be m or e a ccu rate in p r o po r tio n as the dist an c e between the

t wo p o in ts o f o bse r v ati o n A a n d B is gr e ate r o r the m o r e
n e ar l y the a cute an gle ASB a pp r o a ches a r ight an gle Th at .
is the r e as on why in estim atin g the dist an ce o f a r em ote

o bj ect o n e t r ies t o o bse r ve it fr o m t wo st a ti o n s a s widel y
sep ar ated as p o ssible an d th at expl ain s als o why a per s on

,
shifts hi s he ad fr om side t o side If the Obj ect is c om p ara

.
t iv e ly n e ar at h an d a S in gle m o ve m e n t o f the he a d m ay be
,
suf ficie n t in o r der t o get a fa ir l y g o o d ide a o f its dist an ce ,
o r it m ay be th a t it is sim pl y n ecess ar y t o l o o k at the o bj ect
with b o th eyes at the s am e tim e It is am usin g t o watch .
a pe r s o n with o n e e y e cl o sed att e m pti n g t o p o ke a pe n cil
through a fi n g e r-r in g suspen ded in the m iddle o f a r o om on a

level with his ey e ; b y ch an ce he m ay succeed a fter r epeat e d
failur es wher e a s with b o th eyes O pen the o per ati o n is pe r
, ,
form ed with out the slightest difficulty .
In c a se the ray s c o m e i n t o th e eye after h avin g t r a ve r sed

t wo o r m o r e is o t r o pic m edi a it is e a s y t o be deceived a b o ut
,
the dir ecti o n o f the s o ur ce wher e they em an ated In o r der .
f o r a bullet t o hit a fish u n der w ater the r ifle m u st be ,
p o in ted in a dir ecti on belo w that in which the fish appear s

t o be . At the b o un d ary-sur fa ce betwe en t wo is o t r o pic m e dia
the dir ection of a ray o f light is usually ch an ged ab r uptly
b y r efr a cti o n so th at in gen e r a l the p ath o f a r ay
, ,
will be fo u d t o c o sist o a se ies

n n f r o f l e segm en ts In
in —
Fig 1 0 the b r o ken lin e AB CD r ep r esen ts the c o u r se t ake n

.
b y a ray o f light in pr o ceedin g th r o ugh sever al m e dia such as

water air an d gla ss The lin e-segm en t s AB B C an d C D
,
.
,
8] I m ag e o f Po i n tS - o ur ce 17
ar e po r ti o n s o f diff er en t st raight lin es of in defin ite exten t .
Fo r exa m ple the a ctu al r o ute o f the r ay in air is al o n g the

str aight li n e between B an d C an d if the p o in t P li es o n
,
this lin e between B an d

,
C we say th at the r ay
'
“
,
BC p a s s e s r e a lly
thr ough P wher ea s we ,
say th at t hi s s am e r ay
pa sses virtually
th r o ugh a p oin t Q o r R
Which lies in the pr 01011 FI G 1 0 P i t P Q d R
l yi g
id —
. d . o n s , an con s e re as
l yi g i
g a tio n Of t h e lin e segm en t
- y BC t b g d d n on ra are o e re ar e as
m m di m BC n n sa e e u as
B C in either di r ecti o n
.
Mo r e o ve r thin kin g o f the p oin t Q o r R as a po in t lyin g on

,
the st r aight li n e B C which the light pu r sues in t raver sin g

the m edium between the w ate r an d the gla ss we m ust r e ,
g ar d such a p o in t a s bei n g o ptic a lly in the s am e m edium

a s the r ay t o which it bel o n gs Thus the po in ts Q an d R .
,
in the figu r e c o n side r e d as p o in ts o n the r ay B C ar e to be

r eg a r ded a s bein g o ptic a lly in air a lth o ugh in a physic al ,
sen se Q is a p o in t in the water an d R is a p o in t in the gl ass

(see
No w let us supp o se th at t wo r ays e m an atin g o r igin ally
fr om a p o in t-s o ur ce S
(Figs 1 1 an d 1 2) ar e
ben t at A an d B in t o
.
n e w di r ecti o n s AP an d
B Q r espectively so as , ,
t o e n ter the t wo eyes o f

FIG 1 1 — S i id t b
. .
'
s
.
sa
a n Obse rve r a t P an d Q
o e a
m g1 f p
a et o t S
o rn -s o ur c e a
In such a c a se the o b
.
server will in fer th at the r ays o rigin ated at the po in t S ’
wher e the str aight lin es AP an d B Q in ter sect This po in t .
S which is c alled the i ma g e o f S m ay lie in the a ctua l p aths

’
, ,
o f the r ays AP an d B Q th at e n te r the eyes so th at the light ,
fr om S r eally d o es g o th rough S an d in this c ase (Fig 1 1) ’

, .
18 Mir r o r s ,
the im age S is s aid t o be a r e a l imag e On the o ther h an d

’
.
,
if the st r a ight lin es AP an d B Q h ave t o be p r o duced b a ck

w ar ds in o r der t o fi n d their p o in t o f in ter sectio n the r ays ,
do n ot a ctu ally p a ss th r o ugh S an d in this c ase the im age

’
,
is s aid t o be a vi r tua l
i mag e o f the p o in t S
(Fig H o weve r it .
,
m ust be b o r n e in min d
in c o n n ecti o n with these
dia gram s th at in r eality
FI G 1 2 -S i id t b '
i t l im g we do n o t see o bj ects by
f p i t
. . s sa o e a V r ua a e
t S -s o u r c e a
m e an s o f s1 n g le rays ;
o o n .
an d he n ce we sh a ll n o t be in a p o siti o n t o f o r m a n a c
, ,
cu rate idea o f the term o ptic al im age u n til we c om e t o

c on s ider bun dles o f r ays in 1 1 .
9 Fiel d o f Vi e w
.
—
The O pen o r visible sp a ce c o mm an ded
.
b y the eye is c alled the field o f view Sin ce the eye c an turn .
in its s o cket the field o f V iew o f the m o bile eye is ve r y m uch

,
m o r e ext e n sive th an th a t o f the st ati o n ar y eye an d m o r e , ,
o ve r the field o f view O f b o th eyes is g r e ater th a n th at o f

,
o n e e y e b y itself The spect at o r m ay als o widen his field

.
o f visi o n by tu r n i n g his he a d o r in deed by tu r n i n g his e n ti r e
b o dy Fo r the p r esen t h o wever we sh all e m pl o y the te rm

.
, ,
field of view t o m e an th at m o r e li m ited p o rt io n o f sp a ce

whi ch is a ccessible t o the sin gle eye tu rn in g in its s o cket
ar o un d the so -c a lled ce n te r o f r o t a ti on o f t h e eye When .
a p e r s o n g a z es t hr o ugh a wi n d o w the o utside field o f V iew ,
is lim ited p ar tly b y the si z e o f the win d o w an d p ar tl y als o

by the po siti on o f the ey e with r efer en ce t o it ; so th at o n ly
such exte r io r ob j ects wi ll be visible as h a ppen t o lie within
the c o ni cal r egio n o f sp a ce deter m in ed b y d r awin g str aight
lin es fr om the cen ter o f r o t ati on o f the eye t o all the p o in ts
-
in the edge o f the win d o w Thus for exam ple if the Open .
, ,
in g in the win d o w is in dic ated b y the g ap GH in the st r aight

lin e GH in Fig 1 3 an d if the p o in t m a r k e d O is the p o sitio n
.
,
of the c e n te r o f r o t ati on o f t he e y e a lu m in o us o bj ect at P ,

9] Fi e ld of Vi ew 19
in f r o n t o f the win d o w an d dir ectly opp o site the ey e will

be plain ly in view bec ause s om e o f the r ays fr om P m ay g o
th r o ugh the wi n d o w an d en ter the ey e But if the o bj ect
,
is di spla ced far en o ugh t o o n e side t o s o m e p o siti on such as
FIG 1 3 — F ie ld o f v
i e w d e t e r m in e d b y of
p
. . c o n t o ur
w in d o w O H an d o sit io n o f t h e e y e at 0 .
th at m ar ked R in the di agram so th at the st r aight lin e OR

,
d o es n o t p ass th r o ugh the win d o w the o b j ect will p a ss o ut

,
o f the field o f view The str aight lin e M N d r a wn p ar allel

t o OH is supp o sed t o r ep r ese n t a ve r tic a l w a ll o pp o site the
.
win d o w If this w all is c o ve r ed with a m ur al p a in tin g the

.
,
o n ly p ar t o f the pictu r e th a t c an be see n th r o ugh the win
do w b y the eye at O is the secti o n in cluded betwee n the

p oin ts T an d V wher e the st raight lin es OG an d OH in ter sect
the st r aight lin e MN The wi n d o w a cts her e as a so -c a lled
.
fi e ld -sto
p 1 3 7 ) t o li m it the e x te n t o f the field o f view But .
the limi t ation o f the visible r egi on depen ds essen ti ally als o
o n the p o siti o n o f the eye bec o m i n g m o r e a n d m o r e c o n
,
t r a cted the farther the eye is fr om the win d o w The si z e o f .
the win d o w m akes very little differ en ce when the eye is

pl aced clo se t o it an d a p e r so fi sittin g n ear an o pen Win d o w
,
c an c o mm an d a l m o st as wide a view a s if the e n ti r e w all o f
the r o o m wer e r em oved If o n e is l o okin g th ro ugh a key

.
h ole in a d o or he m ust put his eye cl o se t o the h o le in o r der

,
to see Obj ects th at ar e n ot dir ectl y in fr o n t of it .

20 Mirr or s ,
Pr isms an d Le n se s 10
10
. Appar e n t Si The appar en t si ze of an obj ect is
ze .—
m e asur ed b y the vi su a l a n g le which it sub t e n ds at the ey e .
S eve r al Obj ects in the field o f view which subten d e q u a l

an gles whe n viewed f r o m the s am e st a n dp o i n t ar e said t o
h ave the s am e app ar e n t si z e ; al t h o ugh their a ctu al si z es will
FI G . 1 4;. A pp ar e n t siz e m e asur e d b y v i su al an g le .
b e diff er en t if they ar e at un e qu al dist an ces fro m the ey e .
T h e o bj e cts ma r ked 1 2 an d 3 in Fig 1 4 appe ar t o a n e y e

,
.
at O t o be all o f the s am e si z e Thus an eleph an t m ay ap

.
pe ar n o bigger th an a m an or a b oy Lo okin g th r o ugh a .
sin gle p an e o f glass in a win d o w o n e m ay see a large build ,
in g o r an e n ti r e t r ee bec ause the a pp ar e n t exten t o f t he

,
sm all ar e a o f glass is g r eate r th an th at o f t he dist an t o bj ect .
A fly c r awli n g a c r o ss the wi n d o w m ay hide fro m view a

larg e p or tion of the dist an t l an dsc ape o utside A m o un t ain .
a f e w mi le s Off m ay be viewed th o ugh a

r fi n g e r rin g
- .
T h e a pp ar e n t si z e o f an o bj ect bei n g m e a su r ed b y the ,
visual an gle which it subte n ds is exp r essed in degr ees o r ,
r a di an s The app a r en t diam eter o f the full m oo n in the sky

.
,
fo r e xam ple is n o t quite h al f a deg r ee so th a t b y h o ldi n g

, ,
a c o in a littl e less th an 9 mm in di am ete r at a dist an ce o f

.
o n e m ete r fr o m the eye the e n ti r e m o o n c o uld be hid fr o m

,
view In fa ct i n ste a d o f the an gle itself it is cust om ary t o

.
,
em ploy the t an ge n t o f the angle especi ally in c ase the vis ,
u al an gle is n o t l ar ge Thus the a pp ar e n t si z e o f an o bj ect

5
.
,
of height h at a dist an ce d fr o m the e y e (in Fig 1 AB =

d) is m e a su r ed b y the t an g e n t o f the an g le BOA
.
h AO
, ,
that is ,
10 ] App ar e n t Si ze 21
li n e ar dim e n si o n o f the O bj ec t h
Appar e n t si z e =
dis tan ce f r o m the eye d
Acc o r din gly in o r de r t o dete r m in e the a ctu al si z e (h) of
,
the obj ect it is n ecess ary t o k n o w its dist an ce (d) as we ll

,
a s its a pp a r e n t si z e bec a use the a ctu a l si z e is equ a l t o the

,
p ro duct o f these t wo m ag n itudes T he app are n t si z e of an .
FI G 5 pp
. 1 .
— A ar e n t s iz e v ar ie s in v y e r se l as dis t a n c e d an d dir e c t l y as ac t ua l
siz e h .
o bj ect at a dist an ce o f o n e foo t is an hun d r ed t im es g re ate r

th an it is at a dist an ce o f an hun dr ed feet o r as we say the
As the Ob j ec t
, , ,
a pp ar en t si ze v a r i es i n ver se ly as the di stan ce .
r ecedes fa r the r an d f a r the r f r o m the e y e its a pp ar e n t si z e ,
dim in ishes u n til at la st it l o o ks like a m er e speck an d the

details in it h ave all dis appe ar ed On the o ther h an d a l .
,
th ough the o bj ect is quite cl o se t o the eye its a ctu al dime n ,
sio n s m ay be so m i n ute th at it is n o t t o be distin guished fr om

a po in t The r e is i n deed a lim it t o the po wer o f the hum an
.
, ,
eye t o see very s m all o b j ects which is r e a ched when the ,
o bj ect subte n ds in the field o f view an a n gle th a t d o es n o t
exceed o n e m in ute o f ar c T wo st ar s wh o se an gula r dis .
t an ce ap ar t is less th an this lim iti n g value c an n o t be seen

a s sep a r ate an d disti n ct by a n o r m al eye with o ut the a id
o f a telesc o pe an d c o n seque n tly the

’
N o w t an 1
.
e ye c an n o t disti n guish det a ils o f fo rm in a n o b j ect w hich
is viewed at a dist an ce 3438 tim es as gr e at a s its g r eatest

2 Mirr o r s . Pr isms an d Le n se s 10
li n e ar dim en sio n A silve r qu ar ter o f a d oll ar is a b o ut

.
24 m m in di am eter an d viewed fr o m a dist an ce o f

5 5
.
m ete r s (3 43 8 tim es 2 4 m m = 8 2 12 mm =
. 82 In ) its a p
. . .
p ar en t si z e will be 1 o f ar c an d it will a ppe ar ther efor e

’
like a m er e p o in t The app ar e n t width o f a l on g str aight

.
st r eet dim in ishes in p r o p or ti o n as th e dist an ce in c r e ases ;

u n til fin ally if the st r eet is lo n g en o ugh the t wo o pp o site
“
, , ,
sidewalks seem t o r un t o gether a t the so—c all ed v an ishin g

p o in t .
”
If r ays o f light c om in g th r o ugh a win d o w an d en t er in g

the ey e c o uld leave m ar ks in the gl a ss at t h e p o in ts wher e
they c r o ss it an d if these m ar ks c o uld be m a de t o em it the
,
s am e kin d o f light as was sen t o ut fr om the c or r esp on din g

po in ts of the Obj ect ther e w o uld be for m ed o n the gl ass
,
a pict o r i a l r ep r ese n t ati o n o f the o bj ect which whe n held
befor e the eye at the p r o per dist an ce w o uld h ave alm o st

exa ctly the s am e appear an ce as the Obj ect itself This .
pr in ciple of persp ecti ve is m ade use of in the art o f p ain tin g ,
an d the ar tist with his lights a n d sh ades a n d c o l o r s t r ie s

, ,
t o po rt r ay on a pl an e c an v a s a sce n e which will p r o duce

as n e ar l y a s p o ssible the s am e visu a l i m p r essi o n o n a spec
t at or as w o uld b e p r o duced b y the n atur al o bj ects them

selves So far a s a pp ar e n t si z e is c o n ce rn ed such a r e p r e
.
,
se n t at io n m ay b e pe r fect In a g o o d d r awi n g the v ar i o u s

.
figur es ar e delin eated in such dim en sio n s that when viewe d

fr om the p r o per stan dp o in t they h ave the s am e appar en t
siz es as the r e alities wo rild h ave if seen un der the aspec t
r ep r ese n ted in the pictur e No on e lo o ki n g at a ph o t o
graph o f a G r eek tem ple will n o tice (un less his atten tion
.
is speci ally dir ected t o it) th at the m o r e dist an t p ill ar s ar e

m uch sh o r te r in the pictu r e th an the n e ar er o n es In d e ed .
,
gen er ally we pay little heed t o the app ar en t si z es o f t hin gs ,
but always try t o c o n ceive their r eal dim en sio n s When .
t wo pe r s o n s m eet an d sh ak e h an ds n eithe r is a p t t o o bser ve

,
th at the o ther appe ar s m uch t aller th an he did when they

wer e fifty yar ds ap art .
1 1] Effe c iv e t R y a s 23
11 . Th e Efi e c tiv e Ra y
All the r ays that en t er the eye
s — .
a n d f all o n the r eti n a m ust p a ss th r o ugh the ci r cul ar win d o w
in the i r is o r c o l o r ed di a ph r agm o f the eye whi ch is c alled

the pupi l of the eye an d which is s om etim es sp o ken o f a s
the bla ck o f the eye bec ause it a ppe ar s bla ck ag ain st
,
the d ar k b a ckgro un d o f the p o ster i or ch am ber o f the eye .
The pupil o f the eye is ab o ut h alf a cen tim eter in diam ete r ,
a lth o ugh withi n ce r t ai n lim its its si z e c an be a lte r e d to r egu
late the qu an tity o f li ght which is adm itted to the eye So .
far as the spect at o r s visi o n is c o n ce r n ed it is o n ly these

’
,
rays th at g o th r o ugh the pupil o f his e y e t h a t a r e o f an y
use an d these ar e the efi ecti ve r ays When the pupil dila tes
,
.
m o r e r ay s c an e n te r an d c o n se que n tly the so u r ce a ppe ar s

,
b r ighter T h e b rig htn e ss o f the s o ur ce will depe n d also o n

.
its dist an ce bec ause f o r a given di ame ter o f the pupil the
, ,
a per tu r e o f the c o n e o f r ays fr o m a n e a r e r s o u r ce will b e
wider than th at o f the c o n e o f r ays fr o m a m o r e dist an t

s o ur ce In gen er al ther efo r e the pupil o f the eye r egu
.
, ,
l ates the an gular apertur es o f the co n es o f r ays th at en ter

the eye fr om e a ch p oin t o f a lumin o us o bj ect an d a cts as
the so c alled a p er ure stop
- t - Thus wh ile the exten t ,
o f the field o f V iew is c o n t r o lled by the fi e ld-st o p the

b rightn ess o f the s o u r ce depen ds essen tially on the si z e of
the aper tur e-st o p .
A ser ies o f t r an sp ar en t iso tr Op ic m edia e a ch sep ar ated

fr om the n ext by a sm o o th p o lish e d sur fa ce c o n stitutes an
,
Op ti ca l system An op ti ca l i n str umen t m ay c o n sist o f a sin gle

.
m ir r o r p r is m s o r le n s b ut ge n e r ally it is c o m po s ed o f a c o m
, ,
b in atio n o f such elem en ts which m ay b e in co n t a ct with

,
e ach o ther o r separated by air o r s om e o ther m edium In .
the gr eat m aj or ity o f a ctu al c on str uctio n s the in strmn e n t

is symm et r ic al with r espect t o a st r aight lin e ca ll e d the
op ti ca l a xi s N o t all the r ays e m itted b y a lum in o us Object
.
will be utili z ed by the in str um en t ; gen er ally in fa ct o nl y , ,
a c o m p ar a tively sm all p o r ti o n o f such r ays will be t ran s
m it t e d th r ough it in the fi r st pl a ce bec au se its l ate ral di

,
24 M i rr o r s ,
Pr i sm s an d Le n se s 11
m e n sio n s lim ited a n d in the sec on d pl ac e bec ause in

ar e , ,
a dditi o n t o the le n s -fa ste n in gs an d o ther o p a q ue o bst acles

sides f the tube n e ar l y all O ptic a l i n st r u m e n ts ar e
( o ,
pr o v ided with per fo r ated sc r ee n s o r di aphr ag m s c alled

st o ps speci ally pl a ced an d design ed t o in ter cept such r ays
”
as f o r o n e r e a s o n o r a n o the r it is n o t desi r a ble t o le t p a ss

,
The plan es o f these st o ps a r e pla ced at r ight an gles

t o the O ptic a l ax is with the ce n te r s o f the Open i n gs o n the
axi s . Acc o r din gly e a ch sep arate p o i n t o f the o bj ect is t o
,
be r eg ar ded as the vertex o f a limited c o n e o r bun dle of r ays ,
which with espect t the i st u e t

,
r o n r m n a r e the s
,
o -c alled
efi ecti v e r a ys bec ause they ar e the on ly r ays c o m in g fro m
,
the p o i n t in questi on th at tr a ver se the instr um en t fr om

o n e e n d t o the o the r with o ut bei n g i n te r cepted o n the way .
Mor e ove r in ever y bu n dle o f rays the r e is alway s a ce r

,
t ain cen tr al o r r ep r esen t a tive r ay c o in cidin g pe rh aps with

,
the axis o f the c o n e o r distin guished in s o m e speci al way ,
c alled the chi ef r a y o f the bun dle In a symm e t r i

c al O ptic a l i n st r u m e n t the chief ray o f a bu n dle o f e ffective
rays is e n e r a lly defi n ed t o be th at r ay which in t r ave r sin g

g
a ce r t a in o n e o f the se r ies o f m edi a c r o sses the O ptic a l axi s
at a p r esc r ibed p o i n t which is usu ally at the ce n te r o f th a t

,
o n e o f the st o ps which is the m o st e ffective in i n te r cept in g
the r ays an d which the r efo r e is c a lled the a per tu r e -st o p

, , ,
a s will be ex pl a i n ed m o r e fully he r e afte r (see C h apte r XII) .
Acc o r din g t o this defin iti o n t h e chief r ays c om in g fr o m all

,
the var i o us p o in ts o f the o bj ect c o n stitute a bun dle o f rays

which in the m edium wher e the ape tu e st o p is pl a ced r r -
s m et m es c lled the “ st p m ediu m ) ll

”
p s t h ugh
( o i a o a a s r o
the ce n ter o f the st o p .
WC sh all e m pl o y the te rm p en ci l of r ays t o m e an a secti on

o a ray bu n dle m a de by a pl a n e c o n t a i n i n g the chief r ay
f - .
The effective r ays in the fi r st m edium befo r e en ter in g

t h e i n st r um e n t a r e c a lled the i n ci den t r a ys o r Obj ect r ays;
a n d these s a m e r ays in the l a st m ediu m o n issui n g fr o m the
in st r um e n t ar e c alled the emer g en t r ays o r i ma g e r ays If we .

C h 1]
.
Pr o b le m s 2 5
select at ran d om an y po in t X lyin g on o n e o f the r ays o f
the b un dle o f em er gen t r ays whi ch h a d its o rigin at the ln
mi n o us o bj ect -po in t P in gen er al n o o ther r ay o f this bu n dle
, ,
will p a ss th r o ugh X sin ce in a given Optic al system ther e

,
will usu ally be o n e si n gle r o ute by which light st ar ti n g fr o m

the po in t P an d t r aver sin g the in str um en t c a n arr ive fi n ally
either r e ally o r vi r tu a lly a t a selected p o i n t X in the
,
last m edium H o weve r ther e m ay be fo un d a n um ber o f

.
,
s in gul ar po in ts whe r e t wo o r m o r e r ays o f the bun dle o f

em er gen t r ays in tersect ; an d u n de r ce r t ain fav o r able an d
excepti o n al cir cum st an ces it m ay i n deed h appen th at ther e
is o n e speci al p o in t P whe r e a ll the em er gen t r ays em an atin g
’
o r igi ally f r o m the o bj ect p o in t P m eet a g ai n ; an d the n we

n -
sh all obt ain at P a per fect o r i dea l i ma g e o f P which is

’
,
desc ribed b y s ayin g th at P i s the i mag e-p oin t conj ug a te to

’
the Obj ect-p oi n t a t P . This im age will be r e al o r vi rtual

a cc o r di n g as the a ctu al p aths o f the im age-r ays g o
th r o ugh P o r m er ely the b a ckwar d p r olo n gatio n s o f these
’
p aths
In o r de r t o o bt ai n a n i m age in this ide a l se n se the o ptic al
,
system m ust be such as t o t r an sfo rm a t r ai n o f in ciden t

spher ic a l w aves sp r e adi n g o ut fr o m the o bj ect p o in t P in t o
-
a t r ai n o f e m e r ge n t sphe r ic a l w aves c o n ve r gi n g t o o r di
ve gi g f
r n r o m a c o mm o n ce te r P
n in the im age sp a ce When
’
- .
a ll the r ays o f a bu n dle m eet in o n e p o i n t the bu n dle o f r ays

,
is s aid t o be hom ocen tri c o r m on ocen tri c In ge n er al h o w

.
,
ever a m o n o ce n t r ic bu n dle o f r ays in the o bj ect -sp a ce will

,
be t r an sfo rm ed in the i m age-spa ce i n t o an asti g ma ti c bu n dle

o f e m e r ge n t r ays ,
which n o lo n ger m eet all in o n e p o in t ;
a n d in fa ct this is a usu a l ch ar a cte r istic o f a bu n dle o f Op
tic al r ays .
P R OB LEMS
1 Why ar e the sh a d o ws m uch sh ar pe r in the c a se o f an
.
ar c l am p with o ut a su r r o u n di n g gl o be th a n with o n e ?
2 Dr aw a di agr am t o Sh o w h o w a t o t a l eclipse o f t h e
.
Mir r or s Pri sm s I
“
26 ,
an d Le n se s [
Oh .
m oo n ccur s ; an d an o ther di agram t o illu str at e a t ot al

o
eclips e o f the sun G ive cle ar desc r ipti o n s o f the

.
d rawin gs .
3 An O p aq ue gl o be 1 foo t in di am ete r with its ce n te r

.
, ,
at a p o i n t C is in terp o sed between an ar c lam p S an d

,
a white w a ll whic h is pe r pe n dicul a r t o the st r a ight lin e
SC . If the w all is 1 2 feet fr om the l am p an d if t he ,
dist an ce SC = 3 feet wh at is the ar e a o f th e sh ad o w o n

,
the wall ? An s s q ft . . .
4 Wh at is t h e app ar e n t an gular elevation o f the sun

5
.
when a telegr aph p o le 1 fe et high c ast s a sh a d o w 20 feet

l on g o n a h o r i z on t al p avem en t ? 5
5
An s 36
° ’
2 .
Wh at is t he height o f a t o wer which c asts a sh ad o w

.
1 6 0 feet l o n g whe n a ve rt ic a l r o d 3 feet high c a sts a sh a d o w

4feet lo n g ? An s 1 20 feet . .
6 An o bj ect 6 i n ches high is pl aced in fr o n t o f a pi n h o le

.
c am er a at a distan ce o f 6 feet fr om the apertu r e Wh at is .
the si z e o f the i n ver ted im age o n the gr oun d gl ass sc r een if

the len gth o f the c amer a-b ox is 1 fo o t ? An s 1 in ch . .
7 A s m all h o le is m ade in the shutter o f a d ar k r o o m an d

.
,
a sc r ee n is pl a ced a t a dist an ce o f 8 feet f r o m the shutte r .
The im age o n the sc r een o f a t r ee o utside 1 2 0 feet away is -
m e asur ed an d fo u n d t o be 3 feet l o n g H o w high is the t r ee ?

5
.
An s 4 fe et . .
8 If the se n sitive pl ate o f a pin h o le c am e r a is 2 0 c m

. .
fr om the pin h o le wh at sh o uld b e the diam eter o f the pin

h ole a cc or d in g t o A R N E Y S fo rm ul a ?
,
,
’
An s mm . .
9 Wh at is the app ar e n t si z e o f a m an 6 feet t all at a dis

'
t an ce of 100 yar ds ? H o w far away m ust he be n ot t o b e

distin guish able fr o m a p o in t ? An s 1 8 4
”
mi les
.
° '
5 .
10 If t he m oo n is 240 000 m iles fr om the e ar th an d its

.
app ar e n t di am ete r is 3 1 wh at is its a ctu al di am eter ?

’
An s 2 1 68 m ile s . .
1 1 A per s o n h o ldin g a tube 6 i n ches l on g an d 1 i n ch in

.
diam eter in fr on t o f his ey e an d lo o ki n g th r o ugh it at a

t r ee m oves b ackwar ds away fr om the t r ee un til the en tire
Ch . I] Pr o b le m s 27
t r ee is just visible Wh at is the ap par en t height o f the

.
tr ee ? An s 9 2 7 44
.
° ’ ”
1 2 Assu m i n g th at the r es o lvi n g p o we r o f the eye is o n e

.
m i n ute o f ar e at wh at dist an ce c an a bl a ck ci r cle 6 i n ches

,
in di am ete r be see n o n a white b a ckg r o un d ? An s 1 7 19 feet

. .
C HA PTE R II
RE F LE CTIO N OF LI GH T . P LAN E M I RRORS
12 . R e g ul ar an d Difi u s e R e fl e c tio n beam o f . Wh en
— a
sun light a dm itted thr o ugh an Open in g in a shutter in a

,
d ar k r o om falls o n a piece o f sm o o thly p o lished glass al

, ,
th o ugh the gla ss itself m ay be a lm o st o r wh o lly in visible a ,
b r illi an t p atch o f light will be r eflected fr om the gl a ss o n the

w alls o f the r o o m or the ceilin g o r o n s om e o ther a dj a cen t Oh
j ect If a pe r s o n in the r o o m h appen s t o be lo o kin g t o war ds
.
the piece o f gla ss al on g o n e speci a l dir ecti o n he will be al ,
m o st bl in ded b y the light th at is r eflected in t o his eyes The .
gl a ss a cts like a m ir r o r an d r eflects the su n light falli n g o n

it in a defin ite dir ectio n which depe n ds o n ly o n the dir e c
tio n o f the i n cide n t r ay s an d o n the o r ie n t ati o n o f the r e
flecti n g su r fa ce a n d in s ir ch a c a se the light is s aid t o b e
,
r e g u la r ly r efl e c ted Thus fo r ex am ple sign als m ay be c o m

.
, ,
m u n ic at e d t o dist a n t an d i n a ccessible st ati o n s by r eflectin g

thither the r ay s o f the sun b y a pl an e m irr o r a dj usted in a
s uit able p o siti o n .
If the sur fa ce is n o t sm o o th the light will be r eflected in

,
m a n y di r ecti o n s a t the s am e tim e The l o n g sp ar kli n g t r a il

.
o f su n light see n o n the su r fa ce o f a l ake o r a r ive r o n a b r ight
day is c aused b y the r e fl ecti o n s o f the su n s r ays i n t o the

’
eyes o f the spect at o r fr o m c o un tless little r ipples o n the

sur fa ce o f t h e wa ter .
The b r ight sp o t o f ligh t o n the wall o f a d ar k r oom at

the pl a ce wh e r e a be am o f su n light fa lls which shin es alm o st ,
as th o ugh thi s p o r ti o n o f the w all we r e itself a self lum i n o u s

-
b o dy is visible fr o m a n y p ar t o f the r o o m by m e an s o f the

,
light which is r eflected fr o m it ; an d alth o ugh the in ciden t

r ays h ave a pe r fectly defin ite dir e cti on the r efl ected light ,
28
1 2] D i ffuse R e fle c ti on 29
is sc atter ed in all dir ecti o n s So m e o f thi s r eflected light

.
will fall o n o the r b o dies in the r o o m which will be m o r e o r

,
less feebly illum in a ted ther eby an d r en der e d dim ly visible

by the light which they r e fl ect in their tu r n ; un til a t la st
the light a fter u n der g o i n g in this way r ep e ated r e fl ectio n s
fr om o n e b o dy t o a n o ther beco m es t o o fain t t o be pe r cep
tible Light which is r eflecte d o r sc a tter ed in this way is
.
s aid t o b e difi u sely r efle cted o r i r r eg u la r ly r eflected alth o ugh

, ,
st r ictly spe akin g ther e is n o thin g irr egul ar ab o ut it Or di .
n ar ily it is in this way th a t b o dies illu m i n ated b y day

,
light o r by ar tifici a l light ar e r en der ed visible t o a wh o le

g r o up o f spect at o r s at the s am e tim e .
The p aper o n the walls o f an a p artm en t which gets ver y

little light thr o ugh t h e wi n do ws sh o uld be a dull white in
o r de r t o sc atte r a n d diffuse as m uch a s p o ssible the light
th at c o m es i n t o the r o o m The w alls o f a d a r k ch am ber

.
used fo r devel o pin g ph o t o gr ap hic pl ates sh o uld be p ain ted

a dull bl a ck in o r de r t o a bs o r b the light th a t f a lls o n them .
An abs o lutely bl a ck b o dy 2) e x p o sed t o the di r ect r a ys

o f the sun will be c o m pletely i n visible ex cept by c o n t ra st
,
with its sur r o u n din gs If the walls o f a d a rk r o o m an d all

.
the Obj ects within it we r e c o ated with l am pbl a ck a n d if ,
the air in side we r e en tir ely fr ee fr o m dust an d m o istu r e ,
a be a m o f su n light t r a ve r si n g the r o o m c o uld n o t be see n
a n d the o n ly way t o d etect its p r ese n ce w o uld be by pl a ci n g
the eye squ ar ely in its p ath But if a little fi n ely divided
.
p o wder w er e sc atte r e d in the a ir o r if a clo ud o f s m o ke we r e

bl o wn a c r o ss the be am o f light the c o u r se o f the r ays w o ul d
,
imm ediately bec om e m an ifest t o a spect at o r in an y p ar t o f

the r o o m bec ause s o m e o f the light r eflected fr o m the flo at
,
in g p ar ticles o f m atte r in p ra ctic ally eve r y di r ecti on w o uld

en ter the eye But the light itself is quite in visible
. .
An y su r fa ce th at is n o t t o o r o ugh th at is wh o se sc r atches
, ,
o r r idges ar e n o t wi de r th an ab o ut a qu ar te r o f a w ave
len gth Of light will r e fl ect light in a g r e ater o r less degr ee

,
depen din g o n the s m o oth n ess o f the su r fa ce Waves o f .

30 Mir r o r s ,
light falli n g o n a sheet o f white p a per ar e b ro ken up o r

sc atter ed in all d ir ecti o n s a n d we c an get s om e idea o f the
,
quan tity o f light th at is diffusely r eflected fr o m such a sur

fa ce b y lett in g the light o f a l am p shin e o n the p aper when
it is held n e ar an o bj ect th at is in sh ad o w It is alm o st .
st ar tlin g t o see h o w u n der the in fluen ce of this in dir ect

illum in atio n the det ails o f the o bscur e b o dy sudden ly ap
pe ar a s if summ o n ed fo r th b y m agic A highly p o lished .
m et a llic su r fa ce m akes the best m irr o r r eflectin g s o m e ,
tim es a s uch
m a s th ee fo u rths o f the in ciden t light Our
r - .
o r di a y l
n r o o ki g gl asses ar e r e ally m et allic m irr o r s bec ause
n -
they ar e c o ated at the b ack with silver an d the glass m er ely

.
serves as a pr o tectio n fo r the r eflectin g sur fa ce .
13 Law o f R e fl e c tio n
.
— A r ay o f light r ep r ese n ted in
Fig 16 b y the st r aight li n e AB is i n cide n t at B o n a s m o o th
.
r eflecti n g su r f a ce wh o se t r a ce in the pl an e o f t h e di a g ram
is the lin e Z Z The str aight li n e B N n o rm al t o the sur fa ce

.
FI G .
=
16 .
=
—La w of re fl e c t io n
A N B A —
A N B C A CBN .
at B is c alled the i n ci den ce-n orma l an d the pl an e AB N which

,
c o n t ain s the i n ci den t r ay AB a n d the n o rm al B N 1 s c alled

the p lan e of i n ci den ce which c o rr esp o n ds her e with the
,
pl an e Of the diag ram The a n g le of i n ci den ce is the an gle

.
betwee n t he i cide t r ay a d the i cide ce n o rm al ; o r t o

n n n n n -
,
1 3] Law of R fl ti e ec on 31
defin e this an gle m o r e exa ctly th g l , e an f

e o i n ci den ce i s the a cu te
a n g le ( ) a thr ou g h whi ch the i n ci den ce-n or mal ha s to b e tu rn ed

a b ou t the p oi n t Of i n ci den ce i n or de r to mak e i t c oi n ci de wi th
the i n ci den t r ay;thus a 4 NBA C o un ter-clo ckwis e r o t a
,
.
tion is t o be r eck o n ed as po sitive a n d cl o ckwise r o t atio n as

n eg ative This r ule will be c o n sisten tly o bser ved in the
.
c ase of all an gular m ea sur em en ts .
T he r eflected r a y c o rr esp o n din g t o the in cide n t r ay AB is

'
r ep r ese n ted by t h e st r aight lin e B C ; a n d if in the ab o ve

“
defin itio n o f the an gle o f i n ciden ce we substitute r eflect e d
“in ciden t r ay we sh all o bt a in the defin itio n o f
5
”
r ay for ,
the an g le of r eflecti on ( B ) ; th at is = £ NB C The sen se ,

.
Of the r o t a ti o n is i n dic ated by the o r de r in which the
letter s spec ifyi n g the an gle ar e n am ed ; thus [ AB C is the ,
an gle desc r ibed by r o t ati n g the st r aight lin e AB a r o un d the
p o in t B u n til it c o in cides with the str aight lin e B C ; wher eas

A C BA = AB C de n o tes the equ al but Oppo site r o t ati o n
fr om C B t o BA The studen t sh o uld t ake n o te o f this
.
usage which will b e un iform ly em ploy ed th r o ugh o ut this

,
b ook .
The law of the r eflectio n o f light which has been kn o wn ,
fo r m o r e th an 2 200 y e ar s is c o n t ai n ed in the fo ll o win g

,
st atem en t
The flected r a y li es i n the p lan e Of i n ci den ce
re ,
an d the i n
ei den t an d r eflec ted r a ys ma k e e qu a l a n g les wi th the n or ma l
on op p osi te si des Of i t; th a t is 6 — a , .
A very a ccur ate expe rim en t al p r oo f o f this law m ay be

obt ain ed by e m pl o yi n g a m er idi an ci r cle t o o bser ve the light
r eflected fro m an a r tifici a l m e r cu r y-h o r i z o n th a t is fr o m , ,
the h or i z o n t al sur fa ce o f m er cur y c o n t ain ed in a b asin In .
fact this is the a ctu al m eth o d used by a str on om er s in m eas

,
u rin g the altitu de o f a st ar The telesc o pe is p oin ted a t the

.
st ar an d then at th e im age o f the star in the m e r c irry m irr o r ,
an d it will be fo u n d th a t the a xis o f the telesc o pe in these
t wo o bse r v ati o n s will b e e q u ally i n cli n ed t o the ve r tic a l o n

O pp o site sides o f it .
32 Mirr o r s ,
Prism s an d Le n se s 13
A sim ple lectu r e -t able app a r atus fo r ver ifyin g the law
o f r eflecti o n o f light c o n sists o f a cir cul ar disk (Fig 1 7 ) m a de .
o f g r o u n d gl a ss a b o ut o n e f o o t o r m o r e in
,
diam eter an d ,
g ra du ated ar o un d the ci r cum fer e n ce in deg r ees This disk .
is m o un ted so a s t o be c ap able o f r ot atio n in a ver tic al plan e -
ab o ut a h o r i z o n t al axis
per pen d icul ar t o t h i s

plan e an d p ass in g thro ugh
the cen ter o f the disk A .
sm all piece of a plan e

m ir r o r B with its pl an e
per pen dicular t o th at o f
the disk is fasten ed t o
the disk at its cen ter an d ,
the mi rr or is a d j usted so
th at it is pe r pen di cular
t o the r a dius B N d r awn
FIG . 1 7 — O p t i l di k
ca d t v if y l w o n the disk
s u se o er A be am o f
a
fl ti
. ,
f
su n light f allin g o n
o re ec on
th e
.
m irr o r in the di r ecti on NB will be r eflected b ack fr om the

m irr o r in the O pp o sit e dir ectio n B N so th at in this a djust ,
m e n t o f the disk the p aths o f the i n cide n t a n d r eflected r ays

c o in cid e (6 N o w if the disk is tu r n ed so t h at
the in ciden t r ay AB makes with the n orm al B N an an gle
NB A the r eflected r ay will p r o ceed in a dir ecti on B C suc h
,
th at 4NB C A AB N = a .
If with o ut ch an gin g the dir ectio n of the in ciden t r ay the

, ,
disk is tur n ed thr o ugh an an gle 0 t he pl an e o f the m irr or t o ,
gether wit h the i n ciden ce-n o rm al will lik ewis e be turn ed

thr o ugh t his s am e an gle an d the an gles o f in ciden ce an d r e
,
fle c t io n wi ll e a ch b e ch an ged in O pp o site sen ses b y t h e am o un t

0 so th at the an gle betwee n the i n ciden t a n d r eflected r ays
,
will be ch an ged b y 2 6 Acc or din gly when a p la n e mi r r or

.
,
i s tur n ed thr ou g h a c er tai n an g le , the re fle cte d r a y wi ll b e tur n ed
thr ou g h a n an g le twi ce as g r ea t.
1 4] Wa v e s R t
e fle c e d a t Pl a n e Mirr o r 33
14 H uyge n s s C o n structi on of
.
’
th e Wave -Fr on t in C as e
of R e fl ecti o n a t a Pl an e M ir r o r .
1 . The ca se o f a p la n e wa v e re f le c ted f m ro a p lan e mir r or .
The r eb o u n d o f w aves fr o m a p o lishe d su r face aff o r ds a very

“
sim ple an d in st ructive

illustr ati o n o f H UY G EN S S ’
Pr i n ciple In Fig 1 8 .
the st r aight lin e AD

r ep r ese n ts the t r a ce i n
the pl an e o f the di ag r am
o f a pl a n e m i rr o r an d ,
the str aight lin e AB r e p

r ese n ts the t r a ce o i a
p o rti o n o f the fr on t o f
a n i n cide n t pl an e wave
6 ) a dv an ci n g in the
dir ection o f the w ave
n o r m al B D At the fi r st
.
i n st an t u n der c o n si der a
ti o n the w ave-fr o n t is
suppo sed t o be in the
p o siti o n AB whe n the
distu rb an ce h a s just
r e a ched the p o i n t A o f
the r eflectin g su r fa ce ,
a n d fr o m this ti m e f o r
w ar d a cc o r din g t o H U Y
,
G E N S S the o r y the p o i n t
’
,
A is t o be r egar ded as
itself a ce n ter o f dis
FIG 18 — H G S S f pl
t u rb an c e f r 0 m which ti
’
w v fl t d t pl m i
t . . UY EN c o n s ru c on o an e
a e re ec e a an e rr o r .
s ec o n d a r y he m isphe r ic a l
w aves ar e r eflected b a ck i n t o the m edium in fr o n t o f the

m i rr o r E xa ctly the s am e st ate o f thi n gs will p r ev ail at
.
this in st an t (t = 0) at all p o i n ts o f the pl an e r eflecti n g sur

fa ce lyi n g o n a p o rti o n o f the st r aight li n e pe r pe n dicul ar
34 Mirr o r s ,
to the pl an e o f t he p ape r at the p o in t A an d the en vel o p

,
o f the h e m isphe r ic a l w a velets o r igi n ati n g fr o m these p o in ts
will be a sem icylin d r ic al su r fa ce wh o se axis is the str aight

lin e just m e n tio n ed If the speed with which the w aves
.
t r avel is de n o ted b y v then at the e n d o f the tim e t = PQ/v

,
the distu rb an ce th at wa s i n iti ally at the p o in t P in the w ave

fr on t AB will h av e a dvan ced t o a p o in t Q o n the r eflectin g
pl an e between A an d D ; an d fr o m this m o m en t a n e w se t
o f he m isphe r ic a l w avelets h avin g thei r ce n ter s all o n a
st r aight lin e pe r pe n dicul ar t o the plan e o f the diagr am at

the p o in t Q will begin t o develo p an d their en velo p will
,
a ls o be a sem icyli n de r An d so at su c c e ssrv e ly l ater an d

.
later in st an ts the distur b an ce will arr ive in turn at e a ch

p o in t al o n g AD ; un til fin ally after the tim e t = B D/ v the
, ,
far therm o st p o in t D will be r e a ched M e an while ar o u n d

.
,
a ll t h e st r aight lin es per pen dicul ar t o the plan e o f the

p aper at p o in ts lyin g a lo n g AD sem icylin dr ic al elem en t ary
wave-sur fa ces will h ave been sp r e a din g o ut fr o m the r e
fle c t in g sur fa ce the r adii o f these c ylin de r s dim i n ishi n g
,
fr o m A t o war ds D At the tim e when the distu rb an ce

.
r e a ches D ,
the sem icyli n d r ic al w avelet wh o se axis p asses
thr o ugh A will h ave exp an ded u n til its r a dius is e qu al t o
B D an d at this s am e in st an t the se m icyli n d r ic al w avelet
,
c o rr esp o n din g t o a p o in t Q between A an d D will h ave b e en

exp an din g fo r a tim e (B D PQ) v an d he n ce its r adius will
—
,
be equ al t o (B D PQ) (B D B K) KD
— —
N o w a cc o r din g t o H U Y GE N S S Pr in ciple the su r fa ce which

.
’
, ,
at an y i n st an t is t an ge n t t o all these ele m e n t ar y sem i
cyli d r ic al waves will be the r e quir ed r eflected wave fr o n t

n -
a t th at i st a t
n .n We sh all sh o w th at the eflected w ve fr on t
r a -
is a pl an e sur fa ce which at the m o m en t when the distur b

an ce r e a ches the p o i n t D c o n t a in s this p o in t ; o r wh at
,
am o u n ts t o the s am e thi n g we sh all sh o w th at if a st r aigh t

,
lin e D C in the pl an e o f the di agr am is t an gen t at C t o t h e

se m ici r cle in which this pl a n e cuts the sem icyli n der wh o se
axis p a sses thr o ugh A it will b e a c o mm on t an ge n t t o all

,
14] Wa v e s R e fle c t e d a t Pl an e Mirr o r 3 5
such sem icir cles ; fo r exam ple it will als o be t an gen t t o
,
the sem icir cle in which the plan e o f the diagr am cuts the
sem icylin der bel o n gin g t o the p o in t Q Fr om D d r a w D C .
t an gen t a t C t o the sem icir cle desc r ibed ar o u n d A a s cen ter

with r adius A C = B D a n d DR t an gen t at R t o the sem i
cir cle descr ibed ar o u n d Q as cen ter with r adius Q R = KD .
The r ight tr ian gles AB D an d AC D ar e c on gr uen t an d hen ce ,
A DAB = £ C DA ; a n d sim il ar ly in the c o n gr ue n t r ight t r i

, ,
a n gles Q KD a n d Q R D A D Q K = £ R D Q But A D QK
A D AB a n d ther efo r e A R D Q = £ C DA an d he n ce the t wo
.
, ,
t an gen ts DR a n d D C c o in cide Acc o r din gly the t r ace o f

.
,
the r eflected wave-fr o n t in the plan e o f the diagram is the

straight li n e C D This r eflected pl an e w ave will be p r o p
.
ag at e d o n w a r ds p a r a llel with itself in the di r ecti o n

,
sh own ,
by the r eflected r ays AC QR, etc It is eviden t fr o m the

,
.
c on str uctio n th at the r ay i n ciden t at A the n o rm al AN t o ,
the r eflectin g su r fa ce at the i n ciden ce p o in t A an d the r e -

,
fle c t e d r ay AC lie all in the s am e pl an e ; an d the equ ality o f

the a n gles o f in ciden ce an d r eflecti o n is an im m ediate c o n
s e quen ce O f the c on gruen ce o f the t r ian gles AB D an d AC D .
2 . The c ase o f a sp heri ca l wa ve re flec te d at a p la n e m i r r or .
In Fig . the light is r ep r esen ted as o r igin atin g fr o m a

19
p o i t s o ur ce L an d sp r ead in g o ut fr o m it in the form o f
n -
S phe r ic al w aves which p r ese n tly i m pi n ge o n the pl a n e r e
fle c t in g sur f a ce r ep r ese n ted in the di ag r am by the st r aight

lin e AD The n e a r est p o in t o f the r eflectin g pl an e t o the
.
s o ur ce at L is the fo o t A o f the per pen dicul ar let fall fr o m

L on the st raight li n e AD a n d this the r ef or e is the fi r st
, , ,
p o in t o f the m irr o r t o be affected Obvi o usly o n a cc o un t .

,
o f sym m et ry with r espect t o LA it will be q uite sufficie n t ,
t o in vestig ate t h e p r o cedu r e o f the w aves in the pl a n e o f

the figu r e The w ave fr o n t at the tim e the distu rb an ce
.
-
r e a ches A will be r ep r ese n ted by the a r c o f a ci r cle desc r ibed
ar o u n d L a s ce n te r with r adius equ al t o LA ; let P de sig
n ate t h ep o siti o n o f a p o i n t o n this ar c an d d r aw the st r aight ,
lin e LP m eetin g AD at Q After a tim e t = PQ/v the dis

.
36 M i rr o r s ,
t ur b an c e will h ave a dvan ced fr o m P t o Q an d fr o m thi s ,
m o m e n t the p o i n t Q will begi n t o se n d b a ck w avelets fr o m

the r eflectin g sur fa ce An d so in successio n o n e p oin t of
.
the m i rr o r after an o the r will be affected u n til pr esen tly the

distu r b an ce r e a ches the far thest p o in t D M e an while all .
,
the po in ts alo n g AD o n
on e side of AL an d
a l o n g AF o n the o ther
S i d e (AF = DA
) will
h ave b e en sen din g o ut
w avelets wh o s e radii will
be gr eater an d gr eater ‘
the n e ar er these n e w
cen ter s ar e t o the p o in t
A m idway betw e en D
an d F Draw the .
str aight lin e LD m eet

in g the ar c AP in the
p o in t B :then at the
m o m e n t t = B D/ v when
the distur b an ce fr om L
h a s just arr iv e d at D ,
the r eflected wavelet

FI G 1 9 — H ti
’
f p h i p r o ce e din g fr o m A as
lw v fl t d t pl m i
. . t
U YG E Ns s c o n s ruc on o s er
ca a e re ec e a
cen ter Will h ave e x
an e r r or .
p an de d u n til its r a dius is e q u al t o B D an d at thi s s am e ,
in st an t ther e will als o be a wavelet ar o un d Q as cen ter

of r a dius ( D PQ ) (B D K ) = KD Acc di g
— —
B B o r n t o
HUY GE N S the p r oblem c on sists ther efo r e in fin din g the

.
, , ,
sur fa ce which is t an gen t at a given in st an t t o all these

sec o n d ary w aves Pr o duce the st r aight lin e LA on the
.
o the r side o f the r eflecti n g su r f a ce t o a p o in t L such ’
th at AL = LA an d d r aw the str aight lin e L Q an d m ar k

’
,
’
,
the p o in t R wher e thi s str aight lin e pr o duced m eets

the semi ci r cle descr ibed ar o un d Q a s cen ter with r a dius
KD = QR Sin ce
. o bvi o usl y ,
§ 1 5
] I m a g e in Plan e Mir r o r 37
LR=LD d the r ef o r e
ci r cle desc r ibed ar oun d L as c e n
’ ’ '
an a
t e r with r a dius equ a l t o L D will t o uch a t R the semi ci r cle

’
desc r ibed ar o u n d Q a s ce n te r with r a dius equ a l t o QR .
Mo r e o ver it will als o t o uch at a p o in t C o n the st r aight

,
lin e LA the sem icir cle desc r ibed ar o un d A a s cen ter with
r adius A C = B D C o n seque n tly this cir cle will be the
.
,
en velo p o f all these sem ic ir cles The r eflected w ave-fr o n t .
ther efo r e is O bt ain ed b y r ev o lvin g the ar c D C F ar o un d LL

,
a s axis The st r aight lin e QR is the p ath o f t h e r eflected

.
ray c o rr esp o n di n g t o the i n ci de n t r ay PQ ; the an gle o f in
c ide n c e at Q is equ al t o the an gle ALQ a n d the an gle o f r e
fle c t io n is equ al t o AL Q an d these an gles ar e eviden tly

’
,
equ al in a gr eem en t the r efo r e with the law o f r eflecti on

5 , .
, ,
1 . Im age in a Pl an e M i rr o r In Fig 1 9 the pl an e m i rr o r

— . .
bisects at r ight an gles the st r aight li n e LL an d sin ce the ’

,
FIG — ’
L i s im ag Of j p
ob e c t - o in t L in p l an e m irr o r AD
A A
. 20 . e
L = L’ .
p o sitio n o f the p o i n t L is i n depen den t o f the p o siti o n o f

’
the in ciden ce-p o in t Q (Fig all the r ays c o m i n g fr o m

.
the lu m in o us p o in t L an d falli n g o n the pl an e m irr o r will

be r e fl ected alo n g p aths which when p r o l o n ged b a ckw ar ds , ,
38 Mir r o r s ,
Prism s an d Le n ses 1 5
a ll m eet in the po in t L
’
. Thus ,
to a hom oce n tri c bun dle o f
i n ci den t r a ys r e fle cted at a l
p n
a e mi rr or ther e cor r e sp on ds a lso
a hom ocen tr i c bu n dle f

o This r em ar kable
reflected r ays .
p r o pe rty o f c o n ver tin g a h o m o cen t r ic bun dle o f r ays in t o

a n o the r h o m o ce n t r ic bu n dle is ch a r a cte r istic o f a pl an e
mir r o r bec a use n o o the r o ptic a l device is c ap able o f it e x

,
cept un der c o n ditio n s th at ar e m or e o r less un r e a li z able in

p r a ctice Thus the im age L o f an o bj ect at L is foun d b y
.
,
’
d rawin g a str aight li n e fr o m L per pe n dicul ar t o the pl an e

{
m ir r o r an d p r o duci n g this lin e o n the o the r side o f the

,
m ir r o r t o a p o in t L such th at the lin e -segm en t LL is b i

’ ’
se c t e d b y the pl an e o f the m ir r o r ; so th at an o bj ect in fr o n t
o f a pl an e m irr o r is see n in the m i r r o r at the s a m e dist an ce
behi n d it The im age in this c ase i s vi r tua l The late

Pr o fess o r SI LVAN U S T H OM PSO N in his p o pul ar lectur es
.
published u n der the title Li g ht Vi si b le a n d In vi si ble de

s c r ibes the f o ll o wi n g Si m ple m eth o d o f sh o win g h o w the
r ays fr o m a c an dle fl am e ar e r eflected at a pl an e m ir r o r
(Fig . If a ver tic al p in m o un ted o n a h o r i z on t al b as e

b o ar d is illum in ated b y a lighted c an dle the p o sition o f ,
the sh ad o w is determ in ed b y t h e lin e j o in in g the t op of the

p in with the s o u r c e o f light If the p in a n d. t h e c an dle a r e
b o th in fr o n t of a pl an e m irr o r pl a ced at r ight an gles t o the
b ase b o ar d a sec o n d sh a d o w will b e c a st b y the pin o n ao
-
,
c o un t o f the r eflected r ays fr om th e c an dle th at ar e in ter

c e p t e d by it a n d this sh a d o w will be p r ecisel y such a s wo ul d
,
be p r o duced b y a c an dle fl am e pl a ced behin d the m irr or

at the pl a ce whe r e the i m a ge o f the a ctu a l fl am e is f o rm ed ,
a s m ay be p r o ved b y r e m o vi n g the m ir r o r an d t r an sferr in g
the c an dle t o the pl ace wher e its im age was .
If the bun dle o f in ciden t r ays in stead o f diver gin g fr o m

a p o in t L in fr o n t o f the pl an e m ir r o r c o n ve r ged t o w ar d s
a p o in t L behin d it (a s c o uld e a sily be e fle c t e d with the aid
o f a c o n ver ge n t le n s ) a r ea l i mag e
,
8) will be p r o duced at
a p o in t L a t the s am e dist an ce in fr o n t o f t h e mi rr o r as t h e
’
vi ua obj ec t p oi n t L was be y o n d it
r t l - .
FI G —S h j h j
b y a n O b e c t i n f r o n t o f a pla n e m ir r o r w e n O b e c t
ph h
a do w s c a st
p ph h
. 21 .
q
is illu m in a t e d b y o in t -so u r c e (f r o m a c t u a l o to g ra
, ) s o win g t a t
t h e so u r c e a n d it s im a g e a r e a t e u a l dis t a n c e s f r o m t h e m irr o r
.
1 5
] I m ag e in Plan e Mirr o r 39
The im age of an ext en ded o bj ect is the figu r e form ed by

the im ages o f a ll o f its p o in ts sep ar ately The diagr am .
i
( g
F 2 2
.
) sh o ws f o r e x a m ple
,
h o w a n eye at E w o uld,
se e
the im age L M o f an o bj ect LM r eflected in a pl an e m irr o r

’ ’
.
The ser ies o f p ar allel lin es j o in in g c orr esp on din g p o in ts of
FI G . 2 2 — Im ag
. e
’
L M '
of ob j e ct LM in p l an e mirr o r Z Z .
O bj ect an d im age will b e bisected at r ight an gles b y the

pl an e o f the m ir r o r .
The dim en si on s o f the im age in a plan e m irr o r ar e e x

a c tly the s a m e a s th o se o f the Obj ect M or e o ver the t o p .
,
a n d b o tt o m o f the i m age c o rr esp o n d with the t o p a n d b o t
t o m o f the o bj ect th a t is t h e i m age is er e ct Als o the

, ,
.
,
r ight side o f the i m a ge c o rr esp o n ds with the r ight side o f
t h e o bj ect a n d the left side o f the im age with the left side
,
o f the o bj ect (Fig a lth o ugh it is fr e q ue n tly st at e d in

.
b o oks o n o ptics th at when a m an st an ds in fr o n t o f a m ir r o r

the r ight side o f the im age sh o ws the left side o f the pe r so n ,
a n d th at if the m an e xt e n ds his r ight h an d the i m age wi ll ,
e te d its left h
x n a n d T h e t ue e pl a ati o
r x n n o f the so c alled
—
“per ver sio n o f the im age in a pl an e m irr o r which is st r ik
.
”
,
in gly seen when a p r in ted p age is held in fr o n t o f the m ir r o r ,
is th at it is the r ear si de of the i ma g e that i s op p osi te the f r on t

'
40 Mirr o r s ,
side O f the j The

ob ect . im a ge o f a p r i n ted p a g e in a m ir r o r
h as e x actly the s am e appe ar an ce as it w o uld h ave if t he

p age wer e held in fr on t o f a b r ight light an d it wa s viewed
fr om behin d thr o ugh the p aper Wh en a pe r s on looks in .
a m irr o r at hi s o wn in rag e his im age a ppe ar s t o be l oo kin g

,
b ack at him in the o pp o site dir ection if he fa ces e ast hi s , ,
im age fa ces west an d if we c all the e ast side o f Obj ect or

,
wag e its f r o n t side an d the west side its r ear side then the ,
r e ar side o f the i m a ge is tu rn ed t o w ar ds the fr o n t side o f
the Obj ect ; alth o ugh bec ause this side o f the im age c or
,
r esp o n ds t o the fr o n t side o f the o bj ect it is a n atu r al m is ,
t ake t o r eg ar d it as a ls o the fr on t side of the im a ge The .
expl an ati o n o f the c o mm o n im pr essio n th at wher e a s up ,
an d d o wn r e m ai n u n ch an ged in the im a ge o f an o bj ect in
a pl an e mir r o r r ight an d left ar e r eve r sed is p r o b ably b e

, ,
c ause a pe r s o n r egar din g his o wn im age un der such cir cum

st an ces is un c o n scio usly disp o sed t o t r an sfer hi m self m e n
t ally in t o c o in ciden ce with his im age b y a r o t ation o f
n o t a r o u n d a h o r i z o n t al but ar o un d a ver tic al axis thus
, ,
pr o ducin g a c on fusion o f m in d as t o r ight an d left but n ot

a s t o t o p an d b o tt o m The r eas o n why this m en t al r ev olu
.
ti o n is per form ed ar o un d the ver t ic al axis seem s t o be due

p ar tly t o the cir cum st an ce th at this m o vem en t c an be
r e a dil y e x ecuted in r e ality an d p ar tly a ls o pe r h aps t o the
,
fa ct th at the hum an b o dy h appen s t o be very n ear ly

symm et r ic a l with r espect t o a ve r tic al pl an e .
1 6 T h e Fi e l d of Vi e w o f a Pl an e M irr or
.
— In the a dj o in .
in g di agr am (Fig 24) the st r a ight li n e G H r ep r esen ts t h e

.
tr a ce in th e pl an e Of the p aper o f the sur fa ce o f a plan e mir

r o r an d the p o in t m ar ked O sh o ws the p o siti o n o f t h e cen ter
'
,
o f the pupil o f the eye o f a pe r s o n wh o is supp o sed t o b e
lo okin g t o w ar ds the m irr o r E viden tly the st raight lin es

H O GO d r awn t o O fr o m the p o in ts G H in the edge o f
.
,
' ' ’
, ,
the m irr or will r epr esen t the p aths of the o uterm o st r eflected
r ays th at c an e n te r the eye a t O an d the r ef o r e the field o f
’
,
View 9 ) is lim ited b y t he c o n t o ur o f the m ir r o r j us t

FIG . 2 3 — Im a g
. j
e of ob ect in p l a n e m ir r o r (fr o m a c t u al ph o to g ra ph) .
1 6] Fie ld of Vi we of Plan e M ir ror 41
as if th e bse ve we e l ki g i t the
o r r r oo n n o i ge sp a ce thr o ugh
m a -
a h o le in the w all th at e xa ctly c o in cided with the pl a ce 00
c u p ie d b y the m i rr o r C o r r esp o n din g t o the p ai r o f r e

.
fle c t e d r ays H O an d GO i n te r secti n g at O the r e w o uld be

’ ’ ’
a p a ir o f in cide n t r ay s d ir ected al o n g the st r aight li n es H O
FI G . 2 4 — Fie ld
. o f Vie w o f p l an e mirr o r f o r g i v p
en o sit io n o f e y e .
an d GO t o war ds a p oin t 0 o n the o ther side o f the m irr o r ,
a n d it is evide n t th a t O will be the r e al i m age o f a vi r tu al

’
o bj ect -p o i n t at O An y lu m in o us p o in t lyin g in fr o n t
o f the pl an e m i r r o r withi n the c o n ic a l su r fa ce f o rm ed b y
d r awin g st r aight lin es such a s O G OH fr o m O t o all the ,
p o i n ts in the edge o f the m irr o r will be visible by r eflected

light t o an eye pla ced at O an d hen ce this c on e lim its the ’
,
field o f view o f the o bj ect-sp a ce .
Thr o ugh O d r a w a st r aight li n e p arallel t o O H an d t ake

’
o n it t wo p o i n ts C B at equ al dist an ces fr om O o n o pp o

’ ’
,
site sides Of it an d let us supp o se th at B C r ep r esen ts the

,
’ ’
di am ete r in the pl an e o f the di agram o f the pupil o f the eye .
C o n st r uct the i m age B OC o f the eye-pupil B O C Then ’ ’ ’
if P design ates the p o sitio n o f a lum in o us p o in t l yin g an y

42 Mirr o r s ,
whe e r within
the field of view of the bj ect sp a ce it is cle ar
o -
,
th at the i n ciden t r ays PO , PC an d PB will be r eflected at
FIG . 2 5 v
.
— fl
D e i a t io n o f a r ay r e e c t e d t wi c e i n
p
‘
a ir o f in c li n e d m ir r o r s
su c
c e ssio n f r o m a .
,
in t o the pupil o f the e ye in the dir ectio n s P O
m i rr o r
’ ’
,
P C an d P B a s th o ugh they h ad all c o m e fr o m the p o i n t

’ ’ ’ ’
P which is the im age o f P This im agin ar y o p en in g o r

’
.
FIG v fl
2 6 —D e i a t io n o f a r ay r e e c t e d t wi c e in
p
. . su c
c e ssio n fr o m a air o f in c li n e d m i r r o r s .
tu l sto p B OC t o war ds which the in ciden t r ays m ust

a be
dir ected o r der t be eflected i t o the ey e pupil B O C is
in o r n - ’ ’ ’
1 8] I n c lin e d Mirr o r s 43
c alled the t n o f the Optic al syste m c o ns istin g

en r a ce p up i l
-
o f the pl an e m i r r o r a n d the eye o f the o bse r ve r ; an d the
pupil o f the eye itself is c alled her e the exi p u pi l (see C hap
t-
t e r XII) Sin ce the e n t r a n ce pupil li m its the ape rtu r es o f

.
-
the bun dles o f r ays th at ultim ately e n ter the eye it a cts ,
as the a p er tu r e -stop o f the syste m

1 7 S uc c e s s ive R e fl e cti o n s fr o m t wo Plan e M irr o r s
. .
An y secti o n m a de by a pl an e pe r pen dicul ar t o the lin e o f in

t e r se c t io n o f t he pl an es o f a p ai r o f in clin ed m ir r o r s is c alled
a p ri n ci p a l secti on o f the system If a ray lyi n g i n a p r i n.
ci p a l s e cti on is fle cted
re s u ccessi ve ly a t two p lan e mi rr or s, i t
wi ll b e de vi a te d f r om i ts or i g i n a l di r ec ti on b y an an g le equa l to
twi ce the di hedr a l an g le b etween the mi r r or s .
the pl an e of the p r in cip al secti o n in ter sect the plan es

5
Le t
o f t h e m i rr o r s in the st r aight lin es OM ON (Figs 2 an d , .
an d let 7 = £ MON de n o te the an gle between the m ir
r or s The r ay PQ lyin g in the pl an e M ON is in ciden t o n

.
the m irr o r OM at the p o in t Q wh en ce it is r eflected alon g ,
the str aight lin e QR m eetin g the m ir r or ON at the po in t

,
R wher e it is ag ai n r eflected p r o ceedin g in the dir ecti on

, ,
RS .Le t the p o in t o f in te r secti o n o f the st r a ight li n e s PQ

an d R S be design ated b y K Then [ PKR is the an gle b e .
tween the o r igin al dir ectio n Of the r ay an d its dir ecti on a fter
un der g o in g t wo r eflectio n s an d we m ust sh o w that this ,
an gle is e qu a l t o 2 7 .
Dr aw the i n cide n ce -n o rm als at Q a n d R an d p ro l o n g ,
them un til they m eet at J Then by the law o f r eflection .
the st r aight lin es QJ an d RJ bisect t h e an gles PQR an d

esp ec tively
5
Q R S r , .
In Fig . 2 ,
A RJ Q ) 27 ;
an d in Fig 26 ,. A PKR A PQR A SR Q
—£R
QJ A JR Q )
2 A Q JR = 2 y
— f
.
18 Imag e s in a
. Syst e m o f Two In c l in e d M irr or s Wh en
— .
a lum in o us p o in t lies in the dihed r al a n gle between t wo

44 Mir r or s ,
Pr ism s an d Le n ses 18
plan e m ir r or s som e o f its r ays will fall o n o n e mirr or an d

,
s om e o n the o the r an d c o n se que n tly ther e will be two sets

,
o f im ages In Fig 2 7 the pl an e o f the di agr a m is the p r in

. .
c ip al secti o n which c o n t a i n s the p o i n t s o ur ce S

- an d the ,
st r aight li n e s OM ON r epr esen t the t r a ces of the mi rr ors

,
FIG . 2 7 — Im ag e s
. of a l u m in o us p o in t S in a p air of in c lin ed
m ir r o r s O M an d ON .
in thi s pl an e T he r ays which fall fi r st o n the m irr or OM

.
will be r eflected as th o ugh they c am e fr o m the im age PI o f

the lum in o us p o in t S in this m irr o r So m e o f these r ays .
fallin g o n the m irr o r ON will be ag ain r eflected an d pr o ceed

then ce as th o ugh they c am e fr o m the p o in t P2 whi ch is
the im age of PI in the m irr o r ON Thus b y successive r e .
,
fle c tio n s fi rs t at o n e o f the m ir r o r s an d the n at the o ther

, ,
a se r ies o f im ages PI P2 etc will be form ed b y th o se r ays

, , .
,
which fall fir st o the m irr o r OM ; let us c all t s the ser ies

n hi P-
o f im ages Sim il ar l y the r ay s th a t fall fi r st o n the mir r o r

.
,
ON will p r o duce an o ther se r ies o f i m ages Q 1 Q 2 etc whi ch , ,

.
,
will be c alled the Q-ser ies E a ch o f these ser ies will termi
.
n ate with an im age which lie s behi n d b o t h m ir r or s in the

1 8] I m ag e s in I n c l in e d M irr o r s 4 5
dihedral an gle C OD Oppo site the an gle MON between the
mir r or s them selves ; bec ause r ays which afte r r eflecti o n ,
at o n e o f the m ir r o r s appe a r t o c o m e fr o m a po i n t thus sit

,
u at e d c an n o t fall o n the o the r m ir r o r an d so the r e will be ,
n o m o r e im ages a fte r t hi s o n e .
Sin ce the st r aight lin e OM is the pe r pe n dicul ar bis ect o r

o f the lin e -se g m e n t SP1 the p o in ts S an d PI a r e equi dist an t
,
fro m every p o in t in the st r aight lin e OM ; an d sim il ar ly , ,
sin ce P2 is the im age o f PI in the plan e m irr o r ON these t wo ,
p oin ts ar e likewise e quidist an t fr o m ever y po in t in the

st r aight li n e ON Acc or din gly the thr ee po in ts S P1, P2
.
, ,
a r e all e quidist an t fr o m the p o in t 0 whe r e the st r a ight l in es
OM an d ON in te r sec t Appl yin g the s am e r e a so n in g t o

.
all the o the r wag e s we pe r ceive th at the i ma g es of b oth

,
ser i es ar e r an g ed on the cir cum er en ce o

f f a ci r c le whose ce n te r
i s at O an d whose r a di us i s OS .
In the fo ll o win g discussion o f the an gul ar dist an ces o f

the im ages fr o m the lum in o us p o in t S the an gles will be ,
r e ck o n ed a l ways in the s am e se n se eithe r all cl o ckwise o r
Le t 7 = [ AOB de n o te the a n gle b e

,
all c o un te r -cl o ckwise
twee n the t wo m ir r or s the letter s A an d B r efer r in g t o the

.
p oin ts wher e the cir cle c r o sses the plan es o f the m ir r or s OM

an d O N r espectively Als o le t a = A AOS 6 = 4 SOB de
5
.
, , ,
n o te the a n g ul ar dist an ces o f S fr o m A B r esp ectivel y so , , ,
th at a + : 7 Then .
A Pl O S = 2 a ;
z s0P2 = z so e + z B OP2 = = = 27
B+ A P1 0B 2 ( a
-
l B) ;
A P308 Z P3OA+ a Z AOPz ‘
j
“
a A SOP2 + 2 a .
2r +2 a ;
z SO P 4
= z SOB + 2 B OP = 6+ 4P 0B 4 3
6+
A P 0S 5 A P 0A+ 5 a = A AO P + 4 a A SOP4+ 2 a
47 + 2 a .
In gen er al ther efo r e

, ,
l SOPk
wher e s ,
P2 1, + 1 design ate the po sitio n s of the 2ht h an d
46 Mirr or s ,
(2 k + 1 ) t h im a ges the P-ser ies k de n o tin g an y i n tege r

of , ,
an d whe r e the an gles SOs P2 k + l OS ar e the an gles sub

ten ded by the ar cs SB s P2k + 1AS r espectively Sim il ar ly
,
.
, , ,
fo r the Q —ser ies o f im ages we fi n d :

4s o s 219 7 , 4 So s +1 ”9 14 -2
3;
1
wher e these gles ar e the an gles subte n ded b y the a r cs
an
s AS SB s + 1 r espectively
, ,
.
E vide n tly the i m age P2 k + 1 will fa ll o n the a r c C D be

hin d b o th m ir r o r s if ar c P2 k + 1 AS > ar c D AS th at is if
,
, , ,
—
B;
°
2h 7 + 2 a > 1 80
an d, by a ddin g (3 a ) —
to b o th sides o f this in e qu ati o n ,
an d dividin g th r ough b y
.
7 , this c o n diti on m ay b e expr essed
as fo ll o ws
1 80 °
a
2h+ 1
7
In the s am e way we fin d th at the im age P21 will fall bet ween ,
C an d D if
1 80 ° —a
2k >
.
7
Thus ,
the tota l n umb er o f ima g es O f the P-seri es, whether i t
be Odd or e ven
,
w i l l b e g i v en b y t he i n t e g e r n ex t hi g he r tha n
(1 80
°
a) 7 ; an d, simi lar ly , the tota l n umber of i ma g es
of the Q —
se r i es wi ll b e g i v en b y th e i n te g e r n ex t hi g her tha n
( fi) / 7
°
1 80
The o n ly exception t o this r ule is when the an gle 7 is
c on t a in ed in (1 80 a ) or (1 80 6) an ex a ct wh o le n um
°
— °
b e r o f t im es ; in the fo r m er c a se the l a st im age o f the P se r ie s

—
fall s at C a n d in the l atter c a se the l a st im a ge o f the Q ser ie s

,
—
falls at D ; an d i n ste a d o f t a kin g the in teger s n ex t ab o ve

the qu otien t (1 80 a ) / 7 or (1 80 BM ° —
7 w e m ust t a k e
°
,
the a ctu al in teger o bt a in ed b y the divisio n An exam ple .
Will m ake the m atte r cle ar Thus supp o se .

,
then 6 : an d the i n tege r s n e xt highe r th a n (1 80 a)/ 7

°
an d (1 80 —
fi) / 7
°
will be 7 a n d 6 r espectively ; he n ce in ,
this c a se the r e will be 7 im a ges o f the P-ser ies an d 6 im a ges

0 the Q se r ies o r 1 3 im ages in all But if a = 1 0 an d [ i
°
- .
1 8] Kale ido sc op e 47
e a ch ser ies will be fo u n d t o h ave 7 i m ages 14 irn ag e s in ,
a ll .
The e x cepti o n a l c a se o ccu r s when a = 9 an d fi °
r
f o r then (1 8 0 a n d hen ce the r e wil l be 7 P—

°
im a ges
an d 6 Q -lrn a e s
g .
If the gle 7 between the m irr or s is an exa ct m ultiple

an
of th at is if 7 =
p wher e p de n o tes a n i n tege r
, , ,
the in teger s n ext higher th an (180 a ) / 7 an d (1 80 B) / 7 ° °
will b oth be equ al t o p ,
n o m a tte r wh at m ay be
the special p o siti on o f

the o b j ect between the
t wo m irr o r s ; so th at in
such a c a se the n um ber
o f irn ag e s in e a ch se r ies
will be equ al but the l a st ,
im age o f o n e set will 00

i n cide with the last o f
the other In fact the .
,
p o in ts S P2 P4 , , ,
Q4 Q2 an d the po rn t s F I G 2 8 — Im g p i ti
p p
l mi
h
; f . . a es O a u n o us o n n a
a ir o f l a n e m ir r o r s i n c lin e d t o
PI, P3 , Q3 Q 1 h
e ac
, ar e
a t an a n g le o f 6 0
°
ot er
the v e r t Ic e s o f t wo equal
r egul ar p o ly g o n s o f p sides e a ch ; an d if p is o dd the p o lyg o n
, ,
P1 P3 Q Q1
3 will h a ve o n e o f it s c o r n e r s betwee n C a n d
D whe r e a s if p is eve n o n e o f the c o r n er s o f the po lyg o n
, ,
SP2 P4 Q4Q 2 w i l l fa ll betwee n C a n d D ; in either c a se

this ver tex is the po sitio n o f the l ast im age o f b o th ser ies .
Thus fo r ex am ple if
, ( g
F i t he n p
= 3 an d the .
,
t wo p o lyg o n s ar e the e q uil ate r al t r i an gles SP2 Q2 an d P1 P3 Q 1

,
(o r P1 Q3 Q 1 )
The t oy c alled a ka lei dosc op e devised b y Sir DAVI D
~
B RE W S TE R (17 8 1 c o n sists essen ti ally o f t wo lo n g n ar

,
r o w st r ips o f m i rr o r —gl ass in clin ed t o e a ch o the r at an an gle

o f 6 0 an d in cl o sed in a cyli n d r ic al tube On e e n d o f the
°
.
tube is cl o sed by a c ir cul ar piece o f gr o un d gla ss wher eon

ar e l o o sel y disp o sed a l o t o f fr a gm e n t s o f c o l o r ed gl a ss o r
48 Mirr or s ,
be ads an d at the o ther e n d of the tube ther e is a peep-h ole

, .
When the in st r um e n t is held t owar ds the light an o bserve r

l o o kin g in it will see an exquisitely be autiful an d sym m etr ic al
,
p attern fo rm ed by the c o l o r ed o bj ects an d thei r im ages the

for m o f which m ay be alm o st en dlessly var ied b y r evo lvin g
,
the tube ar o un d its axis so th a t the bits of gl ass assum e n ew
FIG 2 9 — Pa t
. . h o f r ay r e fl e c ted in t o ey e fr o m a p air o f in clin e d
m ir r o r s .
p o sition s In fa ct thi s device h as been turn ed t o pra ctic al

.
,
use in m aking design s fo r c ar pets an d w all-p aper s .
1 9 C o n struc tio n o f th e Path o f a R ay R e fl e c t e d in to the

.
Eye f ro m a Pai r o f In c lin e d M i rr o r s — In o r der t o t r a ce the

.
p aths o f the r ays b y which a spect at or st an din g in fr on t of a

pair o f in clin ed m ir r or s sees the im age o f a lum in o us p o in t ,
it is c o n ven ien t t o a ssum e fo r the s ake o f sim pli city th at

, ,
the eye at E in Fig 2 9 lies in the pl an e o f the p aper T he

. .
fir st step in the c on str uctio n o f the p ath o f the r ay is t o dr aw

the st r aight lin e fr om the given im age-p o in t t o the eye ,
bec ause if the eye sees this p o in t the light th at en ter s the
19] I n c lin e d M irr o r s 49
ey e m ust ive al on g this lin e I f this lin e d o es n ot c r o ss

arr .
the m ir r or in which the im age is p r o duced this p ar ticul ar ,
irn ag e will n o t be visible fr om the p o i n t E N o w j o in the .
p o in t wher e this lin e m eets the m irr o r with the p r ecedin g

irn ag e in the s am e se r ies ; the p ar t o f t hi s lin e th at lies b e
tween the t wo m i rr or s will eviden tly Sh o w the r o ute o f the
FIG 3 0 —S ho wi n h ow E t h e im ag es o f a lu m i
p p p
. .
g an ey e at se e s
n ou s o i n t S in a r e ct an g ul ar a ir O f l a n e m ir r o r s .
li ght befo r e its l a st r eflecti on Pr o ceedin g in this fashion

.
fr o m o n e m ir r o r t o the o ther we sh all tr a ce b a ckwar ds the

,
z ig z a g p a th o f the r ay u n til we a rr ive fi n ally a t the lu m i n o us
s o ur ce at S C o n sider fo r exam ple the im age P3 fo rm ed

.
, ,
in the m irr o r OA in Fig 2 9 This im age is visible t o the

. .
eye at E bec ause the st r aight li n e P3 E cuts at K the m irr or

OA . If J an d H design ate the p o in ts wher e the st r aight
lin es KP2 an d J P1 m eet the m irr o r s OB an d OA r espectively , ,
the b r o ken lin e SH J KE will r ep r ese n t the p ath of the r ay

fr om the so u r c e at S i n t o t he e y e at E Fig 3 0 sh ows h o w . .
50 Mir r or s ,
2
an ey e at E in fr o n t o f t wo per pe n dicul ar plan e m ir r o r s c an
see the im ages PI P2 Q a n d Q2, , 1 .
20. R e c tan g l ar C o
u m b in atio n s o f Pl an e M i rr o r s — In a .
r ect an gul ar c o m bin ati o n o f t wo pl an e m irr o r s the

im age f o rm ed by t wo successive r eflecti o n s will be ih
ver ted in the pr in cip al sectio n o f the system but in an y ,
pl an e at r ight an gles t o a p r in cip a l sectio n the im ag e will

be er ect Fo r exam ple if an Obj ect is pl a ced in fr on t o f t wo
.
,
ver tic a l pl an e m irr o r s at r ight an gles t o e a ch o ther the ,
i m age p r o duced by t wo r eflecti o n s will h ave t h e s am e p o si

tio n an d appe ar an ce a s if the o bj ect h ad been r ev o lved b o dil y
th r o ugh an an gle o f 1 80 ab o ut a ver tic al axis c o in cidin g
°
with the lin e o f i n ter section o f the pl an es o f the m ir r o r s as ,
r ep r ese n ted in Fig 31 .In this c a se the im a ge r e m a in s v e r

.
tic ally er ect wher e a s it is h o r i z on t ally in verted On t he

,
.
o the r h an d if o n e o f the m l rr o r s is ver tic al an d t h e o ther

,
h o ri z o n t al the im ag e by tw o fo ld r eflectio n will h ave t h e

,
s am e p o siti o n an d appe ar an ce as if the o bj ect h ad been

r ev o lved th r o ugh 1 80 a r o u n d a h o r i z o n t a l ax is c o in cidin g
°
with the li n e o f in te r sectio n o f the t wo m ir r o r s (Fig 3 2) .
th at is the im age n ow will b e upside d o wn but n ot in ver ted

,
h o r i z o n t ally .
Ther efo r e i n order to ob tain a n i ma g e tha t i s comp lete ly

,
re ver sed i n e ver y r esp ec t t wo r ect an gul ar c o m bin ati o n s o f

,
pl an e m irr or s m ay be em plo yed with their p r in cip al section s

m utu ally at r ight an gles s o disp o sed th at the r ays c o m i n g
,
fr om the o bj ect will be r eflected in successio n fr o m e a ch of

the fo ur plan e sur fa ces An auxili ary system o f this de sc rip
.
tion is s om etim es used in c o n n ection with an Optic a l in str u

m e n t fo r the pu r p o se o f r e ctif yi n g the i mag e which o th e r wise
w ould be seen in ver ted A r ectifyin g device depen din g on thi s
.
p r in ciple is the so c alled PO R R O pr ism -system utili z ed

5
-
by AB B E (1 840 1 90 ) in the design o f the fam o us p r ism b in o cu

—
lar telesc o pe o r fi e ld-gl a sses (c A sketch o f the arr an g e

.
m en t is sh o wn in Fig 3 3 T wo r ect an g ul ar p r ism s ar e pl a ced

. .
in the tub e o f the in st r um e n t betwee n the o bj ective an d t he,

FIG . .
p j
ph h
3 2 — Im a g e o f an o b e c t in a r e c t a n g u l ar
im
a p
ir o
i
f
b
lpa
t
n
i
e m
d
ir
b
r o r s
t
(f r
t
o
i
m
) ; s o w in g h o w t h l t y r o a ng
j vh h
a g e s o a n e
a c t u al ho to g ra e as
1 80 ar o u n d t h e
9 li f i t t i o n o f t h e m ir ro rs
h h
n e r se c
the Ob e c t t r o ug n e o
.
m i t i l t h t r iz o n t a l
O n e r r o r e r c a ,
e o e r o .
20] POR R O Pr ism Sys t em 5 1
O cul ar with their p r in cip al secti o n s at r ight an gles to e a ch

,
o the r . The axi a l r ay a fter t r ave r sin g the o b j ective c r o sses

, ,
n o r m a lly the hyp the use fa ce o f the fi r st p r is m an d is

o n -
t ot ally r eflected (see in the pl an e o f a p r i n cip a l secti o n ,
at e a ch o f its t wo p e r
p e n d ic u l ar f a ces so a s t o
em er ge fr o m the hypo th
e n use -f a ce in a d ir ecti o n
p r ecisely O pp o site t o th at
which it h ad when it fir st
c r o ssed this sur fa ce This.
r ay n o w u n de r g o es a si m i
lar c y cle O f ex per ie n ces in

a p r i n cip a l secti o n o f the
s ec o n d p r is m an d fi n ally
,
em er ges fr o m this pr ism

in the s am e dir ecti o n a s IG F . 3.3 —P ORRO p i m y t m i p i m
r s -s s e n r s
b 1 fi 1d g 1
1 11 0011 a r e a sse s
It b ad Whe n It m e t the
fi r st p r ism A r ay p ar allel t o the ax ial r ay an d lyin g ab o ve

.
a h o r i z o n t a l pl an e c o n t a i n i n g the axis will b e c o n ve r ted b y
virtue o f the t wo r efl ecti o n s in the fi r st p r ism in t o a r ay

wh o se p ath lies bel o w this pl an e ; an d sim il ar ly a r ay p ar
, ,
a llel t o the ax is an d lyi n g o n o n e side o f a ve r tic a l pl an e
c o n t ain in g the axis will in c o n sequen ce o f the t wo r e fle c

,
tio n s within the sec o n d p r ism be c o n ve rted i n t o a r ay wh o se

,
p ath lies o n the Opp o site si de o f this vert ic a l plan e Thus .

,
the c o m bin ed eff ect o f the t wo r e fl ectin g p r ism s t o gether

will be t o r eve r se c o m pletely the p o siti o n o f the r ay with
r espect t o the h o r i z o n t a l an d ve r tic a l m e r idi an pl an es so ,
th at the r ay will issue ffo m the system o n O pp o site sides o f

b o th these pl an es If the system o f p r ism s we r e r em o ved
.
,
the im age in the in str um en t w o uld appe a r in ver ted but by ,
in ter p o sin g the pr is m s in this fa shio n t h e im age will be

r ectified an d o r ie n te d e x a ctly in the s a m e way as the o bj ect ;
which in the c a se o f m an y O ptic al in st r um en ts is an essen tial

c o n side r ati o n .
5 2 M i rr o r s ,
21 . Appli c atio n s of th e Pl an e is har dly

Mi rr o r .— It
n ecess ar y t o say th a t the pl an e m ir r o r f o r v ar i o us pur
p o ses h as been in use am o n g civil i z ed pe oples o f all ages ;

a lth o ugh the use o f m i rr o r s as ar ticles o f h o useh o ld fur
n it ur e a n d dec o r a ti o n d o es n o t o b a ck f a r the r th an the

g
ear ly p ar t o f the 1 6 th cen tury B y a c o m bin atio n o f t wo
.
‘
o r m o r e pl an e m ir r o r s a l ad y c an arr an ge the b a ck o f
FIG ; 3 4 —Po r t e l u mi er e
. .
her d r ess an d in fa ct see her self ther s see he r With

as o .
the aid o f a m ir r or o r c o m b in at ibn o f m irr o r s m an y in

g e n io u s
“
m a gic a l e ffects a r e p r
”
o duced in the a te r s The .
plan e m irr o r als o c o n stitutes an essen tial p ar t o f n um er o us

useful scien t ific in st r um en ts in s o m e o f which its o n ly dut y
is t o alte r the c o ur se o f a be am o f light wher e a s in v ar io u s ,
form s o f go n i o m etr ic al in st r umen ts an d c on t r iv an ces fo r de

t erm in in g a n an g ul ar m ag n itud e th at is n ot e a sil y m easu r e d
§ 22] Po r t e Lumi er e 5 3
d ir ectly the an g le in questio n is a scert ain ed in dir ectly by

o bse r vin g the an gle tur n ed th r o ugh by a r ay o f light w hi ch
is r efl ected fr o m a pl an e m ir r o r .
22 Po rte Lu mi er e an d Heli o stat — As g oo d an illust r a

‘
. .
tio n as c an be given of the use o f a pl an e m irr o r f o r ch an g

in g the dir ecti o n of a be am o f sun light is affor ded by the
FIG 5
. 3 .
— H e li o s t at .
p or te lumi er e i
( g
F . w hich
c o n sists essen ti ally o f a pl an e
m irr or in ge n io usly m o u n te d s o as t o be c ap able o f r o t a ti o n
ab o ut t wo r ect an gul ar ax es whe r eby it m ay be r e a dil y a d
,
justed in an y desir ed a z im uth an d r eflect a beam o f sun

light th r o ugh a suit able Ope n in g in the w all o f the buildin g
t o an y p ar t o f the i n te r i o r o f the r o o m .
H o wever o win g t o the diur n al m ovem e n t o f the sun

, ,
54 Mirr o r s ,
a c o n t in u al adjustm e n t o f the m irr o r is n ecess ary in o r der

t o keep the sp o t o f light fo r an y le n gth o f t im e at the pl a ce
in the r o o m whe r e it is n eeded an d s om eti m es this ma n ip u ,
l atio n is ver y in c o n ven ien t an d an n o yin g especi ally in the ,
c ase o f a lab o r at o r y exper im en t exten din g per h aps o ver

ac o n side r able p art o f a day Thus f o r ex am ple in study .
, ,
in g the s o l ar spectr um it is o fte n desir able t o il lum in ate the

slit in the c o llim at o r tube o f the spect r o m eter fo r h o ur s at
a tim e .Fo r such pu r p o ses it is better t o use a heliosta t
( g
F i . w h ich is c o n t r ived s o th a t the pl an e m ir ro r is c on
tin uo u sly r ev o lved b y cl o ckw o r k ar o un d an ax is p ar a llel

t o the e ar th s axis so a s t o p r eser ve a lw ays the s am e r el ative
’
p o sitio n with r espect t o the sun in its app ar en t diur n al

m o ti o n in the sky The m ir r o r c an als o be turn ed ab o ut
.
a h o r i z o n t a l axis a n d it h as fi r st ,
t o be a djusted ab o ut this axis so

th at the r ays o f the sun ar e r e
fle c t e d t o w ar ds the n o r th p o le
o f the c elesti al sphe r e th at is , ,
p ar allel to the axi s o f the earth .
The mi r r o r bein g adj usted at

thi s an gle which will depen d on ,
the declin ati on o f the sun ab o ve

01 bel o w the celesti a l eq u at o r
P i ip l f h li t t
5
"
Fm 3 6
.
—
. r n c e o e os a . ,
an d tu rn i n g a t the r ate o f 1
°
p e r h o u r a r o u n d a n a x is pa r allel t o the axis o f r o t atio n of

the e ar th it is eviden t th at the r ays of the sun will c o n tin u e
,
t o be r eflected c o n st an tl y in the sam e dir ecti o n Supp o se .

,
f o r ex am ple th at the m ir r o r is a djusted in the p o siti on

,
Z Z (Fig 3 6 ) so th at the ra y SB c o m i n g fr o m the sun at S is

.
r eflected at B in the di r ecti o n BP p ar a llel t o the ax is o f t h e
eart h an d ther efo r e par allel t o the axis o f r o t atio n AB o f th e

m i rr o r .If the p o lar dist an ce o f the sun is den o ted b y
2 a = A PB S an d if the an gle betwee n the n o r m al t o t h e
,
m ir r o r an d the axis o f r o t ati o n is den o ted by 77 then evi , ,
de n t ly , a If the sun s declin ation o n a cert ain day

.
’
§ 23] M e asur e m e n t of An g le of Pr ism 5
5
is then 2 a = 90 an d
°
If , on the
o ther h an d the sun is 1 0 bel o w the equ at o r
5
,
°
2 a : 1 00 °
an d
,
= 0
°
n .
The helio stat is p r ovided als o with a fix ed m ir r o r whi ch

r e fl ects the ra ys f r o m the r o t atin g m ir r o r in a de fin ite di
r ecti o n a s de si r ed
,
usua lly in a h o r i z o n t a l dir ectio n in t o
,
the r oo m wher e the sun light is t o be use d G en era lly the .

,
in str um en t is m o un ted o n a perm an en t ledge o utside the

win d ow ; s o m etim es it is pl a ced o n the r o o f o f the buildin g
an d the fix ed m ir r o r a djusted so as t o se n d the sun s ra ys
’
d own a ver tic al tube at

the b o tt o m o f which ther e
is an o the r m ir r o r pl a ced
a t an a n gle o f 4 with5°
t h e ver tic al wher e the

rays ar e o n c e m o r e r e
fle c t e d so th at the bea m
o f sun light which e n te r s
the r o o m will be h or i
z o n t al .
23 . M e a sur e m e n t of
th e An gl e o f a Pri s m .
An other l ab o r at o ry ap
plic atio n o f the p r in ciple
o f a pl a n e mi rr o r is see n
in the m eth o d o f usin g a

F 37 — M m t f gl f p i m
g o n io m eter t o ascert ain IG . . e asu r e en o an e o r s .
the dih ed r a l a n gle between two pl an e fa ces o f a glass p rism

The an gle th at is a ctu ally m e a sur ed b y the g on i o m
eter is the an gular dist an ce between the im ages o f a dist an t
o bj ect as see n in the t wo f a ces o f t h e p r is m Par allel r ays .
c o m in gf r o m a f a r -o ff s o u r ce at S (Fig 3 7 ) an d i n ciden t o n
the t wo fa ces o f the p r ism th at m eet in the edge V ar e r e
.
fle ct e d as sh o wn in the di a gr am an d the an gle between the

t wo di r ecti o n s o f the r eflected r ay s is o bvi o usl y e q u a l t o
,
twice t he dihed r al an gl e 6 .
56 Mirr o r s ,
24 . M e a sur e of An gul ar D e fl e c tio n s by M irror an d

S c al e .
—The
gul ar r o t a ti o n of a b o dy fo r exam ple the
an , ,
deflecti o n o f the m ag n etic n ee dle o f a galvan om eter is fr e

quen tly m e a su r ed b y att a chin g a mir r o r t o the r o t atin g
,
b o dy fr o m whi ch a be am o f light is r eflected Thi s r efl e cted .
a cts a s a l o n g weightless p o in te r whe r eb y t h e a ctu al
FIG 3 8 —. . M ir r o r , t e l e sc o p e an d s c al e f o r m e as ur e
m en t o f an g les .
m o vem e n t the b o dy c an be m agn ifi e d t o a n y ext en t with

of
o u t in the le a st a ff ectin g the se n sitive n ess o f the a pp ar atus .
In F ig 3 8 the pl an e mi r r o r w hi ch is c ap able o f r o t ati o n

.
ab o ut a n ax is pe r pe n dicul ar a t A t o the pl an e o f the p ape r
is r ep r esen ted in its in i tia l p o siti on b y the lin e-segm en t

m ar ked 1 The str aight lin e MN in fr o n t o f the m ir r or an d
.
at a kn o wn dist an ce (d = AB ) fr om it r epr esen ts a sc a le

gr adu ated in e qu al div isi on s An eye at E l o o kin g th r o ugh
.
a telesc o pe p o in t e d t o w ar ds A will see the im a ge in the m ir r or
o f the sc a le divisi o n at S the so c alled

- - “ z e r o r e adi n g be - ”
, ,
c ause the light fr o m S in ciden t at A o n the m ir r or in the

po siti “ eq il ib i m p siti is eflected l g AE
”
o n 1 ( u r u - o o n ) r a o n
in t o the eye at E If n o w the m ir r or is tur n e d thr o ugh an

.
an gle 0 in t o the p o siti o n m ar ked 2 a n o the r sc ale-divisi o n ,
will c om e in to the field o f view o f the telesc o pe an d c o in

24j Mir r o r an d Sc a le 5
7
cide with the c ss h i ro the eye p iece If thi s sc ale

- a r in - .
divisi o n c o rr espo n ds t o the p o in t m ar ked P it is the light ,
th at c o m es al o n g PA th at is n o w r eflected al o n g AE in t o
the eye at E ; an d eviden tly a cc o r din g t o 1 3 A PA S = 2 0
, ,
.
In m akin g a m e a su r em en t by thi s m eth o d the th r ee p o in ts

design ated by S B an d E ar e gen er all y ad j uste d so as t o
,
be ver y n ear t o gether if n o t a ctu ally c o in ciden t If they

,
.
wer e c o in ciden t the pl an es o f the mi rr or an d sc ale wo ul d

,
be p ar allel an d the axis o f the telesc o pe w o uld c o in cide

,
with the st raight lin e BA per pen dicul ar t o the sc ale at B .
But in an y c a se the A B AS 6 will be a c o n st an t depe n din g ,
p artly o n the in iti al p o sitio n o f the m ir r o r an d p art ly o n

the dir ecti on o f the axis o f the telesc o pe ; thus ,
t an e = a / ,
d
wher e a = B S If ther efor e we put a: SP
.
, , , we h ave
g t an
—
t an 0) —
e ;
when ce sin ce the v alue o f a:

, c an be r e a d o ff o n the sc ale it ,
will be ea sy t o c a lcul ate the va lue o f the r equir ed an gle 0

th r o ugh which the m ir r o r h as been tu rn ed In m an y c a ses .
wher e this m eth o d is em plo yed the an gles den o ted by 0an d
e a r e b o th so s m a ll th a t the r e will be little e r r o r in sub
st it u t in g the an gles the m selves in pl a ce o f their t an gen ts .
Un der these cir c um st an ces the ab o ve fo r m ul a will be gr e atly

sim plifi ed fo r the an gle 6 will dis appe ar en tir ely an d we
, ,
sh all obt ain :

a :
2d
’
wher e h o wever it m ust be n ote d th at this exp ressi o n gives

, ,
the value o f the an gle 0 in r a dian s The v alue o f 0 in de .
g ees is f u d b y m ultiplyin g the r ight h an d side of this

r o n -
form ul a by 1 80/ 7r so th at we obt ain

,
deg r ees
0
m .
A l am p an d sc ale is s o m etim es used in ste a d o f a telesc o pe

an d sc ale the light o f the l am p bein g r e fl ecte d fr om t he
,
5 8 Mir r o r s ,
Prism s an d Le n se s 2 5
mi r r o r on the sc ale which is usually m ade
to of t r an slucen t
glas s , so th at it is e asy t o r e ad the p o siti o n of the sp o t o f
light
5
.
2 . H a dl e y ’
s S e xtan t An o ther in st r um en t which utili z es
—
the p r in ciple of 17 is the sext an t whi c h is em plo yed for

,
. . p
FIG 3 9 — Prin c i l e o f s e xt an t .
m e a su r in gthe an gular dist an ce between t wo b o dies for ex ,
a m ple the a,ltitude o f the su n a b o ve the se a h o r i z o n

- T he .
pl an an d essen ti al fe atur es o f this a pp ar atus ar e sh o wn in

Fig 39. At the cen ter A o f a gr adu ated cir cul ar ar c ON
.
a s m a ll m ir r o r is set up in a pl an e at r ight an gles t o th a t o f
the ar c Thi s m ir r o r c an be turn ed ab o ut an axis p e r p e n dic

.
ul ar t o the pl an e o f the p aper an d p a ssin g thr o ugh A Rig .
idly c o n n ected t o this m ir r or a n d tur n in g with it is a lon g

s o lid arm AP wh o se o ther e n d P pr o vided with a ver n ier ,
sc ale m o ves o ver the ar c ON wher eb y the a n gle th r o ugh

, ,
whi ch the m irr o r turn s c an be a ccur a tely m e asur ed A little .
b eyo n d the ext r em it y N o f the g r a du ated p art o f the ar e ,
a sec o n d m i r r o r B is e r ected f a ci n g the fi r st m ir r o r The .
pl an e o f this m ir r o r is li kewise per pe n dicul ar t o th at o f t h e

c ir cle but fr o m the upper h a lf o f it the silver has been
,
r em o ved so th a t this p o r ti o n o f the m irr o r B is t r an sp a r e n t

,
.
Mo r e o ve r this m ir r or is fix ed with r espect t o the in st ru

,
m en t .An o bse rve r l o o ki n g th r ough a p e ep -h o le o r tel e

2 5
] M i rr o r Se x t t
an 5
9
sc ope att a ched t o the in st r um en t t o war ds the m irr o r B m ay

see a dist an t o bj ect th r o ugh the uppe r tr an sp ar en t p ar t o f
this m ir r o r an d at the s am e tim e he m ay als o see j ust bel o w
,
it the im age o f a sec o n d o bj ect r eflected in the l o wer h alf

o f the gl a ss When the pl an es o f the t wo m irr o r s A an d B
.
a r e p ar a llel the z er o -m ar k o f the ver n ier o n the m o v able

,
a r m c o i n cides with the z e r o m a r k O o f the g r a du ated a r c

- .
Supp o se fo r exam ple th at when the t wo m i rr o r s a r e p a r

, ,
a llel t o e a ch o the r the i n st r um en t is p o in ted at a dist an t

,
F IG 40 —
. . M o de l of m ir r o r s e x t an t .
o bj ect say a st ar at S1 which will be see n dir ectly th r o ugh

, , ,
the upper h alf o f the fix ed m irr o r B At the s am e tim e the .
o bse r ve r will see an im age o f the o bj ect S 1 by r ays which
h ave been r eflected fr om the m irr o r A t o the m i rr o r B an d

then ce in t o the eye at E ; for if the t wo m irr o r s ar e p a r allel
the di r ectio n o f a r ay a fte r t wo r e fl ecti on s will be the s am e
,
a s its i n iti a l di r ecti o n

. If n o w the m i rr o r A is tur n ed un til
the im age o f an other o bj ect at S2 c om es in t o the field o f
vision the t wo o bj ects SI an d S2 will be seen sim ult an eo usly
, ,
fo r with the m i rr o r at A in this n e w p o siti o n the in cide n t r ay

S2 A will be the r ay th at is r eflected fr o m A t o B an d then ce ,
a s befo r e i n t o the eye at E

,
Mo r eo ve r si n ce the an gle between
.
,
the or igin al dir ection SzA o f this ray an d its fin al dir ectio n
60 Mir r o r s ,
Pr ism s an d Le n se s [
Oh . II
SA is equ al t o d o uble the an gle between the plan es of the
t wo m ir r o r s th a t is is equ a l t o 2 0 wher e 0= é OAP t he
, , , ,
an gul ar dist an ce betwee n the o bj ects at S I a n d S2 m ust b e
equ al t o 2 0 th at is A Sl AS2 = 2 0 In o r der t o s ave tr o uble

, ,
.
in m a kin g the r e adin gs h alf-degr ees o n the gr a du ated ar e

,
ar e r eck o n ed as deg r ees so th at the v a lue o f the an gle 2 0is

,
r e a d d ir ectl y o n the sc ale As the an gul ar dist an ce betw e en

.
the o bj ects will seld om ex c e ed an d si n ce in fa ct t h e , ,
m eth o d is n o t ver y a ccu r ate f or an gles g r e ater th an t his ,
the a ctu al le n gt h o f t he gr adu ated ar c n eed n ot be gr e ater

th an ab o ut 60 or o n e-sixth o f the cir cumf er en ce ; when c e
°
the n am e sext an t is der ived .
A sim ple m o del o f a m ir r o r sext an t is sh o wn in Fig 40 . .
Fo r a ccur a te m e a sur em en ts the in st r um en t is m ad e o f m et al

with a sc ale etched o n a silver st r ip Mo r e o ver a telesc o pe
.
,
is used in stea d o f a peep -h o le ; so th at with a fin e sext an t it

is c o m p ar atively e as y t o m e asur e the an gul ar dist an ce b e
tween t wo p o in ts t o withi n o n e -h alf m in ute o f ar c On e .
gr eat a dvan t a ge o f thi s in str um en t is its p o r t abili ty an d ,
sin ce it d o es n o t h ave t o be m o un ted o n a st an d it is very ,
serviceable o n shipb o ar d fo r m e asur em en t s o f altitude an d

deter m in ati o n s o f l atitude etc ,
.
PR OB LE MS
1 .The t o p o f a ver tic a l pl an e m irr o r 2 feet hi gh is 4 fe et

fr o m the fl o o r The eye o f a per s o n st an din g in fr on t o f the
.
m ir r o r is 6 feet fr o m the fl o o r a n d 3 feet fr o m the m ir r o r .
Wh at ar e the dist an ces fr om the w all o n which the m ir r o r

h an gs o f the farthest an d n e ar est p o in ts o n the fl o o r th at
ar e visible in the m ir r o r ? An s 6 ft ; 1 8 in . . .
2 A r ay o f light is r eflected at a pl an e m i r ro r
. Sh o w th at
.
if the m ir r o r is tu rn ed thr o ugh an an gle 0 the r eflected r ay ,
will be tu rn ed thr o ugh an an gle 2 0 .
3 Sh o w th at the devi ati on o f a r ay r eflected o n ce at e a ch

.
o f t wo pl an e m ir r o r s is e q u a l t o twic e the an gl e betw e e n t h e
m ir r o r s
.
Ch . II] Pr o b l e m s 61
4 If . pl an e m ir ro r is tur n ed t hr o ugh an an gle o f

a
wh at is the de fl ection in dic ated by the r e a din g o n a st r aight

sc ale 1 00c m fr o m the m irr o r ? An s Ab o ut
5
. cm . .
Fin d the a n gle tur n ed thr o ugh by the m ir r o r when the

.
deflectio n o n the sc ale in the p r ecedin g ex am ple is 1 0 c m ? .
An s
°
. 2
6 . Wh at m ust
be the len gth o f a ve rtic a l pl an e m ir r o r in
o r de r th at a m an st an din g in fr o n t o f it m ay see a full le n gth
im age o f him self ? An s The len gt h o f the m irr o r m ust be

.
equ al t o h alf the height o f t h e m an .
7 Sh o w th at a pl an e m irr o r bisects at r ight an gles the

.
li e j
n o in in g an o b j ect p
- o i n t w ith its im age .
8 A r ay o f light p r o ceed in g fr o m a p o in t A is r e fl ected

‘
fr om a pl an e m irr o r t o a po in t B Sh o w th at the p ath p ur

.
sued by the li ght is sh orter th an an y o ther p ath fr om A t o

the m irr or an d then ce t o B .
9 G ive H uY G E N s s c o n st r ucti o n () f the eflecti

’
. 1 o r r, on
o f a p la n e w ave a t a pl an e m i r r o r a n d (2) f o r the r eflecti o n

,
o f a sphe r ic a l w ave a t a pl a n e m ir r o r .
1 0 E x pl a in cle ar ly h o w t o deter m in e the lim i ts o f the

.
field o f view in a pl an e m ir r or for a given po sition o f the eye

o f the spect a t o r .
1 1 A c an dle is pl a ced betwee n t wo p ar allel p lan e m ir r o r s

. .
Sh o w h o w an o bse r ve r c an see the im age o f the c an dle p r o

du c e d by r ays which h ave bee n twice r eflected at o n e m irr o r
an d thr ee t im es a t the o the r D r a w a ccu r ate diag r am sh o w
.
in g the p aths o f the r ays the p o siti on s o f the i m ages etc ;

, ,
.
an d give cle ar e xpl an ati o n o f the figur e .
12 OA an d OB ar e t wo pl an e m ir r o r s in clin ed a t a n an gle
.
of an d P is a p o i n t in OA At wh at an gle m ust a ray

.
o f light fr o m P be in cide n t o n OB in o r der th at a fte r th r ee
r eflecti o n s it m ay be p ara llel t o OA ? An s .
1 3 Sh o w th a t the im age o f a lum i n o us o bj ect pl a ced

.
between t wo p l an e m ir r o r s all lie o n a cir cle .
1 4 Sh o w h o w by m e an s o f t wo pl an e m ir r o r s a m an
.
st an din g in fr o n t o f o n e o f the m c an see t h e im a ge o f the b a ck

62 Mirr or s ,
Pr isms an d Le n se s [
Oh . II
of his he a d Tr a ce the c o ur se o f the r ays fr om the b a ck of
.
hi s he a d in t o his ey e a n d e x pl a i n cle ar ly
5
.
1. Sh o w b y a di agr am with cle ar expl an at i o n s h o w

, ,
o n e sees th e i m a ge o f a n arr o w in a pl an e m irr or .
16 C o n st r uct the im a ge o f an ar r o w f o rm e d b y t wo r e
.
fle c t io n s in a p a ir o f in clin ed m ir r o r s (1) when the m ir r o r s

,
ar e at r ight an gles , an d (2) when t h e an gl e be t wee n t h e
m ir r o r s is
1 7 Sh o w h o w a h or i z on t a l sh a d o w o f a ver tic al r o d c an
.
be th r o wn on a ver tic al sc r een b y a p o in t-s o u r c e of light with

the aid o f a pl an e m irr o r Dr aw a diagr am
. .
1 8 An o bj ect is pl a ced betwee n t wo pl an e m irr o r s in

.
c lin e d at an an gle o f Sh o w b y a figur e h o w a spectat o r

m ay see the im age after f o u r successive r eflection s G ive .
clear explan ation .
1 9 T wo pl an e m ir r or s ar e in cli n ed at an an gl e o f
.
Sh o w th a t the r e will be 7 o r 8 im ages o f a lu m in o us p o in t

pl a c e d between them a cc or din g a s its an gular dist an ce fr om
,
the n ear e r m irr or is o r is n o t less th an

2 0 Fin d the n um be r o f i m ages for m ed whe n a b r igh t p o in t
.
is pla ced between t wo pl an e m irr or s in clin e d t o e a ch o ther

a t an an gle o f 5
An s 14 o r 1 i m ages a cc o r din g as t he
.
a n gul ar dist an ce o f the lu m in o u s p o in t fr o m th e n e ar e r mir
r o r is o r is n o t less th an
2 1 A lum in o u s o bj ect m o ve s ab o u t between t wo plan e

.
m ir r o r s which ar e in clin ed at an an gle o f

,
Pr o ve th at
a t a n y m o m en t the n um ber o f im a ges is 1 3 o r 14 a cc o r din g
a s the an gul ar dist an ce o f the lu m in o us p o in t fr o m the n e ar e r
m ir r o r is o r is n o t less th an
5
2 2 The an gle between a p a ir o f i n clin ed mir r o r s is
.
Fin d t h e p o siti o n Of an o bj ect which is r ep r o duced b y

im ages An s The o bj ect m ust be less th an 20 fr o m th e
°
. .
n e ar e r m i rr o r
.
2 3 D esc r ibe a sex tan t with the aid o f a di a gr am an d e x

.
,
pl ain its use .
24 D esc r ibe a n d exp l ai n the heli o st at

. .
C h II]
. Pr o b l e m s 63
2 5 . C o n st r uct the im age of the c apit al letter F as seen in

a plan e m ir r o r .
26 Whe n a c an dle -flam e is pl a c e d in fr o n t o f a sc r ee n

.
with a pin h o le o pen in g an im age o f the fl am e is fo rm ed on

5
-
,
a sec o n d sc r ee n pl a ce d p a r a llel t o the fi r s B u t if the sec o n d

.
s c r ee n is r epl a ce d by a pl an e m ir r o r the i m age will be f o r m ed

,
o n the b a c k o f the fi r st sc r ee n Ex pl a in h o w this h appe n s

. .
2 7 Ex pl ain cle ar ly (w ith di a g r am

. fo rm ul a etc ) the
, ,
.
m eth o d o f usin g a m i rr o r an d sc ale f o r m e asu r em en t o f

a n gles .
2 8 D esc r ibe h o w the dihed r a l a n gle o f a gl a ss p r is m is

.
m e asu r ed o n a g on i om ete r ci r cle

- .
C HA PT ER III
R E F R A C TIO N O F LIG H T
26 . Pa s sag e of Li g h t f r o m O n e M e di um to An oth e r .
H ar dly an y o n e c an h ave fa iled t o o bser ve th at the c o ur se o f

light in p assin g o bliquely fr o m water t o a ir is ab r uptly ch an ged
a t the su r fa ce o f the w ate r Fo r ex am ple if a c o in is pl a ced
.
,
a t A in t h e b o tt o m o f a c hi n a b o wl (Fig an d if the e y e .
is adjusted at a p o in t C
C so th at the c o in is hid
fr om view by the side o f

the vessel then with o ut , ,
a lter in g the p o siti on of
the ey e the c o in c an b e ,
m ade visible m er ely b y

F 41 — C i t b t t m f b wl d d p o u r in g w ater in the
vi ib l b y fil li g b wl with w t
IG . . o n a o o o o ren er e
s e
b OW l up t o a ce r t a in level
n o a er .
The b r o ken lin e AC E illust r ates h o w a r ay p r o ceedin g fr o m

A m ay be ben t at the sur fa ce o f the wa ter so as t o p ass over
the edge o f the b o wl an d en ter the eye at C It is tr ue t he .
c oin will will n o t a ppe ar t o be at A but at a p o in t A n ear er ’
the su r fa ce o f the wate r a n d displ a ced a littl e sideways t o

w ar ds the ey e bec ause the r ays th at c om e t o the e ye in t er
,
sect at this p o in t A A cle ar p o o l o f wate r seem s t o

’
be sh allo wer th an it r e ally is an d this illusio n is g r e at e r in

,
'
p r o p o rti o n as the lin e o f sight is m o r e o bli q ue so th at b r ight ,
o bj ects at the b o tt o m o f the p o o l a ppe a r t o be c ro wded t o
gethe r t o w ar ds the su r fa ce When a stick is p artly irhm e r se d

.
in w ate r the p art u n der w ate r a ppe ar s t o be be n t up t o

,
war ds the sur fa ce

This ben din g o f the r ays which t akes pl a ce when light
c r o sses the b o un d ar y betwee n t wo m edi a is c alled r ef r a cti on .
64
2 7] Law of R e fr ac ti on 6 5
The p ath o f a be am o f sun light th r o ugh w ater c an e a sily
be sh o wn by m ixin g a little m ilk in the water o r by stir
r i n g in it a m i n ute qu a n tity o f ch a lk dust while a pu ff o f -
,
sm o ke will a t o n ce r eve a l the t r a ck o f the be am in the air ,
so th at the phe n o m e n a o f
r efr a cti o n c an r e adily be
exhi bited t o the eye In .
every c ase it will be fo un d

th at the ray is b en t farther
fr om the i cide ce n o rm a l
n n -
in t he r ar e r o r less de n se
m ediu m (see § 3 0) an d
her e als o a s in the c a s e
,
o f r eflecti o n ther e is a
,
F 42 — L w f R f tiIG .
per fectly defin ite c o n n ec . a o e rac on .
ti on between the d ir ection o f the i n ciden t r ay an d that o f

the c orr espo n din g r efr a cted r ay .
2 7 Law o f R e f r a c tio n
.
— In Fig 42 the st ra ight li n e AB
. .
r ep r esen ts the p ath o f a ray i n cide n t at the p o i n t B o n a
sm o o th r efr a cti n g su r fa ce sep a r a ti n g t wo m edi a which f o r
the pr esen t will b e design ated by the letter s a an d b T he .
st r aight li n e N N d r a wn pe r pe n dicul ar t o the pl an e which

'
is t an g e n t t o the r efr a cti n g su r fa ce at B r ep r ese n ts t h e

.
in ciden ce-n orm al ; a n d the pl an e o f the p a per which c o n

t ain s the in ciden t ray an d the in ciden ce-n o rm al is the pl an e
o f in cide n ce a s a l r e a dy defin ed
,
The lin e ZZ r e p r e
s e n ts the t r a ce o f the r efr a cti n g su r fa ce in this pl an e An d .
,
fin ally the p ath o f the r efr a cted r ay is sh o wn b y the st r aight

,
li n e B C The an gles o f in ciden ce an d r efr a cti o n ar e defin ed

.
t o b e the a cute an gles th r o ugh which the i n ciden ce-n o rm a l

-
h a s t o be tu r n ed in o r de r t o b r i n g it i n t o c o i n cide n ce with
the i n ciden t an d r efr a cted r ays r espectively Thus if ,
.
,
these an gles ar e den oted by a a the n ,

’
,
a
’
= A N BC ’
.
In the figur e d r a wn the an gle a is r ep r ese n ted a s gr eater

as
th an the an g le a s o t h at
’
, a cc or di n g t o t he st at e m e n t at
,
66 Mir r o r s ,
the en d of 26 , the m ediu m a is less den se or r ar er th an

th e m edium b .
Befo r e st atin g the r el ati o n which is fo u n d t o exist b e

tween the an gles a an d a it is n ecess ary t o a llud e t o '
,
NE WT O N S gr e at disc o ve ry th at sun light an d in deed so

’
“
c alled white light o f a n y kin d as fo r exam ple the light
”
, , ,
o f a n a r c l am p is c o m p o sed o f light o f an in n um er able

,
va r iet y o f c o l o r s (see C h a pter X I V) a s m ay be sh o wn b y ,
p a ssin g a be am o f sun light thro ugh a gla ss p r ism wher eb y ,
it will b e seen th at whi te li ght is a m ixtur e o f all the c o l o r s

o f the spect r u m in all thei r in fi n ite v a r ieties o f hues On .
the o ther h an d m on ochr om a ti c li g ht a s it is c alled is light

, ,
o f s o m e o n e defi n ite c o l o r a s f o r e x am ple t h e y ell o w light

,
, ,
em itted b y a s o dium fl am e which m ay be o bt ai n ed b y

,
bur n in g c o mm o n salt in the fl am e o f a BUN S E N bu rn er .
In ge o m et r ic al o ptics un less we ar e speci ally c o n cern ed

,
with the in vestigati o n o f c o l o r phen om en a (as in C h ap ter -
X I V) it is n e ar ly always t a citly assum ed that the so ur c e

,
o f the light is m o n o ch r o m a tic .
The law of r ef r a cti on as fo un d b y exper im en t m ay n o w

, ,
be st ated as fo llo ws :
The r e r a c ted r a y
f li es i n the p lan e of i n ciden ce on the op
p o si te si de o f the n or ma l i n the se con d m e di u m f r om the i n ci den t
r ay i n the fi r s t m edi u m ; an d the si n es f
o the an g le s f
o i n ci den ce
an d r e r a c ti on a r e
f to e a ch o ther in a c on stan t r a ti o , the va lu e of
whi ch dep en ds on ly on the n a tur e o f the two medi a an d on the
c olor (or wa v e-le n g th) of the li g ht .
This c o n st an t ra ti o den o ted b y the sym b o l

,
n ab ,
is c all e d
the l
r e a ti ve f r ef r a cti on f r om the
i n dex o fi r st m e di u m (a) to
the sec on d m e diu m (b ) f or li g ht of the g i ven c olor ; thus ,
sin a
sin a
'
the v a lue o f this c on st an t as a r ule bein g gr e atest for vi olet

, ,
an d le a st f o r r e d li ght so th a t the vi o let r ays ar e the m o st

“r efr an gible o f all When light is r efr a cted fr om air (a ) t o
,
”
.
water (w) the r el ative in dex of r efr a ctio n is appr oximme ly , ,

§ 2 8] Pr o o f of Law of R e fr a c ti on 7
n aw /
= 43 he
,
n cean u n de r
d these cir cum st an ces sin a
’
sin (1 Alth ough ther e ar e m an y differ en t var ieties o f

.
Optic a l gl a ss fo r r o ugh c alcul ati o n s t h e v alue o f t h e r el a

,
tive in dex Of r efr a cti o n fr o m air (a ) t o gla ss (g ) m ay be

t aken a s n = 3/ 2 ; which m e an s th at the sin e Of the an gle
ag
whi ch the r ay m akes with th e n or m a l in gl a ss is ab o ut two

thir ds Of the sin e Of the an gle which the c o rr esp on din g r ay
m akes with the n o r m a l in a ir .
Al th o ugh the la w O f r efr a ctio n is quite sim ple it s o m e ,
h o w eluded disc o ve r y u n til e ar ly in the seve n tee n th cen tu ry

when the t r u e r el atio n between the a n gle Of r efr a ctio n an d
the an gle o f in ciden ce wa s fir st a scert a in ed by WILLE B R OR D
E 5
SN LL (1 9 1 1 6 26 ) o r SN E LLIU S o f Leyde n a n d the la w is
—
, , ,
ther efor e o ften r eferr ed t o as SN E LL s Law o f R efr a ctio n

,
’
.
The law was fir st published by the Fr en ch philo s o pher

DE S CA R TE S (1 96 5
wh o h a d p r o b abl y see n SN E LL s
’
p aper s alth o ugh he d o es n ot a llude t o him b y n am e

, .
2 8 Expe r im e n tal Pr o o f O f th e Law o f

. R e fr a cti o n —
The .
r el ati o n betwee n the a n gles o f in ciden ce an d r efr a cti o n c an
be very st riki n gly exhibited with the aid o f the O ptic al disk
th at was m en tio n ed in § 1 3 in c o n n ecti o n with a lectur e
t able expe rim en t f or ver ifyi n g the law O f r eflecti o n o f light .
The vertic al gr o un d glass disk is adj usted in the t ra ck Of

a n a r r o w be am o f su n light (or p ar a llel rays fr o m a l an te r n )
in such a p o siti o n th at the p ath O f the light is sh o wn by a

b an d o f light c r o ssin g the fa ce o f the disk al o n g o n e o f its
di am eter s The gl a ss b o d y thr o ugh whi ch the light is r e
.
fr a cted h as the fo rm Of a sem icylin der the t wo pl an e par ,
a llel sides bei n g g r o u n d r o ugh so a s t o be m o r e Or less o p a que ,
wher e a s the curved sur fa ce a n d the di am etr al pl an e fa ce

a r e b o th highl y p o lished This h alf-disk h as a radius Of
.
ab o ut 2 i n ches a n d is ab o ut o n e -h alf in ch thick o r m o r e It .
c an be f a ste n ed a g a i n st the ve rt ic al f a ce o f the O ptic a l disk
with its ax is h o r i z o n t al an d c o in cid in g with the axis Of r ot ati on

o f the disk a s r ep r ese n ted in the di a g r am Fig
,
43 If this . .
a dj u st m en t is m ade a n d the disk tu r n ed so th a t the in ci

,
8 M ir r o r s ,
den t r ay AB m eets the p o lished pl an e face Of the gla ss b o dy -
at its ce n te r B the r efr a cted ray B C wil l pr o cee d thr o ugh

,
the gl a ss al o n g a ra dius o f the sem icylin der an d ther efo r e ,
m eeti n g t h e cu r ved su r fa ce n o rm all y it will em e r ge a gain ,
in t o the air with o ut bein g

fur ther devi ated The di .
NN w h i c h is
'
am e t e r
m ar ked o n the f a ce o f the

o ptic al disk is n o rm a l t o
the pl an e sur fa ce o f the

gla ss b o dy an d if fr o m t he ,
p o in ts A an d C wher e th e
in ciden t an d r efr a cted r ays
cr o ss the cir cumf er en ce Of
the disk pe r pe n dicul ar s ar e
F 43 — O p t i l D i k d t
IG . .
l w f a f
ca
tiO
s
re rac
let
u se
on
f.
a ll on
o
the n o r m al
NN the len g th s O f thes e

’
,
per pen dicul ar s A X an d C Y will b e p r o p o r tio n al t o the sin es

o f the an gles Of i n cide n c e a n d r efra cti on NB A an d N B C ,
r e sp e c t iev ly N o w it will be fo u n d th at n o m atter h ow we

.
,
tur n the disk the per pen dicular AX will a lw ays b e a b o ut

,
on e— an d-a-h alf tim es a s l o n g a s the per pe n dicul ar C Y If .
we substitute fo r the h alf disk Of s o lid gl ass a h o ll o w vessel

-
o f the s am e f o r m an d si z e with t hi n gl a ss w a lls an d if we fill ,
thi s vessel with wa ter we sh all fi n d n o w th a t the len gth o f

,
the per pen dicul ar AX will a lways be ab o ut o n e -an d-o n e

thi r d tim es th at o f the per pen dicul ar C Y bec ause the r el ative ,
in dex o f r efr a cti on fr o m air t o water is a s ab o ve st ated .
But the best p r o o f o f the law Of the r efr a ction of light

is t o be fo un d in the fact th at this law is at the b asis Of the
theo ry an d c o n str uctio n o f n ear ly all O ptical in str um en ts ,
an d it h as bee n subj ected the r ef o r e t o t h e m o st se ar chin g

, ,
tests The law Of r efr a cti o n m ay als o be r egar ded as c o m

.
p l e t e ly ve r ified b y the m eth o ds th a t a r e e m pl o yed in t h e
determ in ation o f the in dices Of r efr a ction Of t r an sp ar en t

b o dies s oli d li quid an d gas eo us ; whi ch are d e scr ib e d in
, ,
2 9] R e v e r sib i lity of Lig h Pa h t t 69
t r e atises o n exper im en t al Optics usu ally un der th e title of

r efr a ct o m et r y .
29 R e v e r si b il ity o f th e Ligh t Path

.
— Whe n a r ay o f light
AB is r eflected at B in the dir ecti o n B D a plan e m irr o r ,
pl a ced at D at r ight an gles t o B D will turn the r efl ecte d

r ay b a ck o n itself ; a r r ivin g a g a in at B the light will Ob ,
v io u sly be r e fl ecte d the r e so a s t o r etu r n fi n a lly t o the p o in t
A wher e it st art ed This is a sim ple in st an ce Of a gen er al

.
l aw O f o ptics kn o wn a s the p r i n ci p le of the r e ver si bi li ty of

the li g ht p a th E x pe r im en t sh o ws th at the s am e r ule h o l ds
.
likewise in the c a se o f the r efr a ctio n o f light an d th at if ,
AB C is the r o ute pu r sued by light in g o in g fr o m a p o i n t

A in o n e m edium t o a p o in t C in an a dj o in in g m edium by
way o f the in cide n ce -p o in t B a n d if then the light is r e
,
ver sed by s om e m e an s so as t o be st ar ted b a ck al on g the

p ath C B it will be r efr a cted at B in t o the fi r st m edium
,
a l o n g the p a th BA An d in ge n e r al if the fi n a l di r ecti o n

.
, ,
O f the r ay is r eve r sed f o r e x am ple by f a lli n g n o r m ally o n

, ,
a pl an e m i rr o r the light will r et r a ce its en ti r e p ath n o

m atter h o w m an y r e fl ecti o n s O r r efr a cti o n s it m ay h ave
, ,
'
suff er ed Thus in an y o ptica l dia gr am in which the di

.
, ,
r ecti o n s o f the r ays o f light a r e i n dic a ted by a rr o w he a ds -

,
these p o in ter s m ay all be r ever sed if we wish t o a scer t a in ,
h o w the r ays w o uld g o th r o ugh the system if they wer e t o

e n ter it fr o m the o the r e n d .
It f o ll o ws ther efo r e sin ce

, ,
th at we h ave the r el ati o n :

n ab - =1
nba ;
th at is the r e la ti ve i n di ces of r ef r a cti on f r om (a) to (b ) an d
,
r om (b ) to (a ) a r e r e ci p r o ca ls of ea ch other Thus f
f o r ex .
a m ple sin ce n is the in dex fr om air t o water the

Sim il ar ly if n
, ,
in dex fr om w ater t o air is n ,
the in dex fr om gl a ss t o air is n 2/ 3 .

70 Mirr o r s ,
30 Li mitin g
. V l
a ue s o f th e In de x of Re fr ac ti on . Acc or d
—
in g ly , we see t h at the v alue o f the r el a tive i n dex o f r e fr ac

tio n m ay be gr e ater o r less th an un ity If n b > 1 the .
a ,
sec o n d m edium (b ) is s a id t o be mor e hi g hly r ef r a cti n g o r

(Op ti ca lly) den ser th an the fir st m edium (a ) ; an d sin ce in
this c ase sin a > sin a it fo llo ws th at a a whi ch m ean s
’
,
’
,
th at the r ef r a cted r ay i s b en t towar ds the n orma l a s h appen s ,
when light is r efra cted fr om air t o w ater On

the o ther h an d if n b < 1 the sec o n d m e dium (b ) is s a id t o
, a , .
be less hi g hly r ef r a cti n g o r (op ti ca lly) r ar er th an the fir st

m edium (a ) an d n o w the an g l e o f r efr a ction ( a ) will b e
’
,
gr eater th an the an gle o f in ciden c e ( a ) so tha t in this c a s e ,
the r efr a cted r ay will be b en t a wa y f r om the n or ma l a s fo r , ,
exam ple when light is r efr a cted fr o m w ater in t o air (n w

G la ss is m or e highly r efr a ctin g than water an d
, a
di am o n d h a s the gr e atest light -b en din g p o wer Of all O pt ic a l

m edi a the in dex o f r efr a cti o n fr o m air t o di am o n d bei n g
,
ab o ut The values O f the c on st an t n b fo r p air s o f a
m e di a a b th a t ar e av a ila ble f o r O ptic a l pu r p o ses ar e co m

,
pr ised within c om p ar atively n arr o w lim its say betw e en , ,
an d 2 In the ex cepti o n al c a se when n b : 1 the an gles

.
a ,
o f in cide n ce a n d r efr a cti o n will be equ a l an d the r ays p a ss ,
fr om a t o b with o ut ch an ge Of dir ectio n This is the r ea s on .
why a gl a ss r o d is in visible in Oil o f ced ar So m etim es ac .
c ide n t al d iff er en ce s o f r efr an gibilit y betwee n t wo a dj a ce n t
layer s o f th e s am e m edium en able us t o distin gui sh o n e

p art o f a tr an sp ar en t m edium fr o m an o ther Sim il ar ly .
,
a ls o, t h e p r esen ce o f air bubbles in w ater or gl a ss is m a d e

-
m an ifest b y the r efr a cti o n s th at t ake pl a ce at the b o un d ar ies .
A fish swimm in g in water d o es n o t see t h e water ar o un d him ,
but the phen o m en a Of r efr a cti on m ay m ake him awar e Of the

existen ce o f a difle r e n t m edium ab o ve the sur fa ce o f the water .
3 1 H uyg e n s s C o n str u c ti o n o f a Pl an e W ave R e fr ac t e d

.
’
at a Pl an e S urf a c e — The str a ight lin es AB an d AD (Fig 44)

. .
sh o w the t r a ces in the pl an e o f the diagram Of the plan e

w ave-fr o n t advan cin g in the fir st m edium (a) in th e dir e c
3 1] Wa v e s R t
e fr ac e d a t Pl a n e Surf a c e 71
tio n B D an d the plan e r efr a ctin g su rface r espectively The , .
distu r b an ce is supp o sed t o h ave j ust arr iv e d at the po i n t A ,
o f t h e r efr a cti n g pl a n e which fr om thi s m om en t

,
bec o m es a n e w o r igin
fr o m which sec o n d ary
hem ispher ical w avelets
a re p r o p a g ated in t o the
s e c o n d m ediu m (b ) No w .
light is p r o p agated with

differ e n t vel o cities in dif
fe r e n t m edi a ; thus fo r ,
exam ple the velo city o f

,
light in w ater is o n ly
a b o ut thr e e-fo urths o f
wh a t it is in air an d the
vel o cit y in gl ass is ab o ut
t wo t hir ds o f the velo cit y
-
in a ir C o n sequen tly
.
,
whe n waves Of light p a ss F 44— H ti f pl

’
w v t d t pl
IG t. . u YG E N s s c o n s ru c on o an e
f f
fr om air in t o water 01 ’
a e r e r ac e a an e su r a c e .
gla ss the p art o f the w ave fr o n t th at is in the den ser m edium

,
-
a dv an ces m o r e sl o wly th an the p ar t th a t is still in the air ,
s o th at the di r ecti o n O f the w a ve -fr o n t is ch an ged in p a ssin g

fr o m o n e m ediu m t o an o ther Le t the vel o cities o f li ght
.
in the m edi a a an d b be de n o ted by v a n d vb r espectively aL ,

.
Then after a tim e t = B D/v when the distu rb an ce which a,
wa s at B h a s j ust arr ived at D o n the b o un d ary between

the t wo m edi a the sec o n d ary w av elets which h ave been
,
sp r e a din g o ut fr om A as cen ter will h ave bee n pr o p agated
z
— BD ;
b
in the sec o n d m edium dist an ce AC = vb —
()
b t o a . .
an d,s im il ar ly at the s am e i n st an t fr o m an y in term edi ate

,
p o in t Q lyin g o n AD betwee n A an d D the distur b an ce will

h ave p r o ceeded i n t o the sec o n d m edium (b ) t o a dist an ce
g Z
h b
= —
QR BD
( — PQ ) = KD ,
72 M ir r or s ,
Pr ism s an d Len se s l§ 32
whe r e K (n o t sh o wn in the figu r e) design ates the fo o t of

the per pen dicul ar let fall fr o m Q o n B D Thus the r a dii .
,
o f the ele m e n t a r y cyli n d r ic a l r efr a cted w aves wh o se ax es a r e
per pen dicul ar t o the pl an e o f the di agr am at A an d Q ar e
g
E
-
B D, KD ,
r espectively ; an d a cc o r din g t o H U Y GE NS S p r in ciple the

,
’
,
r efr a cted w ave fr o n t at this in st an t will be the su r fa ce whi ch

-
is t an ge n t t o all these elem en t ar y cylin dr ic a l sur fa ces Ex .
a c t ly the s a m e m eth o d as wa s used in the sim il ar p r o blem
Of r eflecti o n 1 4) c an be a ppli ed her e ; an d thus it m ay b e

sh o wn th at at the m o m en t when the distur b an ce r eaches
the p o in t D Of the pla n e r efr a ctin g sur fa ce the r efr a cted ,
w ave-fr o n t will be t h e pl an e C D c o n t a in in g this p o in t which ,
is per pen dicul ar t o the pl an e Of the figur e an d t an gen t at C

t o the ele m en t ar y w a ve r ep r ese n ted b y t h e spher ic al sur
fa ce descr ibed ab o ut C a s cen ter with r a dius e qu al t o AC .
In the fi r st m edium the w ave m ar ches f o r w ar d in the di

r ecti o n LA a n d in the sec o n d m edium in t h e dir ecti o n AC .
SN E LL s law O f r efr a cti o n 2 7 ) m ay be deduced fr o m

’
the figur e by o bservin g th at B D = AD sin a wher e a .

,
A N AL = L D AB den o tes the an gle o f in ciden ce an d AC ,
AD sin a wher e a A N AC A AD C den o tes the an gle o f

' ’ ’
.
,
r efr a cti o n C o n sequen tl y

.
,
sin a BD v3,
— _ a c o n st an t
sin a. AO
’ ,
vb
which c o n st an t m ust ther efor e be iden tic al with the r el ativ e

, ,
in dex o f r efr a ctio n n b a

.
The diagr am is d r a wn fo r the c a se when the li ght t r avels

faster in the fir st m edium th an it d o es in the sec o n d
th at is when the sec o n d m edium is m or e r et ar din g o r Op “
,
tic all y den ser 3 0) th an the fi r st .
3 2 M e c h ani c al Ill ustr ati o n o f th e R e f r a c tio n Of a Pl an e

.
Wave A s im ple m ech an ic a l illust r ati o n o f the r efr a cti o n

— .
o f a pl an e w ave at a pl an e s urf a ce m ay be devised as
fo llows
3 2] Me c han ic al I l lu st r a t io n 73
Two b oxwo o d wheels ea ch ab o ut t wo in ches in diam eter

ar e c o n n ected b y a n ir o n axle ab o ut 4 i n ches l o n g p a ssi n g
thr o ugh the cen ter s o f the wheels at r ight a n gles t o their
plan es Of r ot ation (Fig . If this b o dy is pl a ced o n a
sm o o th r ect an gu l ar b o ar d ab o ut a y ar d l on g an d ab o ut
,
1 8 in ches wi de which is
,
slightly tilted an d a llo wed

,
t o r o ll di a g o n ally d o wn the
b o ar d its p ath will be
,
a l o n g a st r a ight lin e But

.
if a piece o f felt clo th or

velveteen cut in the form
O f a r ect an gle is glue d in
t h e m iddle o f the b o ar d ,
with its l on g side p ar a llel

t o the edge o f the b o ar d ,
then when the b o dy de

scen ds the in clin ed pl an e
Obliquely o n e o f the wheels
45 — M h
,
Will ar r ive at the edge Of F IG .
f
i l
.
m
i ll t t i
ec an c a
r e rac
f
on
us r a on O
the clo th befo r e the o ther

'
so th at it will be sudde n l y sl o wed up while the o the r wheel
c o n tin ues t o m o ve o n the b a r e b o a r d u n de r the s am e c o n di
ti on s as befo r e C o n sequen tly the axle will be m a de t o swi n g

.
,
r o u n d un til b o th wheels get o n t o the cl o th piece the dir e c ,
ti on Of m o tio n h avin g been abr uptly ch an ged in this p r o cess .
At the Opp o site edge Of the cl o th r ect an gle a sim il ar ch an ge ,
o f the dir ecti o n O f m o ti o n t akes pl a ce in an O pp o site se n se ,
so th a t whe n the r o lle r le aves the r et a r di n g s ur f a ce an d
em er ges a g ain o n t o the b ar e b o ar d it will be fo un d t o be

,
g o in g a pp r o xim ately in the s am e dir ecti o n a s at fir st These .
ben din gs in the c o ur se O f the r o ller descen din g the in cli n ed

pl an e at the pl a ces wher e it c r o sses the p ar allel sides o f the
cl o th r ect an gle ar e an alo gous t o the devi ati o n s in the lin e
o f m ar ch o f a pl an e w ave O f light in t ra ver sin g a gl a ss sl ab
su r r o un ded b y air .
74 Mi r r o r s Pr ism s
'
,
an d Le n se s 33
33 Ab so l ute In de x of R e fr acti
. 0 vb an d v de n o te on.
— If ~
a, 0
the velo cities Of li ght in the m edia a b an d c r espectively , , ,
then as we h ave j ust seen

,
a cc o r d in g t o t h e w a ve
th eo ry o f light the r elative in dices o f r efr a ction will be :

,
an d, hen ce ,
we fi n d :
so th at in c a se we kn o w the values n n b o f t he in dices ae, c
o f a m ediu m 0 with r espect t o e a ch o f the t wo m edi a a an d
b the v alue n b O f the in dex o f m edium b with r espect t o

, a
m ediu m a c an be o bt a in ed a t o n ce b y m e an s Of the ab o ve
r el at i o n Mo r eo ver si n ce 29)
.
,
1
”b e
the pr eced in g e qu ation m ay be wr itten as fo ll o ws

n ab
n ac -
n ob
Thus for exam ple supp o se the th r ee m edi a a b an d c ar e

, , ,
wate r gl a ss an d air r espectively ; sin ce n = 3/4 an d n b

, , ac o
the in dex of r efr a ctio n fr o m water t o gl a ss is fo un d b y

the ab o ve for m ul a t o be n b 9/ 8 a
.
In fa ct if the r e a r e a n u m be r Of m edi a a b c
“
, i j k , , , , ,
it is Obvio us th at we sh a ll h ave the fo ll owin g r el ation b e

tween the r el ative in dices Of r efr a ction s
n =n
ab n b c
ni n k
j j .
ak ,
which is e asily r em em ber ed by o bservin g the o r der in which

the lette r s o ccu r in the subsc r ipts In p articular if the la st .
,
m edium k is ide n tic al with the fi r st m edium a as is the c a s e ,
in an Optic a l i n st r um en t su r r o u n ded b y air then n k n 1 , a aa ,
an d a cc o r di n gl y we Obt a i n :
71 ,1 1) .
a ni n a
i j . 1 .
A spe ci al c a s e Of this gen er a l r el atio n , v iz .

,
n ab -
nba 1)
has a r a l e d y been r emar ked
33 ] Ab so lu t e I n de x o f R e fr a c ti
on 7 5
Si n ce n b c n cb
.
=1 an d n ab n b c
.
=n we m ay wr ite
a ls o
n ca
an d this fo r m ul a suggests im m ediately the ide a Of em ploy

in g s o m e suit able m ediu m c as a stan dar d op ti c a l m edi um with
r espect t o which the i n dices O f r efr a cti o n o f a ll o the r m edi a
m ay be e xp r essed The n atu r al m edium t o ch o o se fo r this p ur

.
po se is the ether itself which light t r ave r ses in c o m i n g t o the

e ar th fr om the sun a n d st a r s ; a n d so the i n dex o f r efr a ctio n o f
a m edium with r espect t o e m pty sp a ce o r v a cuum is c a lled
its a bsolu te i n dex of r ef r a cti on o r sim ply its r efr a ctive in dex .
Thus t h e a bs o lute i n dex o f r efr a cti o n o f va cuum (c) is equal

,
t o u n ity th a t is n = 1, Sim il a r ly the sym b o ls n

, c
. n b will , a,
be em pl oyed t o de n o te the abs olute in dices o f the m edia

a,
b r espectively ; so th a t he r e they a r e r e ally equiv a le n t
,
t o the m agn itudes de n o ted by n n b in the p r ecedin g ca , o
form ul a which ther efo r e m ay be w r itten

, , ,
nb
.
’
na
th at is ,
the r e lati v e i n dex f
o r e r a c ti on o
f f medium b wi th r esp e ct
to medi um ai s equ a l to the r a ti o o f the a b so lu te i n dex f medium

o
b to tha t of mediu m a .
The abs o lute in dices o f r efr a cti o n o f all kn o wn t r an sp are n t

subst an ces ar e gr e ater th a n u n ity The velo city o f light .
in o r din ary atm o sphe r ic a ir is so n e ar ly equ a l t o its vel o city

i n v a cu o th at fo r all p r a ctic al pu r p o ses w e m ay ge n e r ally
t ake the abs o lute in dex o f r efr a ctio n o f air as a ls o
equ al t o u n ity The a ctu al value fo r air at 0 C an d
.
°
.
u n der a p r essur e Of 7 6 c m Of m er cu r y fo r s o dium light .

, ,
is
With eve ry is o t r o pic m edium the r e is a ss o ci ated ther e ,
fo r e a ce rt ain n um e r ic al co n st an t n c alled its (abs o lute)

,
in dex o f r efr a cti on ; an d he n ce when a r ay o f light is r e

, ,
fr a cted fr o m a m ediu m o f in dex n in t o an o ther o f i n dex n ’

,
76 Mirr o r s ,
an d Pr ism s Le n se s 34
the tri g on ometr i c f or mu la f or the law of r e r a cti on

f m ay be
wr itten thus :
sin a n ’
which m ay als o be put in the fo ll o win g s ymm etr ic fo rm

n sin a n sin a ’
.
’
. .
This latte r m o de o f wr itin g this r el atio n suggests also

o the r way o f st a ti n g t h e f un d am e n t a l f a ct in r eg ar d t o the
FIG . 46 — C o n st r u c t io n
. o f r e fr a c t e d r a y
'
(n > n )
r efr actio n of light , as fo ll o ws :When e ver a r ay o f li g ht i s re
f ra c te d f r om on e medi um to an other , the p r odu ct o f the i n dex

of r ef r a cti on an d the f the si n e o an g le b e tween the
r ay an d the
n or m a l to the r ef r a cti n g su rf a ce ha s the sa me v a lu e af te r r e
( sin a ) Thi s p r o d
’ ’
f r a cti on (n sin.a ) a s b ef or e r ef r a cti on n . .
u ct w hi ch d o es n ot v ary when th e
a
’
light c r o sses a sur fa ce sep a ratin g a p air o f iso t r o pic m edia

is c alled the Op ti ca l i n var i an t of r ef r a cti on .
3 4 C o n str uc tio n o f th e R e f rac te d R ay

.
— Le t the a bs o lut e .
in dices Of r efr a ction o f t wo m edi a sep ar ated fr om e ach o ther

by a s m o o th r efr a ctin g sur fa ce be den o ted b y n n an d le t ,
'
,
the st r aight lin e AB (Figs 46 an d 47 ) r ep r ese n t the path .
in the fir st m edium (n ) o f a r ay i n cide n t On th e b oun d ary

34] C on s t r u c t ion of R t
e fr a c e d R ay 77
surface at the p o in t B The st raight lin e NN re p r esen ts

.
’
the n orm al t o the r efr a c tin g su r fa ce at thi s po in t an d hen ce ,
the pl an e o f the di ag ram is the pl an e o f in ciden ce The .
str a ight lin e Z Z sh o ws the t r a ce in thi s pl an e o f the plan e

t an gen t t o the r efr a ctin g su r fa ce at the in ciden c e-po in t B ;
in the speci al c a se when the r efr a ctin g su r f a ce is itself pl an e ,
thi s str aight lin e will be the tr a ce Of the sur fa ce Of sep ar a

tion between the t wo m edia With the p oin t B as cen ter .
47 — C o n st ru c t io n
’
FIG . . o f r e f r a c t e d r ay (n n )
an d with an y r a dius r desc r ibe in the plan e o f i n ciden ce the

a r c o f a ci r cle cutti n g the in cide n t r ay AB in a p o i n t P lyin g
in the fi r st m edium ; an d in the s am e pl an e with r a dius ,
n /n tim es a s g r e a t th a t is with r a dius n r /n desc r ibe a ls o

’ ’
, , ,
the ar c o f a c on cen t r ic ci r cle in ter sectin g at P the st r aigh t ’
lin e H P d r a wn th r o ugh P pe r pe n dicul a r t o Z Z at H If .
the sec o n d m edium is m o r e highly r efr a ctin g th an the fir st ,
th at is if n > n the r a dius o f the sec o n d ci r cle will be gr eater

,
’
,
th an th at o f t h e fi r st a s r ep r esen ted in Fig 46 ; wher e as

,
.
when n < u the sec on d cir cle is in side the fir st as in Fig 47

’
, ,
. .
The p ath o f the r efr a cted r ay c o r r e spo din n g t o the given

78 M irr o r s ,
in ciden t ray AB will b e r ep r esen ted b y t he p r o lon g ati o n

B C in the sec o n d m ediu m o f the str aight lin e P B
’
.
The p r o o f o f this c on st r uctio n c o n sists sim ply in sh o win g

th at the A N B C between the n o r m al an d the st r aight lin e
’
B C is equ al t o the an gle o f r efr a cti o n a a s given b y the

’
form ula n sin a = n sin a wher e a = L NB A den o tes the

’
.
'
.
,
given an gle Of in ciden ce E viden tly , fr om the figur e we have : .

,
A H PE
’
sin
’
BP n
sin z H P E ’
BP n
an d sin ce A H PB = A N B A =
a an d we ,
Obt ai n imm edi a tel y the r el ati on : sin é N B C = n sin a an d

’ ’
n . .
the efo e A N
5
r r B C = a
’ ’
.
3 . D e viatio n o f th e R e fr ac t e d Ray — The a cute an gle .
thr o ugh which the dir ecti o n o f th e r efr a cted r ay h as t o b e

turn ed t o b r in g it in t o the s am e dir ecti o n a s th at o f the in
c ide n t r ay is c a lled the an g le of de vi a ti on o f the r efr a ct e d r ay
an d is de n o ted b y e ; t hu s e = A P BP (Figs 46 an d
’
.
,
Obvi o usly ,
e = a -
a
’
.
The o n ly r ay in ciden t at B wh o se dir ec t i on will r em a in un

ch an ged a fter the r ay e n ter s the sec o n d m edium is the o n e
th at pr o ceeds a l o n g t h e n orm al NB (a = a e = 0) The ’
.
m or e Obliquely t h e r ay AB m eets the r efr a ctin g su rfa ce ,
th at is the g r ea ter the a n g le of in ci den ce the g r ea ter a lso will

, ,
b e the de vi a ti on -a n g le The t r uth Of thi s st atem en t will be

.
app ar e n t fr o m a n i n specti o n o f the r el a ti on betw e e n t h e
an gles a an d e as e xhibited in Fig 4 6 o r Fig 47 The in ter . .
cept PP in cluded b e tween the c ir cum fer en ces O f the t wo

’
c o st r uctio cir cles which r em ain s c o n st an tly p ar a llel t o t he

n n -
,
i cide c e n o rm al in c r e a ses in len gt h as the a n gle Of in ci

n n —
,
den ce in cr e a ses wher ea s the o ther t wo sides B P B P o f

, ,
'
the tr i an gle EPP bein g alw ays equ al t o the r a dii o f the
’
,
cir cles r em ain c on st an t in len gth ; an d hen ce the an gle 6

,
m ust in c r e a se in abs o lute v a lue a s the an gle a i n c r e as es .
3 6 T o tal R e fl e c tio n
.
— In o r di n ar y r efr a cti o n as we h av e
.
,
s een ,
ther e c an o n ly be o n e r efr a cted r ay c o r r espo n din g t o
36 ] T o t al R e fle c ti on 79
a given in ciden t r ay but the questi o n m ay be asked :Is it

,
p o ssible th at un de r cert ain ci r cum sta n ces ther e will be

, ,
n o r efra cted r ay so th at the in ci de n t light wil l be to ta lly

,
r ef le c ted at the su r f a ce with o ut bei n g r efr a cted a t a ll ? Ev i

de n t ly such will be the c a se Whe n ever in the f o r eg o in g c o n
st ructio n 34) the p o i n t P (Figs 46 a n d 47 ) c an n o t be
’
.
lo c ated bec ause the p ath Of the r efr a cted r ay is determ in ed

,
by the st r aight li n e P B ’
.
Le t us ex am in e fi r st the c a se whe n the sec o n d m ediu m

, ,
is m or e r ef r a cti n g th an the fir st n > n (Fig ,

'
.
F IG . 48 — Lim itin g
. r e fr a c t e d r ay
Supp o se th at the st r aight lin e AB which r ep r esen ts the

p ath o f the in ci den t r ay is i n iti ally in the p o sitio n NB an d ,
th at it is r o t ated fr o m this p o sitio n ar o un d the p o in t B as

a piv o t u n til it h a s tu r n ed th r o ugh a r ight an gle in the pl an e
O f the figu r e While the p o i n t P o n AB desc r ibes a qu a d r an t

.
o f the cir cu m fe r e n ce o f the cir cle o f r a dius BP the p o in t ,
P will t r a ce o u t an ar c o f the c o n ce n t r ic ci r cle o f r a dius

’
B P which h o weve r will n eve r be equ al t o a qu a d r an t o f

’ ‘
, , ,
this cir cum fer en ce ; fo r when the p o in t P h as c o m pleted its

qu ad r an t an d ar r ived at the po in t D (Fig 48) o n the t an .
gen t plan e d rawn t o the r efr a ctin g su r fa ce at B the p o in t ,

80 Mirr o rs ,
P
’
will likewise h ave r eached the ext r emi ty o f its ar e wher e
the t an gen t t o the in n e r cir cle at D m eets the cir cum fer en c e
Of the o ute r ci r cle The in ciden t ray Z B just g r azes the r e
.
fr a ctin g sur fa ce at B o r sk irn s a l on g it an d m o st Of the ,
light is r eflected an d d o es n o t e n ter the sec o n d m e dium at

all but the p o r ti on th a t is r efr a cted pu r sues the p ath B Q
,
c o rr espo n din g t o this extr em e p o sitio n o f the p o in t P an d ’

,
this will be the o uter m o st o f all the r efr a cted r ays th at

en ter the sec on d m edium at the p o in t B The A N B Q = A .
’
which is the gr eatest v alue th at the an gle Of r efr a ctio n c an

h av e in the c a se when n > u is c a lled the lim it in g or cri ti ca l
’
an g le with r espect t o the t wo m edi a Sin ce .
sin é N E Q B D/B P
’
sin é PP B
’ ’
the m agn itude Of the an gle A m ay be fo un d fr om t he r ela

tio n :
’
Sin A (n <n )
whi ch m ay l ikewise be der ived b y substitutin g t he values
a = 90 ,
°
a = A in
’
the r efr actio n -fo rm ula Thus if t he .
,
fir st m edium is air (n = 1 ) an d the sec o n d m edium is gla ss

.
= 2 3 so th a t the c r itic al an gle fo r air -gl a s s

/
’
(n sin A ,
is foun d t o be A = 41 Fo r air -w ater sin A = 3/4 A

°
,
48 an d c o n sequen tl y a r ay o f light wh o se p ath li e s

°
, ,
par tly in air an d p ar tly in w ate r c an n ot po ssibly m ake

an an gle with t h e n o rm a l in t h e w ate r g r e ater th an a b o ut
48 For ex am ple when a st ar is just r isin g o r settin g

°
, ,
the r ays c om in g fr om it will fa ll very n e ar ly h o r i z on tall y

on t h e sur f a ce o f t r a n quil wa te r an d will be r efr a cted in t o
t h e w ate r ther efo r e a t an an gl e o f a pp r o xim ately 48 3 0

° '
, ,
with the verti cal so th at if these rays en ter ed an e y e u n der

,
the water the st ar w o uld appe ar t o be n ear ly h alfway t o

,
the z en ith In fa ct all the r ays c o m in g in t o an ey e pl a c e d

.
,
un der w ate r fr o m the en tir e o ve r h an gin g ar ch Of t h e sky

w o uld be c om pr ised in the wate r within a c on e wh o se axis
po in ts t o the z en ith an d wh o se an gular apertur e is ab o ut
In this c o n n ectio n it is i n ter estin g an d in st r uctive t o
exam in e a ph o t o graph O an air sce e m a de with a s c alled
f - n o -
3 6] To t lR
a e fle c ti on 81
fi s eye
h- c am er a imm er sed below the level o f a cle ar po o l
O f w a te r which aff o r ds s o m e ide a Of h o w the w o r ld o utside
,
the po n d m ust l oo k t o a fish Pr o fess o r WO O D o f the J o hn s

.
,
H o pk in s Un iver sity has Obt ain ed a n um ber o f pictur es O f

,
this kin d s o m e Of which a r e r ep r o duced in illust r atio n s in

,
his very o rigin al b oo k o n Physi ca l Op ti cs wher e als o a b r ief ,
desc r iptio n Of the essen ti al fe atu r es o f the in gen io us pin
F IG 49 . . Lim it in
-
g in c ide n t r ay
h o le c am er a which was used in m akin g these pictur es is

als o give n .
Acc o r din gly when light is r efr a cted fr om a ra r er to a

,
den ser m edium ther e will a lways be a r efra cted r ay c o r

,
r esp o n din g t o a give n in ciden t r ay bec ause it is always ,
po ssible u n der these cir cum st an ces t o lo c ate the po sition

Of the p o i n t P O pp o site P o r t o e xp r ess it in a n o the r way
’
, , ,
bec ause when n < u ther e will always be a ce r t ain a cute

’
an gle a th at will s atisfy the equ atio n sin a

’ ’
fo r
v alues o f a c om pr ised between 0 a n d But in the Op °
p o sit e c a se whe n the fi r st m edium is den se r th an the seco n d

.
fo r exam pl e whe n the light is r efr a cted fr o m w ate r

,
t o air t h e st ate m e n t j ust m ade is n o l o n ge r t ru e

,
T he e s .
82 M i rr o r s ,
se n t ialdiffe r en ce in the t wo c a ses m ay be see n at o n ce by

r eve r si n g the ar r o w he a ds in the di a g r a m Fig
- 48 at t h e .
,
sam e tim e m a ki n g c o rr esp o n din g ch an ges in the lette r s an d
symb o ls Fig 49 is a . .
speci al dia gr am t o ill us

t r ate thi s c ase The r e .
fr acted r ay B Q which
gr a z es the s ur fa ce at t h e
o in t B c o rr esp o n ds t o
W A TE R p
the limi t in g in ciden t ray
PB which is in ciden t at
B at the c r itic a l an gle
A = A NB P; d,
5
an c o n se
F IG . 0 — R e fr a c t io n f r o m w a t e r t o
.
t O t a l r e fle C t m D
a ir ; que tly n ,
an y r ay , S uch
'
whi ch m eets t he
as RB ,
sur fa ce at an an gle Of in ciden ce gr e ater th an the an gle A
will be tota lly r efle cted in the dir ectio n B S Thus fo r v alue s .
,
o f a which a r e g r e a ter th an the v a lue A Of the c r itic a l an gl e

.
Of in ciden ce the r e will be n o v a lue O f a th at will satisfy

,
’
the e qu ation sin a ’
when n > n On ly th o se ray s

’
.
in ciden t at B which liewithin

the c on e gen er ated b y the
r ev o luti o n o f the li m itin g in
iden t r ay ar o un d the i n ci
de ce n orm a l a s a x is will b e
n -
r efr a cted in t o t h e seco n d

m edium ; a n d a ll r ays fa l li n g
o n the r ef r a cti n g su r fa ce a t
B a n d lyin g o utside t hi s c o n e
will b e t o t ally r eflected 51 — E p im
5 “
F .
t
IG . ill t t i g
. x er en us ra n
Fig . 0 sh o ws h o w r ays t l fl ti a re ec on
p r o ceed f r o m a r a dian t p o in t belo w the h or i z o n t a l fr ee sur

fa ce Of still w ater .
If a pin is stuck in the un der sid e Of a flat cir cul ar c o r k

flo atin g on w a ter a s r epr esen t e d in Fig
,
1 an d if th e . 5 ,
3 7] To t lRa e fle c ti on 83
diam eter Of the c o rk is (say) 6 in ches an d the hea d o f

the pin is n ot m o r e th an in ches bel o w the wa ter -level
a n d ve rtic all y ben e ath the ce n te r Of the c o r k a n eye pl a ce d ,
a n ywhe r e ab o ve the level o f the w ate r will be u n able t o se e
the p in bec ause all th e r ays c om in g fr om it th at m eet the

,
sur f ace o f the water bey o n d the edge Of the c or k will b e

t o tally r eflected b a ck in t o the w ater .
In Fig 49 sin ce sin A NB P = sin £

. we fi n d
in this c ase when n < u th at which will als o b e
’
o bt a in ed b y puttin g a = A a in the r efr a cti o n

,
’
fo rm ul a C o m p ar i n g this r esult with

the form ula s in A = n /n O bt a in ed f o r the c a se whe n n > n
’ ’
,
an d r ec all in g the fa ct th at the si n e o f a n a n gle is n eve r
g r eater th an u n ity we m ay fo rm ul ate the f o ll o win g r ule :

,
The si n e o f the so-c a lled
c r i ti cal an g le (A ) wi th re
sp ect to two m edi a i s the

r a ti o o f the i n dex f f
o r e rac
ti on of the r ar er to tha t o f
the den ser medium . Or ,
the si n e o f the cri ti c a l a n g le
(A ) of a su b stan ce i s the
r eci p r oca l f o the a b solu te
i n dex of r ef r a cti on of the
su b sta n ce :
thus ,
1
smA
5 p
n
37 . Expe r i m e n ta l Il FIG . 2 — O t ic a D isk u s e d t o

. s h ow t o t al
r e fle c t io n
l ustrati on s of To tal R e
fl e c tio n —The phen o m en o n o f t o t al r eflecti on m ay be e x
.
hib it e d with the aid o f the O ptic a l disk an d the s em icyl in der
o f gl a ss desc r ibed in 28 If the disk is turn ed so th at the
.
beam o f in ciden t p ar allel r ays falls fi r st o n the curved su rfa ce

o f the sem icyli n de r as sh o wn in Fig 2 the r ays m eet this
,
. 5,
sur face n o rm ally an d pr o ceed th r o ugh the gla ss t o the pla n e

fa c e with out bein g devi at ed At the pl an e surfac e a po r .
84 Mirr o r s ,
tio n Of the be am is r eflected an d in gen er al a po rt ion is r e , ,
fr a cted fr o m gl a ss t o air If the disk is tu rn ed un til the

.
an gle o f in cide n ce at the pl a n e su r f a ce is just equ a l t o the
c r itic al an gle (A ) the r ays em er gin g in t o the air will pr o

,
cee d a l o n g the pl a n e f a ce an d if the disk is tu rn ed a little

,
far ther in the s am e sen se so th at t he an gle o f in ciden c e

,
’
ex ceeds the c r itic a l an gle the light will be t o t ally r eflected

, .
An in ge n i o us c o n t r iv an ce fo r e xhibitin g the pr o cedur e Of

in p a ssin g fr om w ater t o air c o n sists Of a c om p ara
FIG . 5D
3—
. e m o n st r at io n o f r e fr a c t i o n
air an d t o t al re fl e c t io n .
f r o m wa t e r t o
t iv e ly . 5
l ar ge gl a ss t an k (Fig 3) filled with w ate r an d pr o
v ide d with a pl an e ve rtic a l m et a llic sc r ee n the l o we r h a lf Of
whi ch is u n der water while the upper h alf exten ds in t o the

a ir ab o ve . A c ylin d r ic al be am Of light is dir ected h o r i z on
t ally an d n o r m ally aga in st t he l o wer part o f the vertic a l
glass wa ll o f the t an k which is behi n d the sc r een an d p ar
,
a llel t o it . The r ays en ter in g t h e water ar e r eceived fir st

o n the su r f a ce o f a s o lid r eflecti n g c o e o n f ape r tu r e an gle
-
9 0 pl a ce d in the w ate r u n der the sc r een an d m o stly in fr on t

°
o f it ,
the axis o f the c on e bein g h o r i z on t al an d its apex
turn ed t o w ar ds the o n -c om in g light Fr o m the sur fa ce o f .
this c o n e the rays ar e r eflected th r o ugh the w ater in all di

r ecti o n s in a ve r tic a l pl a n e c o in cidin g a s n e a r l y as p o ssible
with the fr o n t side o f the scr een turn ed t o war ds the spec
t at o r s . Su r r o u n di n g t h e c on ic a l r e fl e ct o r an d c o axi al with
-
3 7] T o t al R e fle c ti
on Pr ism 8 5
it ther e is a cylin dr ic a l c avity o f di am eter very little larger
,
th an that o f the b a se o f the c o n e The sur fa ce o f this c ylin .
de r is m a de o f thin sheet m et a l bl a cke n ed o n the i n side

-
wher ein a n um ber of equ al h o r i z o n t al slits ar e cut at e qual

,
an gul ar dist an ces a p a rt an d th r o ugh these slits n arr o w

,
beam s Of light r eflected fr o m the sur fa ce o f the c o n e ar e

per m itted t o pa ss up war ds to war ds the sur fa ce o f the w ater
.
their c o ur ses bein g sh o wn b y the b r ight tr a ces o n the sc r een .
So m e o f these be am s will be r efr a cted o ut i n t o the a ir ,
wher e a s o ther s m eetin g the water sur fa ce m o r e Obliquely

,
-
,
will be t o t ally r eflected .
If r ays ar e in ciden t n o rm ally o n o n e Of the t wo p e r p e n dic

ul ar fa ces o f a gl a ss pr ism 48) wh o se p r in cip al secti on is an
is o sceles r ight -t r ian gle (Fig .
they will en ter the pr ism with

o ut deviatio n an d fallin g on
,
the hyp o then us e fa ce at an an gl e

—
of which is gr eater th an the

c r itic al an gle Of gl ass they will ,
be t ot ally r eflected ther e an d

turn ed thr o ugh a r ight a n gle so ,
that they will em erge in a dir e c

tion n orm al t o th e o ther Of the two
F “5 4_ T t l fl t i p
per pen dicul ar fa ces Of the pr ism .
i m
IG ' ° a re eC on r s
A pr ism o f this kin d is fr equen tly em plo yed in Optic al sys

tem s It is used fo r exam ple in c on n ecti on with a ph o t o
.
, ,
graphic len s t o r ectify the im age fo cused o n the sen sitive

plate o f the c am er a so th at the r ight an d left sides Of the
,
n egative will c o r r es p o n d t o the r ight a n d left sides O f the
O bj ect N o n e o f the light is l o st b y the t o t a l r eflectio n in

.
the p r ism an d if the pr ism is m ade o f g o o d Optic al glass

,
o f high t r an sp ar e n c y the r e will be c o m p ar a tively little l o ss
Of light by abs o r pti o n in the p r ism or b y r eflecti o n on e n t er
in g an d le avin g it The s am e Optic a l effect c an be p r o duced

.
by a sim ple pl an e m irr o r but as a r ule a p olished m et allic

,
surface abs o rbs the in ciden t light t o a c o n sider able exten t .

86 Mirr o rs ,
H o wever the l o ss o f light in the c ase Of a m irr o r silver e d

o n gl a ss is ve r y s light ; but o n the o the r h an d the fi n e l ayer
,
O f silve r m ay e a sil y be in jur ed m ech an ic a ll y o r t arn ished
b y exp o sur e t o the air If the g l ass m ir r o r is silver e d on

.
the b a ck side the light will be r eflected fr om b o th sur fa c es

,
o f the gl a ss an d the r e will be c o n fusi o n Mo r e o ver a gl a s s

.
,
mi r r o r m ay e a sily get b r o ke n o r bec om e disl o c at e d in an

o ptic a l in st r um e n t ; whe r e a s a p r i sm m a de o f a s o lid piec e
o f gl a ss is m uch m o r e subst an ti al an d dur able .
Optic al p r ism s c on sistin g o f s o lid pieces o f hi ghly t r an s

p ar en t h o m o gen eo us gl ass with thr e e or m o r e p o lish e d pl an e
fa ces ar e very exten sively used in the c on str uction o f m o dern
O ptic a l in st r um e n ts f o r r ectif yin g im ages whi ch w o uld o the r
wise be in verted o r f or ben din g t h e r ays o f light in t o n e w

dir ecti o n s etc Usu ally the light un der g o es sever al in ter i or
,
.
r eflecti o n s bef o r e it issues fr o m the p r ism a n d these r e fle c ,
ti on s ar e Often t ot a l r eflectio n s If the r efl e cti on is n ot

.
t o t al it is best t o silver the sur fa ce

,
.
3 8 G e n e r al iz ati o n o f th e Laws Of R e fl e c ti o n an d Re
.
f r ac tio n .Pr in c ipl e O f Le ast T im e (Fe r ma t s Law) — T he ’
l aws o f r eflecti on an d r efr a ction whi ch m er ely desc r ibe the

,
O bser ved e ffects whe n light f alls o n the c o mm on su r fa ce o f
sep ar ation Of t wo h om o gen eo us m edia an d whi ch ar e c ap ,
able Of sim ple ex pl an a ti o n o n the b a sis o f the w ave-th e o r y ,
as h as been illust r ated in ce rt a in speci al c a ses 14an d

m ay be c o m b in ed in t o a gen er al law whi ch was fir st an
n o u n c e d a b o ut 1 6 6 5
b y the Fr en ch phil o s o pher FE RMAT ,
an d which m ay be st ated a s f o ll o ws : The a ctua l p a th pu r

sue d by li g ht i n g oi n g f r om on e p oi n t to an other i s the r oute
tha t, u n der the g i ven c on di ti on s, r equi r es the le a st ti me .
In c a s e the r eflection s an d r efr a ctio n s t ake pl ace o nl y

at pl an e su r fa ces the t r uth o f th e ab o ve st atem en t is
,
e asily pr o ved C o n sider fir st the c a se when the li g ht i s r e

5
5
.
, ,
fl e cted f r om a p lan e mi r r or T h e st r a ight li n e Z Z (Fig

.
) .
r ep r ese n ts the t r a ce o f the pl a n e m ir r o r in the pl an e O f t h e
diagr am an d A an d C design ate the p o sitio n s Of a p air o f

,
38] Pr in c ip l e of t
Le a s T i m e 7
po i n ts lyi n g in this pl an e in fr o n t Of the m irr or No w if .
a p o i n t X in the pl an e o f the m ir r o r is c o n n ected with A
a n d C by the st r aight l in es XA XB the r o ute AK O will, ,
be sh o rtest when the n o rm al t o the mirr o r at X lies in the

pl an e AXC an d bisects the a n gle
AX C T h e p o in t X m ust li e ther e
.
,
fo r e in the pl an e o f the diagr am at

,
the p o in t B so th at when AB is the

,
dir ectio n o f an in ciden t r ay B C will ,
be the dir ecti o n o f the r eflected ray .
O bvi o usly if A is t h e im a ge o f A in
’
,
the m ir r o r t he n AB + B C = A B + B C
55
’
p
~
,
F — F M i i
’
A C a n d sm c e the st r a i ght kn e
IG . . ER AT S r nc
pl fl t t im i
p
, e o e as e n c a se
A C is sh o r te r fo r exam ple th an
’
,
f fl ti ,
t l o re ec on a a an e
m
.
wher e D is or ‘
a n o the r p o in t o n the m irr o r d iffe r e n t fr o m the po i n t B it ,
is evide n t th a t the r o ute fr om A t o C by way o f B is sh o rte r

th an the r o ute vi a an y o ther p o in t o n the mirr o r Mo r e .
o ver if the r ay is r eflected at a n u m be r o f pl a n e m ir r o r s in

,
successi o n its e n ti r e p ath wil l be the sh o rtest p o s sible r o ute

,
fr om the st art in g po in t t o the ter mi n a l p o in t subj ect t o the ,
c on ditio n th at it m ust t o uch at e a ch m irr o r in tu rn The .
p r in ciple o f le ast tim e in the c a se o f r eflecti o n o f light at a

plan e m irr o r d ates b a ck t o the tim e o f H E R O o f Alexan dr ia
5
(1 0 B .
When li g ht i s r ef r a cted at a p lan e su rf a ce the r o ute pur ,
sued between a p o in t A in o n e m edi um t o a po in t C in the

o the r is i n deed the quickest way but ge n e r a lly n o t the
sh o rt est The fo ll o win g il lust r atio n will help t o m ake the

.
p r oblem clear in this c a se Supp o se a level field is div id e d

.
in t o t wo p arts by a st r aight li n e ZZ (Fig ! o n o n e side
o f which the g r o u n d is b ar e an d s m o o th w h ile o n the o the r
side it is pl o wed a n d r o ugh ; an d let us als o suppo se th at

a m an c an w alk o n ly h a lf as f a st o ve r the r o ugh p ar t O f the
field a s o ver the s m o o th p a rt a n d that he desir es t o m ar ch

,
a s quickly a s p o ssible fr o m a p o i n t A in the sm o o th gr o u n d

88 M irr o r s ,
to a ce rt a in o ther p o in t C in the pl o wed gr o un d The .
questio n is Whe r e sh o uld he c r o ss the dividin g lin e Z Z ?

,
Of c o ur se his sh o r test r o ute w o uld be a l o n g the st r aight

,
lin e fr o m A t o C which in ter sects Z Z

a t t h e p o i n t m ar ked E in the figu r e ,
but un less the str aight li n e AC hap

pen s t o be pe r pen dicular t o Z Z thi s
will n o t be his quickest way In .
ste a d o f c r o ssin g a t E supp o se he ,
selects a p o in t F o n Z Z whi ch is a
little n e ar er t o his Obj ective at C ;

then a lth o ugh the len g th FC in the
plo wed gr o un d is sh orter th an b e
F 5 — Q ik t t f o r e o n the o ther h a n d t h e dist an c e
C i p t h AF o ver the s m o o th gr o un d is l o n ger

IG . 6 . u c es rou e ,
f m A t
ro o v a a
,
AB C '
but on the wh o le we m ay a ssum e th at

the r o ute AFC will t ake less tim e th an the sh o r test r o ute
AE C . But if the p o in t o f c r o ssin g Z Z is t aken t oo far fr om
E the a dv a n t a ge o f the sh o r ter dis
,
t an ce in the r o ugh gr o un d will p r es

e n tly b e m o r e th an o ffset by the
in c r ea sin g len gth o f the dist an ce th a t
h as t o be t r ave r sed in the s m o o th
g r o un d Acc o r din gly ther e is a c e r
.
,
t ain p o in t B o n ZZ such th at the

tim e t aken a l o n g the r o ute AB C
will be th e quickest o f all r o utes .
N o w we sh a ll see th a t this is a ls o the

ver y p ath th at light w o uld t ake if it
F
w er e r efr a cted fr o m A t o C a c r o ss
pfi zg flizffiif Z$33;
IG '
t pl
n
ZZ supp o si n g th at the r ati o Of the

,
f f ti o re rac on a an e
f
vel o cities o f li ght o n the t wo sides su r a c e '
Of Z Z we r e the s am e as the r ati o o f the vel o cities o f w alkin g
in the t wo p ar ts o f the field

5
.
In the a cc o m p an yi n g di a gr am (Fig 7 ) the b r o ke n lin e

.
AB C r ep r ese n ts the a ctu al p ath Of a r ay Of lig h t from a

3 9] Op ti c al Le n g h t 89
p o in t A in the fir st m edium (n ) t o a p oin t C on the o ther

side o f the pl an e r efr a ctin g su r fa ce ZZ in the sec o n d m edium
so th a t if NE N is the n o r m a l t o the su r f a ce a t B the n

’
,
by the law o f r efr a cti o n

S in l N BA
'
n v
”
sin A N BA ' n v
wher e v v den o te the speeds with which light tr avels in

,
’
the m e di a n n r espectively The tim e t aken t o g o o ver

,
’
, .
t h e r o ute AB C is
l g an y o ther r o ut e AD C wher e D design ates the po si

a on ,
tio n Of an y p o in t o n Z Z differ en t fr o m the p o in t B Dr aw .
DG DH pe r pe n dicul ar t o AB B C r espectively ; the n sin ce

, , , ,
A B DG 4 NB A , 4B DH A N BC ’
,
eviden tly we h ave :

sin é EDG
—
GB v
°r
sin é E DH HE v
AB Bo
_
A G + GE Bo AG 11 0
l) 2)
+
2) 2) 2) v
an d sin ce A G < AD an d H C < DC ther efor e ,
AB B C AD D C
v (7 +
an dhen ce the tim e vi a AB C is less th an it w o uld be vi a an y

o ther r o ute fr o m A t o C .
It sh o uld be r em ar ked h o wever th at when the b o un d ar y

, ,
sur fa ce between t wo m edia is cu r ved the tim e t aken by ,
light t o g o fr om a p o in t A a cr o ss the sur fa ce t o an o ther po in t

C is n o t a lw ays a m i n im um It m ay in deed be a m axim um.
, , ,
but it is always o n e o r the o ther .
39 T h e O pti c al Le n gth o f th e Ligh t-path an d th e Law

.
,
O f Mal us — In the tim e t th at li ght t akes t o g o al o n g the p ath

.
90 Mirr or s ,
AB C fr o m a p o in t A in o n e m edium (n ) t o a p o in t C in an
a dj a ce n t m ediu m (n ) it w o uld t r a ve r se i n va cu o the di st an c e
'
AB BC
= Vi
. V
( v
,
) 7
wher e V de n o tes the velo city o f light i n vacu o But b y the .
defin itio n o f the abs o lute in dex Of r efr a cti o n n = V/ v

'
V/ v ; an d hen ce th e
’ ’
n
equivalen t d i s t a n c e in
va cuo is :
The op ti ca l len g th o f the

p ath o f a r ay in a m edium
5 — -p t h
gzg
F 8 Op t l th f
IG . .
y 1 0a
is de fin ed t o be the p r o d
o ra a
u c t o f th e a ctu al le n gth (l)
Of the r ay p ath b y the in dex O f the m edium (n ) th a t is n l

-
,
. .
Supp o se f o r ex am ple th at light t r aver ses a se r ies o f m edi a

5
, ,
n 1 n 2 etc
,
as r ep r ese n ted in Fig
,
.
, 8 ; the t o t al Optic al le n g th .
al o n g a ray will be
k =m
+ nm . lm = E n k l k ;
k l
wher e den o tes the a ctu al len gth Of the r ay-p ath in the
lk
k t h m edium .
N o w th e w ave fr o n t at an y i n st a n t due t o a distu r b an c e

-
e a ati g f
m n n r o m a p i t s o u r ce is the su r f a ce which c o n
o n -
t ain s all t h e far thest p o in ts t o which th e disturb an ce has

'
bee p p g ted t th t i st a t Thus

n r o a a a a n n the w ve surf a ce
a - .
,
m ay be defin ed as the tota li ty of a ll those p oi n ts whi ch ar e

r ea che d in a g i ven ti me b y a di stu r b an ce ori g i n a ti n g a t a p oi n t.
In sin gle iso tr Op ic m edium the w ave-sur fa ces as we h ave
a ,
see n wil l be c o n ce n tr ic spher es desc r ibed ar o un d the po in t

,
s o ur ce as cen ter ; but if th e w ave-fr o n t ar r ives at a r e fle c t

in g o r r efr a ctin g su r fa ce P a t whi ch the dir ecti o n s Of t h e u
,
so — c alled rays O f light ar e ch an ged the fo rm Of the w ave ,
sur fa ce ther e after will in gen er al n o l on ger be s pher ic al ; an d

, ,
even in th o se ex ceptio n a l c a ses when the r eflected o r r efr a cted

Wav e -fr o n t is spher ic al th e w aves w ill sp r e ad o ut from
, ,
3 9] Law of MA LU S 91
a n ew cen ter which is seld om iden tic al with the o r igin al

cen ter T h e fun ction a has the s am e v alue f o r all ac
.
tu al r ay—p aths between o n e p o sitio n o f the wave sur fa ce an d -
a n o ther p o siti o n o f it ; so th a t whe n the f o rm a n d po siti o n
O f the w a ve -fr o n t an d the p a ths O f the r ays at a n y in st an t
a r e kn o wn the wave-fr o n t at an y subsequen t in st an t m ay

,
be c o n st r ucted by layin g Off e qu al Optic al len g ths a lon g the

p ath o f ea ch r ay .
A c on sequen ce o f this defin itio n Of the wav e sur fa c e is

th at the r ay is always n o rm al t o the wave-sur face as will
be eviden t fr o m the foll o win g

r e a s o n in g Sup p o se t h a t the
5
.
st ra ight lin e AB (Fig 9) re p r e . -
sen ts the p ath Of a r ay in ciden t

o n the r efr a cti n g sur f a ce ZZ at
the p o in t B an d th a t the str aight

,
li n e B C r epr esen ts the p ath Of

the c o r r esp o n din g r efr a cted r ay
5
.
Mo r eo ver let t h e w ave su r fa ce F f M :R y —
m l t w v f
9 L w - IG ' . a o A LU S a
,
t n or a o a e- ro n
which p asses t hr o ugh the p o in t
.
C be design ate d by Fr o m the in cide n ce-p o i n t B d r aw

a y o the r st r a ight i e as B D m eeti g the w ave su r f a ce 0
l - '
n n n , ,
in the p o in t D Then by the p r in ciple o f le a st tim e the

.
,
r o ute AB C is quicke r th at is O ptic ally sh o r te r th an the

, , ,
r o ute AB D bec aus e t h e n atur a l o r a ctu a l r o ute betwee n the

,
p o in ts A an d D w o uld n o t be by way Of the in ciden ce-po in t

B Hen ce the str aight lin e B C m ust be sh o r ter th an B D
.
, ,
an d ther ef o r e B C is the sh o r test lin e th at c an be d ra wn fr o m
the in ciden c e -p o in t B t o the w ave sur fa ce -
The s am e r ea s o n in g is applic able t o all c ases o f r eflecti on

a n d r efr a cti o n a n d he n ce we m ay m ake the f o ll o win g g e n
,
er a l st atem en t
Ra ys f
o li g ht mee t the wa ve-surf a ce n or ma lly; an d, c on
v e r se ly , The system o f f
su r a ces whi ch i n ter se c t a t r i g ht a n g le s
r ays em a n a ti n g or i g i n a lly f r om a p oi n t-s ou r ce is a syste m of

wa ve-su rf a ce s .
This l aw was published by MA LU S in 1 808 .

92 Mir r o r s ,
Pr i sm s an d Le n se s [
Oh . III
PR OB LE MS
1 .
() A
a r a y is r ef r a cted f r o m v a cuum in t o a m edi um
wh o se in dex o f r efr a ctio n is x/ 2 the an gle o f in ciden ce bein g

,
fin d the an gle o f r efr a cti o n .
()
b F i n d the a n gle Of in ciden ce o f a r ay which is r e
fr a cted at an an gle o f 3 0 fr om v acuum in t o a m e dium Of
°
in dex equ al t o
()
0 F in d the r el ative in dex Of r efr actio n when t h e
an gles o f in ciden ce an d r efr a cti o n a r e 3 0 an d
°
r e sp e c
An s .
(a ) (b ) (0) V3:
3 .
5
2 Assum in g th at the in dices o f r efr a ction Of air w ater
5
.
, ,
gla ss an d diam on d h ave the values 1 g a nd - r e sp e c , g , 2
t iv e ly c a lcul ate the an gle o f r efr a ctio n in e a ch o f the

,
fo llo win g c ases :

()
a R efr a cti on f r o m ai r t o gl a ss a n gle o f in cide n ce ,
(b) fr o m air t o w ater an gle Of in ciden ce

, ()c f r o m a ir
t o di am o n d an gle o f in ciden ce
, ()
d f r o m gl a ss t o w a te r ,
a n gle o f in cide n ce (e) fr om diam o n d t o gl a ss an gle o f

in ciden c e 36 2 °
5
’
An s (a ) 2 2 2 . 5
(b ) 40 30
° ’
,
° ’
2 2 43 34 1 3
’ ’
() (e)
° °
c (d)
3 .The height Of a cylin dr ic a l cup is 4 in ches an d its di
a m e t e r is 3 in ches A per s on lo o kin g o ver t h e r im c an just
.
see a p o in t o n the Opp o site side in ches bel o w the r im .
But when the cup is filled with water l o o kin g in the s am e ,
dir ection a s befo r e he c an just se e the p o in t Of the b a se

,
farthest fr om him Fin d the in dex o f r efra ction o f wate r

. .
An s .
4 The in dex o f a r efr a ctin g spher e is f

. it is surr o un ded
by air A r ay Of light en ter in g the spher e at an an gle o f
.
,
in ciden ce o f 60 an d p a ssin g o ver t o the o ther side is

°
,
ther e p ar tly r eflected an d p artly r efr a cted Sho w th at the .
r eflected r ay an d the e m e r ge n t r ay ar e at r ight an gles t o
ea ch o ther
5
.
In the p r ecedin g p r o blem sh o w th a t the r eflected r ay

.
,
wi ll c r o ss the spher e again an d be r efr a cted b a ck in t o t he

C h III]
. Pr o b l e m s 3
air indir ecti o n exa ctly Opp o site t o th at which the r ay had
a
befo r e it en ter ed the spher e .
6 A st r a ight lin e d r awn thr o ugh the ce n te r C O f a sphe r

.
ic a l r efr a ctin g surf a ce m eets the sur fa ce in a po in t de sig

n at e d b y A If J J design ate the po in ts wher e an in ci ’
.
,
den t r ay an d the c or r esp o n din g r efr acted r ay in ter sect the

n
str aight lin e AC , an d if . AO, sh o w that CJ
’
’
AC ,
72. n
wher e n n den o te the in dices Of r efr a ctio n Of the fir st

,
’
a n d sec o n d m e di a r espectively ,
.
7 C o n st r uct the p ath o f a r ay r efr a cted at a pl a n e sur

.
face Dr aw di ag r am s fo r the c a ses when n is g r e ater an d

.
’
less th an n C o n str uct the c r itic al an gle in e a ch figur e

. .
8 The vel o city o f light in air is ap p r oxim ately 1 86000

.
m iles p e r sec o n d H o w fa st d o es it t r a vel in alc o h o l o f

.
in dex An s A p p r o x im ately 13 6 460 mi les p e r sec

.
,
, .
9 A fish is 8 feet bel o w the su r fa ce O f a p o o l o f cle ar wate r

. .
A m an sh o otin g at the pla ce wher e the fish a ppe ar s t o be

p o in ts his g un a t an an gle o f Wher e will the bullet
c r o ss the vertic a l lin e th at p a sses thr o ugh the fish ? (Take
in dex o f water as a n d n eglect a n y d e fl ecti o n o f the
bullet c aused b y im p a ct with the w ater ) .
An s 3 feet ab o ve the fish . .
10 Ass um in g th at the vel o city o f light in a ir is

.
30 000 000 000 c m p e r sec c alcul ate its vel o city in w ate r
. .
,
an d in gl a ss .
1 1 Pr o ve th at n b = n b z n
.
a c ae
.
1 2 Sh o w th a t the si n e o f the c r itic a l a n gle o f an O ptic al

.
m e dium is equ a l t o the r ecip r o c a l o f the a bs o lute in dex o f

r efr a cti o n .
1 3 Assum in g s am e v a lues o f the i n dices o f r efr a cti o n a s

.
in p r o blem N O 2 c alcul ate the v a lues o f the c r itic a l a n gle

.
,
f o r e a ch o f the f o ll o wi n g p a i r s o f m e di a :( )
a a ir a n d gl a ss ,
(b) a ir an d water (c) a ir an d diam o n d

55( )
.
(a ) 41 (b ) 48
5
'
An s
° °
. 3 2 c 23
14 A 4 pr ism is used t o tur n a beam O f light b y t o t al
.
°
in ter n al r efl ecti o n th r o ugh a r ight an gle Wh at m ust be .

the le ast p o ssible v alue Of th e in d ex Of r efra ction Of the
glass ? An s V2
5
. .
1 . Sh o w th at whe n a r ay o f light p a sses fr o m air in t o

a m edium wh o se in de x o f r efr a cti o n is e qu a l t o V2 the de
5
,
v iat io n c an n o t be g r e a te r th an 4
°
1 6 The abs o lute in dex o f r efr a cti o n o f a cer t ain t r an s

.
p ar en t subst an ce is g Sh o w th at a lumin o us p o in t at the

.
cen ter o f a cube Of this m ater i al c an n o t be seen b y an

eye in the air o utside if at th e cen ter o f e a ch fa ce Of th e
,
cube a cir cul ar piece o f o p aque p aper is p asted wh o se r adiu s

is e qu al t o th r ee-eighths o f the edge o f the cube .
1 7 Wh at will be the g r e atest a pp ar e n t z en ith dist an ce o f

.
a st ar t o a n e y e un de r w ater ?
1 8 Ex pl a in why it is th a t it is n o t p o ssible fo r a per s on

.
b y m er ely Open in g his eyes un der water t o see distin ctly

Obj ects in the w a te r ar o un d h im o r in the air ab o ve the
w ater ; wher e a s if he is p r o vided with a diver s helm et with

,
’
a pl a te gl a ss win d o w in it ,
he will exper ien ce n o dif ficul t y
in distin gui shi n g such o bj ects cle ar ly .
1 9 R ays o f light a r e e m itted upw ar ds in all dir ectio n s

.
fr om a lum in o us p o in t at the b o tt om o f a tr o ugh c on t ain

in g a l ayer Of a t r an sp ar e n t l iquid 3 i n ches in depth an d Of
r efr a ctive in dex Sh o w th at all r ays which m eet the
sur fa ce o utside a cer t a in cir cle wh o se cen ter is vertic ally
a b o ve the p o in t will be t o t a lly r eflected ; an d fi n d t h e r a dius
o f t hi s cir cle
. An s 4 in ches
. .
20 A p in with a white he a d is stuck per pen dicul ar ly in

.
the cen ter o f o n e side of a flat cir cul ar c o r k an d the c or k

,
is fl o ated o n w ate r with the pin d o wn w ar ds Assumin g .
th at the he a d Of the p in is 2 in ches bel o w the sur fa ce Of t h e

w ater fi n d the sm allest diam eter the c o r k c an have so th a t
,
a per s on l oo ki n g d o wn th r o ugh the w a te r (in dex é ) fr o m

the air ab o ve (in dex un ity) c o uld n ot see the he a d o f t h e pin .
An s
. in ches .
2 1 Pl o t a cur ve sh o win g the dev iat io n e a s a fun cti o n

.
O f the a n gle o f in c ide n c e a f o r the c a se when the r efr a cti o n
is fr o m wa ter ’
t o air (n
C HA PT E R IV
R E F RA C T IO N AT A PLA NE U R F A C E AN D
S A LS O T H RO U GH A
W H
,
PLA T E IT PLA N E PARA LLE L FA C E S
40 Tri g o n o m etr ic C alcul ati o n

. of R ay R efr a ct e d at a
Pl an e S u f A ge o m et r ic al c o n st r ucti o n o f the p ath o f

r ac e .—
the r efr a cted r a y was

given in § 34 The p ath .
o f a r ay r efr a cted at a
plan e su r fa ce m ay als o
be e a sily deter m in ed by
t r ig o n o m et r ic c alcul atio n .
The st r aight lin e yy in

Figs 6 0 an d 6 1 r ep r esen ts
.
the plan e r e fr a ctin g sur

R f ti f t pl —
fa ce sep aratin g the t wo F 60
f : = A L = AL
y IG . .
ac e
e r ac
v
on
v
'
o ra
’
a an e su r
m edi a Of i n dices n n
,
’
, ,
an d the st r a ight lin e LB sh o ws the p a th O f a r ay which is in
e iden t o n yy a t the p o in t m ar ked B The st r a ight lin e LA .
per pen dicular to yy at A

is the axi s o f the r efr a ct
in g pl an e with r espe ct
t o the p o siti o n o f the
p o in t L The m agn i .
tudes v = AL a
[ ALB which dete r m in e

c o m pletely the p o sitio n
FIG .61 — R f . ti n f
e rac y t pl
o o ra f :o f the 1n clde n t r ay are
a a n e su r a c e
'
s om etim es c alled t h e
Le t L design a te the p o i n t wher e the re
’
r a y-coor di n a tes .
fr a cte d r ay L B in te r sects the ax is xx an d let

’
,
A AL B den o te the c o Or din a t e s o f the r efr a cted r ay The

’ ’
5
a .
9
96 Mir r o r s ,
p r oblem is : G iven the in ciden t ray (v a ) determ in e the r e , ,
fr a cted r ay (v ’
,
Fr o m eithe r di ag r am we o bt a in imm edi ately the r el ati o n

’
v t an a
.
v t an a ”
an d sin ce a we Obt ain fin a lly the ’

,
fo ll o win g
fo rm ula fo r c alcul at in g the r efr a cted r ay °
C O S 0.
N o w if the p o in t L is a lum in o us p o in t r ays will em an at e ,
fr o m it in all dir ectio n s an d wher e a s the m agn itude v will

, ,
r e m ain the s am e fo r all thes e

r ays the an gle a will v a r y fr o m ,
r ay t o r ay But f o r diff er en t .
va lues Of a in gen er al we sh all ,
Obt a in diff er en t values o f t he

m agn itude v an d c o n se quen tl y
’
, , ,
the p o siti on o f the p oin t L on '
the axis will be differ en t fo r dif

fe r e n t in ciden t r ays c om in g fr o m
L Acc o r din gly the bun dle Of
f p
.
,
62 — R f
r efr a cted r ays c o r r esp o n d in g t o
y t pl
FIG ti i l
e rac on o ar a x a
:=
. .
ra s a f an e s u r ac e u
AM : m a h o m o ce n t r1 c bu n dle o f In c 1de n t
' '
, u n u ,
r ays wil l n o t be h o m o ce n t r ic .
41 I ma g e ry in a Pl an e R e f rac tin g S urf ac e b y Rays

.
wh i c h M e e t th e S urf ac e Ne ar ly No r mally — The m o re .
o r less blu r r ed an d dist o rt ed appe ar an ce o f Obj ects see n
un der water is fam ili ar t o ever yb o d y When th e r ays .
th at en ter the eye m eet the sur fa ce o f the water very

O bliquely the dist o r ti o n is alm o st g r o tes q ue
,
If the pupil .
Of the eye we r e n o t c om p ar a tively s m a ll it wo uld indeed ,
be pr a ctic a lly a lm o st im p o ssible t o r ec o gn i z e an Obj ect un der

w ater even if the eye wer e placed in the m o st fav or able
,
p o siti on vertic a lly o ver the Ob j ect It is on ly bec ause the .
ape r tu r es o f the bun dle s o f e ff ective r ays th at e n te r the e ye

41] Pla n e R e fr a c ti ng Su r fa c e 97
ar e quite n ar r o w th a t the r e is an y t rue im age-effect at all

,
in the c a se O f r efr a cti o n a t a pl an e su r fa ce .
When the eye l o o ks dir ectly al o n g the n o r m a l t o the

pl an e r efr a ctin g sur fa ce a t an o bj ect p o in t M o n the o th er -
side o f the su r fa ce (Figs 6 2 an d .
the effective r ays c o m in g

fr o m M will m eet the su rfa ce
very n e a r ly per pen dicular ly ,
a n d the in ci de n ce p o i n ts will -
a ll be s o cl o se t o the p o i n t A
th at ther e will be p r a ctic ally n o

d iffe r en ce betwee n the len gths
o f the str a ight lin es MA a n d
MB an d a cc o r din gly un der

,
t h e se Cl r c um St a n c e S we m ay F f p
’
6 3 —R f ti
p
i l IG e r ac on o ar ax a
y
. .
e t e Si n 0 In pl a ce O f ta n a
.
t l f : =AM
.
ra s a a n e su r a c e u .
Sim ila r ly a ls o with r esp ec t t o

, ,
the r efr a cted r ay sin a c an be substituted her e fo r t an a

,
’ ’
.
An d if in this c a se we p u t A M = u AM = u whe r e M M
’ ’ ’
, , ,
design a te the p o in ts w h e r e a r ay which is ve r y n e a r ly n o r

m al t o the r efr a ctin g pl an e c r o sses the n o r m al befo r e an d
a fte r r efr a cti o n we h ave ther efo r e
, ,
u t an a sin a ’
u tan a sin a ’
an d he n ce by the l aw o f r efr a cti o n

, ,
’
n u
’ ’
or u
u u
The an gle a h as disappe ar ed e n ti r ely fr o m this fo r m ul a an d

.
,
t h e v a lue O f u m ay be f o u n d a s s o o n as the v a lue o f u is give n

’
.
This m ean s th a t c o r r esp o n d in g t o a given p o siti o n o f th e

O b j ect p o i n t M the r e is a pe r fectly d efi n ite i m a ge p o i n t M
’
- -
,
a n d the p o i n ts M M a r e s a id t o be a p a i r o f c on j u g a te p oi n ts
’
.
,
Acc o r din gly when a n ar r ow bun dle of hom ocen tr ic r a ys i s

,
i n ciden t n e a r ly n or ma lly on a r e r a cti n

f g p lan e ,
the c o rr esp on d
i n g bun d le f
o r e r a cted r a ys
f will b e homocen tr i c a lso An d if .
98 Mirr o r s ,
th e a pe rtur e Of the bun dle is in fin itely n arr o w the imagery ,
will be ide al .
Fo r ex am ple a pebble at the b o t t om o f a p o o l o f w ater

,
1 2 in ches deep wil l be seen distin ctly fr o m a p o in t in the air

vertic ally ab o ve it but it will appe ar t o be o n ly 9 in ches
,
bel o w the su rfa ce of the water sin ce n /n = On the o ther ,

’
h an d an o bj ect 9 in ch es ab o ve the surfa c e will seem t o b e

,
12 in ches ab o ve it t o an eye in
the water ver tic ally ben e ath the
O bj ect bec aus e in thi s c ase ,
’
n
I mag e o f a Po in t Form e d
42 .
b y R ays th at ar e O b l i qu e ly R e
f r ac t e d at a Pl an e Surf ac e .
But if the bun dle o f rays c om

in g fr o m the lum in o us p o in t S
( g 6 )
F i 4 is a wide - an gle bun dle
.
Of c o n sider a ble a pe r tu r e n o dis ,
— t in Ct im a ge Will be f o rm ed b y
F 64 C ti b y f ti t
pl
IG . . au s c r e r ac on a
an e f
sur a c e f m w t ro t these r ays after r efr a cti on a t a
a er o
pl an e but the p o in ts Of in ter ,
section o f the r efr a cted r ay s will be spr e a d o ver a so

c alled causti c su rf a ce which in this c a se is a sur fa ce o f
,
r ev o luti o n a r o u n d the n o r m a l SA d r awn fr o m S t o the r e
fr a ctin g plan e The figu r e sh o ws a m er idian sec ti o n o f this

.
surfa ce fo r the c ase when th e r ays ar e r efr a cted fr om a

den ser t o a r ar e r m edium (n n ) the curve in thi s c a se bein g
’
,
the ev o lute Of an ellips e E a ch r efr a cted r ay p r o duced b a ck

.
war ds t o uches the c austic surf a ce The cusp o f the m eridi an .
cur ve is on the n orm al SA at the p o in t M wher e the im age o f ’
S is fo rm ed by r ay s th at m eet the r efr a ctin g pl an e n e ar ly p e r

p e n d i c u l a r ly ,
a s e x pl a in ed in the p r ecedi n g secti o n Wher ever .
the eye is pl a ced in the sec on d m e dium o n ly a n arr o w ,
bun dle o f r ays c o m in g fr o m S c an e n ter it th r o ugh t h e pupil

o f the eye . The n e ar est a pp r o a ch t o an im age Of the s o ur c e
a t S as see n b y r a y s th at ar e r efr a cted m o r e or le ss o bli q uely
§ 42l t
C au s ic Surf ac e 99
will be the little elem en t o f the c austic su rfac e which is the

a sse m bl a ge o f the p o in ts whe r e the e ff ective r ay s th at e n te r
the ey e t o uch this surfa ce Thus r ays en ter in g the eye at E .

,
a ppe ar t o c om e fr o m the p o in t S whe r e the t an ge n t fr o m E

’
t o uches the c austic It is eviden t n ow why an Obj ec t S un der

.
W AT E R
FIG 5 — Rod p ar t l y im m e r se d in w a t e r pp b e b en t
6
p
. . a e ars to
u w ar d s .
w ater appe ar s t o be r aised t o war ds the sur fa ce an d at the

s am e tim e a ls o t o be shifted t o war ds the spect at o r m o r e an d
m o r e a s the eye a t E is b r o ugh t n e ar er t o the su r fa ce Of the
w ater un til fin ally when the eye is o n a level with the su rfa ce
,
o f the w ate r the im ag e O f S a ppe ar s n o w t o be a t V o n the
R ays fr o m S th at m eet t he su rfa ce bey o n d

,
r efr a ctin g pl an e .
thi s limi tin g p o in t V wher e t he c austic cur ve is t an gen t t o

the s tr aight lin e Z Z wil l be t o t a lly r eflected The image Of S .
seen by the eye at E is blurr ed an d dist o rted bec ause

the im age-p o in t S is the p o in t o f in ter sectio n o f a very
,
’
lim ited p o rt i on Of the bun dle of r efr a cted ray s that en ter
th e eye .
The ab ove expl an ati on m akes it clear why a st r aight lin e

5
AB C (Fig 6 ) wh ich is p a rtly in air an d p artly in w ate r will
.
a ppe ar t o a n eye at E t o be be n t a t B in t o the b r o ke n lin e
AB C
’
.The im age B C o f t he p art B C un der water c an be
’
pl ott e d p o in t b y p o in t for an y p o sition of the eye .

1 00 Mir r or s ,
43 Th e . I mag e -lin e s o f a Narr o w Bun dl e o f Rays R e

f t O l qu e ly at a P1an e The diagram (Fig 66 ) sh o ws
r a c e d b i — . .
the p aths Of t wo r ays SE D an d SC E which o r igin atin g at S

an d f a llin g o n the r efr a ctin g pl an e Z Z at the p o in ts B an d C
a r e r efr a cted in t h e di r ecti o n s C E an d B D in t o the eye O f a n
O bse r ve r The r efr a cted r ays p r o duced b a ckwar ds in ter sect

.
a t S a n d c r o ss the n o rm a l
’
SA at the p o in ts m ar ked
W an d V E viden tly all .
,
the r ays fr o m S t hat fa ll

o n the r efr a cti n g pl an e at
p oin ts between B an d C
will a fter r efr a ctio n in
, ,
t e r se c t SA a t p o in ts b e
tween V an d W Sup .
p o se th at the figu r e is
FIG . 6 6 — O b liq
. f ti
ue r e r ac t pl
on a r ev o lved
a n e sur ar o un d SA a s
f
axis then e a ch ray will
ace
,
gen er ate a c o n ic a l su r fa ce an d the ver tices o f these c o n es will

,
be at the p o in ts S V an d W f o r the r ays th at ar e a ctu ally

, ,
d r awn in the diagr am The bundle Of r ays th a t en ter the eye

.
a t D E will b e a s m all p o r ti o n o f th e r efr a cted r a ys th a t ar e
c on t a in ed between the c o n ic al su rfa ces wh o se ver tices ar e

a t V an d W These c on ic a l sur fa ces in ter sect ea ch o th e r in
.
the cir cle which is descr ibed by th e p o in t S when the figu r e ’
is r o t ated ar o un d t h e axis SA an d i t is a little elem en t Of

,
a r c o f t his ci r cle pe r pe n dicul ar t o the pl an e O f the di a g r am
a t S th a t c o n t a in s t h e p o in ts o f in te r secti o n o f the r a ys th a t
’
e ter the eye T is is c alled the p

n h . r im a r y i m a g e —
li n e Of
the n ar r o w bun dle Of r efr a cted r ays Ther e is an o ther .
im age lin e at V c all ed the secon dar y i ma g e—lin e which lies in ,
t h e pl an e o f the p a pe r an d whic h is ge n e r a lly t ake n a s p e r

,
p e n dic ular t o the a xis o f the bun dle O f r efr a cted r ays th o ugh ,
s om etim es it is c o n sider ed as t h e segm en t VW o f the axis

o f r ev o luti o n But these ar e in t r ic ate m atte r s th at c an be
.
On l y a lluded t o in this pl a ce (S e e C .h a pte r XV ) .

§ 44] Pa h t of R ay th r o ug h Pla t e 1 01
44 Path
. of a R ay R e fr ac t e d Th r o ugh a S l ab
with Pl an e
Par allel S i de s .
— When a ray Of light t r ave r ses seve r a l m edi a
in successi o n then ,
n1 . sin a1 = etc
n z sin a l
’
, n z sin =n3 sin a g
’
, .
,
wher e n 1 n 2 n etc den o te the i n dices o f r efr a ctio n o f the

, , 3, .
,
m e di a an d a a ;
, (1 etc den o te the an gles of in ciden ce
l , l
’
2
,
.
,
r efr a cti on at the v ar i o us su r f a ces o f sep ar ati o n In the .
FIG . 6 7 — Pa t
. h o f r a y r e f r ac t e d t h hpr ou g l at e wit hp lan e p ar all e l side s.
special c a se when these r efra ctin g surfa ces a r e a seri es of

p ar a llel p lan es the a n gle o f in cide n ce a t o n e pl an e will be
,
equ al t o the an gle o f r efr a ctio n at the p r ecedin g plan e

( k + 1 a k wher e the in tege r I
= t de n o tes the n um be r o f the
’
a ,
plan e) .
The s im p lest c a se o f this kin d o ccu r s when ther e ar e o n ly

two p a r a lle l r ef r a cti n g p lan es an d whe n the l a st m e dium is ,
1 02 Mirr or s ,
Pr ism s an d Le n se s M4
[
the sam e as the fi r st as fo r exam ple in the c ase o f a sla b
, , ,
Of gl ass b o un ded by pl an e p ar a llel sides an d su rr o un ded b y
air a s r ep r ese n ted in Fig

,
67 Then . .
n3 =n1=n n2 =n ’
, ,
an d al
’
a2 = a
’
.
Acc o r din gly , we h ave the fo llo win g p air of e qu atio n s
an d, ther efor e :
,
a1 = a
(1 2 ;
which m e an s that the r ay em e rges fr om the slab in the s ame
dir ecti on as it en ter e d it Thus when a r ay of li g ht tr averses
.
,
a sla b
wi th p la n e p a r a llel side s whi ch i s b ou n ded by the same
medium on b oth sides, the emerg en t m y will b e p ar a llel to the
i n ci de n t r ay. Obvio usl y ,
t hi s st atem en t m ay be am plified
fo ll o ws :
Wh
'
as en a r ay o f li g ht tr a verses a seri es o f medi a e a ch
sep ara ted f r om the n ext by on e o f a seri es o f p ar a lle l r ef r a c ti n g

p lan es, the fi n al an d ori g i n a l di r ecti on s of the m y will b e
p a r a lle l, pr ovi ded the fi r st an d last medi a ha ve the same i n dex
The ly eff ect Of t he in ter p o sitio n o f the gl ass plat e

on
( g
F i 6
. 7 ) in t h e p a th o f t h e r ay is t o shift the p a th t o o n e
side with o ut a lte r in g the dir ecti on o f the ray It m ight b e .
in ferr ed ther efor e th at the app ar en t p o sition o f an O bj ec t

, ,
a s seen th r o ugh such a pl at e o f gl a s s w o uld n o t be alter ed ,
but thi s is n o t t rue in gen er a l as we sh all p r o ceed t o explain

,
.
Ever y r ay th a t t r ave r ses the pl ate will be f o un d t o be dis

pla c e d at r igh t an gles t o its o r igin al p o sition thr ough a dis
t an ce
E2D
sm (a
fwd ;
c os a
wher e d den o tes the thickn ess Of the plate . Sin ce
,
n
the fo rmula ab o ve m ay be put a ls o in the fo llo win g fo rm

sin a —n ) d
(V n sin
’ 2 2 2
n a. c o s a.
B 21)
.
44] Pl a t e t
wi h Plan e Par a lle l Fac e s 1 03
Acc o r din gly the shif t E 2D varies with the sl o pe o f the in

,
e iden t r ay If the O bj ect is very far a way the r ays th a t

.
,
en ter the eye will be p ar all el so th at the app ar en t p o sition ,
O f a dist an t o b j ect will n o t be a lte r ed in the slightest by view
in g it th r o ugh a pl a te Of gl a ss with pl an e p ar a llel sides n o

m a tter wh a t m ay be the an gle O f in ciden ce Of the r ay s an d
,
c on sequen tly t he plate m ay b e tur n ed t o the r ays at dif

,
FIG 68 — A pp p o sit io n of o b j h hp l a t e wit h

p p
. . ar e n t e c t se e n t roug
la n e ar a ll e l si de s
fe r e n t gles with o ut p r o ducin g an y ch an ge in the a ppea r

an
a n ce o f the O b j ect as see n th r o ugh it But if the O bj ect .
p o in t S (Fig 6 8) is n e ar a t h an d an eye at E will see it in

.
,
the dir ectio n ES but when the gla ss is in ter p o sed it will
, ,
a ppe ar t o lie in the di r ecti o n E S wh ich is se n sibly di ffe r e n t

’
fr o m E S an d this differ en ce c an be in c r e a sed o r dim in ish ed

,
by r o tatin g the pl ate ar o un d an axis per pen dicular t o the

pl an e o f the figur e This p r in ciple is utili z ed very in gen i o usly
.
in the o r igi n a l fo rm O f o p hth alrn o m e t e r design ed by H E LM

H OLT Z (1 82 1 1 894) fo r m e asur in g the curvatur es of the r e
—
fr a ctin g su r fa ces o f the eye It is em pl o yed a ls o in an in str u

.
m e n t f o r m e asu r in g the di am ete r o f a m ic r O S OOp ic O bj ect

“
which Pr o fess or PO YNT IN G h as c alled the p ar a llel pl ate m i
,
c r o m ete r (see”
P r oc O p t C on v e n ti on.L o n d o n 1 90 p
.
, , 5 ,
.
1 04 Mir r or s ,
4
4 5 . S e g me n t s Of a Str aig h
The fi n ite p o r tio n o f t Ln e i
— .
a st r a ight lin e in cluded betwee n t w o p o in ts is c a lled a se g m en t
o f the li n e w hile e a ch o f the o the r t wo p a r ts o f the li n e is t o

,
be r egar ded as a p r o l o n gati o n o f the segm en t C on sider ed .
a s ge n e rat e d by the m o ti o n o f a p o in t a l o n g a st r aight lin e
fr o m a st artin g-p o in t o r o r igin A t o an e n d-p o in t o r term in us

m B the segm en t AB is ,
the step fr o m A t o B as
69 — S g m t t ig ht li : 01 the step AB T he '
FIG . . f
e en s o a s ra ne .
A B = BA
o r de r o f n am in g the t wo
“
c apit a l lette r s pla ced at the en ds Of a segm en t desc r ibes

the sen se Of the m o tio n o r the dir ecti o n o f the segm en t Thus .
,
with r espect t o di r ectio n the step BA (Fig 6 9) is exa ctly the .
r eve r se o f the step AB .
T wo step s AB an d C D a r e s aid t o b e c o n g rue n t t h at is , ,
AB = C D ,
p r o vided these step s ar e n o t o n ly e qu al in len gth but e x

e cu t e d in the s am e s e n se .
If A B C ar e th r ee p o in ts r an ged a lon g a st r aight lin e in

, ,
a n y o r de r th a t is if AB a n d C D a r e t wo steps a l o n g the s am e
, ,
st r aight lin e such that the e n d o f on e step Is the st artin g

p o in t o f the o ther then th e step A C is s aid t o be equ al t o
,
the sum o f the steps AB an d B C ; thus ,
AB +B C = AC ;
an d hen ce also
AB A C = AB — B C B C = AC
, .
Mo r e ove r if we supp o se th at the p o in t C is id e n tic al with

,
the p o in t A it fo llo ws th at ,
AB + BA 0 or AB
= — BA .
Thus if o n e of the two di r ectio n s alon g a st r aight lin e is

,
r eg ar ded as the p osi ti v e di r e cti on the o pp o site dir ectio n is ,
t o be r eck o n ed a s n e g a ti v e Fo r ex am ple if the dist a n ce

.
between A an d B is e qu a l t o 1 2 lin e ar un its an d if we put

,
AB = + 12 the BA
n ,
— 12 .
46] Ap p ar e n t P i ti os on 10 5
Sim il ar l y
ls o we m ay wr ite :
,
a ,
AB + B C + C A 0;
O r if X design ates the p o siti o n o f an y f o u r th po in t on the
st r aight lin e then ,
These ide as will be fo un d t o be o f gr e at service in t r e atin g

a ce rt ai n cl a ss o f p r o blem s in ge o m et r ic a l O ptics ; an d a n
a pplic a ti o n O f this m eth o d O f a ddi n g li e segm e n ts o ccu r s

n -
in the f o ll o wi n g secti o n .
46 Appar e n t Po siti on o f an o b j e c t se e n th r o ugh a

.
tr an spar e n t S l ab w h o s e Par a ll e l S i d e s ar e pe r pe n di c ul ar
to th e Lin e Of S igh t —
In
Fig 7 0 the lin e O f sight
.
j oin in g the o bj ect -po in t

M1 with the spect at or s ’
eye at E is pe r pen dicular

a t A 1 an d A2 t o the p ar a l
lel fa ces o f the t r an spar

e n t sl ab an d a ll the r ays
,
th at en ter the eye W 111 F 7 0 — D i pl m t f b j t vi w d

ppl p pdi lll l lyid t h g h pl t with
IG . . s ac e en O O ec e e
p ass thr ough the slab er en c u ar r ou a e
cl o se t o this axi al li n e .
an e ar a e S es ’
I n side the slab they will p r o ceed as if they ha d o rigin ated at

a p o in t M o n the lin e o f sight but be in g a g a i n r efr a cted
’
1 , ,
they will em er ge in t o the su r r oun din g m e dium a s if they had

c om e fr om a p o in t M which is the ap p a r en t p o siti o n Of the
2
’
O b j ect p o in t a s see n by r a ys th a t a r e ve r y n e a r ly p e r p e n
,
dic ular t o the fa ces O f the sl ab If n n den o te the in dices ’

.
,
O f r efr a cti o n o f the t wo m edi a t h e n a cc o r din g t o
5
41 an d , ,
4 we m ay wr ite the fo llo win g equ ati o n s :
?
“
,
M A1 1
7
_
A1
1
1
a
A
il
/l I A21
7,
“2
1 06 Mirr or s ,
Pri sm s an d Le n se s 46
Hen ce the app ar en t displa cem en t

,
of the Obj ec t is
M 1 M2 '
M 1 A 1 + A 1 A2 + A2 M 2 '
n n n
_
M 1A1 + A1 A2 (1 7 ) + Al M 1
_
A IAz ;
7
a cc o r din gly ,
if the thickn ess of the plate is den o ted b y
d = A 1A2 ,
n
'
— n
M1 M2 '
n
Thus we see th at the a pp ar en t displa cem en t in the lin e Of

,
sight depen ds o n ly o n the thickn ess Of the pl ate an d o n the

r el ative in dex o f r efr a cti o n (n : n ) an d is e n ti r ely in depen den t
’
,
Of the dist an ce Of the Obj ect -p o in t fro m the sl ab Hen ce .

,
a ls o the si z e O f the im a ge o f a s m all o bj ect viewed di r ectl y

,
thr o ugh a gla ss plat e is the s am e as th at o f the Obj ect but ,
its app ar en t si z e will be differ en t bec ause sin ce the im a ge ,
an d O bj ect a r e a t d iffe r e n t dist a n ces fr o m the e y e the an gle s ,
whi ch they subten d will be di ff er en t .
An Obj ect viewed pe r pen dicul a r l y th r o ugh a gl a ss pl ate

su rr o un ded b y air (n n 3 : = 2 ) will a ppe ar t o be o e t hi r d
’
n -
the thickn ess o f the plate n ear er the eye th an it r e ally is .
If the displ a cem en t Of the obj ect is den o ted b y x th at is , ,
if we put M l M 2 = x then ’
,
’
n d
n —
d x
This r elatio n has been utili z ed in a m eth o d o f determ in in g
the r elative in dex Of r efr a ction (n :n ) A m ic r o sc o pe S ’
.
p o in ted vertic a lly d o wn war ds is fo cused o n a fi n e sc r atch

o r Obj ect -p o i n t O A plate o f the m ater i al wh o se in dex
.
is t o be determ in ed is then in ser ted h o r i z o n t ally between

the Obj ect an d the Obj ective o f the m ic r o sc o pe The in ter .
p o sitio n o f the plate n ecessit ates a r e-fo cusin g o f the m i c r o

s c o pe in o r de r t o se e the O bj ect dist in ctl y which will ,
47] M ul t ip l e I m ag e s 1 07
n ow a ppe ar t o be at a p o in t O n e ar er the m icr o sc o pe by

’
the dist an ce x = OO This dist an ce x is e as ily a scer t ain ed

’
.
in te rm s Of the dist an ce th r o ugh which the O b j ective O f the

m ic r o sc o pe h as to be r a ised in o r de r t o o bt ai n a dis tin ct im a ge
o f the Ob j ect . The thic k n ess Of the pl ate is e asily m e asu r ed ,
an d c o n sequen tly we
, ,
h ave all the d at a fo r de

t e r m in in g the v a lue O f
n /u
'
. This m eth o d is
especially c on ven ien t for
Obt a in in g the in dex Of
r efr a cti o n of a li quid

(Fig .
47 M ulti pl e
. I mag e s
in th e two Par allel Fa ce s
O f a pl at e g l a ss M ir
— An o bj ect is r ep r o — M
li q id
r or . , F 7 1 IG . m . t f i d f f
e a su r e en o n ex o r e r ac
ti f
du c e d in a m et a llic m ir
on O a u ’
r o r by a s in gle im age but in a gl a ss m ir r o r which is silve r ed

,
o n the b a ck side the r e will be a se r ies Of im ages O f a n O bj ect
in fr o n t o f the gl a ss which m ay be r e a dily see n by l o o ki n g a

little Obliquely at the r e fl ectio n o f a c an dle flam e in an o r
,
din ary l o o kin g gl a ss The fi r st im age will be c o m p ar atively

.
fain t the sec o n d o n e the b r ightest an d m o st distin ct o f a ll

, ,
an d behin d these t wo p r in cip a l im a ges o th er im a ges m o r e
o r less sh a d o wy m ay a ls o be disce r n ed wh o se i n ten sities
dim in ish r a pidly un til they fade fr om view e n tir ely Thes e .
m ultiple im ages by r eflecti o n m ay a ls o be seen in a t r an s

p ar en t bl o ck o f gl ass with plan e p ar allel sides .
T he light fallin g o n the fi r s t su r fa ce is p ar tly r eflected an d

p artly r efr a cted It is this r eflected p o r ti o n th at gives r ise
.
t o the fi r st im a ge o f the se r ies The r ays th at a r e r efra cted

.
a c r o ss the pl a te will be p a r tly r e fl ected a t the sec o n d f a ce

“
a n d r etu r n i n g t o the fi r st f a ce a p o rt i o n o f this li ght will be

, ,
r efr a cte d b a ck in t o the a ir a n d give r ise t o the sec o n d im a ge
Of the se r ies ; while the o the r p o r ti o n o f the light will be r e

108 M i rr o r s ,
b a ck in t o the gla ss t o be again r eflected at the b a ck

fle c t e d
fa ce an d so o n In the di ag r am (Fig 7 2 ) the s o ur ce o f the
,
. .
light is supp o sed t o be at the p o in t m ar ked S an d the str aight ,
FIG 72 — Mu lt i p le w ag e s by fl e c t io n fr o m
p p
. . re
t he t wo a r a ll e l fac e s of a lat e of g l a ss .
lin e d r awn fr o m S per pen dicul ar t o the p ar all el faces Of

gl a ss slab m eets these fa ces in the p o in ts m ar ked A I an d A 2.
The p ath o f on e o f the rays c om in g fr om S is in dic ated in

47] M ul t i p le I m ag e s 1 09
the figu e r ,
an d it
be seen h ow it z ig zags b a ck an d fo r th
c an
between the t wo sides of the slab bec o m in g feebler an d ,
feebler in in ten sity at ea ch r eflectio n We c o n sider her e on ly .
such r ays fr om S as m eet the surfa ce very n e ar ly n o rm all y .
The ser ies o f im ages o f S will be fo rm ed at S S etc ’

, .
,
all lyin g o n the p r o l o n g ati o n o f the n o r m a l SA 1 A2 an d it is ,
bec ause these im a ges ar e all r an ged in a r o w o n e behin d the

o the r th at o r din ar ily whe n we l o o k in a m ir r o r we do n o t see
,
the im ages sep ar ated .
The r eflected r ay 1 pr o ceeds as if it had c om e fr om S the ’

,
p o siti on of this p o in t bein g determ in ed b y the r el atio n A l S ’
SA1 But the r efr a cted r ay c r o sses the sl ab a s if it h ad c o m e

.
fr om the p o in t T the p o siti o n o f which is dete rm i n ed by the

,
r el ati o n TA 1 = n SA 1 whe r e n de n o tes the in de x Of r efr a cti o n

,
Of the gl a ss (the o the r m ediu m bein g a ssu m ed t o be air o f
in dex un ity) A rr ivin g at the sec o n d fa ce t hi s r ay will be

.
,
r eflected a s if it h a d c om e fr o m a p o in t U such th at A2U
TA 2 R eturn in g t o the fir st su r face it will be p art ly r e

.
,
fr a cted o ut in t o the air a s the r ay m ar k e d 2 p r o ceedin g a s

if it c am e fr o m the sec o n d im ag e p o in t S t he p o siti o n o f
”
f ,
which is determ in ed b y the r el ation A 1 S = A l U/n ; an d als o

p artly r eflected as if it h a d c o m e fr om a p o in t V such th at
V A =
1 A 1 U The r ay is r eflected a sec o n d tim e at the sec o n d
.
f ace as if it ca m e fr om the p o in t W wher e A2W = VA ; an d

, , 2
bein g o n ce m or e r efr a cted at the fir st fa ce em er ges in t o the ,
air as the r ay m ar ked 3 appe ar in g n o w t o c o m e fr o m the

,
im age-p oin t m ar ked S determ in ed b y the r elatio n A 1 S

’
Wh at is the in terv al between im age an d the n ext ? on e
Fo r exam ple let us t ry t o o bt ain an exp r essi on f o r the in ter

,
v al This m ay be d on e as fo llo ws
U H I II III
S S S A 1 + A IS ;
= A 1W
A18 / n =
1 10 M i rr o r s ,
Oh . IV
wher e d = A1 A2 den otes the thickn ess of the glass plate .
Hen ce we fi n d :
,
U H I 2d
S S
n
It appe ar s ther efo r e th at the dist an ce between on e im age
5
, ,
2
an d the n ext is c o n st an t an d equ al to tim es the thick n ess
of the plate Thus fo r a a
.
,
a fo r hi gl ss pl te w ch n =3 2
/ the
dist an ce fr om on e im age t o the n ext is e qu al t o t h e t hick
n ess Of the pl ate .
PR OB LEMS
l A r ay of light t r ave r s es in successi on a ser ies Of is otr o pi c

.
m edi a b o un ded b y p ar allel pl an es a n d e m e r ges fin a lly in t o,
a m edium with the s am e in dex o f r efr a cti o n as th at Of the
fi r st m ediu m Sh o w th a t the fin a l p ath o f the r ay is p ar allel

.
t o its o r igin a l di r ecti o n .
2 C o n st r uct a ccu ra tel y the p ath s o f six ray s p r o ceedin g

.
fr o m a p o in t bel o w the h o r i z o n t al su r fa ce o f w ate r an d r e

fr a cted in t o air ; an d sh o w wher e the Obj ect p o in t will appe ar
-
t o be a s seen b y an eye ab o ve the su r f a ce o f the w a te r f o r ,
th r ee differ en t p o siti on s o f the eye .
3 Why d o es the p ar t o f a stick o bli quel y imm e r sed in

.
w ater appe ar t o be ben t up to war ds the sur fa ce o f the w ater ?

Expl a in cle ar l y .
I
4 D er ive the form ula 2
12
4 efr a cti on p ar axi al
—
. fo r t he r of
ys pl an e sur fa ce
5
ra at a .
A r ay Of light in ciden t o n a pl an e r efr a ctin g sur fa ce at

.
an an gle a c r o sses a st r a ight li n e d r a wn pe r pen dicul a r t o t h e
sur fa ce at a dist an ce v fr o m this surfa ce H OW far fr om the .
su rfa ce do es the r efr a cted ray c r o ss this lin e ?

6 If a bi r d is 36 feet a b o ve the su r fa ce o f a p o n d h o w high
.
,
d o es it l o o k t o a diver wh o is un der the w ater ? Wh at is t he

a pp ar e n t depth Of a p o o l o f w a te r 8 feet deep ?
An s 48 feet ab o ve the su r fa ce ; 6 feet

. .
Ch . IV] Pr o b le m s 111
7 . Wh a t will be the eff ect the app ar en t dist an ce Of an

on
O bj ect if a sl ab O f t ran s p a r e n t m a te r i a l with pl an e p ar a ll el
sides is in terp o sed at r ight an gles t o the li n e Of visi on ?

An s It will a ppe ar t o be n e a r e r the eye by the am o un t
.
(n 1 )/ d whe r e d
,
de n o tes the thick n ess o f the sl ab an d 77 de .
n o tes the in dex O f r efr a cti o n o f the m ate r i al .
8 A cube o f gl a ss o f i n de x o f r efr a cti o n

. is pla c e d o n a
flat h o r i z o n t al pictu r e ; whe r e d o es the pictu r e appe ar t o b e
,
t o an eye l o o k in g p e r pe n dicul a r ly d o wn o n it ?
A s It will appe a t o be r a ised thr ee eighths o f the thi ck
n . r -
n ess O f the cube .
9 A m ic r o sc o pe is pl a ced ve rt ic ally ab o ve a s m all vessel

.
an d f o cused o n a m ar k o n the b a se o f the vessel A layer o f .
t r an sp ar en t liquid o f depth d is p o u r ed in the vessel an d then ,
it is fo un d th at the im age Of the m ark h as been disp la ced

th r ough a dist an ce x which is deter m in ed by r e -fo cusin g the
m ic r o sc o pe Sh o w th at the in dex Of r efr a cti o n O f the li quid
.
is e qu a l t o d/ (d x) — .
1 0 In an a ctu a l expe r im e n t m ade by the ab o ve m eth o d t o

.
determ in e the in dex of r efr a cti o n o f a lc oh o l the depth Of the ,
liquid was 4 c m an d the displa cem en t o f the im a ge was

.
,
f oun d t o be cm Wh at v a lue was fo un d fo r t h e in dex o f

.
a lc o h o l ? An s .
1 1 A c an dle is O bserved th r o ugh a t an k O f w ate r with

.
ver tic al pl an e gl ass walls The lin e o f sight is per pen dicul ar
5
.
t o the sides Of the t an k the c an dle bein g 1 c m fr o m o n e

,
.
side an d 39 cm fr o m the Opp o site sid e Wh at is the app ar en t

. .
p o sitio n Of the c an dle ? (N eglect the eff ect o f the thin gla ss
w a lls ) An s It appear s t o be 9 c m fr o m the n e ar side
. . . .
1 2 If an Obj ect Viewed n o r m a lly th r o ugh a pl a te o f gl a ss

.
with plan e p ar allel fa ces seem s t o be fi v e -sixths o f an in ch

n e ar e r th an it r e a lly is h o w thick is the gl a ss ?,
An s in ches . .
13 A l aye r o f ethe r 2 c m deep flo ats o n a l aye r o f w ate r

. .
3 c m deep Wh at is t he app ar en t dist an ce o f the b o tt o m o f

. .
1 12 Mir r o r s ,
Oh . IV
the vessel bel o w the fr ee su r fa ce o f the ether ? (Take in dex o f
r efr a cti o n o f w a te r = an d o f ethe r =
An s . cm .
14 A pe r s o n lo o ks per pen dicular ly in t o a m ir r o r m ade

.
pl te gl ss t ck ess e h a lf in ch sil ve r ed o n the b a ck
5
Of a a o f hi n o n - .
If hi s eye is at a dist an ce o f 1 in ches fr o m the fr o n t fa ce ,
wher e will his im a ge appe ar t o be ?

in ches fr o m the fr on t fa ce
5
An s . .
1 When a stick is p artly im m er sed in a t r an sp ar en t

.
li quid Of in dex n at an an gle 0 with the fr ee h o r i z o n t al sur

fa ce wh a t is the an gle 0 whi ch the p a r t o f the stick bel o w
,
’
the sur fa ce a ppe ar s t o m ake with the h o r i z o n as seen by an

eye l o o kin g ver tic ally d own on it fr om the air ab o ve the
li quid ?
t an 0
’
An s .
C HA PT E R V
RE FRA C T IO N
‘
T H RO UG H A PR ISM
48 D e fin itio n s , e tc
. ptic a l p r ism is a lim ited p o r tio n
.
— An O
O f a highly t r an sp ar e n t subst an ce with p o lished pl an e f a ces
wher e the light is r eflected o r r efr a cte d Pr is m s in a .
gr ea t var iet y o f geo m et r ic a l fo r m s a n d c o m bin atio n s ar e

e m pl o yed in m an y typ es o f m o de r n O ptic al in str u m en ts (cf .
20 ,
but in this ch a pte r the ter m p ri sm will be r e
st r ic t e d t o m e an a p o r ti o n o f a t r a n sp a r e n t is o t r o pic sub ,
st an ce in cluded between t wo p o lished pl an e fa ces th at ar e

n o t p ara llel The st r aight lin e in which the plan es Of the
.
t wo f a ces m eet is c a lled the e dg e o f the p r ism an d the di ,
h e dr al an gle betwee n these pl an es is c a lled the r ef r a cti n g an g le .
This an gle which will be den oted by the sym b o l 6 m ay be

,
m o r e p r ecisely defi n ed as the c on v ex a n g le thr ou g h whi ch the

,
fi r st f a ce o f the p r i sm has to b e tu r n e d a r ou n d the edg e of the
p r i sm as a xi s in or der to b ri n g thi s f a ce i n to c oi n ci den ce wi th

the secon d The fi r st fa ce Of the p r ism is th at side wher e
f a ce .
the r ays en te r an d the sec o n d fa ce is the side fr o m whi ch the

r ays e m e r ge E ve r y secti o n m a de by a pl an e pe r pen dicul ar
.
t o the e dge o f the p r is m is a p ri n ci p a l se cti on a n d we sh all ,
c o n si der on ly such r ays as t r aver se the p r is m in a p r in cip al

section n o t o n ly bec ause the p r o blem Of o blique r efr a ctio n
,
thr ough a p r ism p r esen ts s o m e difficulties which a r e bey o n d

the sc o pe Of t hi s v o lum e but especially bec ause in a ctu al
,
p r a ctice the p r in cip al r ays ar e usu ally c on fin ed t o a p r in cip a l

section o f the p r ism It will als o be a ssum ed fo r sim plicity
.
, ,
th at the p rism is su rr o un ded b y the s am e m edium on b oth

sides .
I Geometri cal In vesti g ati on

.
49 Co n struc tio n o f Path of a R ay T h ro ugh a Pr i sm

. .
The plan e Of the diagr am (Fig 73 ) r ep r esen ts the p r in cip a l .
1 13
1 14 M i rr o r s ,
secti on p rism wh o se edge m eets t hi s plan e pe rpe n dic u

Of a
larly at the p o i n t m ar ked V The t r a ces Of the t wo plan e

.
fa ces a r e sh o wn by the st r aight lin es Z IV Z V in ter sect in g at , 2
V The str aight lin e AB l r ep r esen ts the p ath of the given

.
in ciden t r ay lyi n g in the plan e o f the p r in cip al sectio n an d
F IG 7 3 — C o n st r u c t i o n of p h o f r ay t hr o u g hp r in c i p al s e c t io n
p (
. . at
'
of ri sm n >n ) .
fallin g o n the fi r st fa ce Of t he p r is m at the in ciden ce -p oin t B 1 .
The p r o blem o f c o n st r uctin g the p ath Of the r ay b o th within

the p r is m an d after em er gen c e fr o m it is s o lv e d b y a m eth o d
essen tially the s am e as th at em pl o yed in 34 .
Le t n de n o te the in dex O f r efra cti o n o f the m edium sur

r o un din g the p r is m an d n the i n dex o f r efr a cti o n o f the p r is m
’
m edium itself With the p o in t V a s ce n te r an d with r a d ii

.
,
e qu a l
n
to r an d wher e the ra dius r m ay h ave an y c o n
v e n ie n t len g th desc ribe the ar cs o f t wo c o n cen t r ic ci r cles b o th

,
lyin g within the an gle Z VE whe r e E design ates a p o in t on

z
t h e p r o l o n ga ti o n Of the st r a ight li n e Z 1 V bey o n d V Th r o ugh

,
.
§ 49] C on s t ru c ti on of R ay th r o ug h Pr i sm 11 5
Vd w a st r aight lin e VG p arallel t o AB m e etin g the ar c
ra 1
o f r a dius n r / n in the p o in t d esign a te d by G ; a n d th r o ugh

’
the p o in t G d r aw a str a ight lin e G E pe r pen dicul ar at E t o

the fi r st fa ce o f the p r ism (p r o duced if n ecess ar y) an d let H ,
design ate the p o in t wher e the st r aight lin e G E (lik ewise

p r o duced if n ecess a ry ) m eets the cir cum fer en ce Of the o the r
o f the t w o ci r cul ar a r cs Then the st r aight lin e B 1 B d ra wn
.
2
p ar allel t o the st r aight lin e VH will r ep r esen t the p ath o f

the r ay within the p r ism Fo r if the st r a ight lin e N N is the
.
1 1
’
in cide n ce -n o rm a l t o the fi r st fa ce o f the p r is m at t he p o in t

B 1 an d if the a n gles Of in cide n ce an d r efr a cti o n at this fa ce
,
a r e de n o ted by then b y the

law o f r efr a cti o n
But b y t he c on st ructio n
sin A E GV
VH n ’
_ _
smA E H V VG
’
n
an d sin ce a 1 it f o ll o ws th at
A E G V= A N 1 B 1 A a ;
, A E HV= l
’
an d he n ce the p ath o f the r ay wit hi n the p r is m m ust be
p ar allel t o VH .
Aga in fr o m the p o in t H let fall a per pen dicul ar H F o n

,
the sec o n d fa ce o f the pr ism wher e F design ates the fo o t o f ,
this per pen dicul ar ; an d let J design ate the p o in t whe r e H F

in te r sects the ar c O f r a dius n r/n Then the st r aight lin e ’
.
E C d r awn fr o m the in ciden c e -p o in t B 2 p ar a llel t o the st r aight

g
lin e VJ will r ep r esen t the p ath Of the em e r gen t r ay F o r if .
we d ra w N N p erpen dicular t o the sec o n d fa ce o f the p r ism

2 2
’
a t B 2 a n d if the a n gles o f i n cide n ce an d r efr a cti o n at this

,
fa ce ar e den o ted by a 2 = A N B 2B re 2 1,
:
sp e c t iv e ly then n sin a 2 = n si n a But
’ ’
, . .
2 .
sin A FJ V VH
"
n ’
sin A FH V VJ n
an d si ce by c st r ucti
n on on A FH V = it fo ll o ws that
a 2,
A FJ V = a an d he n ce the p a th Of the em er gen t r ay will

’
z ,
be p ar allel t o VJ .
1 16 M i rr o r s ,
0
The diagr am (Fig 73) is d r awn fo r the c a se when n n as

.
’
in the o r di n a r y c a se o f a gl a ss p rism su rr o un ded by air T h e

,
studen t sho uld d r a w als o a diagr am fo r the o the r c a se when

n < n sh o win g the p r o cedu r e o f a r ay th r o ugh a p r is m of les s
’
,
hi ghly r efr a ctin g subst an ce than th at o f the sur r o un d in g

m edium f o r e x am ple an a ir p r is m su rr o u n ded by gla ss such
, , ,
as is f o r m ed b y the air -sp a ce between t wo sep ar ated gl a s s
p r ism s
5
.
0 T e D e vi ati o n Of a R ay b y a Pr i sm
. h — The tota l de .
vi a ti on o f a r ay r efr a cted th r o ugh a p r is m which is equ a l t o ,
the a lgeb r a ic sum o f the devi atio n s p r o duc e d b y the t wo

r efr a cti o n s m ay be defi n ed a s the an gle e = 6 1 + 6 2
thr o ugh which the dir ecti o n Of the e m er gen t r ay m ust b e
turn ed in o r der t o b r in g it in t o the dir ectio n Of the in ciden t
r ay ; thus in i
F g 73 6
,
.
: A J VG ; an d if the an gle 6 is m e a s
,
u r e d in r a di an s t h e ar c J G = e J V
,
In o r der t o specif y
. .
c o m pletely an an gul ar displa cem en t it is n ecess ar y t o give ,
n o t o n ly the m a gn itude o f the a n gle an d the sen se o f r o t a ti o n
o f the r a dius vect o r but a ls o the pl a n e in which the displ a ce

,
m en t o ccu r s . This pl an e m ay be specified by givin g t he

dir ecti o n Of a lin e per pen dicular t o it whi ch in the c a se Of ,
the an gle her e un der c o n sider atio n m ay be the edge o f the

p rism o r an y lin e p ar a llel t o it ; bec ause an y such lin e will
be per pen dicular t o the p r in cip a l sectio n o f the p r ism in
which the r ay lies In fa ct the an gle 6 m ay be c om pletel y
.
,
r ep r ese n ted in a di a gr am by a st ra ight l in e d ra wn p a r a llel
t o the edge o f the p r is m which by its len gth in dic a tes t h e

,
m a gn itude o f the an gle an d b y its di r ecti o n sh o ws the sen se

Of r o t a ti o n Thus fo r ex am ple the lin e m ay be d r awn alo n g
.
, ,
the edge o f the p r ism itself fr o m a p o in t V in the plan e of the

p rin cip al secti on an d alwa ys in such a dir ectio n that o n
l o o kin g alo n g the lin e t o war ds th at plan e A JVG = 6 will
be seen t o be a c o un ter -cl o ckwise r o t atio n A devia ti o n o f .
20 in a p r i n cip a l secti o n c o i n cidi n g say with the pl an e Of

°
,
the p aper wo uld be r ep r esen ted ther efo r e by a str aight lin e
,
, ,
per pen dicular t o this plan e Of len gth 2 0 c m if e ach degr e e .

,
5
] 1 R ay
“Gr a zes
”
on e Fa c e of Pr ism 1 17
we e be ep r ese ted by
r to r n ce on e If n tim eter
this . 6 :
lin e w o uld p o in t o ut fr o m th e p a per t o w ar ds the r ea der an d ,
if e = it w o uld p o in t a wa y fr o m him Thus if the

“ “
.
,
p r ism o r igin ally b a se d o wn is tu rn ed b a se up (as the

, ,
” ”
o ptici an s say ) ever ythin g else r em a in in g the s am e the sign

, ,
O f the a n gle 6 w ill be r eve r se d a n d so a ls o will be the dir e c

,
ti o n Of the vect o r which r ep r ese n ts this an gle

5
.
1 G r a z in g In ci de n c e an d G r a z in g E m e r g e n c e
.
—The .
a n gle GH J betwee n the n o rm a ls t o the t wo f a ces o f the p r is m
is equ a l t o the r efr a ctin g an gle 6 a n d hen ce f o r a given p r ism

this an gle will r em ain a lways c o n st an t N o m atte r h o w the .
dir ecti on Of the i n ciden t r ay AB (o r VG ) m ay be v ar ie d 1 ,
t h e ve r tex H O f this an gle will lie a l ways o n a ce r t ai n p o r ti o n

O f the ci r cum fe r e n ce o f the c o n st r ucti o n ci r cle o f r a dius r -
,
a n d the sides H G H J will r e m ai n a lw ays in the s am e fi x ed

,
d ir ecti o n s per pen dicular t o the fa ces Of the p r ism Obvi o usly .
,
ther e will be t wo ext r em e o r lim itin g p o siti o n s o f the p o in t H

m a r kin g the e n ds o f the ar e o n which it is c o n fin ed n am ely , ,
the p o siti on s whi ch H h as when o n e o f the sides Of the an gle

G H J is t an gen t t o the ci r cle O f r a di u s u r /n ; which c an o ccu r
’
o n ly f o r the c a se whe n n > n bec a u se o the r wise the p o i n t H

’
,
will lie in side the cir cum fer en ce Of this cir cle an d ther efo r e
it will be im p o ssible fo r eithe r H G o r H J t o be t an gen t t o it
If the side H G is t an gen t t o the i n n e r ci r cle at G as sh o wn
.
in Fig 74 t h e p o in t G will lie in the pl an e o f the fi r st fa ce

.
,
O f the p r is m an d a cc o r di n gly the c o r r es p o n di n g r a y i n ciden t

,
o n the fi r st fa ce o f the p r is m a t the p o in t B which m ust 1,
h ave the dir ecti o n VG will be the r ay Z IE 1 whi ch en ter in g

“
, ,
the p rism at g r az in g i n ci den ce ”

t rave r ses the
p r ism as sh o wn in the figu r e .
On the o the r h an d when the side H J o f the a n gle G H J is

,
t an gen t at J t o the c o n st r uctio n cir cle o f r a dius n r /n (Fig

-
’
.
the p o in t J will lie in the sec o n d fa ce O f the p r ism an d the ,
st r aight lin e VJ will c o in ci de with the st r aight lin e VZ 2.
Un de r these ci r cu m st an ces the r a y e m e r ges fr o m the p r is m a t

B a l o n g the sec o n d fa ce in the dir ecti o n B Z ( a
2 2 2 2
’
18 Mirr o r s ,
1
The st r aight li n e KB I sh o ws the p ath Of the r ay in ciden t on

“
the fi r st fa ce o f the p r is m at B 1 which g r a z es the sec o n d ”
fa ce o n em er gin g fr o m the p r ism An y r ay in ciden t a t B 1 an d

.
lyin g in the p r in cip a l secti o n Of the p r is m within the an gle

KB 1 Z will succeed in gett in g th r o ugh the p r ism an d em er gin g
1
F IG . 7 4— C ase w
. h en r ay g r az e s fi r st f ac e of p m
ris .
in t o the su rr o un din g m edium a ga in ; wher ea s if the r ay in

e ide n t a t B lies an ywher e within the an gle VB l K it will
1 ,
be tota lly r eflected at the sec o n d fa ce o f t h e p r ism T h e .
r ay KB l is c a lled the li mi ti n g i n ciden t r a y a n d A N 1 B 1 K = L
is t he li mi ti n g an g le of i n ciden ce These r el atio n s wil l b e

.
discussed m o r e full y in the an alyt ic al in vestig ati o n Of t h e

p ath o f a r ay th r o ugh a p ri sm but it m ay b e 5
5 ,
r em a r ked th a t A G H V = a in Fig 7 4 an d A J H V = G in
5
’
l .
2
Fig 7 a r e b o th equ al t o the c r itic a l an gle A

. 36 ) with
r espect t o the t wo m e di a n n
’
,
5
] 2 M i n im u m De vi a t i o n 1 19
5Mi
2 . ni mum De v i ati Between the t wo ext r em e or
on . —
term in al p o sitio n s of the ve r tex H o f A GH J sh o wn in

Figs 74 an d 7
. 5
ther e is als o an in te rm edi ate pl a ce which is
,
Of speci a l in te r est an d im p o rt a n ce a n d t o w hi ch the r ef o r e
In ge n e r al the sides H G H J in te r
, ,
a tten ti o n m ust be c a lled .

, ,
E /
FIG 7
. 5
.
— C ase w h en r ay g ra z e s se c o n d fa c e of p r is m .
c e pt e d between the t wo c o n st r ucti o n -ci r cles (Fig 7 3 ) will .
be un equ al in len gth but if H G H J as in Fig 76 the an gles

, .
G VJ G H J an d E VF will evide n tly a ll be bisected b y the

, ,
diago n a l VH o f the qu a d r an gle VGH J When this h appen s .

,
the p ath B B o f the r ay in side the p r is m which is p arallel

1 2 ,
t o VH cr osses the p ri sm symme tri ca lly th a t is the t r i an gle

, , ,
VE B 2 is is o sceles In fa ct the p o in ts design ated in the dia

1 .
g r am by the lette r s V D an d O will be the summ its o f is o s

,
celes t r i an gles h avin g the c o mm on b a se B 1B a n d they will 2,
a ll lie the r efo r e o n the bi sect o r o f the r efr a cti n g a n gle 6

120 M irr o r s ,
Pr isms an d Le n se s 5 2
A Z 1 VZ 2 , which is per pen dicular t o VH The an gle Of in .
c ide n c e at the fi r st f a ce an d the an gle O f em e r ge n c e at t h e
sec o n d fa ce a r e e qu al in m ag n itude alth o ugh they ar e de ,
sc r ibed in o pp o site sen ses so th at a = a The s am e is , 2

’
l .
t rue als o in r egar d t o the an gles whi ch the r ay m akes in side
FIG . 76 — R ay t r a v p y
m m e t ri c all
r i sm s y (V B1 VB z)
v
. e r se s ; c ase
O f m i n im u m d e i a t io n .
the p r ism with the n o rm a ls t o the t wo fa ces th at is

, ,
’
al .
Now when the r ay t r aver ses the p rism symm et r ic ally a s ,
r ep r ese n ted in Fig 76 the devi ati o n 6 h as its le a st v alue

.
,
s
o . In o r de r t o sh o w th a t this is t r ue it will be c o n ve n ie n t ,
t o r ep r o duce the sym m et r ic a l qu a d r an gle VG H J in Fig 7 6 .
in a sep ar ate di a gr am a s in Fig 7 7 Supp o se th at H de sig

’
.
,
n ates the p o siti o n o f a p o i n t in fi n itely n e a r t o H lyin g likewis e
o n the ar c O f the ci r cle Of r a dius r an d d r a w H G

’
HJ
’ ’ ’
, ,
p ara llel t o H G H J an d m e etin g the ar c o f the o ther cir cl e

in the p o in ts G J r espectively
,
In the figu r e the p o in t H

’ ’ ’
.
, ,
is t aken b elow the p o in t H an d in this c a se it is pl ain th at,

5
]
2 M in im um De vi at i on 121
the t wo p ar allels H J H J will m eet the cir cum fer en ce o f

,
’ ’
the in n er ci r cle m or e Ob li quely th an t h e o ther p air o f p ar a llel

lin es H G H G an d c on sequen tl y the in fin itely s m all ar c
’ ’
, , , ,
J J in ter cepted between

’
the fi r st p a ir w i l l be
gr eater th an the ar c G G ’
in ter cepted between the

sec o n d p a ir He n ce the
.
,
sm all an gle J VJ will be’
gr eater th an A G VG an d ’
,
ther efo r e
The an gle J V G her e is the

an gle o f devi ati o n ( s ) o f
f m i i m m d vi t i
o
F 77 — C IG .
the r ay th at g o es sym . ase o n u e a on .
m et r ic all y th r o ugh the p r ism ; whe r e a s A J VG e is the a n gle

’ ’
o f devi ati o n O f a ray w hi ch t r ave r ses the p ri s m a l on g a ve r y
slightly differ en t p ath An d a cc o r din g t o the ab o ve r e as on

.
in g (fo r we sh all a rr ive at the s am e r esult if we t ake the

p oin t H als o ab ove H ) we fi n d
’
,
60 .
Acc or din gly we see th at the r ay whi ch tr a ver ses the p ri sm sym
,
metr ica lly i n the p la n e of a p r i n c ip a l se cti on is a lso the r ay
whi ch i s le a st devi a ted .
It is e a sy t o ver ify this st atem en t exper im en t ally Thus .

,
f o r ex am ple if a b un dle o f p ar a llel r ays is a ll o w ed t o fa ll o n

,
a n is o sceles t r i an gul ar p r is m so th a t while s o m e Of t h e r ays
a r e in cide n t o n o n e o f the e q u a l f a ces an d ar e t r an s m itted

,
thr ough th e p r ism the o ther r ays o f t h e bun dle ar e r e fl ected

,
fr om the b ase Of the pr ism a s r ep r esen ted in (1 ) in Fig 78 ;

,
.
a n d if the n the p r is m is g r a du ally tu r n ed a r o un d an axis
p ar allel t o its edge fi r st in t o p o sition

,
which is the p o si
,
tion o f min im um devi a tio n and then p a st t his p o siti on in t o

,
a thi r d p o siti o n it will be Observed th at when the p r ism

is in the p o sition o f m in im um devi ation the ray s r eflected
fr o m the b a se will be p arallel t o the r ays which em er ge at
1 22 Mir r or s ,
the sec on d fa ce o f the p r is m ; which c an o n ly b e the c ase

when the r ays cr o ss the p r ism s ymm etr ic ally .
In spec tr o sc o pic w o r k an d in m an y o the r scie n t ific us es o f

the p r is m the p o siti on o f m in i ,
‘
m um dev iati on which is e asil y ,
fo un d is fr e quen tly the m o st ,
c on ven ien t an d a dvan t ageo us ad

justm en t o f the p r ism for pur po ses
Of o bserv ati on
5
.
3 De v i atio n away f ro m th e .
Ed g e Of th e Pr i sm —
When a ray .
f li g ht p asses
o thr ou g h a p ri sm of
m or e hi g hly r e r acti n
f g m ateri a l
than tha t o f the sur r ou n di n g me
dia m the devi a ti on i s al
ways a wa y fr om the edg e towards

the thi ck er p a r t of the p ri sm .
If the an gles Of the t r ian gl e

VE 1B 2 (Fig 7 9) . at B1 an d B2 ar e
b o th a cute the in ciden t an d ,
em er gen t r ays lie on the sides o f

the n o r m a ls at B an d B 2 aw ay
7 8 — E p im p f fr om the pri sm -edge SO that at 1
F t l
th t y whi h t v
IG . . x er en a ro o
p i m ym m t i ll y i m y b o th r efr action s the r ay will b e

a ra c ra e r se s ,
f m i im m d vi t i
r s s e r ca s
O n u
ben t away fr om the edge If
e a on .
o n e o f the an gles the an gle at B 2 is a r ight an gle

'
say , , , ,
the r ay will n o t be deviated at all b y the r efr a cti on at

this p oin t but at the o ther in ciden ce-p o in t it will be ben t
,
aw ay fr o m the edge An d fin a ll y if o n e Of the an gles at B 1

.
, ,
Or B 2 is o btuse f o r ex am ple the an gle at B 1 (Fig

,
the ,
.
devi ati o n o n e n te r in g the p r is m will it is t r u e be t o w ar d s , ,
the e dge o f the pr ism but this devi ation wil l n ot be so gr eat
,
a s the subseque n t devi ati o n a w ay fr o m the edge w hi ch is
pr o duc e d at the sec o n d r efr a ctio n when the r ay issues fr om

the p r ism as m ay be e asily seen fr om the dia gr am Thus
, .
,
5
4] Pl an e Wa v e R t
e fr a c e d T hr o u g h Pr i sm 23
in every c ase when n n the t o t al devi atio n will be away

’
,
fr om the p r ism -edge .
If n < n all these eff ects will be r ever sed

’
, .
FIG . 79 — D e iat io n
. v aw a y fr o m e dg e o f p m
r is .
54 R e fr ac ti o n
. of a Pl an e Wav e T h ro u g h a Pr i sm .
The diagr am (Fig 8 1 ) sho ws a p r in cip al sectio n Of the p r is m

.
,
an d the st r a ight li n e B 1 D r ep r ese n ts the t r a ce O f a pl a n e
w ave (supp o sed t o be perpen dicular t o the plan e Of t h e

p aper an d p ar allel ther efo r e t o the
edge Of the pr ism ) a dvan cin g t o
w ar ds the fir st fa ce Of the pr ism in
the dir ectio n DV at r ight an gles t o
B ID . If ar o un d the p o in t B 1 which ,
lies in the fi r st fa ce o f the p r ism the ,
ar c Of a ci r cle is desc r ibed wit h r a
dius BE =
£ DV, then , a cc o r din g to
H uY GE N s pr in ciple
’
s the v y F IG . 8 0 — D e ia t io n
. aw a
fr o m e dg e O f m m “
str aight lin e VE t an gen t t o this cir cle
at E will r ep r ese n t the t r a ce o f the w ave-fro n t in side the p r is m .
Le t t h e straight lin e B 1 E m e et the sec on d fa ce o f the p r is m
at B2 . Aro un d V as cen ter with r a dius VF =

3 EB 2 desc r ibe
the ar c o f a cir cle ; the n the st raight lin e B 2 F t an gen t to this
124 Mirr o r s ,
5
c ir cle at F will r epr e sen t the trace of the em ergen t wave
fr o n t .
T he dist u rb an c e at an y p o in t C will h ave em an ated fr om

s om e p oin t o n AB 1 an d the t im e ,
t ake n b y the light t o g o fr o m B 1 t o

B 2 in side the p r is m will be t he
s am e as that r e quir ed t o g o fr om
D t o F in t he su rr o un d in g m e
dium th at is the Optic al ,
len gths a lon g these t wo r o utes

a r e e qu al Fo r as app e ar s fr om
p
.
,
F IG -R e f r a c t i o n Of l an e the c on st r uctio n
v h hp
. 81
,
wa e t roug r ism .
’
n . B 1B 2 .
An ex cell en t an d m o st in st r uctive m ech an ic al illu st rati o n

Of the r efr a cti o n o f a pl an e w ave th r o ugh a p r is m c an be Ob
t ain e d by us in g the r o lle r an d tilted b o ar d desc r ibed in 32

with a t r i an gular piece o f plush cl o th glued in t he m iddle
o f t he b o ar d t o r ep r e se n t the p r is m (see Fig .
II An a lyti ca l In vesti g a ti on
5
5i
.
Tr g o n o me tr i c C al c ul ati o n o f t h e Path
. of a Ray in a
Prin c ipal S e c ti o n Of a Pr i s m — The an gles o f in ciden ce an d .
r efr a cti o n at the fi r st an d sec on d f a ces o f th e p r is m de n o ted ,
by a 1 a an d a z ar e b y defin itio n 2 7 the a cute an gles

, 1
’ ’
, ,
th r o ugh whi ch the n o rm als t o the r efr a ctin g su rfa ces at the
in cide ce p o in ts h ave t o be tu rn ed in o r der t o b r in g them in t o
n -
c oin ciden ce with the in ciden t an d r efr a cted r ays at the two
fa ces Of the p r ism ; thus in Fig 73 A N 1 B 1A = al A N 1 B 1B 2 ,
.
, ,
’
l Nn B l : [ N2 B 2 0 =
’ I
al
'
Assum in g th at the p r ism is surr o un ded b y the sam e me

dium o n b o th sides an d bein g c ar eful t o n o te the sen se Of
,
r o t a ti o n o f e a ch o f the an gles we O bt ai n b y the law Of r e ,
fra ctio n t aken in c o n jun ctio n with the o bvio us ge om et r ic al

,
r el ati o n s a s sh o wn in the figur e the f o ll o win g syst em of ,

5
]6 To t lR
a e fle c ti on in Pr i sm 12 5
e quatio n s for c alculatin g the p ath o f a r ay thr ough a pr in
c ip al secti o n o f a p r is m :
= d
6
’
al ,
a2 l ,
n . sin
C o m bin in gthese fo r m ul ae so as t o elimi n ate a an d a we ’

l 2,
m ay der ive the f o ll o win g c o n ve n ien t exp r essio n f o r dete r

m in in g the an gle o i em e r gen ce a t the sec o n d f a ce o f the
p r i sm
= sin a 1 c o s — sin 8
sin a 2 fi
’
.
,
n
Thus ,
kn o w the v alue o f the r el ative in dex of r efr a ction
if we
an d the r efr a ct in g an gle o f the p r is m
we c an c alcul ate the an gle o f em e r gen ce ( a ) c o r r esp o n din g

’
g
t o an y given dir ecti o n ( a l ) o f the r ay in ciden t o n the fi r st

fa ce of the pr ism .
The t ot al deviati on ( 6 ) o f a r ay r efr a cted th r ough a p r ism

is m easur ed as defin ed ab ove
,
by A J VG an d sin ce ,
this an gle is equ al t o the ext ern al an gle a t D in the t r i an gle

DB B 2 we have
1 ,
6 Z B 2B 1 D + l DB 2B 1
A N1 B 1D A N 1B l + é DB zN z Z B 1B 2N2
’
’ ’
a1 a1 az + (1 2 ;
an dsin ce a 1 ’
a2 6 we ,
o bt a in fin a ll y the f o ll o wi n g ex
pr ession fo r the a n gle o f devi ati on :
:
6
’
6 al a2 .
These fo rm ul ae c o n t ain the wh o le theo ry o f the r efr a ctio n o f

a ray th r o ugh a p r is m in a p r in cip a l secti o n It will be in .
t e r e st in g t o discuss an a lyt ic a lly s o m e o f the speci a l c a ses

whi ch we h ave alr ead y studied in the p r ecedin g secti on s o f
this ch apter
5
.
6 T o tal R e fl e c ti o n at th e S e c on d Fa c e o f th e Pr i s m
. .
If the an gle o f em er gen ce at the sec o n d fa ce o f the p r ism is ‘
a r ight an gle th a t is if a the em er gen t r ay B 0 ’

, , z 2
will issue fr om the p r is m al o n g the sec o n d fa ce in the dir e c

tion B 2 Z 1 (Fig . Hen ce ,
sin a 2
3
7
. an d the r e
for e G 2 A wher e A den o tes the c r itic a l

,
an gle 36 ) of the
1 26 Mirr or s ,
6
m e di a n, n
'
,
defin ed by the r el ati on sin A
n
If the abs o lute
va lue of the an gle a is gr e ate r th an A the r ay will be tota lly
2 ,
r efl e cte d a t the sec o n d fa ce o f the p r is m an d the r e will be n o ,
em e r gen t r ay This c a se m ay be discussed in s o m e det ail

. .
Fo r a p r is m o f given r efr a ctin g an gle ther e is a cert ain

lim itin g va lue (L) o f the an gle o f in ciden ce at the fi r st
fa ce o f t he p r i sm 5
1 ) f or whi ch we sh all h av e at t he sec on d
FIG . 8 2 — Pr ism w it
. h r e f r a c t in g an g le =
B 2A .
fa ce t h e v alues a2 —A
,
az
’
so th at a ray which i s
i n ci den t on thef fi f h
r st
t e p i m
a ce o
r s a t an a n g le less than the
li mi ti ng an g le L wi ll n ot p a ss thr oug h the p rism but wi ll b e
d h d P i = — A, we fin d utt g
tota lly r eflecte a t t e secon f ce
a n a2 .
a1
’
=
B — A a d n,
r o r the ef e si ce
n a 1
= t , ,
]
n
which is the t r ig on om et ric fo rm ul a fo r c om put in g the value

o f the lim iti n g an gle o f i n cide n ce f o r a give n p r is m It will .
5
] 6 Limi in g t I n c i de n t R ay 1 27
be worth whi le t o exami n e this fo rm ul a for c e rt ain p articular

values of the r efr a ctin g an gl e 6
5
.
If then sin ce sin A Z

i
— the f o rm ul a sh o ws th a t
—
(1 ) 2A, ,
sin will be gr eater th an un ity so th at fo r a p r ism o f this

L ,
form ther e is n o an gle c o rr esp o n din g t o the lim itin g an gle L .
No r a y ca n b e tr an smi tted thr ou g h a p ri sm whose r e r a cti n

f g
a n g le i s m or e than twi ce as g r e a t a s the cri ti ca l an g le of the two
me dia in qu esti on . A p rism of this siz e is c alled a tota lly
FIG . 83 — Pr ism wit

. h r e fr a c t in g an g le =
B A .
p ri sm; if it is m ade o f glass o f in dex an d su r
ro un ded by air the r efr a ctin g an gle sh o ul d be ab o ut 84 at °
5
,
le ast .
( )
2 If = 2A we fin d th a t L= 90 which is the c a se r e r e
, ; p
°
sen ted in Fig 82 The o n ly r ay th a t can get th r o ugh this

. .
p r ism is the r ay th at t r aver ses it symm et r ic ally en ter in g t h e ,
p r ism al on g o n e fa ce an d le av in g it al on g the o ther .
( )
3 If 6 > A but < 2A th at is if 2A >
( B ) the v alue o f
>A
, ,
the an gle L as determ in ed by the fo rm ul a ab o ve will be c om

p r ised between 90 an d Thi s is the c ase which wa s sh o wn
°
in Fig 7 3 The dir ection o f the lim itin g in ciden t r ay is b e

. .
1 28 Mirr o r s ,
tw e en Z 1B 1 an d N 1B 1 ; th at is ,
[ Vl B K will be an o btuse
a n gle .
4
() If 6 = A , we fi n d L= 0,
°
an d then the lim itin g in ciden t
r ay will p r o ceed a l o n g t h e
n o rm a l N l B l a s sh o wn in
,
Fig . 83 , an d A VE 1 K (o r
A VB IA) will be a r igh t
5i
() F n ally , if 6 <A , th e
lim itin g an gle of in ci
de n ce (L) will be n eg ative
in sign ; an d the r efo r e in a
m o r e o r less thin p r ism o f
t hi s descr ipti o n the lim it
in g in ciden t r ay KE 1 will
F IG . 84 — Pr ism wit a
. h r e fr a c ti gn gl fa ll o n the side Of the
an e
13 < A °
n o rm al N 1 B 1 t o w ar ds t he
a pex V o f the p r ism , so th at the an gl e VB l K will be an
a cute an gle (Fig .
An y r ay in cide n t o n the fi r st fa ce o f the p r ism at B 1 an d

lyin g withi n the an gle KB 1 Z will b e t r an s m itted thr o ugh 1
the p r ism ; wher e a s if the r ay falls within the supple

m en t ary an gle VE IK it will be t o t all y r eflec t ed at t h e
,
sec on d fa ce .
In K O H LR A U S C H S m eth o d o f m e asu r in g t he r el ative in dex

’
I
of r efr a ctio n the p r ism is a djusted so th at the in ciden t
ray gra z es the fir st fa ce an d then if the r efr a ctin g an gle ,
o f the p r is m ( B ) is k n o w n an d if the an gle o f em e r gen c e ,
( a ) is m e asu r ed the v alue of n : n m ay be c alcul at e d b y

' ’
z ,
5
m e an s o f the f o r m ul a
( a1 _
sin fi
The pr in ciple of t o t al r eflectio n is als o em ploye d in t he
pr ism r efra ct o m eter s of A BB E an d PULF R IC H for m easur e
m en t o f the in dex o f r efr a ctio n .
5
] 9 M i n imum D e v iat io n 1 29
5 7 . Pe rpe n di c ul ar E m e rg e n c e at th e S e co n d Fac e of th e
Pr i sm .
— Fo r this c ase we have a2 = an d the r efor e
(1 1
,
6 , 6 —
6
,
a n d he n ce
sin (6 e)
’
n
n sin fi
which is als o a c o n ven ien t fo rm ul a fo r the exper im en t al de

term in atio n o f the v alue o f the r el ative in dex o f r efr a cti o n .
A desc r iptio n o f the app ar atus an d the m eth o d o f pr o cedur e

m ay be fo un d in the st an d ar d t r e atises o n physics
5
.
8 C ase wh e n th e Ray Tr ave r s e s th e Pr i sm S ymm e t

.
rical ly — As ha s been p o in ted o ut a lr e ady

. a speci a l
c ase o f gr eat in te r est o ccur s when the r ay t r aver ses the p r ism
sym m et r ic a lly Un de r these ci r cu m st an ces the gen e r a l
5
5
.
pr ism-e qu atio n s given in

,
t ake the follo win g fo rm s

B
r a
o
6+ 60
fi
2
wher e den o tes the an gle o f deviati o n o f this sym m et r ic
60
r ay The l ast o f these fo rm ulae is the b a sis o f the FR A UN

.
H O FE R m etho d o f determ in in g the r elative in dex o f r e fr ac

tion the an gles 6 an d 6 bein g b o th c ap able o f e asy m ea sur e
, 0
m en t .
This last fo rm ula m ay also be t ran sform ed in t o the fol

lo win g form
’
60
n
’
—n . cos
2
wher eb y the r efr a ctin g an gle [
3 c an be c alcul ated in term s
5Mi i
'
of n ,
n an d 6 0 .
9 . n mum D e vi t
a io n — . The p r ism itself is defin ed b y
its r efr a ctin g an gle (6) an d the r elative in dex o f r efr a ctio n
The t o tal devi atio n ( )
6 o f a r ay r ef r a ct e d th r o ugh
1 30 M irr or s ,
a give n p r is m depen ds o n ly on the an gle of in ciden c e ( a l ) ,
a cc o r d in g t o the f o r m ul a
==a 1
e az
’
B;
fo r the an gle a g m ay be expr essed in term s o f a l 6 an d n /n
'
,
'
,
as we h ave see n Hen ce f o r a given value o f thes e

,
thr ee m agn itudes the an gle 6 will be u n iquely determ in ed .
On the o the r h an d f o r a given v a lue o f the an gle 6 the r e

,
will always be two c orrespo n din g v alues of the an gle of in

c ide n c e a ; f o r it is o bvi o us fr o m the p r in ciple o f the r eve r si
l
b ili ty o f the light p ath

- 29) th at a sec o n d r ay i n c iden t o n
the fir st fa ce o f the pr ism at an an gle e qu al t o the an gle of
em er gen ce o f the fir st r ay will em er ge at the sec on d fa ce at
a n an gle e q u a l t o the an gle o f in ciden ce o f the fi r st ray a t
the fi r st fa ce an d these two r ays will be e q u ally deviated in

,
p assin g thr ough the p r ism For exam ple supp o se th at the
.
,
values of the an gles of in ciden ce an d em er gen ce in the c as e

o f the fi r st r ay ar e a 1 sec d cide t on
’
7 a 2 a , o n r a y i n n
the fi r st fac e o f the p r ism at the an gle wi l em e r g e

'
’
7 l
a t the sec o n d f a ce at an an gle a z —
7 a n d e a ch ’
o f these r ays ,
will su fe p ecisely the s a e devi ti v =

‘
m 6
’
f r r a o n i z e 7 7 ,
.
, .
Thus c or r esp o n din g t o an y given v alue o f the an gle e

'
, ,
within cer t ain lim its ther e will always be a p air o f r ays whi ch
,
a r e devi a ted b y this s am e am o un t On e p ai r o f such r ays .
c on sists of the two i den ti ca l r ays determi n ed b y the r elation

: ” ’
(1 1 Y az .
In fa ct this is the r ay which t r aver ses the p r ism sym m e t

,
ri c ally an d a little r eflecti o n will sh o w th at t h e devi ati on o f

,
this r ay m ust be either a m axim um o r a m in im um .
But wh ile the best way o f dem on str a tin g th at the r ay '
5
whi ch g oes symmetri ca lly thr ou g h the p r i sm i s the r ay of mi n i
mum devi a ti on 2) in v o lves the e m pl o ym en t o f the m eth o d s
of the differ en ti al c alculus the fo llo wi n g an alytic al pr o o f
,
dem an ds o f the studen t a kn o wledge o f o n ly elem en tary

m athem a tics .
The devi atio n at the fi r st fa ce o f the p r is m is e l = a l a 1

'
5
] 9 Min imum D e v iat ion 131
an d th t a the sec d f ce is
at on a 62 : az
’
an d
hen ce the t o t al devi ati o n is

6 : 61 + ez =
(a1
sin ce a bee l e dy
5
5
a2 = B 6 : a 6 h
’ ’
or , 1 a a s a s n a
, r a l 2 ,
r e m ar ked f o r ex am pl e in A ssume n ow tha t n

’
,
n an d,
.
, ,
c on sequen tly that the an g le 6 i s p osi tive as is always the

, ,
c a se when the r ay is ben t a way fr o m the edge o f the p r ism

then it is eviden t th at the an gle 6 will h ave its lea st
value ( s ) in the c ase o f th at ray for whi ch the fun ction
o
( d l a z ) is le a st N o w sin ce
'
.
n . sin
we obt ain by subt r actio n

=n
(sin (sin )
' ’
sin a g ) sin a 2
— '
n al a1 ,
an d hen c e b y an o bvi ous t rig on om et ric tr an sfo rm ation

al (1 2
,
(1 1 + (1 2
,
(I f —d z d l
’
+ G2
c os n si n
2 2 2
. .
2
which m ay be written as fo ll o ws
Acc or din g as
é the deviation the fi r st fa ce o f
’
d l az 6 1 at
5
,
the p rism will (see 3 ) be gr e ater th an e qu al t o o r less th an , , ,
the deviation 6 at the sec o n d fa ce ; th at is a cc o r din g as

2 ,
_ ’
we sh all h ave ( a l an d hen ce als o
f
az , a2
+ az
’ '
a1 (1 2 + al
2 2
If we supp ose fir st th at a 1 > a then a 1 > (1 2 an d
, , g
’
,
'
( a 2 + an d sin ce the c o sin e o f a p o sitive a n gle de

c r eases as the an gle in cr eases it fo llo ws th at her e we m ust ,
h ave
d l
’
+ “ 2 04 + G2
,
2 2
On the o ther h an d if we supp o se sec o n d th at d l <
, , , then
1 32 M i rr o r s ,
( a 2 + d l ) < 0; but in this c a se ( a 2 +

’ ’
a1 < a2 an d
(a 1 + so th at a lth o ugh ( a 2 + a l ) an d ( 0 4+ a 2 ) ar e b o th ’ ’
n eg ative the abs o lute v alue o f the fo rm er is gr e ater th an th at

,
o f the l atte r an d he n ce he r e als o we fin d e xa ctly the s am e

,
r esult a s bef o r e .
Thu s whether a 1 is gr e ater o r less th an

,
az the rat io '
,
I
a1 a2
CO S
,
(1 1 + (1 2
2
an d o n ly in the c ase when a1 ag
'
will this ra tio e qu al to
’ !
ity Hen ce
a1 (1 2
un . sin h as its least v alue when a 1
,
2
an d then als o the devi ation ( 6 ) is a m in im um an d e qu a l to
60 2 d l 6 .
The s am e p r o cess of r eas on in g applied t o the c ase when

n < n le a ds t o the c on clusi on th at the an gle 6 will be a m ax i
’
m um fo r t h e r ay which t r ave r ses such a p r ism symm et r ic ally ,
fo r ex am ple an a ir -p r ism su r r o un ded by gl a ss ; but in t hi s c a s e

,
the an gle 6 will be n eg ative in sign an d sin ce a m axim um v alue ,
o f a n eg ative m agn itude c o rr esp o n ds t o a m i n im um abs o lute
v alue the a ctu a l deviatio n o f the r ay is le ast in this c ase als o

,
.
60 D e vi ati o n o f R ay b y Thi n Pr i s m
.
—
If the r efr a ctin g .
an gle o f the p r is m (B ) is s m all as r ep r esen ted f o r ex am ple
in Fig 8 5
the deviation ( 6 ) will lik ewise be a sm a ll an gle
.
,
, , ,
o f the s am e o r de r o f s m a lln ess ; fo r if B (1 2 is s m a ll then

'
a1 ,
( a l a g ) will be s m
'
a ll a ls o a n d the an gle 6 is the diff e r,
e n ce
between these t wo small m agn itudes In fact the devi ation .
,
6 p ro duced by a thin p r is m will n o t o n l y a lw ay s be s m a ll ,
but it wil l n ever be very differ en t fr o m its m in im um value

6 0.
Acc o r din gly in the c ase o f a thin p r is m we m ay put
, ,
with o ut m uch err o r ; an d ther efor e very appr oxi

5
6 6 0
m at e ly (see 8)
60] De v iat ion in Thin Prism 1 33
C o n se que tly the deviatio n 6 as c alcul ated by thi s fo rm ula

n , , ,
w ill depe n d o n ly o n the p r is m -c o n st an ts (6 n : n ) an d n o t

’
,
o n the a n gle o f i n cide n ce ( a ) The s m alle r the an gle 6 the

l .
,
m or e n e ar ly c o rr ect this fo rm ul a w ill be ; an d if the an gle 6

6
3
6
is so sm a ll th at we m ay substitute in place of
sin
g an d sin r e spectively we o bt ain the ex ceedin gly
,
FIG . 8 5
—
. Pri sm wit h c om p ar a t i vy
el s m all r e f r a c t in g
an g le .
an d c o n ven ien t p r a ctic al elati on fo r the an gle

r of
deviation o f a r ay r efr a cted t hr o ugh a thin p r is m v iz ,
,
n
which h owever is m o r e fr equen tly wr itten

, ,
6 (n 1) B )
wher e n is e m pl o ye d n ow t o den o te the r elative in dex o f

r efr a cti o n Acc o r d in gly in a thin p ri sm the de vi ati on i s di
.
,
1 34 Mirr o r s ,
re ctly p r op or ti on a l to the
f e
re r ac tin g xa m ple the
an g le . Fo r ,
devi ation in the c a se o f a thi n glass pr is m su rr o un ded by

a ir f o r w hi ch n 1 5
is On e-h a lf the r efr a ctin g an g le .
6 1 Po we r o f an O ph th al mi c Pr i sm C e n tr ad an d Pr i sm
. .
Dio ptr y Ah o phth a l mi c p r is m is a t hi n gl ass p r ism wh o se

.
—
,
in dex of r efra ction is usu ally ab o ut which is used t o

c o rr ect faul ty ten den cies an d weakn esses Of the o cular
m uscles whi ch tu rn the e y e in its so cket a b o ut the ce n te r o f
r o t ati o n o f t h e eye -b all In an o r din ar y l ab o r at o r y p r is m
.
the t wo fa ces are usu ally cut in the fo rm o f r ect an gles h avin g
the e d g e of the p ris m as a c omm on side ; but the c o n t o ur o f
an O phth a lm ic p r ism whi ch h as t o be w o r n in fr o n t o f the e y e
in a spe ct a cle-fram e is cir cul ar o r elliptic a l like th at o f an y

o the r e y e -gl ass an d its edg e is the lin e d r a wn t an ge n t t o th is
,
curve at the thin n est p art o f the glass The lin e dr awn .
p e rpe n di cular t o this t an gen t a t the p o in t O f c o n t a ct an d

‘
lyin g in the plan e of o n e Of the fa ces o f the p r ism is the so

“
c alled b a se-ap ex lin e whi ch is a term fr e quen tly em ployed
”
,
b y writer s o n spec t a cl e-Optic s .
The formula
6 (n 1) 6
o bt ain ed in 6 9 is peculiar ly applic able t o the weak p rism s
used in spect a cles As long as the r efr a ctin g an gle of t he
.
p rism d o es n o t ex ceed say ,

the err o r in the v alue Of e
,
as c alcul ated b y t hi s app r o xim at e f o r m ul a will be less th an
5 pe r cen t .
Fo rm er ly it was cu st om ary t o give t h e str en g th or p o wer

o f an Ophth a lm ic p r is m in te r m s o f its r efr a ctin g an gle 6
expr essed in degr ees ; but the pr o per m easur e o f thi s p o we r

is the devi ati on p r o duc e d b y the pr ism H o wever in ste ad .
,
Of m e a su r in g thi s an gle in deg r ees D E NN E TT h as sugg e sted

,
th at the deviation o f an O phth almi c pr ism shall be m easur ed

in te r m s o f a u n it an gle c alled a cen tr ad whi ch is the o n e ,
hun d r edth p art o f a r adian an d e qu al ther efo r e t o the an gle

s ubte n d e d at the ce n te r o f a cir cle o f r a dius o n e m ete r b y an
ar c o f le n gth o n e cen t im ete r Sin ce 71 r a dian s = 1 80 t h e "

°
.
,
6 1] C en t r a d an d Pr i sm D i o p
—
ty r 13 5
relation betwe e n the cen t rad an d the degr ee is given as
fo llo ws :
c e n t ra ds,
c trd .
, 1
Pr i o r t o this suggestion Mr C F PR E NTICE o f N e w
, . . .
,
Yo rk had pr o p o sed in
,
1 888 t o m e a su r e t h e de
v iat ion Of an Ophth almi c
p r ism in term s o f the

lin ear o r t an gen ti al dis
pla cem en t in cen tim e
F 8 6 — D m ti f p i m
ter s o n a scr een pl a ced t
IG . .
an
e a on o r s
at a dist an ce o f o n e
m ete r fr o m the p rism If the st r aight li n es OA OB (Fig 86 )
.
, .
r ep r esen t the dir ectio n s Of the in ciden t a n d em er gen t

rays r espectively
,
then A A Q B will be the an gle Of devi
,
a ti on o f the p r ism ; a n d if a pl an e sc r e e n pl a c e d at r ight an gle s
to CA at A is in ter sected b y OB at B then ,

t an L AOB
g%
- .
N o w if the dist an ce c m =
a n d
OA 1 00 if AB a cm ,
= . : .
then , a cc o r din g t o PR E N T l oE s m eth o d , t he l AOB w o uld

’
be an an gle o f x u n its an d the p o wer o f the pr ism w o uld be

den oted by x Dr S M BURNE TT suggest e d th at the n am e
. . . .
-di o ter o r ri sm-di o tr be give n t o thi s u n it The te m

p ri sm p p p y ( r .
p r ism o p t r ie
”
was p r o p o sed by Pr o fess o r S P T O MPS O N ) . . H .
The p r ism -dio pt ry is the an gle c o rr esp o n din g t o a devi ation o f

o n e ce n tim ete r o n a t an gen t lin e at a dist an ce o f o n e m ete r ;
an d a cc o r d in gly when the an gle o f devi a ti o n is equ al t o the

, ,
an gle wh o se t r ig o n o m et r ic t a n ge n t is x/ 1 00 the p o we r O f the ,
p r ism is s aid t o be a: pr ism —dio pt r ies o r x A wher e the sym b o l ,
A st a n ds f o r p r is m -dio pt r y The chief o b j ectio n t o be u r ged

.
a g ai n st this u n it o f a n gul ar m e a su r em en t is th at the an gle
subte ed at a give p o i t 0 (F g 87) by e qu al li e segm en ts

n d n n i n - .
o n a lin e Ay pe r pen dicul ar t o C a: a t A dim in ishes as the

1 36 Mir r o r s ,
Pr ism s an d Le n se s 61 '
segm en t o n Ay is t aken farther an d farther fr om A In .
o the r w o r ds sin ce t an a/ l 00 is less th an m t an a:

1 1
,
tim e s o n e pr is m -dio ptry Or

.
p r ism -dio pt r ies is less th an a: .
din ar ily the v ar i ability in the m agn itude o f a un it w o uld

,
c o n stitute an in supe r able o bj ectio n t o it ; but so l on g as th e
F IG 87 -Un e q u al g le s su b t e n de d q
O b y e u al in t e r v als s t r ai g h
p p
. . an at on t
lin e A y dr a w n er e n di c ul a r t o O A
.
an gles t o be m ea sur ed ar e always s m all as is the c a se with ,
O phth a lm ic p r is m s the p r is m -di o pt r y m ay be r eg ar ded a s in
v ar iably equ al t o the t an

,
o r a b o ut 3 4 2 2 6 with o ut
1 ’ ”
.
sen sible err o r ; an d hen ce we m ay say f or exam ple th at

5
2 A + 3 A = A a lth o ugh thi s st a tem en t is n o t quite a ccu
,
, ,
r a te At an y r a te wh atever m ay be t h e theo r etic a l Ob j ec

.
,
tio n s this un it Of m e a su r em en t o f the st r en gth of a thin

,
pr ism is so c o n ven ien t an d s atisfa ct o r y th at it has been g e n

e r ally a d o pted in O p hth al m ic p r a ctice .
In p o in t o f f a ct with the s m all an gul ar m a gn itudes which

,
a r e he r e p r e supp o sed (the p o we r o f a n O phth a lm ic p r is m

-
seld o m ex c e eds 6 ther e is p r a ctic ally n o distin ction t o

be m ad e between t h e an gle itself an d the t an gen t o f the an gl e ,
6 1] Cen t r a d an d Pr ism D io p
-
t ry 1 37
so th at we ma y r eg ar d the cen tr ad an d the p ri sm-di op tr y as
i den ti ca l i n most ca ses; th at is ,
1A = 1
Acc or din gly we Obt a in the foll o win g r elation bet wee n the
,
p o wer (p ) of an o phth almi c p ri sm exp r essed in p r ism

di o ptr ies or c e n t r ads an d the r efr a ctin g an gle (6) given in
degr ees :
1 00 7r
p
1 80
(n -1
)6 ,
wher e n den otes the r el ative in dex of r efr a ctio n If n = .
then the po we r o f a p r ism of r efr a ct in g an gle 6 degr ees is

pr ism —d iopt r ies .
H o wever in Or der t o e xhibit the a ctual r el ation s still

,
m o r e cle ar ly the fo ll o win g t able gives the v alues in degr e es

, ,
m in utes an d seco n ds o f a ll in tegr al n um ber s o f p r is m -di o pt r ies

an d ce n t r ads fr o m 1 t o 20; an d i n cide n t a lly it will be seen
th at wher eas an an gle Of k c e n t r ads c on t ain s 10 tim es as m an y

degr ees m in utes an d sec on ds as an an gle o f 1 cen tr ad wher e
, ,
k den o tes an y in tege r fr o m 1 t o 20 the s am e st atem en t is

,
n ot st r ictl y t r u e o f the p r is m -di o pt r y .

1 38 Mirr o r s ,
Pri sm E qui va len t i n deg r ees, E qui va le n t i n de g r ee s,

Ce n tr ads
Di o p tri e s mi n utes an d secon ds mi n u te s a n d secon ds
0 34 0 34
° ' ° ’
1
° ’
1 8
43
° '
1
°
2 17
2
°
5 1
’
° ’
3 26
4 4
° ' ° ’
0 0
4 34
° ’
5
4 3
° '
5 °
5 °
5 °
42 '
5 °
43 ’
° ' ° ’
6 16 6 18
6
°
50
’
6
°
5 2
'
° '
7 26
° '
8 1
8 3
°
5 '
9
°
5 ’
9
°
10
-
’
’
44 '
° °
9 38 9
° ’
1 0 12
10 4
°
5 ’
° ’ ° ’
11 18 11 27
62 . Po siti o n an d Po we r of a R e sul tan t Pr i s m E quiv al e n t

to T wo Thin Pri sm s .— In a sce r t a in i n g the p r is m atic c o r
r ection o f the eye o f a p atien t the o culist o r Opt om etr ist

,
s o m etim es fin ds it c o n ven ien t an d a dv an t ageo us t o em pl o y

a c om b in ati o n o f t wo t hin p r is m s pl a ced o n e in fr o n t o f t h e
§ 6 2] C om b in a ti o n of Tw o T hi n Pr i sm s 1 39
o ther with their edges in clin ed t o each o ther at an an gle 7

which c an be m ea sur ed ; an d h avin g O bt a in ed the n ecess ar y
c o r r ecti o n in this way he has t o p r esc r ib e a sin gle p r ism which
,
wil l pr o duce pr ecisely the

s am e r esultan t effect as
t h e t w o super po sed
pr ism s o f the t r ial-c a se .
In gen er al it w o uld be ,
ex ceedin gly l ab o r io us an d
diffi cult t o c alculate the
po wer o f this r esult an t
p r ism b ut fo r tun ately F 88 — P ll l g m l w f fi d
p m q iv l t t
, ; , IG .
, a . ar a e o ra a or n
t h e p r o blem m this c ase i i l i

p m
g g n s n e r s e u a en o a co
b t f tw th m l n a lon O o in ri s s
i s en o r m o usly S i m p li fied
.
by the fact th at the r efr actin g an gles ar e so sm a ll th at it is

quite sim ple t o Obt a in an app r o xim ate s oluti o n which is
su fficien tly a ccu r ate an d r eli able f o r o r din ar y p r a ctic al
p p o ses
u r .
Le t the devi ati o n an gles o r p o we r s o f the t wo p r ism s de

-
n o ted b y p 1 an d p 2 be r ep r ese n ted a cc o r di n g t o the m eth o d

,
5
, ,
3/
e1 xpl ain ed in 0 by ,
the vect o r s OA OB , ,
r espectively ( g
Fi 0 .
which ar e dr a wn p a r a llel
t o the e dges o f the p r is m ,
so th at A AOB 7 C om .
p l e t e the p a r a llel o g r am
O A C B an d dr a w the di
88 b — P
i g l p i m q iv l t t
F IG . ll l g m l w f
ar a fi di g e o ra a or n n
a g on al OC
, .
mbi T h e V GCt O I '
f t w t hi p i m
s n e r s e u a en o a co n a
ti on o o n
Q C Will r ep r esen t o n
r s s.
the s am e sc ale the de v iat ion an g le o r p o wer p o f the r esult an t 4
pr ism a s we sh all pr o cee d t o sh o w

,
.
If a p o in t P is t aken an ywher e in the pl an e o f the p ar allelo

gr am OAC B it m ay e asily be p r o ve d th at the ar e a o f the
,
t r i an gle POC is equ al t o the sum o r differ en ce o f the ar e a s o f

the t ri an gles FDA an d PC B a cc o r d in g as the p o in t P lies
1 40 M i rr o r s ,
outside the A AOB as in ,

Fig 88
. in side this an gle as in
(a) ,
or
Fig 88 (b ) r espectivel y
,
.
,
. An d the r efo r e if PQ PR an d PS ar e
, , ,
d r awn per pen dicular t o C A OB an d 0C r espectively then

, , ,
Fo r sim plicity let us a ssum e th at the devi ati on s p l p g

,
pr o duced b y the t wo c o m p on en t pr ism s ar e in defin itely

,
s m all No w suppo se th at the p o in t P is turn ed fi r st ab o ut

.
, ,
OA as axis thr o ugh a ve r y s m a ll an gle p 1 an d then ab o ut OB

as axis th r o ugh the s m all an gle p g In c o n sequen ce o f the .
fir st r o t a ti o n it will m o ve per pen dicular ly out fr o m the plan e

o f the p a pe r t o w ar ds the r e a de r th r o ugh a ti n y dist an c e
c o rr espo n din g t o the ar c o f a cir cle descr ibed ar o un d Q as

cen ter with r a dius QP the len gth o f this ar e bein g e qu al
,
t o the p r o duct o f the r a dius b y the an gle th at is e qu al t o , ,
Q P O A si n
,
ce the len gth Of 0A is m a de e qu al t o the m agn i
tude o f the an gle p If n o w in thi s slightly alter ed po sition
.
l .
the po in t P is aga in r o t ated this tim e h o wever ar o un d OB , , ,
as axis th r o ugh a n o the r s m all an gul ar displ a ce m e n t p 2

, OB ,
either it will m o ve a little far ther out fr om the pl an e AOB ,
as in the c ase sh o wn in Fig 88 (a ) o r it will m o ve b a ck .

,
aw ay fr o m the r e a de r as in the c a se sh o wn in Fig

, 88 (b) .
,
by an a dditio n al am oun t e qual t o B P OE An d as this . .
l atter displa cem en t will als o be ver y n ear ly at r ight an gles t o

the pl an e o f the p aper the r esult an t an gul ar displ a cem en t
,
o f the p o i n t P m ay be r eg ar ded as e q u al t o the alg e b r al c
su m o f its t wo successive displ a ce m e n ts an d n u m e r ic all y
e qu al ther efo r e t o
, ,
wher e the upper sign is t o be t aken in c ase the po in t P lies

o utside the an gle AC E a n d the l o we r sign in c a se it lies i n side
thi s an gle In either c ase ther efo r e the r esult an t displa ce

.
, ,
m en t o f P will be e qu al t o SP C C But this p r o duct is e qu al . .
t o the l in e ar displ a ce m en t which the p o in t P w o uld h a ve if

it exper ien ced an an gul ar displa cemen t r epr esen ted b y t he
vect o r OC .
Hen ce if the str aig ht lin es OA OB d r awn p ar allel t o the

, ,
6 2] t
C o m b i n a io n of T wo T hi n Pr i sm s 1 41
edges of the t wo thin p r i sm s r epr esen t the c o m p o n en ts o f the

.
t o t al deviati on Of a r ay which tr aver ses b o th p r is m s the ,
di agon al DC of the par allel o gr am C A E C will r epr esen t the

r esult an t o r t o t al devi ati o n a n d this e ffect wi l be p r o duced
, l
by a sin gle pr ism o f p o we p OC pl a ced with its edge in
r =
c lin e d t o the edge O f the p r is m o f p o we r p C A) at an an gle i
0 A OAC If the p o we r s p p o f the t wo c o m po n en t p r ism s

. l , g
a r e give n in p r ism -di o pt r ies (o r in te r m s o f a n y o the r sui t
a ble u n it f o r e xam ple degr ee ce n t r a d

, , ,
an d if a ls o the ,
an gle 7 betwee n the e dges O f the p r is m s is give n in deg r ees ,
the po wer p Of the r esult an t pr ism m ay ther efor e be c om , ,
put e d b y the f or m ul a :
7
an dthe an gle 0 which sh o ws h o w the r esult an t p r ism is to

be pl aced m ay be c alcul ated by the for m ul a :
+ p2 COS Y
'
p1
29 2
par ticul ar if then x/
In = t an 0
p p
2
+ p2 2
131
, 1 ,
As an illustr atio n o f the use o f these fo rm ulae suppo se ,
th at the devi ation s pr o duced by the t wo p r is m s sep ar ately

an d th a t the edges o f the p r is m s ar e in cli n ed t o
5
°
ar e 3 an d
e ch the at
a o r a n a gle o f
n The p 3 p 2
n = = 1
° °
,
a n d he n ce the devi ati o n p r o duced b y the t wo p r ism s t o gethe r

,
will be an d sin ce t an 0 the

result an t pr ism in this c ase is foun d t o be a prism o f p o wer
7 pl a ced with its edge at an an gle o f n e ar l y 38 1 3 with th at
° ° ’
o f the we a ke r o f the t wo c o m p o n e n t p r is m s
“
.
A r o t ar y pr ism used fo r fin din g the n ecessary p r ism atic

”
c o r r ectio n o f a p atien t s eye is an in stru m en t cir cul ar in fo rm

’
, ,
which c on sists of t wo O phth al mi c pr ism s of e qu al po wer

(p p ) c o n ven ien tly m o un ted so th a t the p r is m s c an be
= 1 2
r o t ate d a b o ut an ax is pe r pe n dicul a r t o the pl a n e o f the ih
strum en t o n e in fr o n t o f the o ther the a n gle between the

,
p rism -edges bein g sh o wn b y the p o sitio n s o f t wo m arks which

,
42 M irr o r s ,
Pr i sms an d Le n se s [ V
Oh .
m o v e as the p r is m s turn ed o ve r a cir cul ar ar c gr adu ated

ar e
in deg r ees In t he . in itial p o sition when the t wo m ar ks ar e

a t O pp o site e n ds O f a di am ete r o f the ci r cul ar sc ale the b a s e
o f o n e p r is m c o r r esp o n ds with the edge o f the o the r so th at
in this p o siti o n the t wo p r is m s ar e e q uiv a le n t t o a g l as s

,
pl ate with pl an e p ar allel fa ces (7 : p =

p 1 p 2 0) .
The m axim um effec t is Obt ain ed when the edges Of the p r ism
c o rr esp on d With a device o f this
kin d we c an Obt ain ther efor e an y p r is m atic p o wer fr o m
, , ,
p 0to p 2p 1 .
On the ther h an d we c an r es olve the eff ec t o f a given

o ,
p r ism o f p o wer p in t o a c o m p o n en t p oo s d in o n e dir ectio n .
an d a c o m p o n e n t p si u 0 in a dir ecti o n pe r pe n dicul ar t o t h e
5
.
fi r st Thus a p r ism o f p o we r c e n t r ads with its edge at an

.
,
a n gle o f 3 0 t o the h o r i z o n t a l is e q uiv a le n t t o a c o m bin ati on
5
°
g the
3
Of t wo p r ism s of p we s
o r an d c e n t rads, W 1 th ir
2
edges h o r i z o n t al an d ver tic al r espectively
, .
PR OB LEMS
1 Sh o w h o w t o c o n st r uct t h e p ath o f a ray r e fra cted
.
thr o ugh a p r ism in a pr in cip al sectio n ; an d p r o ve the c o n

str uctio n D iscuss the fo llo win g special c a ses an d d ra w
.
,
s ep ar a te di a g ram s f o r e a ch o f the m :
() I cide n t r ay n o rm a l
‘
a n
t o fi r st fa ce o f p r is m (b ) E m er ge n t ray ,
gr a z es sec on d
fa ce ; (0) R ay t r aver s e s p r ism s ymm etr ic a lly ; (d) R ay is in
c ide n t o n fi r st f a ce o n side o f n o r m al t o w ar ds the edge o f
the p r ism .
2 Sh o w th at the t o t al d evi ati on o f a ray in a p r in cip a l

.
sectio n o f a prism Of m o r e highly r efr a ctin g m ater i al th an

the sur r o un din g m edium is always a way fr om the p r ism
edge D iscuss e a ch o f the thr ee p o ssible c ases v iz When
.
,
.
,
the p o in t wher e the t wo i cide ce n o rm als in ter sect fall s

n n -
()a in side the p r is m ()

b o utside the p
,
r is m a n d ( c ) o n o n e o f ,
the t wo fa ces o f the pr is m Dr a w di agr am fo r e a ch c ase . .
3 Obt ain a fo r m ul a f o r c alcul atin g the m agn itude o f t he

.
Ch . V] Pr o b l e m s 1 43
an gle o f i n ciden ce at the fir st fa ce o f the pr is m o f the r ay

which em e rges fr o m the p r is m a l o n g the sec o n d fa ce ; an d dis
c u ss this fo rm ul a fo r the c ases wh en the r efr a ctin g an gle Of
the p r ism is (a ) g r e ate r th an 2A (b) equ al t o 2A (0) less
, ,
th an 2A but gr e ater th an A (d) equ al t o A an d (e) less th an

, ,
A ; wher e A de o tes the so c alled c r itic a l an gle o f the t wo

n -
m e di a c o n cern ed Dr aw di a g r am f o r e a ch c ase
. .
4 Sh o w th at the devi ati on o f a r ay w hi ch g o e s sym m e t

.
r ic ally th r o ugh a p r is m in a p r in cip a l secti o n is less th an
t ha t of an y o the r r ay
5
.
Sh o w th a t the p o in t o f in ter secti o n Of the in cide n ce

.
n o r m a ls t o the t wo fa ces o f a p r is m is equidist a n t fr o m th e
in ciden t r ay a n d its c o rr esp o n d in g em er gen t r ay .
6 C o n st r uct the p ath o f a r ay r efr a cted th r o ugh a p r is m

.
o f sm a ll r efr a ct in g an gle ; an d sh o w th at the a n gle Of devi a ti o n
will als o be a sm all an gle o f the s am e o r der o f sm alln ess n o ,
m atte r ho w the r ay fa lls o n the p r ism .
7 Wh t is the s allest a gle th t a gl ass p is

. a m n a r m (n =
c an h ave so th a t n o r ay c an be t r an sm itted thr o ugh it ?
Wh at is the m agn itude o f t his an gle fo r a w ater p rism

(Assu m e in e a ch c a se th a t the p r is m is su r
r o un ded by air o f in de x u n ity )
5
.
An s 8 3 3 7 14
° ' ° ’
. 97 10 2
8 . Wh at m ust
be the r efr a ctin g an gl e o f a p r ism wh o se
in dex o f r efr a ctio n is equ a l t o V2 in o r de r th at r ays th at
a r e in cide n t o n o n e o f its fa ces at a n gles les s th an 4 will 5 °
be t o t ally r eflected at the o ther fa ce ? An s .
9 The r efr a ctin g an gle o f a p r ism is 6 0 an d the in dex o f

°
.
r efr a cti o n is equ a l t o V2 Sh o w th at the an gle o f m i n im um

.
deviati o n is an d d r a w a ccu r ate di a g r a m sh o wi n g the
c o n s tructio n of the p ath O f t his r ay thr ough the p r is m .
1 0 The r efr a ctin g an gle o f a gl a ss p r is m (n =

. is
an d the a n gle o f i n cide n ce is Fin d the an gle Of devi ati o n .
Wh at is the an gle o f m in im um devi atio n f o r t his p r ism ?

An s 3 7
.
°
22
’
37
°
10
’
5
0
11 . If the an gle of m in im um deviation o f a r ay t r aver sin g
144 Mir r ors ,
Pr isms an d Le n se s [ V
Oh .
a pr in cip al secti on Of a pr ism is sh ow th at the in dex of

r efr a cti o n c an n o t be less th an V2 .
1 2 Fin d the an gle o f m in im u m devi ati o n in the c ase o f a

.
glass pr ism (n = o f r efr a ctin g a n gle
An s 40 42 28
° ’
.
13 .The m in im um deviation fo r a pr ism of r efra ctin g an gle

40 is fo un d t o be 3 2 F in d the v alue o f t he in dex o f
° °
r efra cti on . An s .
14 A gl a ss p r is m o f r efr a ct in g an gle 60 is a djusted so

°
“
.
th at the r ay gr az es the fir st fa ce an d in this p o siti o n the

5
”
,
an gl e o f e m er ge n ce is f o un d t o be 29 D ete rmi n e
° ’
2
t h e in dex o f r efr a cti o n
5
. An s .
1 .A p r ism is m ade of gl ass o f in dex an d t h e an gle
o f min im u m devi ati o n is fo un d t o be 2 8 3 1 C alcul ate

° '
~
the r efr a ctin g an gle . An s 42 3 9 .

° ’
16 .The e fr a ct in g a n gle o f a w a te r p r is m ( g
n =
) is 3 0
°
H o w m ust a r ay be sen t i n t o this p r ism so th at it wi ll em er ge

a l o n g the sec o n d fa ce ?
An s R ay m ust lie o n the side o f the n or m al t o w ar ds th e

.
edge o f th e pr ism an d m ake with the n orm al an an gle of

2 5
°
9
’
,
17 The
gle o f in ciden ce for m in im um devi ation in the
an
c ase of a pr ism o f r efr a ctin g an gle 6 0 is Fin d the

°
in dex o f r efr a ction . An s V3 . .
1 8 Fin d t h e in dex o f r efr a cti o n o f a gl ass p r ism fo r s o dium

.
light fo r the fo llo win g m easur em en ts : R efr a ctin g an gle o f

p r ism = 4 5
an gl e Of m in i m um devi ati on = 2 6
° °
An s .
19 The r efr a ctin g an gle Of a p r ism is 30 an d its in dex o f °
r efr a cti o n is Fin d the an gles o f em er gen ce an d devi ati on

f or e a ch o f t he fo ll o win g r ays : ()
a R a y m eets fi r st f a ce n o r
m ally ; (b ) An gle o f in ciden ce at fi r st f a ce is eq u a l t o 24

5
°
()0 A n gle o f in cide n ce at fi r st f a ce is e q u a l t o 3 a n d

°
“
(d) R ay gr a z es fi r st fa ce
”
() 5
.
(b ) 24
°
()
° ° °
An s
°
. a 3 23 18 0 23
46
° °
( ) 3
d 1
Ch . V] Pr o b l e m s 14 5
20 Fin d
. the r efr actin g an gle o f a glass p r is m
for whi ch the m m i m um devi ati on is An s 2 7 24
° ’
.
2 1 The r efr a ctin g an gle o f a fl in t gl a ss p r is m is m e a su r ed

55
.
an d fo un d t o be an d the an gles o f m in im um
° ’
9 6
d evi ati o n f o r r ays o f light c o rr esp o n din g t o the FR A UN H O F E R
lin es D F an d H ar e als o m ea sur ed an d foun d t o h ave the
5
,
fo llo win g v alues : 46 3 1

°
47 3 ’
an d 4 9 30
° ’ ° ’
r espectivel y C alcul ate the v alues Of the in dices o f

.
r efr a cti on n D ri p an d n H
5
.
, ,
An s . nD 1 6 03 28 ; np 1 6 147 7 1 ;
. nH
22 . The r efr a ctin g an gle Of a cr o wn gl ass p r ism is m e asu r ed

an d f o u n d t o be 6 0 2 a n d the an gles o f m in im um
° ’
deviation fo r r ays o f light c o r r esp o n din g t o the FRA UNH O FE R

lin es D F an d H ar e als o m easur ed an d fo un d t o h ave the
,
fo llo win g v alues : 3 8 38

°
3 9 10
’
an d 4 0 3
° ’ ° ’
r espectively C alcul at e t h e v alues o f the in dices o f

.
r e fr a cti o n n D ri p an d n H
54 54 5
.
, ,
An s . nD 1 1 6 27 ; nF 1 22 37 ; nH 1 323 7 0 .
23 A p rism is t o be m ade o f c r o wn gl ass o f in dex

.
an d it is r equi r ed t o p r o duce a m in imum devi ati o n o f 1 7

°
T o wh at an gle m ust it be gr o un d ?
°
An s 3 1 .
24 A r ay o f light f alls o n o n e fa ce o f a p r is m in a dir ecti o n

.
per pen dicul ar t o the Opp o site fa ce Assum in g th at the r e .
fr a ctin g an gle o f the p r ism (6) is an a cute an gle sh o w th at ,
the r ay will em er ge alon g the Opp o site face if

c ot 6 c o tA 1,
wher e A den o tes the c r itic al an gle Of the p rism -m edium
5 “
.
2 .A r ay g r az es the fi r st fa ce Of a prism an d em er g es
”
a t the sec o n d f a ce in a dir ecti o n pe r pe n dicul ar t o the fi r st
fa ce : sh o w th at the r efr a ct in g an gle 6) is such th at

c ot 6 Vn 1 1
2 —
,
whe e de o tes the i de o efr a ctio o the p is m edium

r n n n x f r n f r m - .
2 6 The r efra ctin g an gle o f a p r is m is 6 0 an d the in dex o f

°
m
.
r efr a cti o n is V W h a t is the l i m itin g an gle o f in cide n c e
o f a r ay th at will be t r an s m itted th r o ugh the p r is m ?
An s .
1 46 Mirr o r s ,
Pr i sm s an d Le n se s [ V
Oh .
27 Sh o w
th at if 6 den o tes the an gle o f m in im um devia
0
tion o f a p r ism o f r efr a ctin g an gle 6 the an gle 6 c an n o t be ,
g r e ater th an (7r s ) an d the in dex of r efr a ction c an n o t be

o
Go
less th an sec —
2
28 . Sh o w
th at the m in im um deviation o f a p ri sm o f given
In dex O f r ef ra cti o n in c r e a ses with in c r e a se O f the r efra ctin g
an gle o f the p r is m .
2 9 D e r ive the f o r m ul a f o r the an gle o f devi ati o n o f a thin

.
pr ism an d sh o w th at the devi atio n is appr o xim atel y c on

,
st an t f or all an gles o f in cide n ce .
3 0 Sh o w th a t when a thin gl a ss p r is m o f in dex

. is im
m e r se d in w ater o f in dex éthe devi atio n o f a r ay will be
o n l y o n e -f o u r th o f wh a t it w o uld be if the p r is m we r e sur
r o u n ded b y air .
3 1 The r ef r a ctin g an gle Of a p r is m o f r o ck s alt is 1

°
.
H o w m uch will a ray be devi ated in p a ssin g th r ough it ?

An d wh at sh o uld be the r efr a ctin g an gle O f a r o ck s alt p r is m
which is t o p r o duce a devi ati on Of (In dex o f r efr a cti on
o f r o ck s a lt = An s 48
’ °
1 .
3 2 Wh at m ust be the r efr a cti n g an gle o f a w ate r p r is m O f

.
in dex t o p r o duce the s am e devi atio n as is O bt ain ed with

a gl a ss p r is m o f in de x 3 wh o se r efr a ctin g a n gle is e q u a l t o
An s .
33 . A gl ass pr is m o f in dex h a s a r efr a ctin g an gle O f

W ah t is the p o we r o f the p r is m in p r is m -dio pt r ies ?
p r is m -dio pt r ies
5
An s . .
34 The p o we r o f a p r is m is 2 p r is m -di o pt r ies an d n = 1

. . .
Fin d the r efr a ctin g an gle

5 5
. An s .
3 . A p r is m Of r efr a ctin g an gle 1 2 ben ds a beam o f ° ’
light th r o ugh an an gle o f 1 C alcul ate the i n dex o f

°
r efr a cti o n a n d the p o we r o f the p r is m in p r is m — di o pt r ies .
An s n = . p r is m -di o ptr ies .
36 T wo thi n p r is m s a r e c r o ssed with thei r edges at an an

.
gle O f The fi r st pr ism pr o duces a devi ati o n o f 6 an d °
the se con d a d e vi ation of Fin d t he devi ati on p r o duced

Ch . V] Pr o b le m s 1 47
by the sin gle p r ism which is equivalen t t o thi s co mbin ation

a n d the an gle which the e dge o f the r esult an t p r is m m ust
m ake with the edge o f the fi r st p r ism .
An s D evi ati o n o f r esult an t p r is m =

. an gle b e
tween its edge an d that o f the 6 -pr ism = 1 7 1 1

5
°
3 7 T wo p is m s e a ch
. r ,
o f p o we r p is di o pt r ies ar e
r m -
,
c o m b in ed b ase do wn with their b ase-apex lin es in clin ed t o

the h o ri z on tal at an gles o f 4 an d 5
°
Fin d the e q uivalen t
sin gle pr ism .
An s A p r is m o f p o we r a little m o r e th an 7 p r is m -di o ptr ies

.
b ase d o wn ve r t ic al m e r idi an (edge h o r i z o n t al)

,
.
,
3 8 Wh at will be the h o r i z o n t al e ffect o f a p r is m o f p o we r

.
10 pl a ced with its b ase a pex lin e a t a n a n gle o f 20 with the

°
-
h or i z o n t al ?
An s It wi ll be the s a m e a s the e ff ect o f a p ri s m o f p o we r
.
n e ar l y in h o r i z o n t a l m e r idi an (edge ve r tic a l ) .
39 The b a se a pe x li n e o f a p r ism o f p o we r 4ce n t r a ds m akes

.
-
a n an gle o f 1 20 with the h o r i z o n t al Sh o w th at it is e q uiv a

°
.
len t t o a c o m bin atio n o f t wo p rism s o n e o f p o we r 2 ce n t r ads in

,
the vertical m er idian (edge h o ri z o n t al) an d the o ther Of po wer

c e n t r a ds in the h o r i z o n t a l m e r idi an (edge ve r tic a l ) .
40 Fi n d the si n gle p r is m equivale n t t o a c o m bi n ati o n o f

.
t wo p r is m s supe r po sed with thei r b a se -a pex lin es a t r ight

an gles t o e a ch o the r the p o we r o f o n e bei n g 3 an d th at o f
,
the o ther 4
5
.
An s A p r is m o f p o w er with its b a se -a pex lin e i n cli n ed t o

5
.
th at o f the we aker p r ism at an an gle o f n ear ly 3 °
41 T wo equ a l p r is m s e a ch o f p o wer 3 ar e supe r p o sed

.
, ,
in m e r idi an s i n cl in ed t o e a ch o the r at a n a n gle o f 1 2 0

°
Fin d the equiv ale n t si n gle p r is m .
An s A p r is m o f p o we r 3 in a m e r idi an h alfwa y betwee n

.
the m eridian s o f the t wo co m po n en ts .
42 The an gle between the b a se -apex li n es o f a c o mbi n a

.
tion Of t wo u n it pr is m s is 82 °
a n d the bisect o r o f this
an gle is h o r i z o n t al . Wh at is the h o r i z o n t al effect o f the

co mbi n at i on ? An s u n it s
. .
1 48 Mirr o r s ,
Oh . V
43 AB C DE is the p r in cipa l secti on of a pen t agon al pr ism
. .
AB B O A B C D A AB C = 9 0
= =
, ,
°
,
A ray o f light RS lyin g in the p r in cip al secti o n is i n ciden t o n

the fa ce B C at the p o in t S The r ay en ter s the pr ism at this
.
fa ce an d is r eflected fi r st fr o m the fa ce AE an d then fr o m

, , , ,
the fa ce D C an d em er ges fin ally at a po in t P in the fa ce AB

,
in the di r ecti o n PQ Sh o w th at PQ m akes a r ight an gle

.
with R S .
44 AB C is a p r in cip al secti o n o f a t r i an gul a r p r ism

.
A B 2 4A A ray o f light ly in g in the pl an e AB C is r efr a cted

,
in t o the p r ism at the side B C an d after un der go in g t wo

,
in ter n al r eflection s fi r st fr o m the side AB an d then fr om

, ,
the side C A e m er ges i n t o the su r ro un di n g m edium at the

,
side AB Sh o w th at the t o tal devi ation o f the r a y wil l b e

.
e qu al t o the an gle at B .
C HA PTER VI
R E FLE C T IO N AN D R E F RA C T IO N OF PA RAX IA L RA Y S AT A
SP H E R ICA L S UR FA CE
63 In tro duc tio n De fi n itio n s No tation e tc — The cen ter
. .
, , .
O f the sphe r ic al r efr a ctin g o r r eflecti n g su r f a ce Z Z (Fig 89 ) .
will be design ated by C The axi s o f the sur fa ce with r espect

.
t o a given p o i n t M is the
st r aight lin e j o in in g M
with C an d the p o in t A
,
wher e the str aight lin e

M C (pr o duced if n e c e s
sary) m eets Z Z is c alled the
po le o r ver tex of the sur fa ce
with r espect t o the po in t
M E viden tly the sph e r i
.
,
03 1 sur fa ce W111 be Syn ]

F 89 — R y i id t v
ph i l f
IG . . a. a n c en on con ex
m et r ic al ar o un d MC as s i t
er ca su r a c e c r o ss e s ax s a
p mt M i t f f
a Xl S an d the pl an e O f the
o in ron 0 su r a c e
,
di a gr am which c on t ain s the axis is a m er idian sect i on o f the

surfa ce .
It will be c on ven ien t t o t ake the ver tex A as the orig in

O f a syste m O f pl an e r ect an gul ar c o or di n ates ; the axis o f
the sur fa ce bein g ch o sen as the x-axis an d the t an gen t t o the

sur fa ce at its ver tex in the m er idi an pl an e o f the diagr am
, ,
bei g t aken as the y axis The p osi tive directi on of the x a xi s

n - .
-
i s the di r ecti on of the i n ci den t r ay whi ch c oi n cide s wi th thi s

li n e , an d sin ce the di a g r ams a r e a ll dr a wn on the sup p osi ti on
tha t the i n ciden t li g ht g oes

f p o in t lyi
r om n g
lef t to
o n r i g ht, a
the axis t o the r ight o f A will be o n the p o sitive h alf o f

x -
the axis The p o sitive dir ecti on o f the y-axis is the dir ectio n
.
foun d b y r o t atin g the p o sitive h alf o f the x—axis th r o ugh a

1 49
1 0 5 Mir r or s ,
Prism s an d Len se s 63
r ight an gle in a sen se Opp o site to th at o f the m o tion o f the

h an ds o f a cl o ck in the m er i di an plan e o f the di ag ram Ac .
c o r din g ly if the p o sitive

,
di r ecti o n o f the x-ax is is a l o n g a
FIG 89 , b —R ay in c id e n t v ph e ri c al su r f a c e c r o ss e s a xi s a t p o in t
h
. . on con ex s
M on the ot e r side o f t he sur f a c e .
h o r i z on t al li n e fr om left t o r ight the p o sit ive d ir ect ion o f ,
the y-axis will be ver tic all y upwar ds

’
Acc or din g as the cen ter C lie s o n the same side Of the
Sphe r ic al su r f a ce as th a t fr o m which the in ciden t light c o m e s
o r o n the O pp o site side it is s a id t o be c on ca ve (Fig

, 89 c .
,
an d d) o r c on vex (Fig 89 a an d b ) r espectivel y

.
,
The r adius , .
r o f t he sphe r ic al su rf a ce is the a bsciss a of the ce n te r C th a t ,
is r AC It is the step fro m A t o C an d this is always a

,
= .
,
p o sitive step f o r a c o n vex su rf a c e (Fig 89 a an d b ) an d a .

,
n egative step f o r a c o n c ave su r f a ce (Fig 89 c an d d) The .

, .
r adi us o f a c o n vex su r f a ce wh o se ce n te r is 60 c m fr o m it s .
ver tex is r = + 6 0 c m an d the r adius o f a c on c ave sur fa ce of

the sam e siz e is r 60 c m — .
§ 6 3] R ay I n c i de n t on Sp h e r ic a l Sur fa c e 5
1 1
It will be a ssumed in this ch apte r th at an y r ay wi th which

we ar e c o n cer n ed lies in a m er idi an pl an e o f the spher ic al
surfa ce ; so th at an y str aight lin e such as RB which r e pr e .
sen ts the p ath of an in ci

den t r ay will in ter sect the
axis eithe r r e ally
”
(Fig
“
.
89 a an d c) o r vi r tu ally
”
,
(Fig 89 b an d d) a t s o m e
.
,
po in t design ated her e by

M (see The po in t
design ated by R is an y
po in t o n the i n ciden t ray
RB
ar r l v e s
at t
befo r e 1t gets t o
h
ph .
t he ll g ht
FIG . 89 , C— R a y i n c id e n t o n
p v
c on ca e
t i t s e ri c al su r f a c e c r o sse s a xi s a o n
either M o r the in ciden ce M i n f r o n t O f t h e su rf a c e :
po in t B The str aight lin e B C which j o in s the po in t o f

.
in ciden ce with the cen ter o f the sur fa ce will be the in ciden ce
n o r m al an d if N design a te s a p o in t o n this n o r m al lyin g in
,
fr on t of the spher ical sur fa ce then £ NB R = a will be the ,
an gle o f i n cide n ce 13
The pl an e o f this
a n gle is the pl an e o f in ci
den ce which is the m er id ,
ian pl an e o f the di agr am .
Fr o m the in ciden ce-p o in t

B d r aw B D per pen dicul ar
t o the x axis at D ; the o r
-
d in a te k = D B is c alled the
Fm 89 1 — R y i id t v m ci d e n c e -h e l h t O f the r a
g y
ph t p i t The slo e O the r a
.
,
, 6 . a nc en on con ca e
i l f i
f i t h
th
s er ca su r a c e c r o sse s a x s a s e
p y o n
M th id f th f
a cute an gle t hr o ugh which
on e o er s e O e su r a c e .
the axis has t o be turn ed ar o un d the p o in t M in o r der

x -
th at it m ay c o in cide in p o sitio n (but n o t n ecess ar ily in

dir ectio n ) with the r ectilin e ar p ath o f the r ay If this an gle .
is den o ted by 9 the n Z AMB = 9 Her e as always in the

, .
,
c ase o f an gul ar m a gn itudes c o un ter -clo ckwise r o t atio n

1 2 5 Mirr o r s ,
is tobe r eck on ed as p o sitive An d fin ally the a cute an gle .

,
at the ce n te r C o f the sphe r ic a l su r fa ce subte n ded b y the

,
a r c BA will be de n o ted b y qb This an gle s o m etim es c all ed .

,
the cen t r al an gle is defin ed a s the an gle thr o ugh whi ch

,
”
the r adi us C B m ust be turn ed ar o un d C in o r der t o b r in g B

in t o c o in ciden ce with the Vertex A ; thus ¢ = A B C A The
5
.
,
an gles A 0 a n d (1 defin ed as ab o ve ,ar e given b y the fol

, ,
l owin g r el atio n s :
h h
sm qb
"
a =
1
DM
’ ,
7
These fo rm ul ae sh o uld be ver ified fo r each of the di agrams

Fig 89 , ( ). a (b ) . ( ) . (0
C 6
Mo r eo ver ,
i ce B M
s n
1
0220
4
an d sin ce (see 5
4)
DM D C + C A+ AM r . c osd
) — r + AM,
we fin d
—AM
BM
( b
r cosq - 1)
c os 0
N ow in the
speci a l c a se w hen th e i n c i de n ce -
p oi n t B i s v er y
c l ose to the v er tex A of the sp her i ca l su rf a ce the an gle o f in ,
c ide n c e a will be e x ceed in gly s m a ll a s will be als o the an gles
den o ted b y 0 an d (13; an d if these an gles expr essed in r adi an s

a r e all such s m all fr a cti o n s th a t we m ay n eglect their sec o n d
a n d hi ghe r p o we r s so th a t in pl a ce O f the sin es (o r t an gen ts )

,
we c an wr ite the an gles the m selves an d put c o s 0= c o s (1 5

c os a = 1 Ob v i o usly in such a c a se we sh all h ave E M = A M
.
,
.
5
Un der these cir cu m st an ces the r ay R B is c alled a p araxi a l
r y s o m eti
a m
“
es als o a ce t l n ra o r z e r o r a a 0 9
=”
0
”
, y , ,
a pp r o x i m atel y .
A p ar axi a l r ay i s on e whose p ath li es very n ear the axi s o f

the sp her i ca l surf a ce a n d whi ch ther e for e m e e ts thi s sur fa ce at
mal i n ci den ce :
5
a p oi n t c lo se to the ver tex a n d a t n ear ly n or the
den oted b y a , 0an d 91 b ei n g
a n g les a ll so sma ll tha t their se con d
p ower s m a y b e n e g lected .
Inthis ch apter an d fo r severa l subsequen t ch a pter s we

Sh all be c o n ce r n ed en tir ely with t he pr o ce d ure of p araxi al
6 4] Para xia l R ay s :
Sp h i e r c al M ir r o r 5
1 3
ra ys ; th at is we sh all c on sider on ly such r ays as ar e c o m

,
pr ised withi n a ver y n arr o w cylin d r ic al r egio n i m m ediately

sur r o un din g the axis o f the Spher ic al sur fa ce which is like
wise the axis O f the cylin de r Acc o r din gly the o n ly po r ti on
.
,
o f the sphe r ic a l su r fa ce th at will be utili z ed fo r r eflecti o n o r
r efr a cti o n will be a s m all z o n e who se su m mit is at A ; so th at

I
so far a s p ar a xi al r ays a r e
c on cern e d the r est o f the

,
Sphe r ic a l su r f a ce m ay be
r eg ar ded a s if it h ad n o
o ptic al e xiste n ce o r a t a n y
r ate a s if it we r e o p a que
a n d n o n-r e fle c t in g Thus .
,
for e xample the s ur fa ce

,
m ight be p ain ted o ve r

with l am pbl a ck le a vin g
b ar e an d expo sed o ly F 90 — R fl ti f
v
n 63 IG y
. t , . e ec on o ra a con
m ca e or
the s m all effective z on e
'
in the i mm edi ate vicin ity o f the ve r te x ; o r a scr ee n might

'
be set up at r ight an gles t o the axis cl o se t o the ver tex with

a s m all ci r cul ar Ope n in g in it E ven then a s o u r ce o f li ght
.
lyin g at a c on side r able dis

t an ce o ff the axis wo uld
sen d r ays which n o twith
st an din g th at they wer e
in ciden t n e ar the vertex
w o ul d n o t be p a r axi al r ays .
6 4 R e fl ecti o n o f Par .
axi al Rays at a Sphe r i c al
M irro r In the a c c o m
—
.
p an yin g di agr am s (Fig 90 .

,
F 9 0 b — R fl ti f t m a a n d b ) the st r aight l in e
m m“
IG . , . e y
ec on o ra a co ,
R B r ep r esen ts the p ath o f

v ex
a n in cide n t r ay c ro s sin g the axis o f a Spher ic al mirr o r Z Z at the

po in t M an d in ciden t o n the m irr o r a t the p o in t B an d the ,
st r aight lin e B S sh o ws the p ath o f the c o rr esp o n di n g re

5
1 4 M irr o r s ,
fle c t e d c r o ssi n g the axis r eally (Fig 90 a) o r virt u

r ay ,
.
,
al ly ) at the p o in t m ar ked M By the law of

”
Fi
( g 9 0 b .
, ,
’
.
r eflecti o n A N E R 4SE N wher e B N is the in ciden ce-n o rm al

a n d N design a tes a p o i n t o n it which lies in fr o n t o f the
m ir r o r Sin ce the n o r m al bisects the in te r i o r o r e xte r i or

.
an gle at B Of t he t r i an gle ME M the fo ll owin g pr o portion ’

,
m ay be wr itt en
CM MC ’
BM B M
’
No w if the r ay RB is a p araxial r ay t he letter A may be sub ,
stituted in t he ab o ve e qu ation in pla ce of B an d thus we ,
o bt a in
CM MC ’
AM AM
’
the absciss ae with r espect t o the ver tex A o f

D en o tin g , ,
the axial po in ts M M by u u r espectively that is puttin g ,

’
,
’
, , ,
AM = u AM = u an d als o as st ated in 6 3 puttin g AC = r

’ ’
, , , , ,
we m ay wr ite
CM C A+ AM
= = — r+u = u — r ,
—u ’ — ’ —r
+r (u );
so th at int r o ducin g t hese
, s ym b o s l in the e quation a b ove ,
we Ob t am
u — r
’
u u
which m ay be put in the fo r m (see 67

1 1 2
u u r
If ther efo r e the fo r m an d dim en sio n s of the mirr or ar e

, ,
kn o wn (th at is if the value o f r is a ssign ed as t o b o th m ag

,
n itu de an d sign ) an d if a ls o the p o siti o n O f the p o in t M

,
!
I wr iti g t hi p p ti mu t b t k th t t h t w
'
h n s t ro or o n , c ar e s e a en o see a e o
me mb e r s of it s h lh v
al a e t he sam e S i g n . Fo r e xa m p l e , in eac h of t he
diag r ams in Fig 9 0, a s t he} ’ ar e dr awn , t h e se g m e n s C M a n d A M t
hv th t h th
.
a e t h e sam e dir e c io n al o n g t he axis, SO ta for e a c of es e fi g ur e s
t
t h e r a io C M A M 1 s p osi i e : tv
No w if t he r a io M C A M is t o hé t : ~
’ ’
th tv th t
.
p u t e q u a t o i s r a l
io i t m u s b e p o si i eta l so a i s t h e s e gtm en s t
h di th v
, , ,
M C AM ag r a m m us the m di ti
’ ’
an d i n e ac a e sa e rec on .
§ 64] Par a x ia l R y :
Sp h
a s i
e r c al M i rr o r 1 5
5
wher e the in ciden t p ar axia l r ay cr o sses the a xis o f the
S phe r ic al m i rr o r is given the absciss a u o f the po in t M
,
’ ’
wher e the c o rr esp on din g r eflecte d r ay c r o sses the axis m ay

be c alcul ated by m ean s o f the expr essi o n :
r u
.
—
2u r
But the m o st n o tewo r thy c o n clusi o n t o be d r awn fro m this
fo rm ul a is the fa ct th at pr o vided the r ays ar e p ar axial their
, ,
a ctu a l sl o pes do n o t m atte r fo r n o n e o f the an gul ar m a gn i

,
tudes a 0 o r qt appe ar s in the fo r m ul a ; which m ean s th at

, ,
all p ar axi al r ays which c r o ss the a xis a t the p o in t M befo r e
r eflecti o n will c r o ss the a x is a fte r r e fl ecti o n in the sphe r ic al
m i rr o r a t o n e a n d the s a m e p o in t M Thus a homo cen tr i c ’

.
,
b un dle f
o p a r a xi a l r a ys i n ci den t on a sp he r i ca l mi r r or r ema i n s
homocen tr i c f ter
a If ther efo r e M design ates the
re flecti on .
, ,
p o siti o n o f a lumin o us p o in t in fr o n t o f the m ir ro r an d if ,
the m ir r o r is scr een ed so th at o n ly such r ays a s p r o ceed cl o se

t o the axis ar e in ciden t o n it the bun dle O f r eflected r ays ,
will fo r m at a p o in t M o n the str aight lin e MC an ide al

’
im age o f the lum in o us p o in t M Acc o r din g as the im age .
p o in t M lies in fr o n t o f the mirr o r (Fig 90 a ) or bey o n d it

’
.
,
(Fig 9 0 b ) the i m age will be r e a l o r vi r tu al r espectively

.
, , ,
.
Thus fo r a r e al i m age in a Spher ica l m 1rr o r the v alue o f u

, ,
’
as fo un d by the fo r m ul a a b o ve will be n eg ative wher e a s ,
f o r a vir tu a l i m a ge it will be p o sitive .
It m ay be n o ted als o th at the fo r m ula is symm et r ic al with

r espect t o u an d u so th a t the equ a ti o n will n o t be alte r ed
’
,
by in te r ch an gin g the symb o ls u an d u an d hen ce it fo ll o ws ’
th a t if M i s the i mag e of M then lik ewi se M may b e r eg ar ded

’
This is in deed m e r ely an illust r atio n o f

,
a s the i m a g e of M
’
“
.
the gen er al law kn o wn in o ptics as the p rin ciple o f the '
r eve r sib ili ty o f the light -p ath But the s ym m etry

”
o f the equ ati o n im plies m o r e th an is in v o lved in this p r i n
c iple ; fo r it in di c ates th at in the c a se O f r eflecti o n o b j ect
S p a ce an d im a ge -sp a ce c o i n cide c o m p letely the a ctu al p aths ,
o f the i n cide n t a n d r eflected r a ys b o th lyi n g in the sp ace in

5
1 6 Mirr o r s ,
fr o n t o f the m ir r or Acc o r din gly an in ciden t r ay an d it s
.
,
c o r r esp o n din g r eflected r ay ar e a lways so r elated th at when

either is r egar ded as O bj ect r ay the o ther will be an im age-r ay
-
.
TH E DO U B LE RA TIO OF FO UR POIN T S ON A STRA IG H T LINE
6 5
. D e fi n iti o n an d M e an in g of th e Do ub l e Ratio .
—
It
will be c o n ven ien t an d pr o fit able at this pl a ce to turn a side
fr o m the special pr o blem whi ch is her e un der in vestigation
in o r de r t o devo te a few p ar a gr aphs t o a b r ief expl an ati on
Of the sim ple r m e tr ic al p r o cesses o f m o de r n p r o jective
geo m etry which ar e o f g r e at utili ty in geo m etr ic al O ptics
,
especi all y when we ar e c o n cern ed with im agery by mean s

,
O f the so c all ed p ar axi al ray s

- .
(la)
F IG 9 1 — Lin e -se g m e n t AB d i id e d (a ) in t e r n all v y
y y
. . at
C a n d e x t e r n a ll a t D , a n d (b ) i n t e r n a l l at C
an d D .
If L design ates the po sitio n o f a p o in t on a str aight lin e

determ i n ed b y the t wo p o in ts A B the lin e-seg m en t AB is , ,
s aid t o be divided at L in the ratio AL B L If the p o in t L

5
.
lies between A an d B the steps (see § 4 ) AL an d BL ar e

,
in O pp o site se n ses a l o n g the lin e a n d the r ati o AL :E L will ,
be n eg ative an d in this c ase we say that the segm en t AB is

,
div ided in te r n ally at L On the o the r h a n d if the p o in t L

.
,
d o es n o t lie between A an d B the r atio AL : E L will be ,
po sitive an d we say th at the segm en t AB is divided e x

t e r n ally at L
.
Ac co r din gly if A B , , , C, D ( g
Fi . 91, a an d b) design ate a
6 5
] Do ub le R ti
a o 5
1 7
series offour po in ts all r an ged al on g a st r aight lin e in an y

o r de r Of seque n ce the seg m e n t AB wil l be divided a t C a n d
,
D in the r atio s AC : B C an d AD : E D r espectively ; a n d ,
the qu o tien t o f these t wo r ati o s is c alled the double r a ti o (o r

“cro ss r ati o ) o f the fo ur p o in ts A B C D This d o uble
”
.
sym b o lically by in cl o sin g the four letter s

, , ,
r ati o is den o ted
AB C D in p ar en theses ; thus a cc o r di n g t o th e ab o ve def

,
in iti o n ,
AC AD
(AB C D ) BC BD
wher e the fi r st t wo letter s in the p ar en theses m ar k the e n d
p o in ts Of the segm en t an d the l ast t wo letter s design ate the
p o in ts o f div isi on The lin e-segm en t C D is di v i ded in the
.
sam e way b y the po in ts A an d B ; f or
CA CB AC AD
(C DAB ) DA DE
'
BC BD
°
(AB C D ) .
Acc or din g as the t wo r atio s AC : B C an d AD : B D h ave

the s am e Sign o r Oppo site sign s th e value o f the d ouble r ati o
,
(AB C D) will be p o sitive o r n egative r espectively Suppo se ,

.
f o r e xam ple th at the segm en t AB is divided in te rn ally a t C

,
, ,
as r ep r ese n ted in b o th a a n d b o f Fig 91 Then the r ati o . .
AC : B C wil l be n eg ative N o w if AB is divided als o in

.
t e r n ally at D as in Fig 9 1 a the r a ti o AD D B will lik ewise

,
.
, ,
be n egative Acco r di n gly if C an d D ar e b o th p o in ts o f in

.
,
tern al di visi o n (o r b oth p o in ts o f exter n al divisio n ) the ,
d o uble r atio (AB C D ) will be p o sitive But if o n e o f these .
po in ts divi des AB in ter n ally while the o ther di vi des it e x

t e rn all y (Fig 9 1 b ) the d o uble r a ti o (AB C D ) will be n ega
.
, ,
tive .
In o r der t o fo r m a cle ar ide a o f the values which (AB C D)

m ay a ssum e let us supp o se th at the p o in ts design a ted by
A B an d C in Fig 9 2 r epr esen t th r ee st ati o n ary p o in ts o n a
,
.
,
str aight lin e x an d th at O design ates an o ther fixed p o i n t n o t

,
o n this l in e .The str aight lin e x an d the po in t 0 t o gether

deter m in e a pl an e which is the pl an e o f the dia gr am N o w
let y design ate a sec on d str aight lin e lyi n g in this pl an e an d
.
5
1 8 Mir r o r s ,
Pr i sm s an d Le n se s 6 5
p assin g th r o ugh 0 an d let the p o in t o f i n t er sectio n Of the
,
st r a ight li n es x an d y be design ated b y Y An d if the .
st r a ight li n e y is supp o sed t o tu r n ar o u n d 0 as a piv o t in a
se n se say O pp o site to , ,
M
th at o f the m o ti o n o f the
,
h an ds o f a cl o ck the ,
p o in t Y will be a var i able

p o in t m o vin g alo n g the
st r a ight li n e x c o n st an tl y
in the s am e se n se n am el y , ,
in Fig 9 2 fr o m left t o .
t l p j ight A m
— r “ ss u e : f o r e x
p i t- g A B C D E lyi g t h am ple that the thr ee

FIG . 92 . C en ti
ra f m O f thro e c on ro o e
o n r an e n on e
,
st a ti o n ar y p o i n ts A C B
t g ht h
S r al ne x '
, ,
a r e r an ged a l o n g the st r aight li n e x fr o m left t o r ight in the
o r de r n a m ed a s sh o w n in the figu r e ; a n d supp o se th at the

,
var iable p o in t Y st ar ts o r igin ally at B so th at the r evo lvin g

“
,
lin e OY o r y c o in cides in iti ally with the r ay m ar ked b in ”
the figu e r a n d B Y = BB = 0 an d c o n seque n tl y the r ati o , , ,
A Y : 0 Hen ce un der these cir cum stan ces the in itial

B Y = 0
, ,
v alue o f the d o uble r a ti o Of the fo ur p o in ts A B C Y will be , , ,
AC AY
(AB OY) — O
fi g
'
BC
When evo lvin g r ay has turn ed thr ough A B OD wher e
th e r ,
D design ates a p o i n t lyi n g o n the st r aight lin e x t o the

r ight bey o n d B the p o i n t Y will be at D o utside the segm e n t
,
AB an d the d o uble r atio (AB C Y) will be n eg ative as e x ,
pl ain ed ab o ve As y c on tin ues t o r evo lve ar o un d 0 the p o in t

.
,
Y will m o ve far ther an d far ther t o the r i g ht al o n g the straight

‘
lin e x u n til when y is p ar allel t o x an d in the p o siti on o f the

, ,
r ay m ar ked e in the figu r e the p o in t Y will then c o in cide ,
with the i nfin i tely di stan t p oin t E of the str aig ht lin e x N o w .
AE = B E = o a n d he n ce AE :
o BE = 1 ; an d the r efo r e when
Y is at E ,
AC AE AC
(AB OY) ' '
BC BE BC
,
6 6] Pe r sp e c t iv R e an g e s of Po in t s 1 9 5
When the r evo lvi n g turn ed bey o n d th e p o siti o n
r ay y h as
r ep r ese n ted b y the st r a ight lin e e the po in t Y which h ad ,
just van ished at o n e e n d E o f the st r aight lin e x n o w r e

a ppe ar s fr o m the o the r e n d E p r o ceedin g al o n g it still in
,
the s am e sen se fr o m left t o r ight Thus befo r e the r ay y .

,
h as e x ecuted a c o m plete r ev o luti o n the p o i n t Y will p ass ,
thr ough A an d at this m o m en t AY = AA = 0 an d

, , ,
A C AY AC AA
(AB C Y)
B C B Y B C Eff
a n d thus we see th a t as the p o i n t Y h as t r ave r sed the st r a ight
lin e x fr o m B via the in fin itely dist an t p o in t E t o A the d ouble ,
r ati o (AB C Y) h a s a ssu m ed all n eg ative v a lues fr o m 0t o o o
Fi n ally a s the r ay y c o m pletes its r ev o luti o n by tu r n i n g fr o m

,
the p o sitio n a t o its in iti al p o siti o n b the p o in t Y m o ves fr o m ,
A vi a 0 t o B W he n .Y is a t c A Y = A C B Y = B C an d , , ,
AC AY
(AB OY) BO BY
+1 ,
so th at in p assin g alon g x fr o m A t o C (AB OY) a ssum es all ,
po sitive v alues c o m pr ised between c an d + 1 Between o .
C an d B it h as all p o sitive v alues less th an u n ity

,
Thus .
,
as the p o i n t Y t r ave r ses the st r a ight li n e x c o n ti n u ally in
the s am e sen se u n til it h as r eturn ed t o its st ar ti n g p o in t ,
the d ouble r ati o (AB C Y) will assum e all p o ssible values

b o th p o sitive an d n eg ative .
In gen e r al sin ce ,
AC AD BD B C CA CB DB D A
(AB C D) O
,
BC BD A D AC DA D B CB CA
we m ay wr ite
(AB C D) (BA D O) (C DAB ) (D C B A) .
66 Pe r sp ectiv e R an ge s o f Po in ts
.
— If A B C etc de sig .
, , ,
.
,
n ate the p o siti o n s o f the p o i n ts o f a p o i n t -r a n ge x (Fig 9 2)

“
.
these p o in ts ar e said t o be pr o j ected fr o m a p o in t 0 o ut ”
“
side Of x by the str aight lin es o r r ays OA OB OC etc ; .
, ,
an d if these r ays i n te r sect an o the r st r aight li n e x (Fig 93) .
in the p o i n ts A B C etc the t wo p o i n t -r an ges x x a r e

’
,
’
,
’
,
.
, ,
’
said t o be in p er sp ecti ve with r espect t o the p o i n t 0 as c en te r

160 Mirr o r s ,
f
o p e r sp e cti ve . The p o in t s A A ; B B ; C C ; etc ar e ,
’
,
’
,
’
.
,
c alled p a ir s Of c o r r esp on din g p o i n t s of t he t wo per spective

p oin t r an ges x
-
,
x
’
.
FIG 9 3 — Th e p o in t -
A CD B '
d A B C D
’ ’ '
p p v h p
. . r an g es an
ar e in e r s e c t i e r e l a t io n w it re s e c t to t he
po in t 0 a s c e n t r e o f er s e c ti e p p v .
If A B C D design ate the p o siti on s o f an y fo u r po in ts o f

, , ,
x an d if A B C D design ate the c orr esp on din g po in ts

’ ’ ’ ’
, , , ,
on x then’
,
(AB C D)
as we sh all p r o ceed t o sh o w .
F IG 9 4— St r aig t lin e s h '

b ase s of two p o in t- an g e s in
p p v h
. . x, x ar e r
e rs e c ti e , so t at (A B C D)
Th r o ugh the p o in ts A B A an d B (Fig 94) draw fo ur , ,

’ ’
.
p ar allel lin es AA BB A A an d B B m eetin g the r ay OC

c, C,
’
c
’ ’
c
’
6 7]
“
H arm o n i c R an g e 16 1
or c the po in ts A B A an d B r espectively ; an d
in C
’
th r ough these s am e po in ts d r a w fo u r o ther p ar all el lin es

AAd BBd A Ad an d B B d m eetin g the r ay OD o r d in the
’ ’ ’ ’
po in ts Ad Bd Ad an d Bd r espectively Then eviden tly

, ,
’ ’
.
, , , , ,
AC A Ac AD AAd
’
Bo BB BD B Bd
A D A Ad
/ / / l /
A Ac
/
A C
/
’
B D
I / / l / / / /
B C B Bc B Bd
AC AD AA, AA ,
(AB C D ) ' '
’
B O BD B B C B Bd
AD
/ I ! I I l l
AC A AC
/
A Ad
D
I I
( C )
I I
A B
A Ac A Ad B Bc B Bd
’
/ / / l l / / l
A Ac A Ad E Bc B Bd
a n d, c on se quen tly ,
(AB C D) ,
as was t o be p r o ved .
67 . Th e H ar mo n i c R an g
The speci al c ase when the e — .
p o in ts C an d D divide the lin e segm en t AB in tern all y an d

-
e xtern ally in the s ame n um er ic al r ati o so th at ,
AC AD
BC BD
dem an ds atten ti on p articul ar ly because it is a c ase th at we
sh all m eet a gain in the the o r y Of the r efl ectio n o f p ar axi al r ays
,
a t a cu r ved mir r o r Un de r these cir cu m st an ces the v alue

.
,
O f the d o uble r ati o is
(AB C D) 1;
a n d then we say th a t the seg men t A B i s di vided har m on i ca lly
a t C an d D o r a ls o the seg m e n t C D is divided h ar m o n ic all y

,
a t A an d B Fo r ex a m p le the pe r pen dicul ar bisect o r s O f

.
,
the exter i o r an d in ter io r an gles Of a t r ian gle divide the o p

p o sit e si de o f the t r i an gle h arm on ic all y in the r ati o o f the
o the r t wo sides .
162 M i rr o r s ,
Pr ism s an d Le n se s
Fo ur h arm on ic po in ts m ay be defin ed n o t m er ely by the

m et r ic al r el ati o n th at thei r d o uble r ati o is e qu al t o 1 bu t ,
als o b y a ge o m et r ic al r el a ti o n as we Sh all n o w sh o w
5
.
,
Le t P Q R S (Figs 9 an d 9 6) design ate the p o siti o n s o f

, ,
.
fo ur po in ts lyin g all in
,
o n e pl an e n o th r ee o f ,
whi ch ar e in the s am e
st r aight l i n e These .
fo ur p o in ts will deter
m in e Six str a ight lin es ,
v iz PQ , PR , PS, QR
5
,
.
p q
,
F IG . 9 .
— C o m le te u a d ril a t e r a l PQ R S ; Q S, an d R S, which ar e
c alled the sides Of the

comp lete qua dr i la ter a l wh o se fo ur ve r tices ar e at the p o in t s
P Q R an d S An y t wo o f these lin es which t o gether c o n

, , ,
.
t ain all the vertices fo r m a p air Of O ppo site sides o f the

qu adr ilateral Acco r din gly ther e are thr ee p air s of Oppo sit e
.
,
sides v iz PQ an d RS
,
.
,
which m eet in a p o in t
design ated b y A PS an d ,
Q R which m eet in a
p oin t design ated by B ,
an d QS a n d PR which
m eet in a p o i n t de sig
n at e d by O The th r ee
— C m pl t q
.
p o in ts A B a d O a e
n ,
r F 9 6 d il t l PQ R S ; IG . . o e e ua r a e ra
(AB C D )
so m etim es c alled t h e
sec on dar y v er ti ces O f the q u a d r il a te r al We sh all expl ain n o w .
wh at c o n n ecti on this fig ur e has with a h ar m on ic r an g e o f

po in ts .
The sec o n dary ver tices A an d B ar e determ in ed b y the

t wo p air s o f o pp o site sides PQ R S an d PS Q R ; an d the , ,
po in ts C an d D wher e the thir d p air o f o pp o site sides QS

an d PR m eet the st r aight lin e AB divide the seg m e n t AB
h armon ic ally For sin ce A B C D an d P R ,O D ar e in

.
, , , , , ,
6 7] H a rm o n i c R an g e 1 63
per spective r el ati o n with r espect t o the po in t Q as cen ter o f

per spective the r efo r e
(AB C D) (PR OD) .
But P R O D an d B A C D ar e als o in per spective t o

, , , , , ,
e a ch o ther with r espect t o the po in t S as cen ter o f per spe ctive ;

c on sequen tly ,
(PR OD) (BA OD) .
I t foll o ws ther efor e th at

(AB C D ) (B AC D ) .
But b y the defin iti o n o f the d o uble r ati o

1
(BA OD)
(AB C D)
Acc or din gly her e ,
we m ust h ave :
(AB C D)
(AB C D) =1
2
.
Acc or din g this e quation ther efo r e the d o uble r atio

to , ,
(AB C D ) m ust be e qu al t o + 1 o r — But we saw ab o ve

5
1 .
6 ) th at the d o uble r ati o Of fo u r p o i n ts A B C D in a , , ,
str aight lin e c an be e qu al t o + 1 o n ly in c a se o n e o f the

p oin ts A B is c o in ciden t with o n e o f the p ai r C D ; which
, ,
c an n o t h appen in c ase o f the four p o in ts A B C D o f the , , ,
quadr il ater al PQRS Ther efor e we must have her e :

.
,
(AB C D) 1;
an d he n ce b y defi n iti o n
, the po in ts A B are h ar m o n ic ally
, ,
sep ar ated by the po in ts C D Similarly a lso the po in t s

,
.
, ,
P R ar e h ar m o n ic ally sep ar ated by the p o in ts 0 D

, ,
.
If A B C D is a h ar m on ic r an ge o f po in ts then
, , , ,
B C DB BA + A C D A + AB
’
AC AD AC AD
th at is ,
AO —
AR AB — AD .
AC AD
.
164 M ir ror s ,
whi ch m ay fin ally be wr itten in the f o r m

1 1 2
+
A C A D A B
an e qu ati o n th at is ch ar a cte r istic o f a h arm on ic r ange o f
fo ur p o in ts A B C D (of , , ,
.
68 Appl i c ati o n to th e C ase Of th e R e fl e c ti on o f Paraxial

.
R ays at a Sph e r i c al M i o rr r —When p ar axi al r ays ar e r e .
fle c t e d at a sphe r ic al mir r o r wh o se cen ter is at C we saw ,
6 4) th at C M : A M = MC : AM whe r e M M design a te
’ ’
,
’
the p o siti on s Of a p air o f c on jugate p o in ts lyin g o n a cen tr al

,
r ay whi ch c r o sses the mi r r o r a t the p o in t m ar ked A (Fig 90 .

,
a an d b ) ; an d the r efor e
8x£12
1 —1
, ,
1 or .
1
C on s e que tly the fo ur p o i n ts C A M M ar e a h arm on ic
n , , , ,
’
r an ge o f p o i n ts lyi n g o n the cen t r a l r ay AC a n d we m ay say
th at the p air o f c on jugate p oin ts M M is h ar m o n ic ally

,
’
,
separ ated by the cen ter o f the mi rr or C an d the p oin t A

wher e the cen t r al r ay m eets the mi r r o r Thus if we k n o w .
,
the po siti on s o f th r ee Of these po in ts we can c on str uct the ,
po sitio n o f the fo urth p o in t b y the aid o f the pr o pe r ties Of

t he c o m plete q u a d r il ater a l Fo r e xam ple the i m age ,
po in t M c on jugate t o a given p o in t M with r espect t o a

’
spher ic al mirr o r m ay be c o n structed as fo ll o ws

Dr a w a st r aight lin e x (Fig 97 a a n d b ) t o r ep r esen t the .
,
axi s o f the m ir r o r an d m ar k o n it the p o siti o n s o f the th r ee

‘
,
given p o in t s A C an d M whi ch m ay be r an ged a lo n g thi s

, , ,
lin e in an y se quen ce wh atever depen din g o n the for m O f

the m irr o r a d o n whether the o bj ect p oin t M is r eal o r
n -
vir tual Th r o ugh M d r aw an o ther str aight lin e in an y c o n

.
v e n ie n t di r ecti o n an d m ar k o n it t wo p o in ts which we sh a ll
,
c all Q an d S an d d r aw the str aight lin es AQ an d C S m eetin g

,
in a p o in t R an d the st r aight lin es AS an d C Q m eetin g in a

p o in t P Then the st r aight lin e PR will in ter sect the str aight
.
lin e x in the p o in t M which is c on juga te t o M with r espect

’
t o a spher ic al mir r o r wh o se ve r tex is at A an d wh o se c e n te r

§ 68] Sp he r ica l Mirr o r :
C on j ug at e Ax i al Po i n t s 16 5
is at C It will be r e m arked th at in pe r fo r m i n g this c o n
.
structio n the on ly d r awin g in stru m en t th at is n eeded is a

str aight-edge .
F IG 97, — C o n ca v Mir r o r : p
C o n st r uc t io n o f o in t
p
. a . e
M ’
j
c o n u g at e to a x i al o in t M in f r o n t o f t h e m ir r o r .
If the m irr o r is c o n cave the p o ssible sequen ces o f these ,
four p oin ts o n the axis ar e M C M A ; M C M A ; an d , ,

’
,
’
, , ,
C M A M when the Object -p o in t M is r e al an d C M

’ ’
, , , , , , ,
— C o n e x M ir r o r v : p M ’
j j p
b C o n st r u c t io n o f o in t
v
F IG . 7
9 , .
c o n u g at e t o ir t u al o b e c t - o in t M o n a xi s o f m irr o r .
A M when the O
, ,
- o n r al b j ect p i t M is vi tu
In the c ase o f a .
c on vex mi rr o r the po in ts m ay o ccur in an y o n e o f the fo ll o w

in g arr an ge m en ts :M A M C whe n the o b j ect p o in t M
,
-
,
’
, ,
1 66 M i rr o r s ,
Pr i sm s an d Le n se s l§ 69
is r e al an d M A M C ; A M C M an d A M C M
,
’
, , , , , ,
’
,
’
, , ,
when the Obj ect p o in t M is vir tu al The studen t sh o ul d

- .
s atisfy hi m self as t o the a ccur a cy o f these st atem en ts b y

d rawin g a diagr am fo r e a ch o f these eight sequen ces a cc o r d
in g t o the dir ecti o n s fo r the c o n st r ucti o n as given ab o ve .
Fig 9 7 a sh o ws the c a se o f a c o n c ave mir r o r with the p o in ts

.
in the o r de r M C M A ; whe r e as Fig 9 7 b r epr esen t s

’
.
, , , ,
a c o n ve x mi rr o r wi th a
vi tu l o bject po in t at M
r a -
,
the o r de r in thi s c ase b e To s at oo
in g A M C M
7 0 2 9
1 00
’
.
, , ,
69 . Fo c al Po in t an d
Fo c al Le n g th of a Sph e ri
i i c al Mi rr or .
—In the
pecial c a se when the Ob S
FIG . 98, a. — F l p i t
oca f v j e ct-poin t M co in cides
o n o con ex
wi th the in fin itely dist an t

mi (A F F C )
rr o r
p o in t E o f the x-a x is t he c o n jug a te p o in t M will lie a t

,
’
p o in t F (Fig 9 8 a an d b ) deter min ed b y t he r el at i on :

’
.
,
(C AE
’
F ) 1,
an d sin ce her e C E = AE = oo we m ust h ave
This m e an s
th at a cyl
in dric al bu n dle o f in ci
den t p ar axi al r ay s p ar allel To E u co
to the axis o f a spher ic al

mir r o r will be t r an sfo r m ed
in to a c on ic al bun dle Of
re flected r ays with its
ver tex at a p o in t F whi ch ’
l p i t v
is midway between the F 98 b —
mi
F f IG . , . o ca o n o con ca e
(A F F C ) rr or
vertex A an d the cen ter C .
If o the o ther h an d t e
n ,
h im a ge p o in t M c o in cides with
- ’
the in fin itely dist an t p o in t E the c o n j ug a te o b j ect-p o in t M

,
will lie on the axis at a p o in t F dete r m in e d b y the r elati o n :

,
(C AFE )
’
1 .
6 9] Fo c al Le n g h t Of Mirr or 167
an d ther efo r e we Obt ain her e in the s am e way as a b o ve

AF = FC .
Acco r din gly a c o n ic al bun dle o f in ciden t r ays with its

,
ver tex at a p oin t F mi dway between the ver tex o f the mir r o r
a n d its ce n te r will be t r an sf o r m ed in t o a cy lin d r ic al bun dle
o f r eflected r ays p ara llel t o the axis o f the mir r o r The .
letter s F an d F will be used t o design ate the po siti on s o f

’
the so —c alled f oca l p oin ts o f an o ptic al system which is sy m

m et r ic ar o u n d an axis They ar e n o t a pair o f c o n jugate
.
p o in ts as m ight n atur a lly be in ferr ed fr o m the fa ct th at

they ar e design ated b y the s am e letter In the c ase Of a
,
Sphe r ic a l mir r o r these t wo p o in ts as we h ave see n ar e c o in , ,
c ide n t with e a ch o the r whi ch is a c o n se quen ce o f the ide n tity

,
o f o bject sp a ce a d im a ge sp a ce t o whi ch r efe r e n ce was m ade

- n -
a t the c o n clusi o n Of 6 4 The f o c al p o in t Of a c o n c ave mi rr o r

.
li es in fr on t o f the mirr o r as sh o wn in Fig 98 b so th at ,

.
, ,
p ar axial r ays p ar allel t o the axis will be r eflected at a c on

c ave m irr o r t o a r e al fo cus at F ; wher ea s in the c a se o f a
c o n vex mirr or the fo c al p o in t F lies behin d the m irr o r (v ir
tual fo cus) as sh o wn in Fig 98 a
,
.
,
.
The f oca l len g th f o f a spher ic al m irr or m ay be defin ed as

the absciss a o f the ver tex A with r espect t o the fo cal po in t
F a s o r igin ; th at is f FA Hen ce accordin g as the mir r or
,
.
,
is c on ca v e or c on vex , the f oca l l en g th wi ll b e p osi tive or n eg a tive ,

It m ay be
r e sp e c ti v e ly
. r e m ar ked th at the sign s o f f an d
r a r e a lw a ys O pp o site the r el a ti o n betwee n these m a gn itudes
bein g given b y the fo ll o win g for m ula

,
r
—2
f -- O r r
2
f .
He ce a ls o the absciss el ati on Obt ain ed in § 64 m ay be

n , ,
-
a r
wr itten in ter m s o f f in ste ad o f r as fo ll o ws :

1 1 11 1
u u f
wher e h o wever it m ust be b o rn e in m in d th at wher e as the
, , ,
a bsciss ae u u a r e m e a su r ed fr o m the ve r te x A a s o r igin

’
the fo cal len gth f is m easur ed fr om the fo c al po in t F

, ,
.
1 68 Mirr o rs ,
If the abscissae with r espect t o the fo c al po in t F of the

, ,
pa ir o f c o n jug ate axi al po in ts M M ar e den o ted b y x x ,

’
,
’
,
th at is if FM = x FM = x then sin ce
, ,
’ ’
, ,
AM = AF+ FM ,
the c onn ectio n between the u s an d
’
the x s
’
is given b y the
foll o win g e qu atio n s :
u=x =x
’ ’
u f;
an d substitutin g these values in the fo rm ul a ab o ve an d
clear in g o f fr a ctio n s we der ive the so -c alled N ewton i an
,
f ormu la ,
v iz
’ 2
x x .
f ;
whi ch is an ex ceedin gly sim ple an d c on veni en t form of the
absciss a r el a ti o n betwee n a p air o f c o n jug a te axi al po in ts
- .
The r ight-h an d side Of this e q uation is essen tiall y po sitive ,
an d he n ce the absciss ae x x m ust alw ays h ave like sign s

’
.
,
C o n seque n tl y i n a sp her i ca l mi r r or the con j ug a te axi a l p oi n ts

,
M M,
’
li e a lwa ys b oth me si de of the f oca l p oi n t F
on the sa .
70 G r aph i c al
. M e th o d of e xh ib itin g th e I ma g e ry b y
Paraxi al Ra y s — . The p o in ts M, M in Fig 9 9 , a an d b de sig
’
.
FIG . — Fo r p
ar a xi al r a s t h e r e e c t in g (o ry fl
99, a .
r e f r a c t in g ) su r f a c e m u st b e r e r e s e n t e d in dia g r a m p
h
b y t h e st r aig t lin e A y , n o t b y t h e c u rv e d li n e AZ .
nate the p o siti o n s o n the axis o f a Spher ic al mirr o r o f a p air

Of c o n jug a te p o in ts c o n st r ucted a cc o r d in g t o the m eth o d
explain ed in 68 On the r eflect in g spher e ZZ t ake a po in t

.
D an d d r aw the st raight lin es MD M D m eetin g the t an

’
, ,
7 0] Dia g r am s for Pa r ax i al R ay s 1 69
gen t the pl an e o f these lin es in the po in ts B C r e

Ay in , ,
sp e c t iv e ly Also d ra w the str aight lin e M E No w if the

.
,
’
.
po in t D wer e very cl o se t o the ver tex A o f the mi r r o r then ,
the st r aight lin e MD would r epr esen t the p ath of an in ciden t
FIG 9 9 , b — Fo r p ar axi a l y fl
t h e r e e c t in g (o r
p
. . ra s
r e f r a c t in g ) su r f a c e m u st b e r e r e se n t e d in dia g r a m
h v
b y t h e st r aig t li n e A y , n o t b y t h e c u r e d lin e A Z .
p ar axi al r ay c r o ssin g the axis at M an d the p ath o f the ,
c or r espo n din g r eflected r ay w oul d be al o n g the str aight lin e

DM ’
. But u n der these cir cum st an ces the thr ee po in ts
design ated her e b y the letter s D B G w o uld all be so n e ar
,
, ,
t o gether that even when we c an n o t r eg ar d D as abs o lutely

c o in ciden t with A we m ay c on sider D B an d G as all c o in
, ,
c ide n t with o n e an o the r Ther efo r e when the r ay is p ar axi al

.
, ,
we m ay an d in fa ct in the diagr am we must r egar d the

, , , ,
st r aight lin e B M as sh o wi n g the p ath o f the r eflected r ay

’
.
It is quite essen tial th at thi s po in t which is seld o m clear ly

expl ain ed sh o uld be rightly appr ehen ded b y the studen t In .
di agr am s sh o win g the i m agery by m ean s o f paraxi al rays

the duty o f the straight lin es th at ar e d r awn is n o t pr im ar il y
t o r ep r esen t the a ctu al p aths o f the r ays the m selves but t o
l o cate by their in ter sectio n s the c o r r ect po sitio n s o f the p ai r s
o f c o r r esp o n din g p oin ts in the o b j ect -sp a ce an d i m a ge -sp a ce .
In the c o n st ructi o n o f such di ag r am s a p r a ctic al di fficulty ,

1 70 M i rr o r s ,
is en c oun t er ed due t o the fa ct th at wher e as in r eality par ,
axi a l r ays a r e c o m p r ised withi n t h e ve r y n arr o w cy li n d ri c al
r egi o n i m m ediately su rr o un din g the axis o f the spher ic al

sur fa ce it is O bvi o usly q uite i m p o ssible t o sh o w the m
this way in the figu r e bec ause it wo ul d be n ecess ary t o t ake
,
the dim en si on s o f the d ra win g at r ight an gles t o the axis

so s m all th at m agn itudes o f the sec o n d o r de r o f s m a lln es s
w o uld n o l on ger be per ceptible at all ; thus fo r exam ple the

p o in ts B D G in Fig 99 wo uld h ave t o be sh o wn as o n e
, ,
.
, ,
po in t On the o ther h an d if the lin es in the diagr am ar e

.
,
n o t all d r a wn cl o se t o the a xis the r el a ti o n s which h ave been

,
fo un d ab o ve will cea se t o be applic able so th at fo r in st an ce , , ,
the r ays sh o wn in such a d r awin g wo uld n o t in ter sec t in the

pl a ces dem an ded b y t he fo r m ul ae .
Acc o r din gly in o r der t o o ver c o m e thi s difficulty a m eth o d

,
o f c o n st r ucti n g these figu r es h as been ve r y ge n e r ally a d o pted ,

,
whi ch alth o ugh it is c on fessedly in the n atur e o f a c o m

,
pr o mise h as been fo un d t o be o n the wh o le quite s atisfa ct o r y

, ,
an d whe r ei n a t a n y r a te the ge o m et r ic a l r el a ti o n s ar e in
a g r ee m e n t with the algeb r a ic c o n diti o n s which is the esse n
tial r e q ui r em en t In this pl an while the di m en sio n s p ar allel

,
.
,
t o the axis r e m a i n abs o lutely u n a lte r ed the di m e n s io n s a t ,
r ight an gles t o the ax is ar e all p r o digi o usly m a g ni fied in the
s am e p r o p o r ti on Thus fo r exam ple if the in ciden ce-height

.
, ,
k = DB (Fig 89) is a s m all m a gn itude o f the o r de r say o f

.
, ,
o n e -th o us an dth O f the u n it o f le n gth it will be sh o wn in ,
the figur e m a gn ified a th o us an d tim es ; wher e a s an o ther o r

i
d at e
n wh o se height wa s o n l y o n e o n e m illi o n th o f the u n i t
-
o f le n gth a n d which the r efo r e w o uld be o f the sec o n d o r de r

, ,
o f s m alln ess as c o m p a r ed with h w o uld a ppe ar eve n in the ,
m agn ifi ed dia gr a m as a m a gn itude o f the fi r st o r de r o f s m all

n ess. An d if the o r d in ate de n o ted b y h alth o ugh in r ea lit y ,
in fin itely sm all is r ep r esen ted in the d r a win g b y a lin e o f

,
fin ite len gth an o r din ate O f the sec o n d o r der o f s m alln es s

,
a s c o m p a r ed with h will be e n ti r el y un a pp are n t in th e

ma gn ified di ag r am .
7 1] Ex a
r -t Ax i a l C on j ug a t e Po i n t s 17 1
Of c our se as alr eady in tim ated on e eff ect o f this l ater al

, ,
en largem en t will be t o m isr ep r esen t t o s o m e exten t the r el a

ti on s o f the lin es an d an gles in the figur e Fo r in st an ce the .
,
cir cl e in which the spher ic al m i rr o r (o r r efr a ctin g sur fa ce)

is cut by the plan e o f a m er idi an sectio n will ther eby b e
t r an sfo rm ed in t o an in fin itely el o n gated ellipse with its

m aj o r axis pe r pe n di cul ar t o the axis o f the sphe r ic a l sur fa ce ,
a n d this ellipse will a ppe a r in the di a g r am as a st r a ight lin e
Ay t an gen t t o the ci r cle a t A The m i n o r axis o f the elli pse

.
r e m ain s un ch an ged a n d equ al t o the di a m ete r 2r o f the ci r cle ,
an d m o r e o ve r the cen te r o f the ellipse r e m ain s a t the ce n te r C
o f the cir cle . But the m o st a pp ar en t ch an ge will be in the

a n gul a r m a gn itudes which w ill be c o m p letely alte r e d an d
dist ort ed Fo r exam ple ever y st r aight lin e d r awn thr ough
.
,
the cen ter C r eally m eets the cir cle ZZ (Fig 89) n or m all y .
,
but in the dist o rted figur e the axis Of sym m et ry will be the
o n l y o n e o f such lin es which will be pe r pe n dicul ar t o the
st raight lin e Ay which t akes the pl a ce o f the cir cul ar ar c Z Z .
An gles whi ch in r eality ar e equal will a ppe ar un equ al an d ,
vi ce ver sa . H o wever an d after all th is is the r eally essen tial

—
m atte r the a b solute dimen si on s of the a b sci ssae an d the r e la

—
ti ve di men si on s f
o the or din a te s wi ll n ot be chan g e d a t a ll; an d
ther efor e lin es which ar e r e ally str aight will appe ar as

str aight lin es in the figur e an d str aight lin es which ar e
,
p ar allel will be sh o wn as such The absciss a o f the p o in t o f

.
in te r secti o n o f a p ai r Of st r aight lin es in the d r awin g wil l be

the t rue absciss a Of this p o in t .
In such a di a gr a m the r efo r e an y ray n o m atte r wh a t

, , ,
sl o pe it m ay h ave n o r h o w far it m ay be fr o m the axis is t o ,
be c on sider ed as a p ar axi al r ay The m er idian section o f

.
the Spher ical r eflectin g o r r efr a ctin g sur fa ce must be r e p r e

sen ted in the figu r e b y the st r aight lin e Ay (y-axis ) an d the ,
p o sition o f the cen ter C with r espect t o the vertex A will

Sh o w whethe r the su r fa ce is c o n ve x o r c o n c a ve .
7 1 Extr a Axi al C o n j ugate Po in ts

.
- — If we su pp o se th at the
.
axis o f the sphe r ic al m ir r o r is r ot ated ab o ut the ce n ter C

1 72 Mir ro rs ,
th rough a small an gle AC U so th at the ve rtex A m o ve s ,
al o n g the mi rr o r t o a n eighb o r i n g p o in t U the c o n jug ate ,
axi a l p o i n ts M M wi ll desc r ibe als o s m all ar cs M Q M Q

’ ’ ’
, ,
o f c on ce n t r ic cir cle s ; an d evide n t l y the p o in ts Q Q be ’

, , ,
v :
FIG 1 00— C o n c a e mir r o r Ob e c t i s a sm all lin e j MQ p p dic ular to
v
. . er en
a xis ; it s im a g e M Q i s r e al an d in
' '
e r t e d.
h arm on ic ally sep ar at ed 6 7 68) b y the p oin ts C U so th at , , ,
(C UQQ ) (C A MM ) Thus we see ho w the p o in t Q

’ ’ ’
1 .
,
is the im age p oin t c o jugate t o the ext r a axi al o bject p o in t Q

- n - - .
In the di agr am (Fig 1 00) the ci r cul ar ar cs AU M Q an d

.
,
M Q will appe ar as str aight lin es pe r pen dicul ar t o the axis as

’ ’
,
expl ain ed in § 7 0 We der ive ther efor e with out difficul t y

.
, ,
the foll o win g c on clusi on s :

(1 ) Th i mag e , i n a sp her i ca l mirr or , of a p lan e o b ect
j p e r
p en di c u la r to the a xi s p lan e i s lik ewi se

e
p pr en di c u la r to the a
a xi s; (2) A str aig ht lin e p assin g throug h the cen ter of the
sp her i ca l mi rr or i n terse cts a p ai r of su ch con j ug a te p lan e s i n a
p ai r f
o j con ug a te p oi n ts ; hom oc en t
anri c bdun dle (3 )
of To a
i n ci den t p ar axi a l r a ys p roceedin g f r om a p oi n t Q in a p lan e

p erp en di cular to the a xi s of a sp heri ca l mir ror ther e corr e
§ 7 1] Sp h e r ic al Mirro r :
C o n st r uc t ion of I m ag e 1 73
’
sp on ds a homocen tr i c b un dle of flected r ays with i ts
re vertex Q
lyin g in the j
con ug a te i ma g p
e - lan e .
In or der to Q f
con str u ct the i ma g e-p oi n t
’
o the e xtr a —
axi a l
o bj e ct-p oin t Q we h ave m er ely t o fi n d the p o in t

,
of in te r
sectio n after r eflecti on at the spher ic al m irr o r o f an y t wo
FIG — Lat e r al m ag n ifi c a t io n a n d c o n st ru c t io n of im ag in
v
. 1 01 , a. e
c o n c a e m ir r o r .
ra ys em tin g o r igin ally fr om Q The diagr am s (Fig 1 01

an a . .
,
a an d b ) which ar e d r awn a cc o r di n g t o the m eth o d e x pl ai n ed

,
in 7 0 e xhibit this c o n st r ucti on fo r the c a ses whe n the mi r r o r

,
is c on c ave an d c o n vex Of the in ciden t r ays pr o ceedin g

.
fr o m Q it is c o n ven ien t t o select fo r this pur p o se t wo o f the

,
fo ll o win g thr ee n am ely : the r ay Q C which p r o ceedin g t o

,
war ds the cen ter C m eets the spher ic al m ir r o r n o rm ally at

U when ce it is r eflected b a ck al o n g the s am e p ath ; the r ay
,
Q V which p r o ceedi n g p a r allel t o the a x is a n d m eeti n g the

m i rr o r in the p o in t design ated by V is r eflected a t V al o n g
the st r aight li n e j o in in g V with the fo c al p o in t F ; an d the
r ay Q W which bei n g di r ecte d t o w a r ds the f o c a l p o i n t F is
r e fl ected a t W in a di r ecti o n p a r a llel t o the ax is The p o in t .
wher e these r eflected r ays in ter sect will be the i m age

1 74 M irr or s ,
p o in t Q Mo r e o ver h avin g lo c ated the p o siti on o f Q we

’
.
,
’
can d r a w Q M Q M pe r pen dicul ar t o the axis at M M

’ ’
,
re ,
sp e c tiv e ly ; an d the n M Q will be the im age o f the s m all ’ ’
o bj ect lin e M Q In Fig 1 01 a the i m a ge M Q is r e al an d

’ ’
- . .
,
in ver t ed whe r e as in Fig 1 01 b it is vir tu al an d e r ect

,
.
,
.
FIG . 1 01 , b .
-La t e r al m a g n i fi c a t io n an d c o n st r uc t io n of im ag e in con v ex
m irr o r .
Whether the is r e al o r virtu al an d er ect o r in vert ed

irn ag e
will depen d b o th o n the p o sition o f the o bj ect an d o n the
for m o f the mi rr o r .
If the O bj ect p o int Q is supp o sed t o m o ve say fr o m left

-
, ,
t o r ight a l on g the st r a ight lin e QV d r a wn p ar allel t o the

a xi s o f the i o the c o esp o di g i ge p o in t Q will
.
m r r r rr n n m a -
,
’
tr aver se the st raight lin e VF c o n tin u o usly in the s am e .
dir ection Thus in the diagr am s (Fig 102 a

.
,
b) the .
,
n u m e r als 1 2 3 etc r an ged in o r de r fr o m left t o r ight a l o n g

, , ,
.
,
a s t r aight li n e p ar a llel t o the a xis o f the mir r o r sho w a ,
n u m be r o f successive p o siti o n s o f the o bj ect -p o in t while the ,
prim ed n u m ber s etc lyin g al o n g the st r aight lin e .

,
VF sh o w the c o rr esp o n din g p o sitio n s o f the i m a ge-p o in t

, .
The st raight lin es 3 3 etc all m eet at the cen ter ,

.
,
C o f the m i rr o r .
7 1] I ma g e ry in Sp he r ical Mirr or 17 5
’
To 4 A T 00
TO E A T oo
OBJ ECT
A T OO
IMA G
C O N CA V E MIR R OR
To 5 A T 00
IMA G
4_ 5_
A T OO
T r
C o n v Ex MIRR OR
(b )
To 5 I
A T 00
FIG . 1 02 , a an d b — Im ag
. er y in (a ) con ca v e m irr or , (b) con v ex
1 76 Mirr or s ,
72 . Th e Lat e r al M ag n ifi c atio n
the or din ates o f the .
—
If
p a i of e t a axi al c on jug ate p o in ts Q Q ar e den o ted by
r x r - ’
y
,
y y ,
r espectivel
’
,
th a t is if in Fig,1 01 a a n d b M Q y= , .
M Q = y the r ati o y /y is c alled the la ter al mag n ificati on at

, , ,
’ ’ ’ ’
the axi al po in t M This rati o will be den o ted b y y; thus

.
,
The sign o f thi s fun ctio n y in dic ates whether the

im age is er ect o r in ver ted The l ater al m agn ific ati on m ay .
h ave an y value p o sitive o r n egative depen din g on ly on the

po sitio n o f the o bj ect .
In the simi l ar t r i an gles M C Q M C Q

’ ’
,
MQ ’ ’
MQ = M C MC ; ’
an d sin ce
MC '
=r u
— ’
,
MC = r — u
,
wher e u AM u ,
’
AM
’
,
r AC ; an d sin ce a cc or din g to the
a bsciss a fo r m ul a
- 6 4)
r—u
we der ive the fo ll o win g fo r m ul a for the l at er al magn ific a ti on
in the c ase o f a spher ic al mi rr o r

I
y
y u
Als o ,
fr om the figu e w r e see th at
M Q _ AW FA M Q FM
’ ’ ’ ’ ’
M Q M Q FM A V FA
an d sin ce FM = x FM = x an d FA ==f we der ive
,
’ ’
, ,
l
a so an
o ther fo rm ul a fo r t he l ateral m agn ific ati on , as fo ll o ws

I
4
i
x
F
r .
y x f
This exp r ession sh o ws th at the l ater al m agn ific ati on is ih
v e r se ly p r o p o r ti o n al t o the dist an ce o f the o bj ect fr o m the
fo c al pl an e .
7 3 Fi e l d o f Vi e w o f a Sph e r i c al M i rro r
.
— When the .
im age o f a lum in o us o bject is viewed in a spher ical mirr o r ,
the axis o f the m irr o r is deter m in ed by the str aight lin e O C ’

7 3] Fie ld of Vi w
e of Sp h e r ic al Mirr or 1 77
(Fig . 1 03 , a an d b) j
i i g the cen ter 0 o f the pupil o f the
o n n
’
Obse r ve r s eye with the ce n te r C o f the m i r r o r ; a n d o n the

’
,
a ssu m pti o n th a t the im age is fo r m ed by the r eflecti o n o f
par axial r ays the a ctu al po r ti on o f the mi rr or th at is utiliz ed

,
FIG 1 03.
, a. -Fie l d o f v i e w fo r ey e in fr o n t o f c on v ex m ir r o r .
c on sists o f a sm all cir cul ar z o n e i mm edi ately surr o un din g

the ver tex A wher e the axis m eets the r eflecti n g sur fa ce Ao .
c o r din g t o the m eth o d o f d rawin g these dia gr am s which was

descr ibed in 70 the lin e -segm en t C H which is p e r p e n dicu
,
lar t o the axis at A an d which is bisected a t A will r ep r esen t

a m e r i di an secti o n o f this z o n e in the pl an e o f the figu r e so ,
th at the p o in ts design ated by G H ar e Op po site ext r emi ties

,
o f a di am ete r o f the e ffective p o r ti o n o f the m i rr o r .
All the r e fl ected r ays th at en ter the eye at 0 m ust n e ce s ’
sar il y lie within the c o n ic a l r egi o n dete r m in ed b y r ev o lvin g
the isosceles trian gle O GH ar oun d the axis of the mirr or

’
.
78 M irr o r s ,
The o uterm o st r ays th at c an p ossibly be r eflected in to the eye

at 0 will be the r ays th at ar e r eflected al o n g the st r aight
’
lin es H 0 an d G O In o r der t o see a r e al im age in a c on c ave

’ ’
.
m i rr o r (Fig 1 03 b ) t he e y e m u st be pl a ced in fr o n t o f the

.
, ,
FIG 1 03 , b
. .
-Fie l d o f v ie w f o r ey e in f r o n t of con ca v e m ir r o r .
m ir ro r at adist an ce gr e ater th an the len gth o f the r adius .
The in ciden t r ays c o rr esp on din g t o the extr em e r eflected

ray s will i n te r sect in a p o i n t 0 whi ch is c o n jug ate t o O ;
’
an d he n ce the fi e ld of vi ew 9 ) within which a ll o bj ect -p o in t s

m ust li e in or der th at their i m ages in the m irr o r m ay be
visible t o an eye at 0 will be lim ited b y the sur fa ce o f a
’
r ight ci r cul ar c o n e ge n e r ated b y the r ev o luti o n o f the is o scele s
tr ian gle OH G ar o un d the axis of the m ir r o r Thus exa ctl y .

,
as in the c ase o f the c o rr esp o n din g p r o ble m in c o n n ecti o n
with the field o f view o f a pl an e mi rr o r the c o n t our o f

the effective p o r ti o n o f the spher ic al m i rr o r a cts als o as a
fi e ld-s top f o r the i m a ge r y p r o duced by p a r a x i a l r a ys .
Thr o ugh O dr aw B J at r ight an gles t o the axis o f the

’ ’ ’
m irr o r an d m ar k the p o in ts B J at e qu a l dist an ces fr o m

,
’
,
’
O o n O pp o site sides o f the axis The n B J m ay be supp o sed

’ ’ ’
.
t o r ep r ese n t the di am ete r in the pl an e o f the di a gr am o f the

ir is Open in g o f the pupil o f the obser ver s ey e C o n struct ’
.
by the m eth o d descr ibed in § 7 1 the o bject -lin e B J who se ,
im age in the m i r r o r is B J E viden tl y an y r ay which a fter

'
,
74] Sp he r ical R e fr a c ti
ng Surfa c e 179
r eflecti on e n ter s the pupil o f the eye between B an d J m ust ’ ’
befor e r eflecti on h ave p assed r e ally o r vir tu ally thr ough

, ,
the c on j ugate po in t o n the str aight lin e between B an d J .
In fa ct the ci r cle desc r ibed ar o u n d 0 as ce n te r in the t r an s

,
ver s al pl an e per pen dicular t o the axis a t O with r adius OB

will a c t like a m a ter ial st o p t o lim it the a per tu r es Of the
bun dles o f in ciden t r ays It is the so c alle d en tr an ce-p up i l
.
—
o f the syste m while the pup il Of the eye pl ays the p ar t o f

,
the ex i t- u
p p i l (see Thus f o r e x am ple if S ,
desig n a tes ,
the po sition o f a lum in o us p o in t lyin g an ywher e within the

field o f view the eye at O wil l see the im age o f S at S by
,
’ ’
m e an s o f a bu n dle o f r ays which ar e d r awn fr o m S t o all p o in ts

o f the e n t r an ce-pupil a n d which a fte r r eflecti o n at the
m ir r or ar e c o m p r ised withi n the c o n e which h as its ver tex

at S an d the exit -pupil as b a se The en t r an ce-pupil B J is
’
.
the aper tu r e-st o p o f the system

7 4 R e fr a c ti o n o f Par axi al R ays at a Sph e r i cal Surf ac e
. .
In the a cc o m p an y in g di agr am s Fig 1 04 a an d b the st r aight .

, ,
lin e R B r epr esen ts an in ciden t r ay m eetin g the spher ic a l

r efr a ctin g su r fa ce ZZ a t B while the st r aight li n e B S sh o ws
,
FIG 1 04
.
, a. -C o n v ph
ex s e r i c al r e fr ac t in g su r f a c e (n
’
n ) .
the p ath o f the c o rr esp o n din g r efr a cted r ay If the p o siti on .
o f th e p o i n t M whe r e the i n cide n t r ay c r o sses the a x is is
give n the pr o blem is t o deter m i n e the po siti o n o f the p o in t

,
M wher e the r efr a cted r ay m eets the axis The an gles o f

’
.
1 80 Mirr or s ,
in ciden ce an d r efr a cti on ar e A NE R = a A N B S = a an d ,

’ ’
,
b y the law of r efr a ction :

n sin a n sin a
’ ’
.
,
wher e n n den o te the in dices o f r efr a ctio n o f t he fir st an d

,
’
sec o n d m edi a r espectivel y In the t r i an gles MB C M B C

’
.
, , ,
we h ave :
CM : B M = sin a :i s n qb , CM
’
:in d)
s ,
FIG 1 04, b — C o n c a
. . v phe s e ri c al r e fr ac t in g su r f ac e
’
(n > n ) .
5
wher e q = A B C A . Dividi n g on e of these e q u ati o n s b y the
o ther we o bt a in :
,
CM BM
’
n
CM BM
’ ’
n
No w if the r ay RB is a p ar axi al r ay the in ciden ce -p oin t B ,
will be so n e ar the ver tex A o f the spher ic al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce

th at A m ay be wr itten in pl a ce Of B a cc o r din g t o the def ,
in itio n o f a p ar ax ial r ay as given in 63 The r efo r e in the .

,
c ase o f the r efr a cti o n o f p ar axi al r ays at a spher ic al su r fa ce

the fo ur p o in ts C A M M o n the axi s ar e c on n ect ed b y
, , ,
’
the fo ll o win g r elation

CM AM
’
n
OM AM
" ’
n
74] Sp he r ic a l R e fr ac ti ng Sur fac e 1 81
which m ay be wr itte n 6 5
)
(C A MM )
’
th at is ,
the doub le ra ti o o f the f our a xi a l p oi n ts C , A M M
, ,
’
is c on stan t an d e qua l to the r e la ti ve i n dex f

o r e r a cti on
f f r om
the fi r st medi um to the secon d .
Thus for a given spher ical sur fa ce (that is fo r k n o wn

, ,
po sition s o f the po in ts A an d C ) sep ar atin g a p air o f m edi a ,
Of kn o wn r el ative in de x Of r efra cti o n the po in t M ’
o n the axis c o r r espo n din g t o a give n po siti o n O f the axi al
po in t M has a pe r fectly defin ite po sitio n en tir ely in depen den t ,
o f the a ctu al sl o pe o f the in cide n t p a r a xi al r ay R B ; whe n ce
it m ay be in ferr ed th at M is the im age of M so th at to a ’

,
hom ocen tr i c b un dle of i n ci den t p a r a x i a l r a ys wi th i ts v er tex
lyin g on the a xi s o f the sp her i ca l r ef r a cti n g surf a ce ther e c or r e
sp on ds a lso a homoce n tr i c b un dle of r e r acted r ays

f wi th i ts
v er tex on the a xi s .
In Fig the im age at M is r eal wher e as in Fig 104 b

. 1 04, a
’
,
.
,
it is vir tu al Sin ce the r el ative in dex o f r efr a ctio n is n ever

.
less th an z er o the value o f the d o uble r ati o (C AMM ) in

,
’
the c ase o f r efr a cti o n at a spher ic al sur fa ce is n ecess ar ily

po sitive ; c o n seque n tly the p a ir o f c o n jugate p o in ts M M
5
’
“
,
6 ) b y the p air O f p o in ts A C a s was

,
is n o t sep ar ated ”
, ,
foun d t o be the c a se in r eflectio n at a spher ic al mirr o r

Thus if M M design ate the p o sitio n s o f a p air o f c o n jugate
, ,
’
axi a l p o i n ts with r espect t o a sphe r ic al r efr a cti n g su r fa ce it ,
is always po ssible t o p ass fr o m M t o M al o n g the axi s o n e ’
way o r the o the r with o ut go i n g th r o ugh either o f the p o in ts

A o r C alth ough in o r der t o do this it m ay s om etim es be
,
n ecess ar y t o p a ss th ro ugh the i n fi n itely dist an t p o i n t o f the
a xis (see Acc o r din gly depen din g o n ly o n the form ,
o f the su r fa ce an d o n whethe r n is g r e ate r o r less th an n

’
ther e will be fo un d t o be sixteen po ssible o r der s o f arr an ge

m e n t o f these fo u r p o in ts v iz ,
A C M M ; A C M M; A M M C; A M M C;
, , ,
’
, ,
’
, , ,
’
, ,
’
, ,
M A C M ; M A C M; M M A C ; M M A C ;
, , ,
’ ’
, , , ,
’
, ,
’
, , ,
1 82 Mir r o r s ,
t o gether with the eight o ther ar r an gem en ts o b tain ed b y r e

ver sin g the o rd er o f the letter s in e a ch o f these c om bin ati o n s ;
in o ther w o r ds e xa ctl y the ser ies o f c o m b in a ti o n s th at ar e
,
n o t po ssible in the c a se o f a sphe r ic a l m ir r o r wher e the p a ir
o f c o n jug a te a xi a l p o i n ts M M is h arm o n ic all y sep ar ated,

’
by the p a ir o f p o in ts A C so th at ,
— 1 ,
The studen t sh oul d d r a w a di agr am sim ilar t o Fig 1 04 fo r .
e ach o f the p o ssible arr an gem en ts Of the fo ur p o in ts a b o ve

m e n ti on ed Fig 1 04 a sh o ws the c a se M A C M an d
’
. .
, , , ,
Fig 1 04 b sh o ws the c a se M M C A
’
. .
, , , ,
Mor e o ver if (C AMM ) ,

then also (C AM M) ’ ’
n /n as fo ll o ws fr o m the de fin iti o n o f the d o uble r ati o

’
,
C o n seque n tly if a p ar axi al ray is r efr a cted a t a po in t B o f

,
a sphe r ic al sur fa ce fr o m m ediu m n t o m ediu m n a l o n g the

'
b r o ken lin e R B S a r ay dir ected fr o m S t o B will be r efr a cted

,
fr om m edium n t o m edium n in the dir ection B R ; whi ch is

’
in a cc o r d an ce with the ge n e r a l p r in ciple o f the r ever sibili t y

o f the li ght — path If ther efor e M is the im age o f M ’
when the light is r efr a cted a c r o ss the spher ic al sur fa ce in a

given sen se then als o M will be the im age o f M when the
,
’
r efr a cti o n t a kes pl a ce in the r eve r se se n se
5
.
7 R e fl e c ti o n C o n s i de r e d as a Spe c i al C as e o f R e f rac
.
ti o n . It was im pl ied ab o ve th at if it we r e p o ssible fo r the

-
rati o n /n t o h ave n o t o n ly p o sitive v alues but a ls o the un i q ue

’
n eg ative value 1 the sin gle f o r m ul a (C A MM ) = n / n

’ ’
,
woul d ex pr ess the r el a tion between a p a ir o f c o n jugate axi al

po in ts M M b o th for a spher ic al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce an d
,
’
fo r a Sphe r ic al mi r r o r The questio n n aturally ar ises ther e

.
,
for e Is ther e a gen er al rule o f this kin d a pplic able also t o

,
o the r p r o ble m s in o ptics th a t ar e n o t n ecess ar il y c o n ce r n ed
with p ar axial r ays o r p ar ticul ar c o n dition s ? R etur n in g t o

fun d am en t al p r in ciples an d r ec allin g the l a ws o f r eflectio n
an d r efr a cti o n we o bse r ve th a t whil e the an gles o f in cide n c e
,
a n d r efr a cti on alw ay s h a ve like sign s the an gles o f in ciden c e ,
an d r eflecti o n o n the c o n t r ar y
,
h ave O ppo site sign s In ,
.
o r der the r efo r e th at the r efr a cti o fo rm ul a n sin a n sin a ’ '

n - . . .
, ,
76] C on s t ru c ti on of Con j u g a t e Axia l Po i n t s 1 83
m ay in clude also the law o f r eflection as well the values ,
in the l atte c a se m ust be such that a —

’ ’
o f n an d n r a
is a s o lutio n Of the equati o n in q uesti on ; an d o bvio usly this

s o lution can be o bt ain ed o n ly by puttin g
I
n
— n or 1 .
,
n
Acc o r din gly the r ule disc o ver ed ab o ve t o be tr ue in a spe cial

,
c a se is fou n d t o be en tir ely gen er al so th at at lea st fr o m a , ,
pur ely m athem atic al po in t o f view the r eflection o f light ,
m ay be r eg ar ded as a p ar ticul ar c ase o f r efr a cti o n b a ck a g a i n

in t o the m edium o f the in ciden t light p r o vided we assign t o ,
this m edium t wo equ al an d O ppo site values o f the abs o lute

in dex o f r efr a ctio n The c o n ven ien ce O f thi s ar tifice is ap
.
p ar en t sin ce it m akes it quite u n n ecessar y t o in vestigate sep

,
a r at e ly an d in depe n de n tly e a ch speci a l p r o ble m o f r eflecti o n
a n d r efr a cti o n ; f o r when in a n y give n c a se the r el ati o n b e
tween an in ciden t ray an d the c o r r esp o n din g r efr a cted r ay

has bee n a scer t ai n ed it will be n ecess ar y m e r ely t o i m p o se
,
the c o n ditio n n — n in o r de r t o de r ive i mm edi ately the

’
a n al o g o us r el ati o n betwee n the i n cide n t r ay an d the c o rr e
sp o n din g r eflected r ay Thus fo r exam ple an y fo rm ul a

.
, ,
her eafte r t o be der ived c on cern in g the r efr a ction o f p ar axi al

rays a t a sphe r ic al su r fa ce m ay be c o n ve r te d i n t o the c o rr e
sp o n din g fo r mul a for the c ase Of a spher ic al m ir r o r b y

puttin g n — ’
n .
7 6 C o n struc ti on o f th e Po in t M C on j ugate to th e Axi al

’
.
Po in t M In o r de r t o c o n st ruct the p o i n t M c o n j ugate t o

— ’
.
the axi al p o in t M with r espect t o a spher ic al r efr a ctin g sur

fa ce we m ay pr o ceed as fo ll o ws :
5
,
Thr o ugh the ver tex A (Fig 1 0 a b c an d d) an d the cen ter

.
, , ,
C d r aw a p ai r O f p ar allel st r aight l in es (p r efe r ably but n o t

n ecess ar ily ) at r ight an gles t o the a xi s ; a n d o n the li n e g o in g
thr ough C t ake t wo po in ts O an d O such th at ’
CO : n .
J o in the given axial p oi n t M by astr aight li n e with the po in t

0 an d let B design ate the p o in t whe r e this st r aight lin e
, ,
1 84 Mirr or s ,
5 ph
10 — S :C p
im a g e - o in t M
j j p
FIG e r i c al r e fr ac t in su rf a c e o n st ru c t io n of
’
g
p
. .
M ; c o n st r u c t io n
a x ia l o b e c t - o in t of f o c al o in t s F,
v
c o n u g at e to
C o n e x sur f a c e n > n ; o r d e r M A C M
’ ’
( )
v
a , .
b
( ) C o n c a e su rf a c e n > n ; o r de r MM C A
’ ’
v
.
,
() C o n e x surf ac e n < n ; o r d e r M M A C
’ ’
v
c , .
( )
d C o n c a e su r f a c e n < n ; o r d e r M C A M
,
’ ’
.
7 6] C on s t r uc tion of C on j u g a t e Axia l Po in t s 185
pro duced if n ecess ar y m eets the lin e d r awn th r ough A
,
p ar allel to C O ; then the r equir ed p o in t M will be at the ’
pl a ce wher e the st r aight lin e B O pr o duced if n e c ess ary ’

, ,
in te r sects the axis .
The str aight lin e Ay dr awn per pen dicul ar t o the axis at A
will be t an gen t t o the spher ic al sur fa ce a t its ver tex ; an d this
lin e will r ep r esen t the spher ic al sur fa ce in the dia gram sin ce ,
we ar e c o n cer n ed he r e o n ly with p ar axial r ays Thus ,
t o the i n ciden t r ay R B c r o ssi n g the axis at M a n d i n cide n t

o n the su r fa ce a t B the r e will c o r r esp o n d the r efr a cted r ay
,
B S c r o ssi n g the axis at M

’
.
The p r o o f o f the c o n st ruction c on sists in sh o win g th at

I
the d ouble r a tio (C AMM ) is e qual t o

g cco r d an ce with
’
,
in a
the r elatio n which as we saw ab o ve

, c o n n ects the t wo
c o n j ugate p o in ts M M ,
’
.
In the p ai r o f si m il ar t r i an gles C MO AMB , ,
CM : AM = C O : AB ;
an d in the p air o f si m il ar t r i an gles C M O AM B
’ ’ ’
, ,
AM
’
:
CM
’
= AB C O : ’
.
Multiplyin g these t wo p r o p o r ti o n s we O bt ain ,
CM AM
’
CO
CM AM
"
CO
CM AM
’
n
CM AM
’ ’
n
an d hen ce
(C AMM n
The di agram s illust r ate fo u r c ases v iz the c a ses when , .

,
the p o in ts A C M M ar e r an ged al o n g the axis fr o m left

, , ,
’
t o r ight in the o r de r s M A C M MM C A MM AC an d
5
’ ’ ’
, ,
MC AM ’
In the di ag r a m s Fig 1 0 a an d b the sec o n d
. .
,
mediu m is r ep r ese n ted as m o r e highl y r efr a ctin g th an the

,
1 86 M i rr o r s ,
fi r st (n ’
) whe r e
n a s in
,
the t wo o ther diagr am s Fig 1 0 . 5,
c a n d d the O pp o site c a se is sh o wn
,
in a an d c the
sur fa ce is c o n vex an d in b an d d it is c o n c ave
, .
7 7 Th e Fo c a l Po in ts (F F ) o f a S ph e r i c al R e fr a c tin g
’
.
,
S u r f a c e —
The
. o bj ect -po in t F which is c o n jugate t o the in
fin itely dist an t i m a ge-p o in t E an d the i m age-p o in t F which ’
is c o n jugate t o the in fin itely dist an t o bj e ct -p o in t E o f the

ax is a r e the so -c alled f o ca l p oi n ts o f the Sphe r ic a l r efr a c ti n g
sur fa ce A c o n ic al bun dle o f in cide n t p ar axi al r ays with its

. .
ver tex at the pr imary f ocal p oi n t F will be c o n ver ted in t o a

cylin d r ical bun dle o f r efr a cted r ays al l p ar allel t o the axis
a n d m eeti n g the r ef o r e in the i n fin itely dist an t p o i n t E o f
the axis ; an d sim il ar ly a cylin d r ic al bun dle o f p ar axi al r ays

, ,
pr o ceedin g fr o m the in fin itely dist an t p o in t E o f the axis

will be t r an sfo r m ed in t o a c o n ic al bun dle o f r efr a cted r ays
with its ver tex at the secon dar y f oca l p oi n t F ’
.
Acc o r din g t o the m eth o d ex pl ain ed in 7 6 the fo c al p o in t ,
F m ay be c o n st r ucted b y d r a win g the str a ight li n e O H

5
’
(Fig 1 0 a b c an d d) thr o ugh O p ar allel t o the axis m eetin g

’
.
, , ,
the str aight lin e AB in the p o in t design ated b y H ; an d then

the st r aight lin e OH will in ter sect the axis in the pr i m ar y fo c al
p o in t F Similar ly if the st r aight lin e OK is d r awn thr o ugh
.
,
0 p ar allel t o the a xis m eeti n g AB in a p o i n t K the p o in t o f ,
in ter secti on o f the st r aight lin e KO with the axis will de ’
term in e the p o sitio n o f the sec on d ar y fo c al p o in t F In ’

.
b r ief the dia g o n als o f the p ar allel o gr am OO H K m eet the

,
’
axis in the fo c al p o i n ts F F Th e sphe r ic al r efr a ctin g su r fa ce

'
.
,
is s aid t o be con ver g en t o r di ver g en t a cc o r din g as the fo c al

p o in t F is r eal o r vir tu al r espectivel y Thus in the dia
5
’
.
, ,
gr am s Fig 1 0 a an d d in ciden t r ays p ar allel t o the axis are

.
, ,
“
b r ought t o a r e al fo cus at F so th at the sur f a ce is c o n ver gen t

5
’
,
f or e a ch o f these c ases ; whe r e a s in the di a gra m s Fig 1 0 .

,
b an d c in cide n t r ays p ar allel t o the ax1s ar e r efr a cted as if

,
they pr o ceeded fr o m a virtu al fo cus at F ’
Mo r e o ve r cer t a in ch ar a cter istic m etr ic r el ati o n s may be

der ived imm e diatel y fr o m the di agram s Fig 1 0 a b c an d d
,
. 5 , , , ,
.
7 7] Sp h e r i c a l R e fr a c ti ng :
Sur fac e F o c a l Po i n t s 1 87
Fo r exa m ple
the t wo p air s o f simil ar tr ian gles FAH
,
in ,
HO O
’
O H K we o bt ai n the p r o p o r ti o n s
’ ’ ’
an d F C O , ,
FA : H O = AH : CF : HO = CO : HK
’ ’ ’ ’ ’
OO , ,
an d si ce C O = H H K = O O we fi n d
’ ’
n A , ,
’
FA CF ;
an d hen ce also
A CF F
’
.
Acc o r din gly c o n cer n i n g the po siti on s o f the fo c al p o in ts o f

,
a sphe r ic al r ef r a cti n g su r f a ce we h a ve the f o ll o wi n g r ule :
The f o ca l p oi n ts o f a sp her i c a l r e r ac ti n f g f
su r a ce li e on the
a xi s a t su ch p laces tha t the step f ro m on e o f them to the c e n ter
i s iden ti ca l wi th the step f ro m the ve r tex to the other f o ca l p oi n t .
This st atem en t sh ould be ver ified fo r e a ch o f th e diagr a m s .
N o t o n ly will the ce n te r C be see n t o be a t the s am e dist an ce

fr o m the p r i m ar y fo c al po in t as the sec o n d ar y fo c al p o in t is
fr o m the ver tex A but the di r ectio n fr o m F t o C will always
,
be the s am e as th at fr o m A t o F ’
This r el ati o n m ay als o be expr essed in a di ffer en t way ;

f o r sin ce
,
’ ’
FA CF C A + AF ,
we h ave the fo llo win g equ ati on :

FA + F A = C A ; o r
’
which m ay be put in w o r ds by s ayi n g th a t the step f ro m the

v er tex to the ce n ter o f a sp her i ca l r e r a c ti n f g f
s u r a ce is e qua l to
the sum o f the step s f r om the ver tex to the two f oca l p oi n ts .
An d, fi n ally ,
'
sin ce in the p air of si mil ar t r ian gles FA H ,

F C O, we h ave :
:
FC FA = C O AH = C O : : n ,
an dsin ce FC CF = — — F A,
’
we o bt ain als o an o ther useful
a n d im p o r t an t r el ati o n ,
v iz
’
FA n
F A n
an d, c o n sequen tly :The two f oca l p oin ts F, F

’
o f a sp he r i c a l
r e r a c ti n
f g f su r a ce li e f on A a n d
opp osi te si de s o
a t the v e r tex ,
di sta n ce s f r om i t whi ch a r e i n the r a ti o of n to n If ther e ’

.
,
fo r e we ar e given the p o sitio n s o f on e o f the t wo fo c al p o in ts

, ,
1 88 Mirr or s ,
LA S S
GL A S S
G LA S S
FIG . 1 06 a , b , c a n d d — F o c a1 o in t s o f s
. p ph
e ri c a l r e f r ac t in g surf a c e se p
a r a t i n g a ir , o f in de x 1 , a n d g l a ss , o f i n d e x
( C ( t H 66 U ( 6
v
(a ) R e fr ac t io n fr o m a ir t o g la ss a t c o n e x surf ac e .
(b )
v
C o n c av e
(c ) g l a ss t o air
v
con ex
6‘ 66 H ( G
(d) con ca e
77] Sp he r i c al R e fr ac ti ng :
Surf ac e Fo c a l Po in t s 1 89
F or F well as the po sition s o f the po in ts A C which de

’
,
as ,
term in e the si z e an d form O f the spher ic al sur fa ce we h ave ,
all the d at a n ecess ar y t o e n able us t o l o c ate the p o i n t M

’
c o j uga te t o a give
n n ax i l bj ect po in t M Fo r we can
a o - .
lo c ate the po siti o n o f the o ther fo c al po in t an d thus deter min e

the value of the r atio n : n
’
.
Whether the sec o n d ary fo cal p o in t will lie o n o n e side o r

the o ther Of the spher ic al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce th at is whether , ,
the sur fa ce will be c o n ver gen t o r diver gen t will depen d on ,
e a ch o f t wo thin gs v iz : (1 ) Whether the su r fa ce is c o n vex

,
.
o r c o n c ave an d (2 ) Whethe r n is g r e ate r o r less th an n

’
, Fo r .
exam ple if the rays ar e r efr a cted fr o m air t o gl ass (n /n

,
’
a cc o r di n g t o the ab o ve r el ati o n s we fi n d th at AF : 2 C A ,
AF = 3 AC ; so th at st ar ti n g at the ve r te x A an d t aki n g the

’
step C A twice we c an l o cate the pr imar y fo cal po in t F ; an d

r etu rn i n g t o the ve r te x A a n d t ak i n g the step AC th r ee
tim es we ar r ive at the sec on d ar y fo c al po in t F The dia

,
’
.
gr am s Fig 1 06 a an d b sh o w the po sition s o f the fo c al po i n ts

.
, ,
fo r r efr a cti o n fr o m air t o gl a ss f o r a c o n ve x su r fa ce an d for

a c o n c ave su r f a ce In this c ase the c o n ve x su r f a ce is c o n
.
ver gen t an d the c o n c ave sur face is diver ge n t On the o ther .
h an d when the light is r efr a cted fr om gl ass t o air (n /n

,
’
we fi n d AF = 3 AC AF = 2 C A (Fig 1 06 c an d d) an d ,
’
.
, ,
in this c ase the c o n c ave su r fa ce is c o n ve r ge n t an d the c o n vex

su r fa ce is dive r ge n t .
In c o n clusi o n it m ay be a dded th at the c o n st r ucti o n s an d

,
r ules which h a ve bee n give n ab o ve fo r the c a se o f a sphe r ic al
r efr a cti n g su r fa ce ar e e n ti r el y a pplic a ble als o t o a sp her i ca l
mir r or In fa ct he r e we h ave an e x celle n t illust r a ti o n o f

.
,
the m etho d Of t r e atin g r eflectio n as a speci al c a se o f r e fr ac

tio n which was explai n ed in 7
, Fo r if we t ake n n 5
.
’
,
the t wo po in ts 0 0 (Fig 1 07 a an d b ) will lie o n a st r aight

,
’
.
,
lin e p assin g th r ough the cen ter C o f the m ir r o r a t equal dis

t an ces fro m C in o ppo site dir ectio n s The p o in t M c o n .
’
jug te t o the axial o bject po in t M an d the fo cal po in ts F

a -
,
F will be fo un d p r ecisel y a cc o r din g t o the di r ecti on s fo r

’
1 90 M irr or s ,
fl ph :
j j
d b R e e c t io n at s e r i c a l m ir r o r C on
p
FIG . 1 07 , a an .
s t r u c t io n o f im a g e - o i n t M c o n u g a t e t o a xi a l O b e c t
’
p p
o in t M ; c o n st r u c t io n o f f o c a l o in t
v v
.
(a ) c o n c a e m ir r o r , (b ) c o n e x m irr o r .
d r a wi n g t he dia gr a m s o f Fig 1 0 Obvi o usly the fo c al

. 5 .
,
p o in ts o f a spher ic al m irr o r wil l c o in cide with e a ch o ther

a t a p o i n t m idw ay betwee n the ve r te x a n d ce n te r
7 8 Ab sc i ssa E quati o n r e f e rr e d to th e Ve rt e x o f th e
.
-
Sph e r i c al R ef r a c tin g S urf a c e a s O r i g in —If the ver tex A o f

.
the spher ic al r efr a ctin g su r fa ce is t aken as the o r igin 63)

fr o m which dist an ces o r steps alo n g the axis ar e r eck o n ed ,
a n d if the sym b o ls r u an d u a r e e m pl o yed as in the c a se

’
,
o f a sphe r ic al m ir r o r 6 4) t o de n o te the a bsciss ae o f the

§ 79] Sp h e r ical R e fr a c ti ng Sur fac e 191
cen ter C an d the p air o f c o n jugate axi al po in ts M M th at ,

’
,
is if AC = r AM = u AM = u then
, , ,
’ ’
,
C M C A + AM u
= = — r, — r;
eviden tly be
n
an d sin ce the fo rm ul a (C A MM ) ’
m ay
wr itten as fo ll o ws
we o btain
Dividin g b o th sides b y r we der ive the so -called i n var ian t

,
re la ti on in the c a se o f r efr a cti o n o f p ar axi al r a y s a t a sphe r ic al
sur f a ce in the fo ll o win g f o r m

,
’
r u r u
Usu all y ,
h o wever this e quatio n is wr itten
,
as fo ll o ws
n n n
’ — n
+
u
I
2
7
”
7
r
which is t o be r eg ar ded as o n e o f the fun d am en t al fo rm ul ae o f

ge o m etr ic al Optics If the t wo c o n st an t s r an d n / n ar e kn o wn
.
’
,
the a bscissa u co rr esp on din g t o an y given value o f u m ay

’
e asily be determ in ed Puttin g n — n . we Obtain the ’
a bsciss a-fo r m ul a fo r r eflecti o n O f p ar ax ial r ays a t a sphe r ic a l /
m ir r o r an d if we put r = 00 we de r ive the fo r mul a ,
32,
fo r the r efra cti on Of p ar axi al ra ys at a pl an e sur fa ce
It is bec ause this lin ear equ ati o n c o n n ectin g the
a bsciss ae o f a p ai r o f c o n j uga te ax i al p o i n ts i n cludes these
o the r c a ses als o th at s o m e w r ite r s h a ve p r o p o sed th at the
fo rm ul a ab o ve sh o uld be c alled the char acter isti c e qua ti on of

par a xi a l i ma g ery .
7 9 Th e Fo ca l Le n g th s f Sphe ric al R e f rac tin g

’
.
, f of a
S urf ac e The ste p s f r om the f oca l p oin ts F

’
an d F to the
-
v er tex
'
.
192 Mirr or s ,
Prismsan d Le n se s 79
A ar e ca lle d the f oca l len g ths o f the spher i ca l re r a ctin g sur ace ;
f f
the p r ima r y f o ca l len g th, den ote d b y f , i s the a b sci ssa of wi th A
re sp e ct to F (f FA) , a n d the secon dar y f oca l le n g th, den oted
f A wi th r esp ect to
’
by f i s the a b sci ssa o (f
’
, F
Sin ce FA + F A = C A ce CA = the fo c al
’
an d sin r,
len gths an d the r adiu s of the sur fa ce ar e con n ected b y the

follo win g r el ati on :
hen ce if t wo o f these m agn itudes ar e kn o wn the value

“
an d ,
o f the thir d m ay a lw ays be dete r m in ed fr o m the f a ct th at thei r
a lgeb r aic sum is e q u a l t o z e r o Fo r e xam ple st ar tin g at an y .

,
po in t o n the axis an d t aki n g in succession in an y o r der the

thr ee steps den o ted b y f f an d r o n e will fi n d himself at ,
’
,
the e n d o f the l ast step b a ck a gain at the st ar tin g po in t .
M o r eo ver the fo c al le n gths ar e c on n ected with the in dice s

,
O f r efr a c t i on b y the fo ll o win g r el at i on 7 7)

I I
i
L
- or
an d, hen ce ,
the f oca l len g ths o f a sp her i ca l r e ra cti n g f f
sur ace
a r e op p osi te in si g n a n d i n the same n ume r i ca l r a ti o a s tha t f

o
the i n di ces f o T hi s f m
r e r a c ti on
f or u l a as we .sh al l see ,
r ep r ese n ts a ge n e r al law o f fun d am e n t al im p o r t an ce in g e o
m etr ic al o ptics .
Exp r essi o n s for the fo c al le n gths in ter m s o f the ra di u s

r an d the r el a tive in de x o f r efr a cti o n (n n ) m ay be de r ived
’
i mm edi ately fr o m the p air o f sim ult an e o us e qu atio n s ab o ve

by s o lvin g them for f an d f The s am e expr essio n s m ay ’
.
likewise be e asil y o bt ain ed by substitutin g in successi on in

the absciss a fo rm ul a 7 8) the t wo p air s o f c o rr espo n din g
-
values v iz u , .
,
u 0 0 an d u = oo u
’
= —
f A n d ,
’ ’
.
,
fin ally the y m ay als o be O bt ain ed geo m et r ically fr o m o n e o f

the diagr am s o f Fi g 1 07 b y Obser vin g th at sin ce b y c on
,
.
,
str ucti o n C O C O = n n i t fo ll o ws th at
’ ’
,
CO
’
:O O=n
’
:
( n
’ —
n ) ,
CO : (n
' —n
) .
80] Sp h e r ical R e fr a c ti n g Sur f ace 1 93
No w fr o m the t wo p ai r s sim ilar t r i an gles FAH H O O

of ,
’
F AK , O H K we o bt ain
’ ’
the t wo p r o po r ti o n s :
FA :
HO ’
= AH :
OO
’
F A: O H = AK :
’
HK ;
’
,
an d sin ce
FA = f , AH = C O
’
,
AK = OO ,
HK = OO ,
we h ave fin ally : ,
f n —n
which ar e ex ceedin gl y useful form s of the expr essi on s for the

fo cal len gths .
Sin ce
f
the absciss a-r el atio n c on n ectin g u an d u m ay be expr essed ’
in te r m s o f o n e o f the fo c al le n gths i n ste a d o f in te r m s o f the

r a dius r fo r e xam ple in te r m s o f the fo c a l le n gth f a s fo ll o ws :
, , ,
’
n n n
'
f
80 Extra-Axi al C on j ug at e Po in ts ; C o n j ug at e Pl an e s
. of a
i l t
S ph e r c a R e f rac in g Sur f ac e — If the axis AC o f a spher ic al
.
r efr a ct in g su r fa ce is r ev o lved in a m e r idi an pl a n e th r o ugh
a ve r y s m all an gle a b o ut an ax is pe r pe n dicul ar t o this pl a n e
a t the ce n te r C so th a t the ve r te x o f the su r f a ce is displ a ced

,
a little t o o n e side o f its fo r m e r p o siti o n A t o a p o i n t U o n
the sur fa ce the p ai r o f c o n jugate po in ts M M will likewise

, ,
’
u n der go slight displ a cem en ts in t o the n e w p o siti o n s Q Q ; ’
a n d evide n tl y the s am e r e l ati o n will c o n n ect the f o u r p o i n ts

,
, ,
C U Q Q o n the cen t r al lin e UC as e xists between the fo u r

’
p o in ts C A M M o n the axis AC an d a cc o r din gl y 7 6 )

, , ,
’
, , , ,
we may wr ite :
(C UQQ 9
19 4 Mirr o r s ,
an d hen ce it is o bvi o us th at the p o in ts Q Q ar e a pair o f ,

’
ext r a-axi al c o n jugate po in ts with r espect t o the spheric al

r efr a ct in g su r fa ce Thus if the po in ts bel o n g in g t o an o b
.
,
j e c t a r e all c o n g r egated in the im m edi ate vicin it y Of the axi s

o n an ele m e n t o f a Sphe r ic al su r fa ce which is c on ce n t r ic with
the r efr a ctin g spher e the c o rr espo n din g im age-po in ts will

,
all be a sse m bled o n an ele m e n t o f an o the r c o n ce n t r ic sphe r ic al
su r f a ce an d a n y st r a ight l in e g o in g th r o ugh C will dete rm in e

,
b y its in ter sectio n s with this p air o f c o n cen tr ic sur fa ces t wo

c o n jugate p o in ts Q Q In o r der th at the r ays c on ce rn ed
,
’
.
m ay all be i n ciden t n e ar the ve r tex A it is n ecess ary ,
t o a ssu m e th at A UC A is ver y s m all which m e an s th a t ,
the little elem en ts o f the sur fa ces descr ibed ar o un d C m ay

in fa ct be r egar ded as pl an e su r fa ces pe r pen di cul ar t o the
axis AC Acc o r din gl y the i m ager y p r o duced b y the r e
.
,
fr a ctio n o f p ar axi al r ays at a Spher ical sur fa ce m ay be de

scr ibed by the fo llo win g st atem en ts
(1 ) The i ma g e o f a p lan e o b ect
j p p
er e n di cu la r to the axi s
of a sp her i ca l r e r acti n g
f f
sur a ce is si m i la r to the o b e c t,
j an d
wi ll li e li k ewi se i n a
p la n e p p
e r en di c u la r to the a xi s ; (2 ) A
str a i g ht lin e dr a wn thr oug h the c en ter C wi ll i n ter se ct a p a ir of
; an d (3 )
’
j
con ug a te p la n es i n p a ir of con j
a ug a te p oin ts , Q Q
In ci den t r a ys whi ch i n ter esct i n Q wi ll b e tr an sf or me d i n to
’
r e r a cted r a ys
f whi ch i n ter se ct i n
Q .
Dia gr am s sh o win g the r efr a cti o n O f p ar axi al r ay s at a

sphe r ic al sur fa ce sh o uld be d r a wn the r efo r e a cc o r di n g t o the
pl an ex pl ain ed in as h as bee n a lr e a d y st ated The .
spheric al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce must be r epr esen ted in the figur e
by the pl an e t an gen t t o the sur fa ce at its ver tex A wh o se ,
t r a ce in the m er idi an pl an e o f the d ra win g is the str aight

i e
l n Ay which is t a ke n as the y
-axis o f the s y ste m o f r ect
an gul ar c o or din ates wh o se o r igi n is a t A
8 1 C o n str uc tio n o f th e Po in t Q wh i c h with R e spe c t to a

’
.
Sph e r i c al R e f r a c tin g S urf ac e is C o n j ug at e to th e Extr a

ax i al Po in t Q — The p o in t Q c o n jugate t o the ext ra -axi al
.
’
p o in t Q is e asily c o n structed H avin g fir st l o cated the fo c al .

81 ] Sp h e r i c al R e fr a c ti ng Sur f ac e 19 5
po in ts F F 7 we d r aw th r o ugh Q (Figs 1 08 an d
,
’
. 1 09 ) a
str aight li n e p ar all el t o the x-axis m eetin g the y-axis in the

po in t design ated b y V ; then the p o in t o f in ter secti o n of the
FIG 1 08 — S ph e r ic a l r e f r a c t in su r f a c e :
L at e ra l m ag n i fi c a t io n
g
v d
. . an
c o n st r u c t io n o f im a g e. C on ex
’
su r f a c e n > n
, .
str aig ht lin es VF an d Q C will be the r equi r ed p o in t Q

’ ’
.
A thir d lin e m ay a ls o be dr awn thr o ugh Q v iz the st r a ight ,

.
,
lin e QF m eetin g the y axis in the p o i n t m ar ked W ; an d if a

-
F IG 1 09 — S ph e r ic a l r e fr ac t in su r f a c e :L a t e r al m a g n ifi c a t io n d
v
. .
g an
c o n st r u c t io n im a g
’
of e. C on ca e s ur f a c e , n >n .
str aight lin e is dr awn th r o ugh W p ar allel t o the x-axis it ,
will likewise p ass th r o ugh Q ’

.
If M M design ate the feet o f the pe r pen dicular s let fall

,
’
19 6 Mir ro r s ,
fro m Q Q r espectively on the x—axis then M Q will be

,
’
, ,
’ ’
the im age o f the sm all o bj ect lin e M Q In Fig 1 08 which

- . .
,
r ep r ese n ts the c a se o f a c o n ve x r efr a ctin g sur fa ce the im a ge ,
is r eal an d in ver ted wher eas in Fig 1 09 the sur fa ce is ,

.
c o n c ave an d the i m age is vir tu al an d er ect B o th diagrams .
a r e d ra w n f o r the c a se whe n n
’
n .
If the o bject p o in t Q c o in cides with the po in t mar ked V

-
,
the i age p o in t Q will als o be at V an d im age an d o bj ect

m - ’
,
will be c o n gr uen t The p air o f c on jugat e pl an es o f an o ptic al

.
system fo r which thi s is the c ase ar e c alled the p rin cip al

p la n es (see a n d he n ce the p r i n ci p a l p lan es of a sp he r
i ca l r e r a cti n g s
f urf ace coi n cide wi th e ach other an d a r e i den ti ca l
wi th the tan g en t-p la n e at the ver tex.
82 . Lat e r al M ag n i fi c ation f o r c ase o f Sph e ri c al R e fr ac t

in g S urf ac e — . The r atio M Q MQ (Figs is the ’ ’
. 1 08 an d 1 09)
so -c alled later a l ma g n ifi ca ti on o f the Sphe r ic al r efr a ctin g sur
fa ce with r espect t o the p air o f c on jugate axial p oin ts M M ,

’
.
Sin ce
M Q : Q CM
M
’
= ’ ’
:
CM ,
an d sin ce 74)
CM AM
’ ’ ’
n
CM n AM
we fi n d
MQ AM
' ’ ’
n
MQ n
’
AM
If y y ,
de n o te’
the heights o f o bj ect a n d im age th a t is if , ,
=M d if
’
w put the l te l m g i fic ti
y Q y a n e a r a a n a o n
e qu al t o y as in 7 2 then eviden tly

, , ,
r r
u
,
y _ n
I
y n
I
u
wher e u = AM u AM The l ateral m agn ific atio n depen ds

,
’ '
.
,
ther efo r e o n the p o sitio n o f the o bject an d the im age is

, ,
er ect o r in ver ted a cc o r din g as this r atio is po sitive o r n eg a

t ive .
§ 83] Sp he r ic a l R e fr a c ti ng :
Su rfac e Fo c a l Plan e s 1 97
83 . Th e Fo c al Pl an e s of a Sph e r ic al R ef r a ctin g S u rf ac e .
— The fo c al pl an es ar e the p a ir o f pl an es which ar e p e r pe n dic

ular t o the axis at the fo c al po in ts F F The in fin itely ,
’
dist an t pl an e o f sp a ce which a cc o r din g t o the n o ti o n s o f

, ,
the m o dern geo m etr y is t o be r egar ded as the l o cus o f the

5
,
i fi itely dist a t po i ts 6 ) o f sp a ce is the i ge pl an e

n n n n m a -
c o n j ugate t o the p ri mar y f oca l p lan e which is the pl an e

,
pe rpen dicul ar t o the axis at F On the o ther h an d r e .

,
g ar ded a s bel on gin g t o the o b j ect sp a ce the in fin itely dis

-
,
t an t pl an e is im aged by the secon da r y f oca l p lan e p e r p e n dicu

lar t o the axis a t F
’
.
The r ays pr o cee di g fr o m an in fi itely dist a t o bject p o in t

n n n -
I (Fig 1 1 0) c o n stitute a cyli n dr ic al bu n dle o f p ar all el ih

.
Te l e t oo
'
ToJ at 0 °
FIG . 1 1 0 — Fo c al
. p l an e s an
i
d f o c al l e n g t h s o f s ph e r i c a l r e fr a c t i n g sur f ac e .
eiden t r ays Sin ce I lies in the in fin itely di stan t pl an e o f

spa ce its im age I will be fo r m ed in the sec o n d ary fo c al
.
pl an e an d the p o sitio n o f I in this pl an e m ay be l o c ated b y

,
’
,
d rawin g thr o ugh the cen ter C o f the Spher ic al r efr a ctin g
surf a ce a str aight lin e p ar allel t o the syste m O f p ar allel
rays which m eet in the in fi n itely dist an t p o i n t I Thus for .
,
exam ple the im age o f a st ar whi ch m ay be r egar ded as a

po in t in fin itely far a way will be fo r m ed in the sec o n d ar y
,
fo cal pl an e ; an d if the app ar en t pl a ce Of the st ar in the fi r m a

me n t is in the dir ecti o n C I the st ar s image will be at the
’
,
1 98 Mirr o r s ,
po in t I wher e the str aigh t lin e C I meets the secon dary fo cal
’
pl an e .
S i m il a r l y if J de s
,ig n a t es the p o si t i o n o f an o bj ec t -po in t
lyin g in the p rimary fo c al pl an e its im age J will be the in ,
fi n itely dist an t po in t o f the straight li n e J C Thus to a .

,
homocen tr i c b un dle o f i n ciden t p ar axi a l r ays wi th i ts ver tex in

the p r i mar y f oca l p la n e , ther e c or resp on ds a cyli n dr i ca l b un dle
of r e r a cted r a ys; a n d to a cyli n dr i ca l
f b un dle f
o i n ci den t p a r axi a l
r ays there corr esp on ds a homocen tr i c b un dle of r e r a cted r a ys
f
wi th i ts v er tex i n the secon da r y f oca l p lan e .
The dir ectio n s o f the in fin itely dist an t p o in ts I an d J ’

ar e
give b y assig i g the v lues o the sl o pe an gles

n n n a f -
an d the p o in ts I an d J c o n jugate t o them will lie in the se c

’
o n dary an d p r im ar y fo c al pl an es o n st r aight li n e s p assi n g
th r o ugh the cen ter C an d in clin ed t o the axis at the an gles

0 an d r espectivel y The an gle 0 which is the m easur e
.
,
o f the an gul ar di st an ce fr o m the axis O f the i n fin itel y dist an t
o bject -p o i n t I determ in es the app ar en t si ze o f an O bjec t

,
in the i n fi n itel y dist an t pl an e o f the O bj ect -sp a ce ; an d sim ,
il ar ly the an gle 9 is the m e asu r e o f the a pp ar en t Si z e o f the

’
,
in fin itel y dist an t i m age o f the o bject FJ

Dra w the str aight lin es J G an d PK p ar alle d t o the O ptic a l
.
a i s a d m eetin g the y axi s in the p o i n ts design ated b y G

x n -
an d K r espectivel y ; the n the s t r aight lin es FK an d C I will

’
,
be par all el t o e a ch o ther an d the s am e will be true with ,
r espect t o the st r aight li n es GF an d J C Hen ce ’
an d Sin ce AK = P I an d A G = EJ
.
,
A AFK = d A AF G =
’ ’ ’
, ,
we fi n d
F
’
I ’
FJ —
’
t a n
FA FA
Putt in g FA f an d FA
’
f
’
we O btain fo llo win g
expr essio n s for the fo c al len gths :
’ ’
F 1
t an 0
84] Sp he r ic al R e fr a c ti ng Sur fa c e 1 99
an d sin ce the t an gen ts o f the s m all an gles 0 , 0

’
ar e in di s
t in g uish ab l e fr o m the an gles the m selves (see we o bt ain
n e w defi n iti o n s o f the fo c a l le n g ths a s fo ll o ws ,
The p r i mar y f oca l le n g th i s the f the i mag e

r a ti o o f the hei g ht o
fi
,
in the se con da r y f o ca l p la n e , of
a n i n n i te ly di stan t obj e ct to
the a pp a r en t si ze of the obj e ct; a n d the se con da r y f oca l len g th

i s the r a ti o of the hei g ht of an obj ect in the p r imar y f oca l p lan e
to the app ar en t si ze of the i n n i tely di stan t i mag e fi .
The r atio o f the a ppar en t si z e o f the in fin itely dist an t

i m age t o the height o f an o bj ect in the p r im ary fo c al pl an e
is a m easur e o f the mag n if yin g p ower o f the o ptic al system
(see an d in this se n se we m ay say th a t the mag n if yi n g
p ower of a sp her i ca l r e r ac ti n g sur a ce

f f i s equa l to the r eci pr ocal
of the se con dar y f oca l len g th
.
84 C o n str u c t i on
. Paraxial Ray R e fr ac te d at a Sph e r i c al
of
S urf ac e .
— The r efr a cted r ay c o r r esp o n di n g t o a p a r axi al r ay
IB (Fig i n ciden t on a Spher ic al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce at

. 1 1 0)
the po in t B m ay e asily be c on structed for exam ple in on e , ,
o f the fo ll o wi n g w ays
(a) Th ro ugh the p r im ary fo c al p o i n t d r aw the str aight

lin e FK p ar allel t o IE m eetin g the y-axis in the p o in t K ; an d
th ough K d aw a st ight li e p a allel t o the x axis m eetin g
r r r a n r —
the sec on d a ry fo cal pl an e in the p o in t I ; the p ath o f the ’
r efr a cted r ay will lie al o n g the st r aight li n e BI

’
.
()
b Th r o ugh the ce n te r C d r a w a st r a ight li n e C I p arallel ’
t o the given i n cide n t ray m eeti n g the sec o n d ar y fo c al pl an e

in the p o i n t I ; the p ath o f the c o r r esp on din g r efr a cted r ay
’
will be al on g the st r aight lin e BI ’

.
()
c L e t J desig n a te the p o i n t whe r e the give n i n cide n t
r ay c r o sses the p r i m ar y f o c al pl an e a n d d r a w the st r aight ,
lin e J G p ar allel t o the x—axis meetin g the y-axis in the

po in t design ated b y G ; then the pa th o f the r equir ed
r efr a cted r ay will lie al o n g the st raight lin e BI d r awn ’
th rough the in ciden ce-po i n t B par allel t o the straight lin e

G F whe r e F design ates the p o siti o n o f the sec o n d ar y fo c al
’ ’
,
p o in t .
2 00 Mirr o r s ,
8
()
d Fin a ll y
the r e q ui r ed r efra c t ed r ay wil l be al on g the
,
str aight lin e BI d r awn p ar allel t o the straight lin e J C

5
’
.
8 Th e I ma g e -E quati o n s in th e c as e o f R e f rac tio n of

.
Par axi al R ays at a Sph e r i c al Surf a c e — The r ectan gul ar co .
o r din a tes o f the i m a ge -p o i n t Q m ay e a sil y be exp r essed in

’
term s o f the c o or din ates o f the o bj ect -po in t Q But the .
for m s o f these expr essi o n s will depen d p ar tly o n the part icu
lar p ai r o f c o n st an ts r an d f f ) which defin e the sur
’
fa ce an d p ar tly o n the system o f axes t o which the c o or din ates

,
ar e r efe r r ed The axis o f the s pher ical sur fa ce will always

.
r ep ese t the a is o
r n x f a bsciss ae (x a xis )
- a d the y axis will
n -
,
be at r ight an gles t o it ; but the o r igin m ay be t aken at an y

pl a ce al o n g the x-axi s If the ver tex A is t aken as the o r igin
.
the c o or din ates o f Q Q will be (u y) an d (u ,

’
,
’
,
th at is u = AM =M d si ce
, , y Q a n n ,
78 an d 82)
n
’
n n
’ —n ’
n u
’
y
’ '
u u r y n u
we O bt ain b y s o lvin g fo r u
’
an dy
’
,
n Tu , n ry
—n ’ y
(n
’
—
) (
’
u +n r n n ) u+n r
Interm s o f the s am e c o or din ates but with a differ en t ,
pair o f c o n st an ts v iz f f in ste a d o f n :
,
n r .the im age ’ ’
,
e qu atio n s m ay be put also in o ther fo r m s as foll o ws :

, , ,
It will be r ec alled that in § 7 9 the absciss a fo rm ul a was

-
wr itten :
’
u u f
an sin ce 7 9) n /n
d
’
n an d = n
’
m ay be elimin ated
an d the i m a ge -e q u ati o n s will bec o m e
’ '
f f y _ f
’
y f + u f u
which ar e also fr e quen tly em plo yed These for m ul ae m ay .
als o b e ea sil y der ived fr o m the geo m et ric al r el atio n s in

Figs 1 08 an d 1 09 sin ce we h ave the p r o p o r ti o n s
.
,
:
FM AM = VA VW = AF : ’
:
AM
’
.
86] SMITH -H E LMH O LT Z E qua io n t 2 01
In st ead of a sin gle system o f r ect an gul ar c o o r din ates we

m ay h ave t wo syste m s o e o the O b j ect sp a ce an d the
,
n f r -
,
o the r f o r the im a ge sp a ce
- Fo r e xam ple if the fo c al po in ts
.
F F ar e selected as the o r igin s o f t wo such sy stem s a n d

,
’
, ,
if the absciss ae o f the p a ir o f c o n jugate axi a l po in ts M M

’
,
ar e de o ted by x th at is if = FM x then sin ce

’ ’
n x x, , , , ,
— — ’
f , f ,
the absciss ae u u m ay be elimin ated fr o m the equ ati o n s

,
’
a d the im age equ ati o n s will be o bt ain ed fi n all y in

,
ab o ve n ,
-
thei r sim plest form s as fo ll o ws : ,
u_ f _ x
”
v r I
These r el ation s m ay be der ived directly fr o m the t wo pair s
o f sim il ar t r i an gles FM Q FAW an d F M Q ,
’ ’ ’
, F AV in
’
Figs 1 08 an d 1 09
. The abscissa-r el ati on
.
' ’
x x .
f f
is the so -c all ed N ewton i an f ormu la (see If the x s ar e ’
pl o tted as abscissae an d the x s as o r din ates this e qu ati o n ’’

,
will r epr esen t a r ect an gul ar hyper b o l a .
86 T e so c al l e d S ith Hel mh o ltz Fo r m ul a

. h - m - In Fig 1 1 1 .
-
.
if r ep r e se n ts the im age in a spher ic a l re tr a c t in g
FIG 1 1 1 — S
. . ph e r ic a l r e f r a c t in g sur f a c e :SM TH -H E
I LMH O LT Z l aw .
sur fa ce Ay o f a s m all o b j ect-lin e M Q = y per pen dicul ar t o

the axis at M , an d if B design ates the in cide n ce -p o in t o f a
202 Mirr o r s ,
par axi al r ay which cr o sses the axis befor e an d after r e fr a c

tio n at M an d M r espectively then in the tr ian gle ME M
’
, ,
’
sin :
0 sin B M,
wher e 0= £ AMB 6 = A AM E den o te the Sl o pes o f the
,
’ ’
in ciden t r ay MB an d the c o r r esp o n di n g r efr a cted r ay B M

’
.
5
Sni ce the r ay is p a r a xi a l we m ay put d = s
,
in 0 0 = sin 0 ,
’ '
an d a ls o B M = A M = u B M = AM,
= u Hen ce ’ ’ ’
,
2 1 0= u 0
’ ’
— or u . . .
, ,
But 82)
’ ’
n .
y n .
y .
’
u u
a n d, ther efo r e b y m ultiplyin g these t wo e qu atio n s so as t o

,
eli m in a te u an d u we o bt a in the im p o rt an t in var ian t

’
,
r el ati o n in the c a se o f r efr a cti o n o f p ar axi al r ay s at a

spher ic al sur fa ce v iz
,
0
.
Thi s fo rm ul a st at e s th at the fun ctio n o bt ain ed b y the co n

t in u e d p r o duct o f the th r ee fa ct o r s n y 0 h as the s am e va lue , ,
a fte r r efr a cti o n at a sphe r ic a l su r f a ce as it h a d befo r e r e
fr a cti on It is a special c ase o f a gen er al law which is fo un d

.
t o a ppl y t o a cen te r ed s y ste m o f Sphe r ic a l r efr a ctin g sur

fa ces 1 1 8) an d which is usu all y kn o wn as LA GRA N GE S law ; ’
but un d o ubtedly R O B E RT SMIT H who an n o un ced the law for

the ca se o f a system o f thin len ses as e ar ly as 1 738 is en titled
t o the c r edit o f it The im p o r t an ce o f the r el ation was
.
r ec o gn i z ed b y H E LMH O LTz (1 82 1 an d the fo r m in which
it is wr itten ab o ve is due t o him On the wh o le it seem s .
pr o per t o a do pt the suggestio n o f P C ULMANN an d t o r efer .
t o this e q u ati o as the SM H H ELMH OLT Z formul a

n IT - .
Ch . VI ] Pr o b le m s 2 03
PROB LEMS
1 If A design ates the vertex an d C the cen ter o f a spher

.
ic al mirr o r an d if M M design ate the po in ts wher e a

, ,
’
p ar axi al r ay c r o sses the str aight lin e AC befo r e an d after

r eflecti o n r espectivel y Sh o w th a t
, ,
2
,
u u r
whe e r r = AC , u = AM ,
2 The r a dius o f a c o n c a ve m ir r o r is 30 c m
. Par axi al r ays .
pr o ceed fr o m a po in t 6 0 cm m fr on t o f it ; fi n d wher e they .
ar e fo cused a fte r r eflecti o n .
An s At a po in t 2 0 c m in fr o n t o f the mirr or
. . .
3 The r a dius o f a c o n c ave mir r o r is 60 c m

. A lum in o us .
po in t is pla ced in fr on t o f the mir r o r at a di st an ce o f (a) 1 20

cm .
()
,
b 60 c m ()
c 3 0 c m a n d.
()
d ,
2 0 c m F in d the po siti on
.
,
.
o f the i ge po in t fo r ea ch o f these po sition s o f the o bj ect

m a - .
An s (a ) 40 c m in fr o n t o f mi r r o r ; (b ) 6 0 c m in fr o n t o f
. . .
m i r r o r ; (0) at in fi n ity ; an d (d) 6 0 c m behi n d mir r o r . .
4 A c an dle is pl a ced in fr on t o f a c o n c ave sphe r ic al mir

5
.
r or ,
wh o se r adius is 1 foo t at a dist an ce o f in ches fr om ,
the mirr o r Wher e will the im age be fo r m ed ?

.
An s 3 0 in ches beh in d the m i r r o r

5
. .
An o bject is 24 in ches in fr o n t o f a c o n c ave m i r r o r o f

.
r a dius 1 f o o t ; whe r e will its im age be fo r m ed ? If the O bject

is displ a ced thr ough a s m all distan ce a th r ough wh at dis ,
t an ce will t h e i m age m o ve ?
'
An s I m age is 8 in ches in fr o n t o f m i rr o r ; dist an ce thr ough

.
which im age m o ves will be 2z/ (z

6 An o bj ect is pl a ced 1 fo o t fr o m a c o n c ave m i rr or o f
.
r a dius 4feet If the o b j ect is m o ve d 1 i n ch n ear er the m ir r o r

.
,
wh at will be the c o rr esp on din g displ a cem en t o f the irn ag e ?

An s The i m age m o ves
. i n ches n ear e r the mirr or .
7 A
. n o b j ect -po in t is 1 0 cm in fr on t o f a c o n vex m i rr o r o f .
r a dius 6 0 cm Fin d the p o siti o n Of the i m age -p o in t

. .
An s c m behin d the m i rro r . . .

204 Mirr o r s ,
Oh . VI
8 . G ive n
the p o siti o n s o n the axis o f a spher ical mir r o r
o f the ve r te x A the ce n te r C an d an o bject -p o i n t M ; sh o w
,
ho w t o c o n st r uct the p o siti o n o f the i m age -p o i n t M Ther e ’

.
a r e eight p o ssible a r r an ge m e n ts o f these f o u r p o in ts ; d r a w
a di a g r a m fo r e a ch o n e o f the m .
9 If x x de n o te the a bsciss ae with r espect t o the f o c a l

’
.
, ,
p o in t F as o r igin o f a p air o f c o n jugate poin ts o n the axis

,
o f a sphe r ic a l m i rr o r Sh o w th a t ,
’ 2
x x.
f ,
wher e f den o tes the fo cal len gth o f the mirr or H ow ar e .
o bj ect an d i m a ge situ a ted with r espect t o the fo c al pl an e ?
10 An o bject is pla ced a t a dist an ce o f 60 c m in fr o n t o f

. .
a sphe r ic a l m i rr o r an d the i m a ge is f o u n d t o be o n the s am e

,
side o f the m irr o r at a dist an ce o f 20 c m Wh at is the fo c al .
len gth o f the mi rr o r an d is it c o n c ave o r c o n vex ?

5
,
An s C o n c ave m irr o r o f fo c al len gth 1 c m

. .
1 1 H o w far fr o m a c o n c a ve m irr o r o f fo c a l le n gth 1 8

.
in ches m ust an O bject be pl a ced in o r der th at the im age

sh all be m agn ified th r ee tim es ?
An s 1 ft o r 2 ft fr o m the mi rr o r a cc o r di n g a s i m age is
. . .
,
er ect o r in ver ted .
12 A c an dle-flam e o n e in ch high is 18 in ches in fr o n t o f

5
.
a c o n c a ve m i r r o r o f f o c a l le n gth 1 in ches Fin d the po sitio n .
an d si z e o f the i m a ge .
An s The i m a ge will be r e a l an d in ve r ted 9 0 i n ches fr o m

5
.
,
the mirr o r an d in ches l o n g

,
.
1 3 A s m all o bject is pl a ced a t r ight an gles t o the axis o f

.
a sphe r ic a l m i rro r ; sh o w h o w t o c o n st r uct the im age an d ,
der ive the m ag n ifi c ation -fo rm ul a :

I I
y u
y u
14 A lum in o us p o in t m o ves fr om left t o r ight al o n g a

.
str aight lin e p ar allel t o the axis o f a spher ic al m irr o r Sho w .
by diagr am s fo r b o th c o n c ave an d c o n vex m irr or s h ow the

c on jugate i m age-p o in t m o ves
5
.
1 The cen ter o f a spher ic al m irror is at C an d the

.
,
C h VI]
. Pr o b l e m s 20 5
st r aight lin e QQ j o in in g a p air o f co n jugate po in ts m eets
'
the m i rr o r in a po in t U If P design ates the po sitio n o f a

.
po in t which is n o t o n the st raight li n e Q Q an d if a str aight ’

,
lin e is d r awn cutti n g the st r aight li n es PU PQ PC an d PQ

’
,
in the p o in ts V R Z an d R r espectively ; Sh o w th at R R
,
’ ’
, , , ,
a r e a p a i r o f c o n juga te p o in ts with r espect t o an o the r sphe r
ical m ir r o r wh o se cen ter is a t Z an d wh o se r adius is e qual t o

VZ .
16 . b y geo m et ric al c o n str ucti on th at the fo c al po in t

Sh o w
O f a sphe r ic al mi r r o r lies m idw ay betwee n the cen te r an d the
ver tex
5
.
1 7 An o bj ect is pl a ced in ches fr o m a spher ical mi rr o r o f

fo c al len gth 6 i n ches Assumi n g th at the O bj ect is r e al
.
,
wher e will the im age be fo r m ed an d what will be the m ag ,
n ifi c at io n ? D r aw di agr am s fo r b o th c o n vex an d c on c ave

mir r o r s .
An s Fo r c o n c ave m i rr o r i m age is 3 0in beh in d the m ir r o r

.
,
.
,
m agn ific ati o n + 6 ; f o r c o n vex mi r r o r i m age is 2 T in ches

S
, T
behi n d the m ir r o r m agn ific ati on , TT

G
.
1 8 H o w f ar fr o m a c o n c ave m i rr o r m ust a r e al o bj ect be

.
pla ced in o r der th at the im a ge sh all be (a ) r eal an d four

tim es the si z e o f the O bj ect (b) vi r tu al an d fo ur tim es the,
S i z e o f the o bj ect a d (0)

n ,
r eal a d o e fo ur th the si z e o f the
n n -
o bject ? D r aw di agr am s Sh o win g the c o n st r uctio n fo r e a ch

o f these th r ee c a ses .
An s D ist an ce o f m i r r o r fr o m the Obj ect is equ al t o (a )

5 5
.
f/ ( ) f /
4 ,
b 3 4 a n d () f
0 ,
whe r e f de n o tes
,
the f o c a l le n gth .
1 9 Wh at ki n d o f i m a ge is p r o duced in a c o n c ave m ir r o r
.
by a vir tual Object ? Illustr ate an d expl ain b y m e an s o f a

di agr am .
An s I m age is r e al an d e r ect an d s m alle r th an O bject

. .
2 0 D ete r m i n e the p o siti o n an d m a gn ific a ti o n o f the i m age

.
o f a vi r tu al o bj ect lyin g m idway betwee n the ve r te x a n d
fo c al po in t o f a c o n vex m irr o r Dr aw di agr am sh o win g .
c on str uctio n .
An s The ve rte x o f the m i rr o r will be mi dw ay between the

.
2 06 Mir r o r s ,
Prism s an d Len se s [
Oh . VI
ax ai l p o in t Of the i m age an d the fo c al p o in t o f the m irro r an d ,
the im age will be r ea l an d er ect a n d t wice a s l ar ge as Object .
2 1 Sh o w th at whe n a n o bject is pl a ced m idwa y betwee n

.
the fo c al po in t an d the ver tex o f a c on c ave m i rr o r the im age

will be vir tual an d er ect an d twice a s l ar ge as the Object .
2 2 An o bject 3 i n ches high is pl a ced 1 0 in ches in fr o n t o f

.
a c o n ve x m i rr o r o f 30 in ches f o c a l le n gth Fin d the po siti o n .
an d si z e o f the i m a ge
5
.
An s V ir tu al im a ge 7
. in ches fr om the mirr or an d 2%
.
in ches high .
2 3 An o bj ect is pl a ced in fr o n t o f a c o n c a ve m i r r o r at a
.
dist an ce o f o n e fo o t If the i ma ge is r e al an d thr ee tim es as

.
l ar ge as the o bj ect wh at 1 s the fo c al len gth o f the m i rr o r ?

,
An s 9 in ches . .
24 The ra dius o f a c o n c ave mi rr o r is 2 3 c m

. An O bject .
,
2 c m high is pl a ced in fr o n t o f the m i rr o r a t a dist an ce o f

.
,
o n e m ete r Fin d the p o siti o n an d si z e o f the i m a ge

. .
An s A r e al im a ge c m high 1 3 c m fr o m the mirr o r
5
. . . .
, ,
2 . Fi n d the p o siti o n an d si z e o f the i m a ge o f a disk 3

in ches in diam eter pla ced at r ight an gles t o the axis o f a
spher ic al m ir r or o f r adius 6 feet when the dist an ce fr om the ,
O bject t o the mi r r o r is (a ) 1 ft ()
b 3 f t a n d (c) 9 ft.
,
.
,
.
An s F o r a c o n c ave mi r r o r :
.
( )
a V i r tu a l i m a ge in ches ,
in di am ete r 1 8 in ches fr o m m i rr o r ; (b ) I m age a t i n fi n i t y ;

,
(c ) R e al in ver ted im a ge in ches in diam eter ,

feet fr o m ,
the mirr o r .
2 6 Assumm g th at the a pp ar en t di am eter o f the sun is

.
c alculate the a ppr o xi mate diam eter o f the sun s im age ’
in a c o n c ave mi r r o r o f f o c al le n gth 1 f o o t .
An s A little m o r e th an o n e -te n th o f an in ch
. .
2 7 A g as-flam e is 8 ft fr o m a w all an d it is r equir ed t o

. .
,
thr o w o n the wall a r e al i mage o f the fl am e which sh all be m ag

n ifi e d th r ee t im es D ete r mi n e the po sition an d fo c a l len gth
.
o f a c o n c ave mi rr o r which w o uld give the r e qui r ed im a ge .
An s The mi rr o r m ust h ave a fo c a l le n gth o f 3 ft an d m ust

. .
be pl a ced at a dist an ce o f 4 ft fr o m the o bj ect . .

C h VI]
. Pr o b le m s 2 07
28 It is desir ed t o th r o w o n a wall an image o f an O b j ect

m agn ified 1 2 ti m es the dist an ce o f the o b j ect fr o m the
.
wall bein g 1 1 feet Fin d the fo cal len gth Of a c o n cave

.
m i r r o r which will do thi s a n d st ate whe r e it m ust be,
pl a ced .
An s The fo c al le n gth O f the m i rr o r m ust be

. ft an d .
,
it m ust be pl a ce d 1 ft fr o m the o b j ect

. .
29 Assum in g th a t the ey e is pl a ced o n the axis o f a sphe r

.
ical m irr o r an d th at the r ays ar e p ar axial expl ai n ho w the

, ,
field o f view is determ in ed Dr a w a ccu r ate diagr am s fo r .
c o n cave an d c o n vex m irr o r s .
30 A m an h o lds h alfway betwee n his e y e an d a c o n ve x

.
,
mi r r o r 3 feet fr o m his eye t wo fi n e p ara llel wi r es so th at

,
they ar e seen dir ectly an d als o by r eflecti o n in the m i rr o r

,
Sh o w that if the a pp ar e n t dist an ce betwee n the wi r es a s

5
seen dir ectly is tim es th at as seen b y r eflection the r a dius ,
o f the m i rr o r is 3 feet .
3 1 A sc ale etched o n a thi n sheet o f t r an sp ar e n t gl ass is

.
p l a ced betwee n the eye o f a n O bse r ve r a n d a c o n ve x m i rr o r
o f f o c a l le n gth o n e f oo t When the dist an ce between the

.
eye an d the sc ale is th r ee feet o n e o f the sc ale divisi on s ,
a ppe ar s t o c o ve r th r ee divisi o n s o f the i m age in the m i rr o r .
Fin d t he p o siti on o f the m i r r o r .
An s The m i r r o r is o n e f o o t fr o m the sc ale

. .
3 2 A sc ale etched on a thin sheet o f t r an sp ar e n t gl ass is

.
in ter po sed between the eye o f an o bse r ver an d a c on vex

m i r r o r o f fo c al le n gth f Whe n the dist an ce o f the sc ale fr o m
.
the eye is b feet o n e divisio n o f the scale appe ar s t o c o ver

,
m divisi o n s o f its im a ge in the m irr o r If n o w the sc ale is .
displ a ced thr o ugh a dist an ce c in the dir ecti o n o f the axis
O f the m i rr o r it is f o u n d th a t o n e divisi o n o f the sc ale a p
,
pe ar s t o c o ver It divisi on s in the m irr or Fin d an expr ession .
fo r f in te rm s o f m k b an d c
, ,
.
An s .
— —
( m) ( c) b c lo b
— —
{ b (k m ) (k 1 ) c
}{ k m)
— —
b (
208 Mirr o r s ,
Oh . VI
33 A c o n c ave an d a c o n vex m i rr o r ea ch o f r a dius 20 c m
.
, .
,
are
pl a ced o pp o site t o e a ch o the r an d 4 0 cm a p ar t o n the .
s am e axi s An o bj ect 3 c m hi gh is pl a ced m idway between

. .
the m Fin d the p o sitio n an d si z e o f the im age fo r m ed b y

.
r eflecti o n fi r st at the c o n ve x an d the n at the c o n c ave mi rr o r

, , , .
D r a w a ccu r ate di a gr am an d t r a ce the p a th o f a r ay fr o m

,
a p o i n t in the o bj ect t o the c o rr esp o n din g p o in t in the im age .
An s The i m a ge is 1 2 T T c m fr o m the c on c ave mir r o r

°
. .
,
r e al an d in ve r ted an d i c m high
“ °
, l . .
3 4 Sam e p r o blem as N o 33 e x cept th at in t hi s c ase t he

. .
,
im age is form ed b y r ays which h ave been r eflected fir st fr om

the c o n c ave m irr o r an d then fr om the c on vex m irr o r .
An s The im a ge is 6 13 c m behin d the c o n ve x m ir r or

.
,
.
,
vir tu al an d in ver ted an d 1 cm high

5
. .
,
3 T wo c o n c ave m irr o r s o f f o c al le n gths 2 0 an d 40 c m

.
,
.
,
a r e tu rn ed t o w ar ds e a ch o the r the dist an ce between their ,
ver tices bein g o n e m eter An O bj ect 1 c m high is pl a ced . .
between the m irr o r s at a dist an ce o f 1 0 cm fr o m the m irr or .
wh o se fo c al le n gth is 20 cm Fin d the p o sition an d si z e Of .
the irn ag e p r o duced b y r ays which ar e r eflected fir st fr om

the n e ar er m ir r o r an d then fr om the f arther m irr or .
An s A r e al in ver ted i m age 1 cm l o n g at a dist an ce o f

.
,
.
,
60 cm fr o m the m i rr o r th at is far ther fr o m the o bj ect

. .
36 The dist an ce betwee n the ver tices A1 an d A2 o f t wo

.
spher ic al m ir r o r s which f a ce e a ch o ther is den o ted b y d ,
th at is d = A2A1 The fo c al p o in ts Of the m ir r o r s ar e at F1

,
.
an d F 2 a d the f c al le gths a e f 1
n o
,
n r = F 1 A1 a n d f = F 2 A2 2 .
An o bj ect is pl a ced between the m i rr o r s at a dist an ce u 1

fr o m A 1 R ays pr o ceedin g fr o m the Obj ect ar e r eflected
.
,
fi r st fr o m the m ir r o r AI an d t hen fr om the m ir r o r A2 ; Sh o w

,
th at the dist an ce o f the fi n al im age fr om the m ir r or A2 is

lf 1 u 1 d l fz .
,
— ’
(f 1 + ui ) (f a+ ) f 1-
d ui
an d th at the m agn ific atio n is

—
(f 2 + d) f1 -
u1
Ch . VI] Pr o b l e m s 2 09
37If the r ays fa ll fir st o n the m ir r o r A2 an d then o n A I,

these letter s h avin g exa ctly the s am e m e an in gs as in No . 36,
then the dist an ce o f the 1m a ge fr o m m ir r o r A1 wil l be
f l(f + d) 1 2
;
(f l — '
dl f z i (u 1 + d) (f 1 f 2
‘ ‘ “ —
dl
an d the m agn ific ati o n will be
f I-f z
— —
.
(f l d ) (f l f w d)
38 If the m ir r o r A 1 in N o s 36 an d 3 7 is a pl an e m irr o r
. .
,
S h o w th a t whe n the light is r eflected fr o m the pl an e m ir r o r
fir st the dist an ce o f the im age fr o m the curved m ir r or is

_d
(U 1 l f2
’
—
f 2 + d u 1
an d th at the m agn ific atio n is

fz
’
—
f2+ d u 1
an d th at when the light is r eflected fr o m the curved m irr or

fi r st the dist an ce o f the im age fr o m the pl an e m irr o r is
,
—d
(f z l l
‘
f2+ ui + d
an d th at the m agn ific ati o n is
f2
f2+ u1+ d
If b oth the m irr o r s ar e pl an e the m agn ific ati o n will b e ,
u n ity an d the im age a fter t wo r eflectio n s fi r st at A1 an d

, ,
then at A2 wil l be fo rm ed at a dist an ce o f (u l d) fr om

,
—
A ; whe r e as if the light f alls fi r st o n m i r r or A the dist an ce

2 2,
o f the im a ge fr o m the o the r m i rr o r will be (u 1 + 2 d) .
3 9 If M M ar e a p air o f c o n jug ate p o i n ts o n the axis

’
.
,
o f a sphe r ic al r efr a ct in g su r f a ce which divides t wo m edi a
o f in dices n an d n sh o w th at
’
,
(C AMM ) n
wher e A an d C design ate the ver tex an d the cen ter o f the
S phe r ic a l su r f a ce .
40 Sh o w h o w t o c o n st r uct the p o siti o n o f the p o i n t M

’
.
2 10 M ir r o r s ,
Oh . VI
c o n jug at e t o a given po in t M o n the axis o f a spher ic al r e
fr a ctin g sur fa ce ; an d dr aw diagr am s fo r all the p o ssible ar
r an ge m e n ts o f the f o ur p o in ts A C M M Pr o ve the c on
’
.
, , ,
st r ucti on an d der ive the f o rm ul a n /u = n /u + (n

,
’ ’ ’
wher e n n den o te the in dices o f r efr a ctio n an d u = AM

,
’
, ,
r = AC .
41 . Sh o w h o w
the f o r m ul a in N o 40 i n cludes as special .
c ases the c ase of r efr a ctio n o f p ar axi al r ays at a pl an e sur

fa ce an d the c ase o f r eflection at a spher ic al mir r or .
42 Fr o m the fo r m ul a in N O 40 der ive e xp r essi o n s for

. .
the f o c al len gths f f o f a spher ic al r efra ctin g sur fa ce an d

,
’
,
S h o w th at
43 D o es
. the c on str ucti on fo un d in N O 40 apply t o the .
c ase o f a spher ic al m ir r o r ? E xpl ain with di agr am s .
44 Appl y the c o n str ucti o n e m pl o yed in N o 40 t o de

. .
term in e the p o siti o n s o f the fo c al p o in ts F F o f a spher ic al ,

’
r efr a ctin g sur f a ce an d sh o w th a t

,
F A FA = — : :
5Whe e
FA = C F F A = C F,
’ ’ ’ ’
,
n n .
4 . the fo c al p oin ts o f a pl an e r efr a ctin g sur

r ar e
fa ce ? Expl ain cle ar ly .
46 E xpl a in h o w t he r esult s o f No 44 ar e applic able t o

. .
a sphe r ic a l m irr o r .
47 Air and gl a ss ar e sep ar at ed b y a sphe r ic al r e fra c tin g

sur f a ce Of r a di us r = AC Fin d the p o sitio n s o f the fo c al
.
po ints F F fo r the c a ses when the r efr a ctio n is fr om air t o

,
’
gl ass an d fr o m gl ass t o air an d when the sur fa ce is c o n vex

an d c o n c ave ; illust r a ti n g y o ur an swe r s by f o ur a ccur atel y
dr awn di agr am s (T ake in dices o f r efr a cti on o f air an d

.
gl ass equ al t o 1 an d r espectively ) .
48 Fr o m the figur es used in N o 44 fo r c o n st r uctin g the

. .
p o sitio n s o f the fo c al p o in ts F F der ive the form ul ae for ,

’
,
the fo c al len g ths whi ch wer e o bt ain ed in NO 42 . .
49 Light fallin g o n a c o n c ave surf a ce sep ar atin g wate r

.
(n = f r o m gl a ss (n is c o n ve r ge n
’
t t o w ar ds a
po in t 1 0 cm beyo n d the ver tex The r a dius o f the surfa ce

. .
C h VI]
. Pr o b le ms 211
is 20 c m . Fi n d the p o in t wher e the r efr a cted ra ys c ro ss the

ax is .
An s . cm . beyon d the ver tex of the spher e in the

glass m edium
5
.
0 Light is r efr a cted fr o m air t o gl ass (n n =3:

’
. 2 ) at a
spher ic al sur fa ce If the vertex o f the bu n dle o f in ciden t
.
r ays is in the gl a ss an d 2 0 c m fr o m the vertex o f the r e .
fr a ctin g sur fa ce an d if the r efr a cted r ays ar e c o n ver ged t o

5
,
a p o in t in the gl ass an d cm fr o m the ver tex determ in e .

,
the form an d si z e o f the sur fa ce .
An s C o n vex sur f a ce o f r adius 2 c m

5
. .
1 A s all air bubble in a gl ass sphe r e 4 in ches in di

m.
-
,
a m e t e r viewed so th at the speck a n d the ce n te r o f the sphe r e

,
a r e in li n e with the e y e appe ar s t o be o n e in ch fr o m the ,
po in t o f the sur fa ce n e ar est the eye Wh at is its a ctu al dis .
t an ce a ssum in g th at the in dex o f r efr a ctio n o f gl ass is

,
in ches
5
An s . .
2 The r a dius o f a c o n c a ve r efr a cti n g su r f a ce is 2 0 c m

. .
A vir tu al i m age o f a r e al o bject is fo r m ed a t a dist a n ce o f

40 c m fr o m the ve r te x an d the dist an ce fr o m the o b j ect
.
,
t o the i m a ge is 6 0 c m The fir st m edium is air (n = . Fin d

the in dex o f r efr a ctio n of the sec on d m edium .
5 ight dive gi g f
’
An s . n
3 . L p o in t M in air is c o n ver ged

r n ro m a
b y a spher ic al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce t o a p o in t M in gl ass o f ’
i n dex The dist an ce MM = 1 8 cm an d the po in t M ’

.
,
is twice as far fr o m the sur fa ce as the p o in t M Fin d the ’

.
r a dius o f the su r f a ce
5
. An s cm . .
4 Fin d the p o sitio n s o f the fo c al p o i n ts F F o f a c o n

.
,
’
c ave spher ic al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce sep aratin g air fr o m a m e

dium O f i n de x h avi n g fo un d th at the im age o f a lum in o us
p o i n t 30 c m in fr o n t o f the sur fa ce is m idway between the
.
lum in o us po in t an d the sur fa ce .
5A
5
An s AF = + 1 3 6 3 c m ;
’
. AF . . cm .
. c o n ver gen t bu n dle o f r ays is i n ci den t spher ic al

on a
r efr a ctin g sur fa ce of ra dius 1 0 cm . The r el ative in de x o f

2 12 M irr or s ,
Oh . VI
refr a cti o n fr o m the fi r st m edium t o the sec on d m edium is
e qu al t o 2 (n : ’
If the in ciden t r ays c r o ss the axis :
a t M an d the r efr a cted r a ys a t M an d if M M = + 60 c m

’ ’
, .
,
determ in e the p o sitio n s o f the p o in ts M M ,

’
.
An s If the sur f a ce is c o n ve x AM = + 7 7 7 2 c m
.
AM
, . .
,
’
cm If the s ur fa ce is c o n c ave then either AM =

.
,
AM AM AM
5A be
’
+ 30c m .
,
-3 0 c m . or + 20 c m .
,
’
~
40 c m .
6 . amp ar allel r ays p a ssin g thr o ugh w ater (n

of
is r efr a cted at a c o n c ave sur fa ce i n t o glass

If the r a dius o f the sur fa ce is 20 cm wher e will the light be
5
.
,
fo cused ? An s V ir tu al fo cus 1 0 c m fr o m the sur fa ce

5
. .
, .
7 A
. s m a ll a ir -bubble is imbedded in a gl ass spher e at
a dist an ce o f c m fr o m the n e ar est p o in t o f the su r f a ce
. .
Wh a t will be the app ar e n t depth o f the bubble viewed fr om ,
this side o f the spher e if the r a dius o f the spher e is

, cm .
,
a n d the i n de x o f r efr a cti o n fr o m air t o gl ass is
5Assu
An s . cm .
8 . th at the c o r n e a o f the eye is a spher ic al

m in g
r efr a cti n g su r f a ce o f r a dius 8 m m sep ar ati n g the o utside air
.
fr o m the a queo us hu m o r (o f in dex fi n d the dist an ce

o f the pupil o f the eye fr o m the ve r te x o f the c o r n e a if its ,
a pp ar e n t dist an ce is f o u n d t o be mm Als o if the ap .

,
p ar en t diam eter of the pupil is m m wh at is its r e al .

,
di am eter ? mm ; 4mm
5
An s . . .
9 C o n st r uct the im age M Q o f a s m all o bject M Q p e r

’ ’
.
p e n dicular at M t o the ax is o f a sphe r ic a l r efr a cti n g sur fa ce ,
an d de r ive the m ag n ifi c at io n -fo r m ul a in te r m s o f the dis
t an ces o f M an d M fr o m the ver tex o f the sur fa ce Dr a w

’
.
t wo di a gr am s o n e f o r c o n ve x an d o n e f o r c o n c ave su r f a ce
, ,
.
6 0 D e ive the i a ge equ ati o n s o f a sphe r ic a l r efr a ctin g

. r m -
sur f a ce r efe rr ed t o the f o c a l p o i n ts a s o r igi n s .
6 1 D e r ive the i m age e q u ati o n s o f a spher ic al r e fr a ctin g

.
surfa ce in the fo r m s
= 0,
M y =
f/ f
( + u ) (f
62 . Sh o w th at ther e ar e t wo p o sitio n s o n the axis Of a
S phe r ic a l r efr a cti n g su r f a ce whe r e i m ag e an d o bj ect c o i n cid e .
Ch . VI] Pr o b l e m s 2 13
63 . the t wo p air s o f c o n j ugate pl an es o f a sphe r i

Lo c ate
c al r efr a ct in g su r f a ce f o r whi ch im a ge an d Obj ect h ave the
s am e si z e .
6 4 A r e a l o bj ect 1 c m high is pl a ced 1 2 c m fr o m a c o n

.
,
.
,
.
v e x sphe r ic al r efr a cti n g su r f a ce o f r a dius 30 c m which ,

.
,
sep ar ates air (n = 1 ) fr o m gl a ss (n Fin d the p o siti o n

’
a n d si z e o f the i m age .
An s I m age is vir tu al an d e r ect

. cm high cm ,
.
,
.
fr o m ver tex
5
.
6 .In the p r ecedi n g e xam ple supp o se th at the O bj ect ,
is a vir tu al o b j ect at the s am e dist an ce fr o m the sphe r ic al

r efr a cti n g su r f a ce F in d the p o siti o n an d si z e o f the im age
.
in this c ase
5
.
An s I m age is r e al an d e r ect 6 c m high an d 1 c m

.
,
.
, .
fr om ver tex
5
.
6 6 So lve N o s 6 4 an d 6 fo r the c ase whe n the su r fa ce

. .
is c o n c ave ; an d dr aw di agr am s sh o wi n g c o n str ucti o n o f the

im age in all fo ur c a ses .
6 7 So lve N o 6 4 o n the supp o siti o n th at the fi r st m ediu m

. .
is gl ass an d the sec o n d m edium air .
An s I m age will be vir tu al an d e r ect i f c m high an d

.
,
"
.
,
i f c m fr o m ve r te x
. .
6 8 (a ) The hu m an eye fr o m which the c r yst alli n e le n s

“
.
h as bee n r e m o ved (so -c alled aph akic eye ) m ay be r e

”
g ar ded as c o n sisti n g o f a si n gle spher ic al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce ,
n am ely the an ter i o r sur fa ce o f the c o rn e a If the r a dius

, .
o f this su r f a ce is t ake n as 8 mm a n d if the i n de x o f r e fr ac .

,
ti o n of the eye -m edium (b o th the a que o us an d vitr e o us

hum o r s ) is put equ al t o i wh at will be the fo c al len gths f
,
o f the a ph akic eye ? (b ) Assu m i n g th at the le n gth o f the

eye-b all o f an aph akic eye is 2 2 m m wher e will an o bj ect .
h ave t o be pl a ced t o be im aged distin ctly o n the r etin a at

,
the b ack o f the eye ?

An s .
( )f
a = + 24m m .
, f
’
= -
32 m m ; .
(b ) u = + 5 2 8 mm
. .
,
which m ean s th at the o bj ect m ust be vi rtu al an d lie behin d

the ey e .
2 14 Mirr or s ,
Prisms an d Le n se s [ VI
C h .
69 . educed ey e is c o m po sed of -a sin gle

LIS TIN G
’
S r
c o n vex sphe r ic al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce o f r adius mm sep .
a r at in g air (n = 1 ) f r o m the vit r e o us hum o r (n

’
C alcul ate the fo c al le n g t hs

5mm
.
An s f = + 1 68 f
’
= mm
“
. . .
,
r educed e y e
.
7 0 In D O NDE R S the fo c al len gths are

5
’
.
assum ed t o be + 1 a d
n — 20 mm C alcul ate the r adius o f .
the e q uiv ale n t spher ic al r efr a ctin g sur face an d the in dex of
r efr a cti o n o f the vit r e o us hu m o r f o r these v alues o f the f o c al
len gths . An s r = + m ; n 3 . 5 .
’
$ 1
.
7 1 The an gular dist an ce o f a st ar fr o m the axis o f a

.
spher ic al r efr a ctin g s ur fa ce which sep ar ates air (n = 1 ) fr om

gl ass is T he su r fa ce is c o n ve x an d o f r adiu s
1 0 cm F i n d the p o siti o n o f the st ar s im age
’
. .
An s A r e al im age will be fo r m ed in the sec o n d ar y f o c al

.
pl an e ab o ut c m fr o m the axis
. .
7 2 Wh at is the si z e o f the i m age o n the r et in a Of LIST

“
.
r educed e y e (No 6 9 ) if the ap p ar e n t si z e o f the

’ ”
IN G s .
dist an t Obj ec t is An s 1 3 6 mm
’
. . .
7 3 A hem ispher ic al le n s the cu r ved sur f a ce o f which h as

.
,
a r a dius o f 3 i n ches is m ade of gl ass o f i n dex

,
Sh o w
th at r ays Of light pr o ceedin g fr o m a p o i n t o n its axis 4in ches
in fr o n t o f its pl an e sur f a ce will e m e r ge p ar allel t o the axis .
7 4 A p ar axi al r ay p ar allel t o the axis o f a soli d r efr a ctin g

.
spher e o f in dex n is r efr a cted i n t o the spher e at fi r st t o war ds

’
a p o i n t X o n the ax is an d afte r the sec o n d r efr a cti o n c r o ss es

,
the axis at a p o in t F If the fi rst an d l ast m edi a ar e t he

’
s am e an d o f i n dex n sh o w th at the p o in t F lies m idw ay b e

,
’
twee n the sec o n d vertex o f the spher e an d the po in t X

5
.
7 .A s m all Obj ect o f height y is pl a ced at the cen ter o f

a sphe r ic al r efr a cti n g su r f a ce in a pl an e at r ight an gles t o
‘
the axis D eterm in e the p o sitio n an d si z e o f the i m age

. .
Sh o w h ow the SMIT H -H E LMH O LT z f o r m ul a 86 ) is appli

c able t o a p ar t o f thi s pr oblem .
An s I m age is in s am e pl an e as Obj ec t er ect an d o f si z e

.
, ,
’
y
C h VI]
. Pr o b le m s 21 5
76 A pl an e Obj ect is pl a ced p ar allel t o a pl an e r efr a ctin g
.
sur fa ce Sh o w th at its im age fo r m ed by p ar axi al r ays is

.
er ect an d o f s am e si z e as Ob j ect Is the SMIT H-H E LMH OLT z .
for m ul a 86) applic able t o a pl an e r efr a cti n g sur fa ce ? Is

it applic able t o a spher ic al m irr o r ? E xpl ai n cle ar ly .
7 7 In a c o n ve x spher ic al r efr a cti n g sur fa ce o f r adius

.
which sep ar ates air (n = 1 ) fr o m w ater the

im age is r e al in ver ted an d o n e -thir d the si z e o f the o bj ect
, .
Fi n d the p o siti o n s o f o bj ect a n d i m age If a r ay pr o .
c e e din g fr o m the a xi al p o i n t o f the o b j ect is i n cli n ed t o the
a xis at a n an gle o f wh at wil l be the sl o pe o f the c or r esp o n d

in g r efr a cte d r ay ?
An s Obj ect is in air an d i m age is in w ate r their dist an ces
.
,
fr o m the sur f a ce bei n g 9 an d 4 r espectively ; sl o pe o f r e ,
fr a cted r ay is
7 8 In a spher ic al r efr a cti n g su r fa ce
“
.
: 0+ §0y :
I
a
wher e a a den o te the an gles of i n ciden ce an d r efr a ctio n

,
’
,
0 0 de n o te the i n cli n ati o n s o f the r ay t o the axis befo r e

’
,
a d
n a fte r r efr a cti o n an d go de
,
n o tes the s o -c a lled ce n t r a l
a n gle (A B C A) Fo r a p ar axi al r ay the law o f r efr a cti o n
.
m ay be wr itte n
n
’
. a
’
=n . a .
Fr om these fo rm ul a deduce the absciss a-r el ation in the fo rm

’ '
n n n ~
n
u u T
79 The curved sur fa ce o f a gl ass hem isphere is silver ed

. .
R ays c o m i n g fr o m a lu m i n o us p o i n t at a dist an ce u fr o m
the pl an e s ur fa ce ar e r efr a cted i n t o the gl a ss r eflected fr o m ,
the c o n c ave spher ic al sur fa ce an d r efr a cted at the pl an e

,
sur fa ce b a ck i n t o the air If r den o tes the r a dius o f the

.
spher ic al sur face an d n the in dex o f r efr a cti on o f the gl ass ,
sho w t h at
1 1 2
o,
u u r
2 16 M i rr o r s; Pri sm s an d Le n se s Oh VI
[ .
wher e u den otes the dist an ce o f the im age fr om the pl an e

’
sur face .
80 A pl an e o bj ect o f height o n e in ch is pl a ced at r igh t

.
an gles t o the axis o f a sphe r ic al mi r r o r . The sl o pe o f the r e

fle c t e d r ay c o rr esp o n di n g t o an in cide n t p ar axi al r ay which
em an ates fr o m the axi al p o in t of the o bj ect at a sl o pe o f + 5
°
is IS the im age e r ect o r in ve r ted a n d wh at is its si z e ?

,
An s I n verted im age o n e -h alf in ch hi gh

.
,
.
C HA PT E R VII
R E FRA C TIO N O F PA RA X IA L R A Y H UH
S T RO G N
A N IN FI IT E LY
T HN I LE NS
87 . Form s of Le n s e s . ptics the w o r d len s is used
In
-
o
t o de n o te a p o r ti o n o f a tr an sp ar e n t subst an ce usu ally ,
iso t r Opic c o m p r ise d betwee n t wo sm o o th p o lished sur f a ces

, ,
on e o f w hi ch m ay be pl an e These sur fa ces ar e c alled the

.
fa ces of the len s The cur ved fa ces ar e gen er ally spher ic al
.
,
an d thi s m ay a lw ays be c o n sider ed as im plied u n less the
c o n tr ary is expr essly st ated Len ses with spher ic al fa ces

.
ar e s o m etim es c alled spher ic al len ses t o disti n guish them

fr o m cylin dr ic al spher o cylin dr ic al an d o ther fo r m s o f
-
len ses whi ch ar e also quite c om m o n especi ally in m o der n

,
s p ect a cle gl asses A pl an e fa ce m ay be r eg ar ded as a spher

.
ic al o r cylin dr ic al sur fa ce o f i n fin ite r adius .
The axi s o f a len s is the str aight lin e which is n or m al t o

b o th fa ces an d c o n seque n tly a r ay wh o se p ath lies al o n g
, , ,
the axis (the so c alled ax ial r ay) will p ass thr o ugh the len s
-
with o ut bein g de fl ected fr o m this lin e The axis o f a spher .
ic al len s is the str aight lin e j o in in g the ce n te r s C l C o f , 2
the t wo spher ic al fa ces an d Si n ce a le n s o f this ki n d is sym

,
m et r ic ar o u n d the axis it m ay be r ep r ese n ted in a p l an e

,
figur e by a m er idi an sectio n sh o win g the ar cs o f the t wo

gr e at cir cles in which this pl an e in ter sects the sphe r ic al
fa ces D epe n din g o n the len gths o f the r adii in c o m p ar is o n
.
with the len gth o f the li n e -segm e n t C 1 C 2 these ar cs i n te r ,
sect in two po in ts eq uidist an t fr o m the axis o r else they do

n o t i n te r sect e a ch o the r at all .
( )
a If they i n te r sect the n, C 1 C 2 is less th a n the a r ith
m etic al sum but g r e ate r th an the a r ithm etic al diffe r e n ce
o f the r adii ,
an d the le n s m ay be a dou b le c on v ex len s
2 17
2 18 Mirr o r s ,
Prisms an d Le n se s l§ 87
FIG 1 1 2 ,
. a .— D o ub l e con v ex le n s .
FIG . 1 12 , b — Pl an o -c o n
. v ex len s .
87] Fo rm s of Len se s 2 19
F IG 1 1 2 ,
. c. —C o n v ex m e n i sc u s .
( g
Fi . 1 1 2, a ) men i scu s (Fig 1 1 2 , c )
o r a con vex A p ar ticul a r
. .
c ase o f a d o uble c on vex len s is a p la n o-con vex len s (Fig 1 1 2 , b ) . .
(b ) If they do n o t in ter sect , then either o n e cir cle lies

wh oll y o utside the o ther the dist an ce bet ween the cen ters
,
bein g ther efor e gr e ater th an the ar ithm etic al sum o f the

, ,
ra dii so th a t the le n s is a dou ble con ca ve len s (Fig

,
1 1 3 a) .
, ,
o r in c ase o n e o f the sur f a ces is pl an e a p la n o-con ca ve len s

, ,
(Fig 1 1 3 b ) ; o r else o n e c ir cle lies wh o lly in side the o ther

.
, ,
so th at the dist an ce betwee n the ce n te r s is less th an the
ar ith m etic al diffe r e n ce o f the r a dii a n d the n the le n s h as ,
the form o f a con cave m en i scu s (Fig 1 1 3 c) . .
The fir st f ace o f a len s is the side tur n ed t o w ar ds the in

,
e ide n t light The p o in ts wher e the axis m eets the two fa ces
.
ar e c alled the v e r ti ce s an d the dist an ce fr o m the ve r te x A I o f

,
the first fa ce t o the vert ex A2 o f the sec o n d fa ce whi ch is ,
den oted by d is c alled the thickn ess Of the le n s ; thus d

, ,
A1 A2 . Sin ce the dir ecti o n which the li ght t akes in g o i n g

a c r o ss the le n s fr o m A I t o A2 is the p osi ti v e di r ec ti on a lon g
the axi s (see the thickn ess d is essen ti all y a p o sitive

m agn itude .
220 Mir r or s ,
Pr isms an d Le n se s
FIG 1 1 3 ,
. a. — D oub l e co n ca v e l en s .
FIG . b — P1an o -c o n c a
. v e len s .
FIG 1 1 3 ,. c .— C on ca v e m e n isc us .
87 ] Fo r m s of Le n se s 22 1
The the sur fa ces den o ted by r 1 r 2 ar e the ab

r a d11 of , , ,
scissa o f the ce n te r s C 1 C with r espect t o the ve r tic es

, 2
AI A2 r espectively ; thus r = A C 1 r 2 = A C
, , , 1 1 , 2 2 .
C er t a in sp eci a l f or ms of spheri ca l len ses m ay be m e n ti o n ed

her e v iz : ,
.
(a ) S ymmetri c Len ses w hich ar e d o uble c o n vex o r d o uble

,
c o n c ave len ses wh o se sur faces h ave equ al but o pp o site

cur vatur es A p ar ticul ar c ase o f d o uble c o n vex
sym m etr ic len s is o n e wh o se t wo fa ces ar e p o r ti on s o f the
s am e sphe r ic al sur fa ce ; a len s o f this ki n d bein g s o m etim es
c alled a lid sp here (d r 1 r 2 2 r 1 )
so = — z
.
(b ) Con cen tr i c Len ses wh o se t wo fa ces h ave the s am e

,
cen ter of curv atur e A c o n cen tr ic len s m ay be
FIG 1 1 4— C o n c e n t r ic
. . c o n ca v e m en isc us .
a d o uble c o n vex len s ch ar a cter i z ed b y the r el ati on d = r 1 — r 2

o f which a
“ s o lid spher e is a speci al c ase ; o r it m ay h ave
”
,
the fo rm o f a c o n c ave m en iscus fo r which either r 1 > r 2 > 0

an d d = r1 — r2 (Fig . 1 1 4) or r 1 < r 2 < 0 an d d = r2 r1.
() c Len ses of Z er o Cu r va tu r e , in which the ax a i l thick n ess

2 22 Mirr o r s ,
Prisms an d Len se s 87
FIG . 11 5
.
— Le n s o f z e r o c ur v at ur e
of the len s is equ al t o the dist an ce between the cen t ers (d

A1 A2 = C 1 C 2 ) This le n s is a c o n vex m en iscus ch ar a cter i z ed
.
b y the c o n ditio n th at r l r = 0 (Fig 2 .
Le n ses m ay a ls o be c o n ve n ie n tl y cl assifi ed in t wo m ai n
gr o ups v iz con vex len ses an d con ca ve len ses de pe n din g o n
,
.
, ,
the r el ative thickn ess o f the len s al o n g the axis as c om p ar ed

with its thick n ess at the edges The t hi ckn ess of a c o n vex .
le n s is gr e ater al o n g the axis th an it is o ut t o war ds the edge ,
wher e as a c o n c ave len s is thi n n es t in the m iddle E ach o f .
these t wo m ain divisi o n s i n cludes t hr ee speci al for m s which

h ave alr e ady bee n m e n ti o n ed Thus the th r ee t ypes o f c o n
.
,
v e x le n ses ar e the d o uble c o n ve x the pl an o -c o n ve x an d t h e

,
c o n vex o r c r escen t-sh aped m en iscus as sh o wn in Fig 1 12 ;

”
,
.
an d simil ar ly
,
the t ypes o f c o n c ave le n ses ar e the d o uble
,
c on c ave pl an o -c o n c ave an d the c o n c ave o r c a n o e-sh aped

,
”
m e n iscus (Fig .
A c o n vex gl ass le n s o f m o der ate thick n ess held in air with

its axis t o war ds the sun h as the pr o per ty o f a bur n i n g gl a ss
an d c o n ve r ges the r ay s t o a r e al f o c us o n the o t he r side of
88] t
Op ical C e n t e r of Le n s 223
the len s . A c on vex le n s is c alled ther efor e als o a con ver g en t

len s o r a p osi ti ve len s On the o ther h an d u n de r the s am e
.
,
cir c um st an ces a c o n c ave le n s will r e n de r a be am of sun

,
light dive r ge n t an d a cc o r di n gly a c o n c ave le n s is c alled

, , ,
a ls o a di v er g en t len s o r a n eg a tiv e len s The expl an ati o n o f

“ “
.
the ter m s p o sitive an d n eg ative as applied t o le n ses

” ”
will be app ar en t whe n we c o m e t o spe ak of the po siti on s o f

the fo c al po in ts o f a le n s
Fi n ally if the c ur v a tur es o f the t wo f a ces o f the le n s ar e
,
O pp o site in sig n the len s is d o uble c o n vex o r d o uble c o n

,
c ave ; if the cur vatur es h ave the s am e sig n the le n s is a ,
m e n iscus ; an d if the cur v atu r e o f o n e face is z er o the le n s ,
is plan O-c o n vex o r pl an o -c o n c ave .
88 Th e O pti c al C e n te r 0 o f a Le n s surro un de d b y th e
.
s am e m e di u m o n b ot h s i de s — Whe n a r ay o f li ght em er ges

at the sec o n d f a ce o f a le n s i n t o the su r r o u n di n g m ediu m
in the s am e dir ecti on as it h ad whe n it m e t the fi r st f a ce ,
the p ath Of the r ay i n side the len s lies al o n g a st r aight li n e

which cr o sses the axis at a r e m ar k able po in t O c alled the
op ti ca l cen ter o f the le n s which is i n deed the (i n tern al o r
“
,
extern al) ce n ter o f sim ilitude o f the t wo c ir cles wh o se

”
ar cs ar e the t r a ces o f the sphe r ic a l f a ces o f the le n s in the
m e r idi an pl an e which c o n t ai n s the r ay .
In o r de r t o p r o ve this d r aw a p air o f p ar allel r ad11 C IB I an d

,
C 2B 2 (Fig . a d supp o se th at a r ay e n te r s the le n s at

n -
B 1 an d le aves it at B 2 so th at the st r aight li n e B l

,
r e pr e
sen ts the p ath o f the r ay thr o ugh the len s If the st r aight .
lin e RB I r epr esen ts the p ath o f the i n ciden t r ay a st r aight ,
lin e B 28 dr awn thr o ugh B 2 p ar allel t o R B 1 will r epr esen t

the p ath o f the em er gen t r ay ; bec ause si n ce the t an gen ts ,
t o the ci r cul ar ar cs at B 1 B 2 a r e p ar allel t o e a ch o the r the

, ,
len s beh aves t o war ds this r ay which e n te r s it at B 1 e xa ctly

like a sl ab o f the s am e m ate ri al with pl an e p ar allel sides
C o n seque n tl y the p o siti o n o f the p o i n t 0 whe r e
,
the str aight lin e B 1B 2 pr o duced if n ecess ar y c r o sses the ,
axis o f the le n s is see n t o be e n ti r el y depe n de n t o n t he

,
224 Mirro rs ,
. . p
FIG 1 1 6 — O tic al c en te r o f le n s
.
geom et r ic al fo rm o f the len s In p art icul ar the

.
,
o f this p o i n t will n o t depe n d o n the d ir ecti o n o f t he in ci
den t r ay as will be Sh o wn b y the follo win g in vestig ation

,
.
Fr om the s im il ar t r i an gles OC 1B 1 an d OC 2B 2 we ,
the pr o po rti o n
001 2 OC g = B 1 01 2 B 2 02 = A1 01 2 A202 .
Acc o r din gl y ,
we m ay wr ite :
OA1 + A1 C 1 A1 C 1
’
0A2 + A zC z A202
an d, c on se q uen tly
A1 0
A2 0 7 2
= = —
No w A20 A2A1 + A1 0 A1 0 d; so th t w
a e o b t ain fin all y
’1
d .
The fu n ctio n o n the r ight-h an d side of this e q u ati on depen ds

o n l y o n the fo r m o f the le n s so th at t he p o siti o n o f t he
,
88] Op ti ca l C en t er of Le n s 7
22 5
p o in t O with r espect to the ver tex o f the fi r st face o f the
len s m ay be fo u n d imm edi ately as s o o n as we kn ow the
m agn itudes de n o ted by r 1 an d d ,
.
C A T oo <
F IG p
1 1 7 — O t ic al of h
le n s wi t o n e p l an e f ac e is the v
v
. . c en te r at e rt e x
o f c ur e d fac e .
If the len s is d o uble c o n ve x o r d o uble c o n c ave the O ptic a l ,
cen ter O will lie in side the len s between the vertices A1 an d
. . p
FIG 1 1 8 — O t ic al c en ter of m e n isc u s lie s o u t side le n s .
A2 ; if o n e fa ce o f the len s is pl an e (Fig the o ptic al .
cen ter will c o in cide with the v e r t e x o f the cur ved fa ce ; an d .
\
,
22 6 M irr o r s ,
fin ally if the len s is a m en iscus (Fig

,
the Opt ic al cen ter .
will lie o utside the len s en t ir ely .
In ge n e r a l the p o siti on s o f the p o in t s desig n ated in t he

,
di agr am s by the lette r s N N will var y fo r diff er en t r ay

,
’
p aths B 1 B 2 withi n the len s ; but if the r ays ar e p ar axi al ,
the p o siti o n s o f N N ar e fixed In fa ct if the r ay RB I B 2 S

,
’
.
,
is a p ar axi al r ay the p o in ts N N ar e the so -c alled n o d al

, ,
’
p o in ts o f the len s (see

8 9 Th e Ab sc i ssa-Fo r mul a of a Thin Le n s r e f e rr e d to
.
,
th e axi al po in t o f th e l e n s as o r i g in — Or din ar il y t h e axi al .

,
t hi ckn ess o f a len s is m uch sm all er th an either o f the r adii

o f cu r v atu r e so th at in m an y le n s -p r o ble m s t hi s dim e n si o n
,
is n egligible in c om p ar is o n with the o ther lin e ar dim en sio n s

th at ar e in v o lved M o r e o ver the len s -fo r m ul a ar e gr e atl y
.
,
sim plified by ign o r in g the t hi ckn ess of the len s H o wever .

,
in usin g these fo r m ul a o n e m ust be dul y c auti o us a b o ut

t akin g t oo liter ally r esul ts th at ar e str ictly a pplic able o n ly
t o an i nfin i te ly thi n len s wh o se ver tices ar e r eg ar ded as
,
c o in ciden t th at is A 1 Ag = d = 0 The appr oxim ate fo rm ul a

, ,
.
th at ar e o bt ain ed fo r len ses o f z er o-thi ckn ess ar e o ften of

ver y gr e at pr a ctic al utili t y especi a lly in the p r elim in ar y
,
design o f an O ptic al in str um en t c om p o sed it m ay be of

'
, ,
sever al len ses wh o se t hi ckn esses ar e by n o m e an s n egligible .
The o ptic al c e n t e r, O o f an in fin itely t hi n len s c oin cides

with the t wo ver ticesA1 A2 an d her e after these thr ee c o
, ,
in ciden t po in ts in whi ch the axis m eets an in fin itely thin len s

will be design ated by the s im ple letter A An in fi ni tely thin .
len s is r epr esen ted in a di agr am by the segm e n t o f a str aight

lin e whi ch is bisected at r ight an gles b y the axis o f the len s ;
the a ctu al fo rm o f the len s bein g in dic ated b y assign in g the
po siti o n s o f the cen ter s C 1 C 2 o f the t wo faces In o r der t o
,
.
tell at a gl an ce the ch ar a cter o f a len s the for m of it at the ,
edges m ay be in dic ated as sh o wn in Fig 1 1 9 Fig 1 1 9 a . . .

,
is a c o n ven tio n al r epr esen t ati o n o f an in fi n itely t hin c o n

,
v e x le n s an d Fig
,
1 1 9 b is a sim il ar di agr am f or an in fi n itel y
.
,
thin con c ave len s .

§ 8 9] Ab sc issa -Fo r m u la of T hi n Le n s 227
us assum e th at the len s is sur r o un ded b y the s am e

Le t
m edium o n b o th sides ; an d let n de n o te the i n de x o f r e fr a c
F IG . 1 19 , a. h
— In fi n i t e ly t in con v ex le n s ; M M ,
’
j
c o n ug at e p o in t s o n a x is .
ti on o f thi s m edium while n den o tes the i n dex Of r efr a cti o n

,
’
o f the le n s -subst an ce it se lf .
The b r o ken li n e RB S (Fig 1 1 9 ) r epr esen ts the p ath o f

.
a p ar axi al r ay whi ch e n te r s an d le a ves the i nfi n itel y t hi n
FIG . 1 19, . h
b — In fi n it e ly t in con ca v e le n s ; M M ,
’
j
c o n u g at e p o in ts
on a x is .
len s at the p o in t m ar ked B The p o in ts wher e the r ay .
cr o sses the axis befo r e an d after p ass in g thr o ugh the l e n s

will be design ated b y M M r espectively The str aight,
’
,
.
22 8 Mirr o r s ,
li n e B M 1 which in ter sects the axis at the po in t m ar ked M1

' ’
sh o ws the p ath the r ay t akes after bein g r efr a cted at the fi r s t

fa ce o f the len s Obvio usly the po in ts M M 1 ar e a p air o f
.
, ,
’
c o n jug ate axial p o in ts with r espect t o the fi r st sur fa ce o f the

len s an d sim il ar ly the p o in ts M 1 M ar e a p air o f c o n
, , ,
’ ’
jugate axi al p o in ts with r espect t o the sec o n d sur fa ce Of

.
the len s an d ther efo r e M M ar e a p air o f c o n jugate axi al

, , , ,
’
p o in ts with r espect t o the len s as a wh o le so th at M will ,

’
be the im age in the len s o f an axi al o bj ect-po in t M The .
absciss a o f these p o i n ts with r espect t o the axi al po i n t A
as o r igi n will be de n o ted b y u u ; thus u = AM

’
, , ,
Als o put
,
The r adii o f curv atur e of the t wo
fa ces ar e r 1 = AC 1 r 2 = AC 2 ,
.
Acc o r din gly in o r der t o o bt ain the fo rm ul a c on n ectin g

,
we h ave m er el y t o a pply the fun d am e n t al equ a

’
u an d u ,
ti o n 7 8) fo r the r efr a ctio n o f p ar axial r ays at a spher ic al

sur fa ce t o e a ch fa ce o f the len s in successio n be ar in g in ,
m i n d th at the fi r st r efr a cti o n is fr o m m edium n t o m e di um

n
’
while the sec o n d r efr a cti o n is fr om m edium n t o m e ’
dium n Thus we o bt ain

.
,
n
’
n n
’
—n n n
’
n
’
-n
’ ’
u rl u u1
E lim in atin g b y addin g these equ atio n s an d dividin g

ul
’
,
t hr o ugh b y n we der ive the a b sci ssa f ormula f or the r ef r ac

,
-
ti on of p ara xi a l r a ys thr ou g h an i n fin i te ly thi n len s in the ,
fo ll o win g form :
<
’ —n
1 1
'
n
1
u u n r1 r2
The exp r essio n o n the r ight -h an d side o f this e qu ation ih ,
vo lvin g o n ly the len s-c o n st an ts r l an d n / n h as f o r a ,

'
,
given len s a pe r fectl y defin ite v alue whi ch m ay b e c om ,
p ut e d o n ce f o r all An d s o if we put .
1
’
-n 1 1
(i )
n
7
f n i 7;
wher e the m agn itude den o ted b y f is a c o n s t an t of the len s

90] Fo cal Po in t s of T hin Le n s 229
(which we S h all a fte r w ar ds see is the f l

oca len g th of the
len s) the fo rm ul a ab o ve m ay be wr itten :
,
1 1 1
' ’
u u f
which is the fo rm o f the len s-fo rm ul a th at is per h aps m o st
c o mm o n Fo r a given v alue o f u we fi n d u f u/ (f + u )
.
’
.
I n ci den t ally it m ay be o bser ved th at the equati o n ab o ve

,
is s ym m et r ic al with r espect t o u an d u ; th at is the equ a

— ’
,
tio n will r em ain un alter ed if u is wr itten in pl a ce o f u an d

— ’
—u in pl a ce o f u
’
Acc o r din gly if the p o siti o n s o f a p air o f
.
,
c o n jug ate p o in ts o n the axis ar e design ated by M M ,

’
FIG . . h
1 2 0 — In fi n it e ly t in l e n s :A P M A E M A P
= ’ = ’
, MA .
( g
Fi . the p air o f axi al p o in ts design ated by P P will ,
’
likewise be c o n j ug ate p r ovided A P = M A an d A P = M A ; so

,
’ ’
th at the thin len s at A bisects the two segm en ts PM an d ’
PM An other an d m o r e st r ikin g way o f exhibitin g this

’
.
ch ar a cter istic pr o per ty o f an i n fin itely thin len s c o n sists

in s ayin g th at if M is the i m age o f an axi al o b j ect -p o i n t
'
,
at M a n d if the n the le n s is sh ifted fr o m its fi rs t p o siti o n

,
at A t o a p o i n t B such th at MB = AM the o bj ect p o in t M

'
-
,
will again be im aged at M ’
9 0 T h e Fo c al Po in ts o f an In fi n ite ly T h in Le n s
.
—If .
the o bj ect -po in t M is at the i n fin itely dist an t p o i n t o n the

axis o f the le n s its im age will be f o r m ed at a p o i n t F wh o se
’
p o sitio n o n the axis m ay be fo un d b y puttin g u = oo u = AF

,
' ’
230 Mir r or s ,
in the fo rm ul a 1/u thus we fi n d AF =f Sim

’
,
’
.
il ar ly the o bj ect p o in t F c o n jug ate t o the in fin itel y dis

,
-
t an t p o in t o f the axis is fo un d b y substitutin g in the s am e

e qu ati on the p air o f values u = AF u 00 when ce we o b ,
’
t ain AF = f These p o in ts F F ar e the p ri ma ry an d sec

.
,
’
o n dar y f oca l p oi n ts r espectivel y an d

,
a cc o r di n gl y it is , , ,
evi den t th at the f oca l p oi n ts of an i n fin i tely thin len s a r e e qui

di sta n t f r om the len s an d on opp osi te sides o f it .
The ch ara cter o f the im ager y in the c ase o f an in fi ni tely

thin len s is c o m pletely determi n ed as s o o n as we k n o w the
po sitio n s of the t wo fo c al p o in ts F F ; an d sin ce the po in t A ,
’
wher e the axis m eets the len s lies m idway between F an d

F it is Obvi o us th at the n at ur al divisi o n o f le n ses is in t o
’
,
t wo cl a sses depe n din g o n the o r der in which t he thr ee p o in ts

a b o ve m e n ti o n ed ar e r an ged al o n g the axis .
(1 )If the p r imar y f oca l p oi n t i s in f r on t of the len s (Fig .
1 2 1 , a ) , th at is , if the o r der of t h e po in ts n am ed in t he se
FIG 1 21 , — Fo c al p o in (F in fi n i t e l yh t in l e n s
p v v v
. a . ts ,
In o sit i
(o r c o n e x
p
a e or con er
g e n t ) l e n s t h e fi r st f o c a l o in t (F ) li e s o n s am e sid e
o f l e n s as in c id e n t li g h(
t r e al f o c u s) .
q u e n ce in whi ch they ar e r e a ched b y li ght t r aver si n g the

a xi s of the len s is F A F then in ciden t r ays p ar all el to
, ,
’
,
90] F o c a l Po in t s of T hin Le n s 23 1
the axis wil l be c on ver ged t o a r e al fo cus at F on the o ther ’
side o f the len s an d the len s is a con ver g en t len s

,
It
is ls c alled a p osi
a o ti v e l s bec ause the le s c o n st an t (o r
en n -
,
p r i ma r y f o ca l le n g th) f = F A = A F is m e a su r ed a l o n g the ’
axis in the p o sitive se n se If it is assu m ed th at n > n (as ’

.
,
fo r e xam ple in the c a se o f a gl a ss le n s in air ) the S ign o f

, ,
this c o n st an t f a cc o r din g t o the fo rm ul a ab o ve which de

,
fin es 1 /f will be the s am e as th at o f the ter m (l /r l

,
which is the algeb r aic expr essio n o f the diff er en ce o f c ur va

tur es 99) betwee n the t wo fa ces o f the le n s If the len s .
is d o uble c o n vex plan o -c o n vex o r a c r escen t —sh aped m e

,
n isc u s— th at is in all fo rm s o f len ses th at ar e thicker in

,
the m iddle th an o ut t o w ar ds the edges the differ en ce Of

—
cu v tur es (I/r l l /Tz) will be fo u n d t o be po sitive An d

r a — .
hen ce as alr e a dy st ated

, thin len ses of this de sc rip
ti on ar e c o n ver gen t if n n ’
.
( ) f the
2 I se con da r y f o ca l p oi n t i s in f f
r on t o the len s (Fig .
1 2 1 , b) , th at is if the p o in ts
,
F
’
,
A ,
F ar e r a n ged alo n g t he
1 2 1 , b — Fo c al p
o in t s o f in fi n it e l t in y h
FIG .
v v
.
= ’ =
In a n e g a t i e (o r c o n c a e o r
v
l e n s (FA f)
p
AF .
d i e r g e n t ) l e n s t h e fi r st f o c a l o in t (F ) l ie s o n
h
t h e o t e r sid e o f t h e l e n s f r o m t h e in c ide n t l ig t h
(Vir t u al f o c u s) .
232 M ir r or s ,
ax is in the o r der n am ed i n cide n t p ar allel r ays will be m ad e

,
t o dive r ge fr o m a vir tu al f o cus at F an d in this c ase t he

’
,
len s is s aid t o be a di ver g en t o r n eg a ti ve len s sin ce n o w t he ,
le s c st t f
n - o n a n = FA = AF is m e a s ur ed a l o n g the axi s in
’
the n eg ative sen se Fo r len ses whi ch ar e t hin n er in the

.
m iddle th an at the edges th a t is f o r d o uble c o n c ave pl a n o

, , ,
c o n c ave an d c an o e—sh aped m e n iscus len ses the differ e n ce o f

cu r vatu r es (1 / r 1 /r 2) w ill be fo un d t o be n egative ; an d
—
1
hen ce fo r such len ses the c o n st an t f will be n eg ative if n > n '

.
A c ase o f r ather m o r e the o r etic al th an p r a ctic al in ter est is

aff o r ded by a n i n fi n i tely thi n c on cen tr i c len s 87 ) f o r which
r2 = r 1 ,
an d which is the r efo r e u n if o r m ly thi ck in a dir e c
ti o n p ar allel t o the axis so th at a cc o r din g t o the ab o ve

,
classific ati o n it sh o uld be n either c o n ver gen t n or diver gen t

'
In f a ct the v alue o f the le n s -c o n st an t f f o r t hi s le n s is in

,
fi n ity an d he n ce u = u S O th at o bj ect -p o in t M an d im age

’
, ,
po in t M ar e c om c1 de n t alw ays A bun dle of p ar a llel r ays

’
.
tr aver sin g an in fin itely thin c o n cen t r ic len s will e m er ge

fr om the len s just as th o ugh the len s h ad n o t been in ter
p o sed in the p ath o f the r ays .
9 1 C o n struc ti o n o f th e Po in t M C o n j ug at e to th e Axi al
’
.
Po in t M with r e spe c t to an In fin i te ly T h in Le n s — The

'
~
.
pl an es which ar e pe r pen dicul ar t o the axis o f the len s at the

fo c al p o in ts F F ar e c alled the p ri mar y an d secon dar y f oca l
,
’
p lan e s r espectively
,
.
The p o in t M c o n jug ate t o a p o in t M o n the axis o f an

’
in fin itely thi n len s sur r o un ded b y the s am e m edi um o n b o th

sides m ay be c o n str ucted as fo ll o ws
Thr o ugh the given p o in t M (Fig 1 22 a an d b ) dr aw a .
,
st r aight lin e M B m eetin g the len s at B an d thr o ugh the,

,
ax i a l p o in t (A ) o f the le n s d r a w a st r aight li n e AI p ar a llel

’
t o MB an d m eeti n g the sec o n d ar y f o c al pl an e in the p o in t

I ; then the p o in t wher e the st r a ight lin e BI pr o duced if
’ ’
,
n ecess ar y c r o sses the axis will be the r equir ed po in t M

,
’
c o n j ug ate t o M .
The p o in t M m ay als o be c on structed in an o ther way

’
,
9 1] Thin Le n s :
C o n j u g a t e Axial Po i n t s 2 33
as fo llo ws :Le t J design ate the p o in t whe r e the st r aight

lin e M B c r o sses the p r im ar y fo c al pl an e an d thr o ugh B
dr aw a str aight lin e p ar allel t o the st r aight lin e J A whi ch
,
h :
b — In fi n it e l y t in l e n s C o n st ru c t io n p
j j p
FIG an d of o in t
v
. 1 22 , a .
M t o a xi al O b e c t - o in t M (a ) C on
’
v
c o n u g at e . ex ,
(b ) C o n ca e le n s .
the axis o f the len s in the r equir ed p o i n t M

in te r sect
’
.
Fig 1 22 a sh o ws the c o n st r ucti o n in the c ase o f a c o n ve x

.
,
len s an d Fig 1 22 b sh o ws it f o r a c o n c ave len s

.
,
.
The pr o o f is Obvi o us Fr o m the t wo p a ir s of sim il ar

.
t r i an gles MAB AF I an d MM E AM I we o bt ain the

,
’ ' ’
,
’ ’
,
pr o po rtion s :
MA MB MM ’
AI AM
’ ’ ’
AF
23 4 M i rr o r s ,
an d if we in tr o duce the s ym bo ls u = AM , u = AM
’ ’
,
=
f AF
’
we get
—u u
’ -u
f it
which is the s am e as the absciss a-r el ati o n fo un d in § 89 .
9 2 Extr a Axia l C on j ug at e Poin ts Q t ’

- C
.
Q ; o n j ug a e ,
Pl an e s —Sin ce the a xi al p o i n t A o f an i n fi n itel y thi n le n s

.
is als o the O ptic al ce n ter o f the len s a st r aight lin e
d r awn thr ough A will r epr esen t the p ath o f a r ay b o th b e

for e an d afte r p a ssin g thr o ugh the len s at this p o i n t If .
the axi s of the len s is r ot ated in a m er idi an plan e t hr o ug h

‘
FIG 1 23 In fi n i t e l y len s : Im ag e - o in t p Q
'
j
c o n ug at e to e xt r a -axi a l
p Q
. .
ob j e c t- o in t .
a ver y s mall an gle FAJ (Fig 1 23) ar o un d the po in t A as .
vertex the fo c al p o in ts F F will de sc r ibe the s m all ar cs

, ,
’
FJ F I an d the st r aight lin e JI wi ll r ep r ese n t the p ath o f

’ ’ ’
,
a p ar axi a l r ay t r ave r sin g the le n s at A The p o in ts Q Q ’

.
,
at the e n ds o f the ar cs M Q M Q t r a ced o ut in t hi s a n gul ar

’ ’
,
m o vem e n t o f the axis b y a p a ir o f c o n jug ate axi al p o in ts

”
M M will evide n tly o ccup y the s am e r el atio n t o e a ch

,
’
o the r o n t he st r aight lin e JI as M M h ave t o e a ch o th e r

’ ’
,
§ 9 2J I m ag e in In fin i t e ly T hin Le n s 3 5
on the st r a ight lin e FF
’
,
an d ther efo r e Q Q ,
’
ar e a p air of
extr a -a xi a l c on u g a te j p oi n ts .
A c c o r dihg ly , if the po in ts Of an O b j ect lie in the vicin ity

of the ax is on an ele m e n t o f a sphe r ic al su rf a ce desc r ibed
1 2 4, :
d b — In fi n i t e ly t h in l e n s Lat e r al m a g n ifi c at io n
j j
FIG
h
. a an .
a n d c o n st r u c t io n o f im a g e M Q
’
c o n u g a t e t o s o rt o b e c t
’
p p
li n e M Q e r e n dic ul ar t o a xi s v v
(a ) C o n e x (b ) C o n c a e l e n s
.
,
.
ar ou n d the ver tex A o f the in fin itely thin len s as cen ter ,
the c o rr esp o n din g p o in ts o f the im age will be assem bled

on a c o n ce n t r ic S phe r ic a l su r f a ce ; an d si n ce within the ,
r egi o n o f p ar ax i al r ays these spher ic al ele m e n ts m ay be

,
r eg ar ded as pl an e it fo ll o ws th at a s m all pl an e o bj ect at

,
2 36 Mirr o r s ,
right a n gles t o the ax is will be r ep r o duced by a sim ilar

pl an e im age als o at r ight an gles t o the axis .
Con j ug a te p la n es a r e p ai r s of p a r a lle l p lan e s p erp en di cula r

to the a xi s of the len s; a n d a n y str a i g ht lin e dr a wn throug h
the cen te r o f an in fi n i tely thi n len s will p i er ce a p a i r o f j
con u
g a te p la n es i n a p a i r o f j
con u g a te p oi n ts .
p ar ticul ar the pl an es c o n jug ate t o the fo c al pl an es

In ,
a r e the i n fi n itely dist a n t pl a nes o f the im a ge -sp a ce an d

o bj ect -sp a ce a cc o r di n g as the i n fi n itely dist an t pl an e is
,
r eg ar ded as belo n gin g t o o n e o r the o ther o f these

r eg l on s .
The c o n st r uction of the p o in t Q c o n jugat e t o an extr a ’
axi al o b j ect -p o i n t Q (Fig 1 2 4 a a n d b ) with r espect t o

.
, ,
a n in fi n itel y thi n le n s is m a de by a m eth o d p r ecisel y sim

,
ilar t o th at e m pl o y ed in the c o r r esp o n di n g p r o blem in the

c ases b o th o f a spher ic al m ir r o r 7 1 ) an d o f a spher ic al
r efr a cti n g s ur f a ce the o n ly differ e n ce in thi s c a se
bein g th at the cen te r o f the len s t akes the pl a ce o f the cen ter
o f the sphe ric al sur f a ce a n d th a t the f o c al p o i n ts o f t he
len s ar e at e qu al dist an ces o n O pp o site sides Of it .
9 3 Late r al M ag n i fi c ati o n in c a se o f In fi n ite ly T hin Le n s

. .
— The l a te r al m a g n ifi c ati o n in the c a se o f an i n fi n itely thin “
len s defin ed as in 7 2 a n d 8 2 a s the r ati o o f the height

, ,
t o the height o f the o b j ect

,
o f the im a ge (y = M Q
’ ’ ’
m ay be o bt ai n ed fr o m the di agr am (Fig 1 24) an d is e v i .
de n tly give n b y the f o ll o wi n g f o r m ul a

I I
y u
’
v u
so th at the li n ea r dimen si on s o f ob ect a n d

j i mag e ar e in the
same r a tio as thei r di stan ce s f rom the thi n len s . Mo r e o ver ,
it a ppe ar s th at the i ma g e i s e r ec t or i n ver te d acco r di n g as
o b e ct a n d
j imag e li e on the me si de
sa or on Op p osi te si de s o f
the len s .
An o ther e xpr essio n fo r the l ateral m ag n ific atio n m ay

be der ived b y c o n sider in g the t wo p air s O f sim ilar r ight
9 4] I m ag e r y in T h i n Le n s 37
tri an gles FMQ FAW ,

an d F AV,
’
fr o m which we
o bt a i n the pr o p o r ti o n s
AW FA MQ ’ ’
F
’
M ’
AV
.
MQ FM
’ ’
FA
an d sin ce
AV = M Q = y,
we fi n d :
y I
_ f x
y r
y x f
wher e x = FM x = F M den o te the absciss a o f M M ’ ’ ’ ’
with r espect t o the fo c al po i n t s F F r espectively as o ri

, ,
’
, ,
gin s Acc o r din gly the la ter a l ma g n ifi ca tion va ri es i n ver se ly

,
.
,
as the di stan ce o f the o b e ct

j f m th e p r i
ro ma r yf oc al p la n e ,
an d
di r ec tly as the di stan ce of the i ma g e f r om the secon dar y f o ca l
p lan e .
9 4 Ch ar ac t e r I mag e ry in a T hin Le n s The

5
. of th e .
-
N ewto n ian fo r m o f the a bsciss a-r el ati o n (cf § 8 ) fo r a n .
in fin itely thin len s surr o u n ded by air is

’
-2
x x .
f ,
which sh o ws th at O bj ect an d im age lie o n Oppo site sides o f

the fo c al pl an es ; so th at if M is a p o in t o n the axis t o the
r ight o f the p r i m a r y f o c a l p o i n t F the c o n jug ate p o i n t M
’
,
wil l be fo un d o n the axis at the left o f the sec o n d ar y fo c al

po in t F an d vi ce ver sa
’
, .
The ch ar a cter o f the im ager y p r o duced by the r efr a ctio n

o f p ar axi al r ays th r o ugh an i n fi n itel y thi n le n s is e x hi bited
in the di agr am s Fig 1 2 a an d b The n um er als 1 2 3

. 5 ,
.
, , ,
etc m ar k the successive p o siti o n s o f an O bject-p o i n t whi ch

.
,
is suppo sed t o t r aver se a str aight li n e p ar allel t o the axis

( S O c
- a lled o bject -r ay ) f r o m an i n fi n ite dist a n ce
”
in f r o n t
o f the le n s t o a n i n fi n ite dist an ce o n the o the r side o f it .
Un til it r e a ches the le n s at the p o i n t m ar ked V the Ob j ect

is r e al ther e after it is vi r tual The c o rr esp o n din g n u m er als
,
.
with pr im es v iz 2 ,
etc r an ged al o n g the st r aigh t
.
,
'
.
,
lin e VF (c alle d the im age-r ay ) m ar k the successive

’ ”
po siti o n s of the im ag e—po in t which st ar tin g fr o m t he , , ,

238 Mirr o r s ,
'
94
sec o n d ar y fo c al p o in t F m o ves al on g thi s li n e alw ay s in

’
,
the s am e dir ecti o n o ut t o i n fi n ity an d b a ck ag ain t o its

s tartin g p o in t The str aight li n es
. etc c o n .
,
fi
,
4
tub s A T OO
’
TO s a r
'
m
I
O J AT
O B J EC T
Q LA Y
F IG 5 d b —C h of y
im a g e r in fi ni t e l y h t in le n s
v v
. 12 , a an . ar ac t e r in .
(a ) C o n ex , (b ) C o n c a e le n s .
n e c t in gc o r r espo n di n g p o sitio n s o f o bj ect -p o m t an d im age

p o in t fo rm a pen cil o f r ays all p assin g thr o ugh the o ptic a l _
cen ter A of the len s which is the cen ter o f pe rsp e pt iv e o f

,
94] I m ag e r y in T hi n Le n s 239
“
o b j ect -sp a ce an d im age-s pa ce At the p o in t V o bject an d .
im age c o in cide with e a ch o ther in the len s itself an d her e

o b j ect an d i m age ar e c o n gr ue n t
,
The so c alled p r in ci pa l .
-
p la n es f
o an in fi n i te ly thi n len s c oi n ci de wi th eac h
o the r i n the p lan e p er p en di cu la r to the ax i s o f the len s at i ts

op ti ca l cen ter A The fact th at o b
. j ect p - o int an d im age
po in t c o in cide with e a ch o ther at V is expr essed ge o m etr i
c ally by s ayin g the y-axi s i s the b a se f
o a r an ge f
o se l
f c on aj
g a te p oi n ts
5
.
In c o n vex len s (Fig 1 2 a ) the im age o f a r e al o bj ect

a .
,
is seen t o be r e al an d in ver ted as l o n g as the o bj ect lies in

fr o n t o f the len s bey o n d the pr im ar y fo c al pl an e ; whe r e as
the im age is vir tu al an d er ect if the o bj ect is pl a ced between
the pr im ar y fo c al pl an e an d the len s The im age of a v ir .
tu al o b j ect in a c o n vex len s is for m ed between the len s an d

the sec o n dar y fo c al pl an e an d is r e al an d er ect
5
.
In a c o n c ave le n s (Fig 1 2 b ) the im age o f a r e al o bj ect

.
,
lies between the len s an d the sec o n d ar y fo c al pl an e an d it ,
is virtu al an d e r ect If the o bj ect is vir tu al its im age in a

.
,
c on c ave len s will be r e al an d er ect if the o bj ect lies betwee n

the len s an d the p r im ar y fo c al pl an e but it will be v ir tu al ,
an d i n ve rted if the o bj ect li es be yo n d the p r im ar y f o c a l
pl an e .
If z = MM den o tes the dist an ce between a p air o f c o n

’
j ugate axi al po in ts M M then u = u + e wher e u = AM

,
’
,
’
, ,
Substitutin g thi s v a lue o f u in the f o r m ul a

l /u
’
we o bt ain a qu a dr atic in a whi ch im plies , ,
ther efo r e th at fo r a given v alue o f the i n ter v al 2 between

ther e ar e always two po sitio n s o f the
,
o bject an d i m a ge ,
o bj ect -p o in t M with r espect t o the le n s But un der

s o m e cir cum st an ces the a ssign ed value o f the in ter val 2
m ay be such th at the r o o ts o f the qu ad r atic p r o ve t o b e
im agin ar y an d then it will be quite irn p o ssib le with the
,
given len s t o pr o duce an im age at the give n dist an ce e fr om

the o bj ect Fo r exam ple if the o bj ect lies in fr o n t of a
.
,
c on vex len s f O) at a dist an ce gr e ate r th an the fo c al le n gth ,

240 Mir r or s ,
then u < 0 an d Put a z> 0 . so th at t he m agn i= M A = —u
,
tudes de n o ted b y f e an d a ar e all po sitive E limin atin g

, .
n
’
fr o m the absciss a fo rm ul a we o bt ain a qu adr atic in a
-
,
Wh o se r o o ts ar e given b y the fo ll o wi n g e xpr essio n

zi We e
whi ch will be im agin ar y if (e ~

4
f) 0 . H e n ce , the di stan ce
(2 ) b etween a r ea l o b ec t a n
j d i ts r ea l i ma g e i n a con vex len s
5
c a n n ot b e less than f ou r tim es the f oca l len g th f .
Th e Fo c al Le n g th s f , f
’
9 . o f an In fi n it e ly Thin Le n s .
The fo c al len gths o f a thin len s ar e defi n ed exa ctly in the

s am e way as the fo c al len gths of a spher ic al re fr actin g sur
TO E A T OO T O B A T OO
'
A r oo
'
J
F IG . 1 2 6 — F o c al
. p l an e s
=
d f o c al l e n g t
an
=
h s of in fi n it e l y h
t in le n s
(f F A
fa ce ,
th e Thus
p r i ma r y f oc a l le n g th of a le n s i s the
r a ti o of the hei g ht of the i ma g e , i n the sec on dar y f oc a l p lan e ,
to the a pp a r en t si ze of the i n n i tely di stan t o bj ect fi

In Fig 1 2 6 . .
F I is the height o f the im a ge o f the in fi n itely dist an t ob

’ ’
j e c t E I which is see n u n de r the a n gle 0 = A E F I= 4 A FK ,
a d
n the p r im a r y f o c a l le n gth is the r ef o r e F I / t a n 0 =
, ,
’ ’
A / K t a n H PA f ; an d he n ce a s alr e ady o bse r ved the

=
, ,
pr im ar y f o c al len gth is iden tic al with the len s -c o n st an t

den o ted by f which as we h ave seen ,
is the absciss a
o f the ax i a l p o i n t A o f a thi n le n s with r espect t o its p r im ar y
,
f o c al p o in t F Sim il ar l y the secon dary f oca l len g th f ) i s

.
,
’
9 5
] In fi n it e ly Th i n :
Le n s Fo c a l Le n g h s t 241
the r a ti o o f the hei g ht o f an o b ec tj i n the p r i ma r y f o ca l p lan e of

the len s to the a pp a r en t si z e o f fi
i ts i n n i te ly di stan t i ma g e
exam ple in the di agr am the im age o f the o bj ect FJ
.
Fo r ,
lyin g in the pr im ar y fo c a l plan e is E J which lyin g in the ’ ’

,
in fin itely dist an t pl an e o f the im age-sp a ce subten ds the ,
a n gle hen ce f = FJ/ tan 0 ’

an d
’
AH / t an so th at the sec o n d ar y fo c al len gth m ay

al s o be defi n ed as the a bsciss a o f the ax i al p o i n t A o f an ih
fi n itely thin len s with r espect t o the sec o n d ary fo c al po in t F ’

.
An d si n ce F A = = FA evi de n tly :
’ ’
—
AF —
,
Acc o r din gly ,

the f o ca l len g ths (f f,
of a len s surroun ded by
the sa me me dium on b oth si des a r e e qu a l i n ma g n i tude an d
opp osi te in si g n .
If the len s is r ever sed b y turn in g it thr o ugh 1 80 ab o ut °
a n axis pe r pe n dicul ar t o the ax is o f the le n s th at is if the , ,
light is m ade t o t r aver se the le n s in a se n se e xa ctly O pp o site

t o th at which it h a d a t fi r st the f o c a l le n g ths f f will n o t
’
, ,
be alter ed This is eviden t fr om the fact th at the exp r es

.
sio n for the fo c al len gth f v iz ,
I
f f 77 — ,
( n ) ( T1)
Te
r em ain s the s am e when r 1 r 2 ar e substituted in pl a ce o f —

,
—
r r2
1, r espectively
,
Thus the ch ar a cter o f the len s 90)
.
,
an d its a cti o n a r e n o t ch an ged b y p r ese n ti n g the o pp o site
fa ce t o the in ciden t r ays .
The fo c al len gth o f an i n fin itely thin s ymm etr ic le n s

fo r which r1 — r
~
2
=r
(say) is f an d if
2
u =1
,
n
’
we fin d f =r . Acc o r di n gly the f oc a l len g th
fi
,
of an in n i te ly thi n symme tr i c g la ss len s su r r ou n de d b y air
(n =1
,
n
’
is e qu a l to the r a diu s of the r s t f a ce S fi . pec
t acle glasses we r e at fi r st s ym m et r ic len ses an d in the o ld ,
in ch system o f design atio n a No 1 0 spect a cle gl ass fo r e x .

,
am ple was a le n s wh o se r a dius o f cu r v atu r e o n e a ch s ur f a ce

,
was 1 0 i n ches an d wh o se f o c al le n gth was 1 0 i n ches .

242 Mir ro r s ,
If on e f a ce of the len s is pl an e ,
fo r e xam ple ,
if r1 = oo
”
r2 = r , we fi n d
f n
t— n
or if r1 = r , r2 = oo ,
t he n f
n n
wher e in e a ch c ase r den o tes the r a dius o f the curved sur

face C om p ar in g this with the v alue o f f o bt a in e d in the
.
pr ecedin g c ase we see th at if on e of the f a ces of a symmetr i c

,
len s b e g r oun d p la n e ,
the f oca l len g th o f the len s wi ll ther e by
b e dou b led .
96 . C e n tr al C oll in e ati o n of O b j e c t -Spac e an d Imag e

Spa c e .— C o m p ar in g
the m eth o ds an d r esults o f thi s ch a p
t er with th o se o bt a i n ed in the p r ecedi n g ch apte r the se r i o us ,
studen t c an n o t h ave failed t o r em ar k a str ikin g p ar all elism

th at exists between the im ager y by p ar axi al r ay s in a spher
ic al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce an d the im ager y u n der the s am e c on
dit io n s in an i n fi n itely thi n le n s In s o m e in st an ces the .
for m ulae ar e a ctu ally iden tic al an d a clo ser exami n ation ,
will sho w th at t his sim il ar ity exten ds even t o c o m p ar ative

det ails Fo r e xam ple the fo c al p o in ts li e o n o p po site sides
.
, ,
o f a le n s just a s the y wer e f o u n d t o do in the c ase o f a sphe r
ic al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce an d the r esem bl an ce go es still far

,
ther Fo r in a spher ic al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce the c o n n ecti on

.
between the fo c al len gths (f f ) an d the in dices o f r efr a cti o n

,
’
(n n ) is expr essed by the fo r m ul a n

’ ’
,
an d if in thi s f o r m ul a we put n = n we o bt ain the r el ati o n

’
,
f + f = ’
0 w hi ch is ,
the a lgeb r a ic st ate m e n t o f t h e f a ct th at
the fo c al len gths o f a len s surr o un ded b y t h e s am e m edium

o n b o th sides ar e equ a l a n d o pp o site
It h as alr e ady been p o in ted o ut th at the im ager y in a

spher ic al mi r r o r m ay be r eg ar ded as a speci al c ase o f r e fr ac
tio n at a spher ic al sur fa ce 7 77 an d 5
an d n o w it
,
is pr o p o sed t o adv an ce a step far ther in this gen er ali z atio n

pro cess an d t o sh o w th at all these t ypes o f im ager y whi ch
h ave been in vestig ated sep ar ately a n d in depen den tly ar e
in r e alit y em b r a ced in a c o n cept o f ge o m et r y kn o wn as
colli n ear corr esp on den c e between o n e sp a ce an d an o ther
c led t he t he y ptic l im ge y “ bj ect sp ce ”
( al in o r o f o a a r o - a
96 ] C en t ra l C o llin e a ti on 243
an d im age-sp a ce Mo r e o ver these types o f im ager y ,
belo n g t o a p ar ticul ar ly s im ple ki n d o f c o llin e ar c o r r espo n d

en ce t o whi ch the n am e cen tr a l collin ea ti on has been given .
A len s o r an o ptic al in str um en t is s aid t o divide the sur

ro u n di n g sp a ce i n t o t w o p ar ts v i z the o bj ect -sp a ce an d
,
.
,
the im age sp a ce ; but these ar e n o t to be th o ught o f as sep

-
ar a te a n d distin ct r egi o n s but as i n te r pe n etr ati n g an d ih
clu din g ea ch o ther ; so th at a po in t o r r ay m ay be r eg ar ded

at o n e ti m e a s bel o n gi n g t o the o b j ect -sp a ce an d at an o the r
tim e as belo n gin g t o the im age sp a ce depe n din g m er ely -

,
o n the p o i n t o f view Thus for exam ple the in fin itely

.
, ,
dist an t plan e o f sp a ce m ay be viewed as the im age o f the

prim ar y fo c al pl an e o f a len s an d then it is a p art o f the
,
im age -sp a ce ; but if the sec o n d ar y fo c al pl an e is r eg ar ded

as the im age o f the i n fi n itel y dist an t pl an e the l atte r is a ,
p a t of the o bj ect sp ace

r - .
No w the distin guishin g ch ar a cte r istics o f the O ptic al

imager y whi ch is pr o duced by the r efr a cti o n o f p ar axi al
r ays a t a si n gle sphe r ic a l su r f a ce o r th r o ugh an i n fi n itel y
thi n len s m ay be summar i z ed in the t wo fo ll o wi n g st ate

men ts :
()
a A ll str ai g ht li n e s j oi n i n g pfa i j
r s o in c on u g a te p oi n ts
ter sect i n on e p oi n t, v iz .
,
the cen ter (C ) o f the sphe r ic al r e
fr a ctin g sur fa ce o r the O ptic al ce n te r (A ) o f the thi n le n s .
This p o in t which is the cen ter o f per spective o f o bj ect

sp a ce an d im age-sp a ce is c alled the cen ter of co lli n ea tion ,
an d will be r efe rr ed t o he r e a s the p o i n t C .
(b ) A n y p ai r of corr e sp on di n g i n ci den t an d r ef r a cted r a ys

lyin g i n a me ri di an p la n e meet i n a str a ig ht li n e Ay ca lled the
a xi s of co lli n e a ti on (o r the y-ax is ) whi c h i s p er p en di cu la r a t
A to the op ti ca l axi s (o r the x-axis) .
An y st r aight li n e g o i n g thr o ugh the ce n te r o f c o llin e a

tio n is c alled a cen tr a l r a y E ver y cen tr a l r ay i s a sel -cor
.
r esp on di n g r a y; th at is im age -r ay a n d c o r r esp o n di n g o bj ect

,
ray lie al o n g o n e a n d the s am e st r a ight lin e M o r e o ver .

,
an y p o i n t ly i n g o n the ax is o f c o lli n e ati o n is a se lf -con j u g a te

244 M ir r o r s ,
p oi n t; th at is ,
a lon g thi s li n e o b e ct-p o i n t
j an d i mag e p oin t
-
are c oin ci den t wi th The ce n ter o f c o llin e ati on

ea ch o the r .
is also a self-c o n jug ate p o in t an d hen ce i n g en er al ther e ar e

, , ,
two self -con j u g a te p oi n ts on a cen tr a l r a y v iz the cen te r ,

.
,
o f c o ll i n e ati o n a n d the p o i n t whe r e the r ay m eets the axi s
o f c o lli n e ati o n On ly in c a se the ce n te r o f c o lli n e ati o n lies

.
o n the axis o f c o lli n e a ti o n will the r e be o n ly o n e se lf-c o n j u
g ate or so -c alled d o uble po in t o n a cen tr al r ay .
97 C e n tr al C o llin e ati o n
. G e o m e tr i c al Co n
str uc tio n s — St ar ti n g fr o m these sim ple p r o p o siti o n s we
.
,
c an e a sily develo p a c o m plete the o r y o f O ptic a l i m a ge r y
f o r the s im ple c a ses m e n ti o n ed ab o ve Thus fo r exam ple .

, ,
F IG :
1 2 7 — C e n t r al c o llin e at io n C o n st r u c t io n o f a ir s p of j
c o n u g at e p o in t s
QQ
.
M , M ; P, P ;
’ ’ ’
,; R , R ; S , S ; T , T ; a n d U, U
’ ’ ’ ’
. A xis o f c o l li n e a t io n
A y ; c e n t e r o f c o ll in e a t io n C .
b ein g g i ven the a xi s of co lli n eati on (Ag ) an d the cen te r o f co l
li n ea ti on (C ) , tog ether wi th the p osi ti on s f

o a p a i r o f j
con u g a te
p oi n ts P, P
'
,
we ca n con str u ct the p o si ti on o f a p oi n t Q
’
con
ju g a te to a Q
g i ven p oi n t f o ll o ws . as
( )
a In ge n e r a l the st r a ight,
li n e P Q (F ig 1 2 7 ) wi l l n o t .
p ass thr o ugh the cen ter o f c o llin e atio n Le t the self .
c o n jug ate p o int in which the str aight li n e PQ m eets t he

a x is o f c o lli n e a ti o n be desig n a ted b y T ; the i m a ge -r ay c o r
9 7] C en t ral C o llin e a io n t 24 5
r esp o n di n g t o the o bj ect -r ay PT will lie a l o n g the st r aight
lin e T P a n d sin ce this r ay m ust p a ss likewise th r o ugh the

’
po in t Q c o n j ugate t o Q the r equir ed p o in t will be at the

,
in ter secti on of the st r aight lin es TP Q C ’

,
.
(b ) B ut in the speci al c ase whe n the str aight lin e PQ is

a ce n t r al r ay (Fig 1 28 ) the c o n st r ucti o n which h as j ust
.
been given fails an d we m ust r es or t t o a differ en t p r o cedu r e

, ,
FIG 1 2 8 — C e n t r al c o llin e a t io n :St r ai g h t l in e PQ p h h

h h
. . a ss e s t roug c en ter
D ia g m w C do e s lie o n a xis
(C )
ph
o f c o llin e a t io n . ra s o w s c a se en n ot
o f c o llin e a t io n A y ; a s in s e r i c a l r e f r a c t in g su r f a c e (c >
as fo llo ws : Thr o ugh the p o in ts P an d C d r aw a p ai r o f

str aight lin es PO C O m eeti n g in a p o i n t 0 a n d let the
, ,
po in t wher e the st r aight lin e PO m eets the axis o f c o llin e a

tio n be design ated by T Also let 0 design ate the po in t .
,
’
o f i n te r secti o n o f the st r a ight li n es TP a n d C O Then if ’

.
the po in t wher e the str a ight lin e Q O m eets the ax is o f c o l

lin e atio n is design ate d by U the r equir ed p o in t Q will be ,
'
the po in t o f i n ter sectio n o f the st raight lin es U0 a n d Q C ’

.
The im age po in t I c o n j ug ate t o the i n fin itely dist an t

-
’
o bject -p o i n t I o f the p en cil o f p ar allel r ays wh o se ce n t r a l
r ay is PP m ay be c o n st r ucted e x a ctly as desc r ibed a b o ve

’
in (b ) p r o vided we h ave the s am e d at a

,
The st r aight lin e .
246 Mir r o r s ,
OG is dr awn p ar allel t o PP m eetin g the axis o f c o llin e atio n

’
in G a n d the r equ ir ed p o i n t I is the p o i n t o f i n ter s ecti o n

’
,
o f the st r a ight li n es G O a n d PP
’ ’
.
Sim il ar ly the p o siti o n o f the o bj ect-p o i n t J c o n jug at e

,
t o the i n fi n itely dist an t i m a ge -p o i n t J o f the ce n t r al r ay

’
PP is fo u n d b y d r a wi n g the st r aight li n e O H p ar allel t o

’ ’
PP m eeti n g the axis o f c o lli n e a ti o n in H ; the n the p o in t

’
o f i n te r secti o n o f t he st r aigh t lin es OH PP be the r e ’

,
q uir ed p o in t J .
F IG -C e n t r a l c o llin e a t io n : h
St r aig t lin e PQ p h h
h h
. 12 9. a s s e s t ro ug cen ter
y
o f c o l li n e a t io n (C )
. D i a g r a m s o ws c a se w e n C l ie s o n a xi s of c ol
lin e a t io n A y , as in in fi n i t e l t hi n l e n s (c =
‘
The fo c al p o in ts F F o n the O ptic al axis ar e c on str ucted

,
’
in p r ecisel y the s am e way as the t wo p o in ts J I o n t h e

’
,
cen t r al r ay PP ’
.
The special c ase when the cen ter of collin ea tion (C ) li es on

the a xi s of co lli n ea ti on th at is whe n the t wo p o i n ts A an d C
, ,
a r e c o i n cide n t is sh o wn in Fig 1 29 which eviden tly c o r .

,
r esp o n ds t o the c a se o f a n i n fi n itel y thi n le n s s urr o un ded

,
by the s am e m edium o n b o th sides .

9 8] Fie l d of Vi w
e of Th i n Le n s 247
It wo uld be e asy t o s ho w by the m eth o ds of pr o j ective

geom et r y th at the st r aight lin es FJ F I ar e p ar allel t o ,
’ ’
the axis o f c o llin e ati o n an d th at we h ave the fo ll o win g r e

lat io n s be twee n the p o in ts J I an d the t wo self-c o n jug ate
’
,
p o in ts B C o n the cen tr al ray JI

,
’
’
IR
J E = CI ,
I B = CJ ,
BJ
wher e den o tes a c on st an t c alled
c of cen tr a l the i n va ri a n t
colli n ea ti on which h as the v alue n :
, n f o r a sphe r ic al r e
’
fr a ctin g sur fa ce an d the v alue + 1 for a thin le n s surr o u n de d

by the s am e m edium o n b o th sides Fo r a spher ic al m ir r o r .
,
0 1 Fo r the axi al r ay the ab o ve r el ati o n s m ay be wr itte n :

.
’
FA
FA — C F ,
F A — C F,
AF
The r e ader who wishes t o pur sue this sub j ect will fi n d a
c om plete discussio n at the e n d o f C h apter V o f the auth or s ’
Pr i n ci p les a n d M e tho ds of Geome tr i c a l Op ti c s published b y

The Ma cm ill an Co m p an y o f N e w Yo r k .
9 8 Fi e l d o f Vie w o f an In fi n ite ly T h i n Le n s
.
-
If it is .
a ssu m ed th at the r e a r e n o a r tifici al st o ps p r ese n t e x cept
in the pl an e o f the le n s an d th at the i m age r y is p r o duced

,
by m e an s o f p ar axial r ays o n ly the field o f view in the c ase

,
o f an o bse r ve r l o o ki n g th r o ugh the le n s a l o n g its axis is
e asily dete r m in ed by dr awin g the st r aight lin es 0 G O H ’

,
’
(Fig 1 30 a an d b ) in a m er idi an pl an e o f the le n s fr o m the

c e n te r O o f the eye -pupil t o the e n ds G H o f the di am ete r
.
,
’
,
o f the le n s -o pe n i n g F o r the
. le n s -o pe n i n g a cts he r e jus t
like a r o un d win d o w o r p or t-h o le in an O p a que w all t o lim it

the field o f view in the im age-sp a ce o f the le n s If O de sig .
n ates the p o siti o n o f the axi a l o bj ect -p o i n t which is r ep r o
du c e d b y t h e im age-p o in t O the n the str aight li n es OG OH

’
, ,
determ in e the lim its in the m er idi an pl an e o f the di agr am o f

the field o f View o f the o b j ect -sp a ce Le t the st r aight li n e .
B C bisected at r ight an gles a t O by the axis o f the le n s

’ ’ ’
r ep r ese n t the di am ete r o f the pupil in the m e r idi an pl an e o f
the len s ; an d c o n str uct the lin e B OC wh o se im age in the len s

248 Mirr o r s ,
is the di am eter B O C o f the pupil o f the eye Then the

’ ’ ’
.
im age S o f the lum i n o us p o in t S lyin g within the o bj ect-side

’
field o f view m ay be c o n st r ucted by d r awi n g t hr o ugh S the

str aigh t li n es SB SC t o m eet the len s in t wo p o in ts which
,
PUPIL OF
P U P IL
PUPIL OF
PUPIL EX IT
PUPIL
FIG 1 30 v yh
d b — F i e l d o f i e w o f i n fi n i t e l t in l e n s f o r g i e n v p o sit io n o f
v v
.
, a an .
e y e o n a xi s o f l e n s (a ) C o n e x , (b ) C o n c a e l e n s
. .
m ust be j o in ed with B C r espectively ; an d the p o in t of

’
,
’
,
i n ter secti on o f these latter lin es wil l be the r e q uir ed p o in t

S c o n jug ate t o S In b r ief the cir cul ar O pe ni n g wh o se di
’
.
,
am e t e r is B C is the c o mm o n b ase o f all the c o n es o f e ffective
r ay s in the o bj ect -sp a ce o f the le n s just as the pupil o f the ,
eye itself is the c o mm o n b ase o f the c on es of effect iv e rays

oh . VII] Pr o b le m s 249
in the im age-spa ce Assum in g th at the len s-o pe n in g is

.
l ar ge en o ugh t o perm it the en tir e pupil o f the eye t o be fille d

with r ays eman atin g fr o m an axi al o bj ect—p o i n t the len s ,
O pe n i n g O H a cts as fi e l d-st o p an d the pup il o f the e y e as
ape r tur e -st o p (C h apte r X II ) .
PR OB LEMS
Sh o w h ow t o
1 . c o n st r uct the Optic al cen ter of a len s .
Dr aw di agr am s f o r the v ar i o us f or m s o f c o n vex an d c on

c ave le n ses ; an d p r o ve th at the dist an ce o f the o ptic al
cen ter fr om the ver tex o f the fir st fa ce is e qu al t o r 1 d/ (r 1 r ) 2 ,
wher e r r 2 den o te the r a dii o f the t wo s urfaces an d d de

1,
n o tes the ax i al thickn ess o f the le n s .
2 In e a ch o f the f o ll o wi n g le n ses the axi al t hi ck n ess is

.
2 cm Fin d the p o siti on o f the O ptic a l ce n te r a n d d r aw

.
,
a di ag r am f o r e a ch le n s sh o win g the p o siti o n o f this p o i n t .
(a ) Do uble c o n vex le n s o f r adii 1 0 an d 1 6 c m (b ) D o uble .
c on c ave len s o f r adii 1 0 an d 1 6 cm ; (c) Pl an o c o n vex len s ;

.
-
(at) Po sitive m e n iscus o f r a dii 1 0 an d 1 6 c m ; (e) N eg ative .
m en iscus o f r a dii 2 0 a n d 1 6 c m (f ) L e n s
. o f z e r o cu r v atu r e .
3 R ays o f light dive r gi n g fr o m a p o i n t o n e f o o t in fr o n t

.
o f a thi n le n s ar e b r o ught t o a f o cus 4 i n ches bey o n d it .
Fin d the fo c al le n gth . An s f + 3 i n ches . .
4 An o b j ect is pl a ced o n e fo o t in fr on t o f a t hi n c o n ve x
.
len s o f fo c al len gth 9 in ches Wher e is the im a ge fo r m ed ?

.
An s 3 feet fr o m the le n s o n the o ther side

5
. .
R ay s c o m i n g fr o m a p o i n t 6 i n ches in fr o n t o f a thi n
.
len s ar e c o n ver ged t o a p o in t 1 8 in ches o n the o ther side o f

the len s Fi n d the fo c al len gth
. An s f
. . in ches .
6 An o bject is pl a ced in fr o n t o f a thi n le n s at a dist an ce

.
fr o m it The im age is virtu al an d 1 0 c m fr om

5
o f 30 c m . . .
the le s Fin d the fo c al len gth

n . . An s f — 1 cm . .
7 The r a dius o f the fi r st fa ce o f a thi n d o uble c o n ve x

.
len s m ade o f gl ass o f in dex is 20 c m If the fo c al le n gth

.
o f the le n s is 3 0 c m wh at m ust be the r a dius o f the sec o n d

.
,
face ? An s 60 cm . .
5
2 0 M irr or s ,
Prisms an d Le n se s [
Oh . VI
I
8 .A t hi n c o n vex le n s m ade o f gl ass o f in dex h as a

fo c al len gth o f If the r a dius o f the sec o n d fa ce is
5
cm .
+ 1 7 c m wh a t is the r a dius o f the fi r st fa ce ? An d if the

5
. .
,
le n s is c o n c ave an d the r a dius o f the fi rst fa ce is + 1 7 c m

, . .
,
wh at is the r adius o f the sec o n d fa ce ?

An s In b o th c ase s the r adius is
. cm .
9 The fo c al le n gth o f a d o uble c o n ve x le n s was fo u n d

.
t o be cm a n d its r a dii
.
,
an d cm Fin d the .
in de x o f r efr a cti o n o f the gl ass

5
An s
. .
1 0 The fo c a l le n gt h o f a gl ass len s in air is

. in ches .
Wh at will be the fo c al le n g th o f the le n s in w ater assumi n g ,
th at the i n dices of r efr a cti on o f air gl ass an d water ar e 1 , ,
r espectivel y ? n s 2 0 i n che s
g a nd
g ,
A . .
1 1 Sh o w th at an y t hi n le n s which is thicke r in the m iddl e

.
th an o ut t o war ds the edges is c o n ver gen t pr ov ided t he ,
len s -m edium is m or e hi ghl y r efr a ctin g th an the sur r oun din g

m edium .
12 Sh o w t h at t he fo c al le n gth o f a t hi n pl an o -c on ve x
.
len s is twice th at o f a d o uble c o n vex len s if the cur vatur e s ,
o f the c ur ved su r f a ces ar e all e q u a l in m ag n itude .
13 Fin d the fo c al le n gth o f a thi n d o uble c o n ve x di am o n d

.
len s of in dex t he r a dius o f e a ch sur fa ce bei n g 4 c m

’
.
,
An s . mm .
14 The curved surface of a t hin pl an o -c o n vex le n s o f glas s

.
o f i n de x h as a r a dius o f 1 2 i n ches Fin d its fo c al le n g th . .
Wh at m ust be the r adii o f a sym m etr ic d o uble c o n vex le n s

o f s am e m at e r ia l which h as s am e f o c al le n gth ?
An s f 24i n ches ; r 24in ches

5
. .
1 The r adii o f a thin d o uble c o n vex len s ar e 9 c m an d

. .
1 2 cm The len s is h ade o f gl ass o f in de x If li ght di

I
.
ver ges fr om a p o in t 1 8 c m in fr o n t o f the lens whe r e will

.
,
it be fo cused ? An s R e al im age 24 c m fr o m le n s
.
,
. .
1 6 A thi n le n s is m ade o f gl a ss o f i n de x n
. If the fo c al .
len g th of the len s in air is a an d if its fo c al len g th in a li q uid

,
is b sh o w th at the in dex o f r efr a cti o n o f the li q uid is

,
bn
Ch . VII] Pr o b le m s 51
17 figur es appr oxim ately t o sc ale sh o wi n g the

D r aw , ,
p aths of the r ays o f light an d the po siti o n s o f the im ages

,
fo rmed when a lum i n o us o b j ect is pl a ced at a dist an ce o f

(a ) 1 in ch (b ) 6 i n ches fr o m a c o n ve x le n s o f fo c al le n g th
,
2 in ches .
1 8 An o bj ect is pl a ced 8 i n ches fr o m a thi n c o n ve x le n s

.
,
an d its im age is f o r m ed 2 4i n ches o n the o the r side o f the le n s .
If the o bj ect wer e m o ved n ear er the len s un til its dist an ce
was 4in ches whe r e w o ul d the im age be ?
,
An s Vir tu al im age 1 foo t fr o m le n s

.
, .
1 9 A vir tu al im age o f an o bj ect 30 c m fr o m a thi n le n s is

. .
fo r m ed o n the s am e side o f the le n s at a dist an ce o f 1 0 c m .
fro m it Fin d the fo c al len gth of t he len s

5
. .
An s f = . 1 cm .
20 Light
. c o n ver gin g t o war ds a po i n t M o n the axis o f
a le n s is in te r cepted a n d f o cused at a p o i n t M o n the s a m e
’
side o f the len s as M The dist an ces o f M an d M fr om the

5
’
.
le n s ar e cm an d 1 0 cm r espectively Fin d the fo c al

. .
,
.
le n gth o f the le n s . An s f 10 cm . .
2 1 A f ar-sighted pe r s o n c an see disti n ctly o nl y at a dis

.
t an ce o f 40 c m o r m o r e H o w m uch will his r an ge o f dis

. .
tin ct visi o n be in c r e ased b y usi n g spect acles of fo c al len gth

+ 32 cm ? .
An s The spec t a cle s will e n able him t o see disti n ctly

.
o bjects as n e ar t o his e y e a s cm so th at hi s r a n ge o f
.
,
distin ct visio n will be i n c r e ased by cm .
2 2 The p r o j ecti o n le n s o f a l an tern h as a fo c al le n gth o f

.
o n e fo o t If the scr ee n is 1 024 feet aw ay ho w far b a ck o f

.
,
the le n s m ust the gl ass slide be pl a ced ? An s 1 024 1 023 ft . .
23 An e n gr ave r uses a m ag n ify i n g gl ass o f fo c al le n gth

.
+ 4 i n ches h o ld in g it cl o se t o the e ye At wh at dist an ce

,
.
m ust the le n s be fr om the w o r k so th at the m ag n ific ati o n

m ay be fo ur fo ld ? An s 3 i n ches . .
24 Assu m i n g th at the O ptic al s yste m o f the eye is e q uiv a

5
.
len t to a thi n c on vex le n s o f fo c al len gth 1 mm wh at will .

,
5
2 2 Mirr or s ,
Prisms an d Le n se s [
Oh . VII
be the si z e o f the r eti n al im age of a chil d 1 m eter high at a
5
dist an ce o f 1 m eters fr o m the eye ?
5
An s 1 mm . .
2 A m illim eter sc ale is pl a ced at a dist an ce o f 84 cm

. .
in fr o n t o f a c o n ve x le n s an d it was f o u n d th at 1 0 mm o f
, .
the sc ale c o rr esp o n ded t o 2 9 mm o f its r e al in ver ted im age ‘
. .
Fin d the f o c al le n gth o f the le n s An s f cm . . .
2 6 If X X a n d Y Y ar e t wo p a ir s o f c o n jug ate p o in t s
’ ’
.
, ,
o n the a xis o f a n i n fi n itel y thi n le n s an d if the le n s is m id ,
way betwee n X an d Y sh o w th at it is a ls o m idw ay b e

’
,
twee n X an d Y ’
.
2 7 M a n d M ar e a p a ir o f c o n jug ate axi al p o in ts with

’
.
r espect t o an i n fi n itel y thi n le n s wh o se O ptic al ce n te r is at
a p o i n t desig n ated b y A Sh o w th at whe n the le n s is shif ted

.
fr om A t o a p o in t B such th at MB = A M the p o in ts M ’
,
an d M wil l be c o n jug ate t o e a ch o the r with r espect t o the

’
len s in this n e w p o sitio n

28 G ive n the p o siti o n s o f the f o c al p o i n ts F F o f an
.
’
.
,
in fin itely thin len s sh o w ho w t o c o n st r uct the im age-p o in t

,
M c o n jug at e t o an axi al o bj ect -p o in t M Dr aw di agram s

’
.
f o r c o n ve x an d c o n c ave len ses .
2 9 At the o ptic al ce n ter (A ) o f a t hi n le n s e r ect a p e r

.
p e n dic ular t o the axis o f the le n s a n d t ake a p o in t L o n ,
t hi s per pen dicul ar such th at AL f wher e f den o tes the ,
pr im ar y fo c al len g th Thr o ugh A dr a w a lin e AP in such

.
a d ir ecti o n th at wher e F design ates the sec ’
on dar y f o c al po i n t o f the le n s T ake a p o in t M o n the axis.
o f the le n s an d dr w the st r aight li n e M L m eet in g the

, a
st r aight lin e AP in a p o in t S If M design ates the foo t o f .
’
the per pen dicul ar let fall fr o m S t o the axis of the len s ,
sh o w th at M M ar e a p air o f c o n jugate axi al p o in ts Dr aw

,
’
.
t wo di agr am s o n e f o r a c o n ve x an d the o the r f o r a c o n c ave

,
len s .
30 D e r ive the im age -equ ati on s in the c ase o f an i n fi n itel y

.
thi n le n s in the fo rm :l /n = ’
3 1 Sh o w th at the f o c al p o i n ts o f an i n fi n itely t hi n le n s
.
ar e at e q u al dist an ces o n o pp o site sides o f the le n s .

C h VII]
. Pr o b le m s 2 3 5
32 A c an dle is pl aced at a dist an ce o f 2 m eter s fr om a
.
wall an d when a len s is pla ced betwee n the c an dle an d the

,
5
wall at a dist an ce o f 0 cm fr o m the c an dle a distin ct im age
.
,
o f the l atte r is c ast up o n the w all Fi n d the f o c al le n gth of

.
the len s an d the m a gn ific ati o n o f the im age .
An s f . c m ; im age is 3 tim es a s l ar ge a s o bject

. .
33 The dist an ce betwee n a r e al o bj ect an d its r e al i m a ge

.
in an in fi n itely thi n le n s is 3 2 in ches If the im a ge is 3 tim es

.
as l ar ge as the o bj ect fi n d the p o siti o n an d f o c al le n gth o f

,
the len s .
An s The le n s is a c o n ve x le n s o f f o c al le n gt h 6 i n ches
.
pl a ced between o bj ect an d im age at a dist an ce o f 8 in ches

fr om the o bj ect .
34 Whe n an o bj ect is held at a dist an ce o f 6 c m fr o m

. .
o n e f a ce o f a thi n le n s the im age o f the o b j ect f o r m ed by

,
r efl ecti o n in this f a ce is f o u n d t o lie in the s am e pl an e as the
o bj ect If the o bj ect is pl a ced at a dist an ce o f 2 0 c m fr o m

. .
the le n s the i m age p r o duced by the len s is i n ve r ted an d o f

,
the s am e si z e a s the o bj ect The le n s is m ade o f gl ass of

.
in dex Fi n d the r a dii o f the t wo su r fa ces .
An s The le n s is a c o n ve x m e n iscus o f r a dii 6 an d

5
. cm .
3 In a m agic l an tern the im age o f the slide is thr o wn

.
U p o n a sc r ee n b y m e a n s o f a thi n c o n ve x le n s Sh o w th at .
the adj ustm en t fo r fo cusin g is alw ays p o ssible pr o vided

th at the dist an ce fr om the slide t o the scr een is n o t less
th an 4 tim es the fo c al len gth o f the le n s an d pr o vided th at ,
the len s c an m o ve in its tube t o a dist an ce fr o m the slide

equ al t o twice the fo c al len gth .
3 6 A pe r s o n h o lds a le n s in fr o n t o f his eye an d o b

.
ser ves th at by r e fi e ct io n at the n e ar er su r fa ce an o b j ect

wh ich is 6 feet fr o m the len s appe ar s upr ight an d dim i n ished
t o o n e -twe n tieth o f its height Lo o ki n g thr o ugh the le n s
.
a t an o bject o n the o the r side 6 feet fr o m the le n s its i m a ge ,
is i ver ted a d dimin ished in height t o o e ten th The

n n n - .
len s is a gl ass len s o f in dex Fi n d the r adii o f its su r

fa ces . An s A d o uble c o n vex le n s o f r adii tg an d éfi ft
.
. — .
5
2 4 Mirr o r s ,
Prism s an d Le n ses [
O h . VII
37 . H o w far fr o mlen s must an o bject be pla ced so
a
th at its im age will be er ect an d h alf as hi gh as the o bj ect ?

An s The o bj ect m ust be in the sec o n d f o c a l pl an e o f the
.
len s (Dr aw diagr am sh o win g c o n str ucti on o f im a ge for

.
c o n vex len s an d als o a di a gr am fo r c o n c ave len s ) .
3 8 H o w far fr o m a thin le n s m ust an o bj ect be pl a ced

.
so th a t its i m age w ill be in ve r ted an d h a lf as high as the
o bj ect ? Dr a w t wo di a gr am s sh o win g c o n st ructi o n o f im age

,
fo r c o n ve x le n s an d fo r c on cave le n s .
An s If the O ptic al cen te r o f the le n s an d the p ri m ar y

.
fo c al p o in t ar e design ated b y A an d F r espectively an d if , ,
the axi al p o in t o f the o bj ect is design ated b y M then ,
AM = 3 AF .
39 . Anbj ect is t o be pla ced in fr o n t o f a c on vex len s of

o
fo c al len gth 1 8 in ches in such a p o sitio n th at its wag e is

m agn ified 3 ti m es F in d the t wo p o ssible p o siti o n s an d
.
,
d r aw diag r am for e a ch p o siti on sh o win g the c on structi on

o f the im a ge .
An s If im age is in ve r t ed o bject m ust be 2 ft fr o m len s ;

.
, .
if it is er ect o bj ect m ust be 1 ft fr o m len s

,
. .
40 In the p r ecedin g e xam ple if the l en s we r e c on c ave

.
,
wher e w o uld the o bj ect h ave t o be ?

An s The o bj ect w o uld be vir tu al a t a dist an ce o f 1 ft
.
,
.
fr o m the len s fo r an er ect im age an d at a di st an ce o f 2 ft ,

.
fo r an in ve rted i m a ge .
41 A pe r s o n c an see distin ctly a t a di st an ce o f 1 fo ot

.
,
an d he fin ds th a t whe n he h o lds a ce r t a i n le n s cl o se t o his -
eye sm all o b j ects ar e seen distin ctly an d m a gni fied 6 tim es .
Fin d the f o c al le n gth o f the len s An s f + 2 4in ches. . .
42 D e r ive the N ewt o i an fo r m ul a x x

. n —
f fo r a len s .
’ 2
.
43 A c o n ve x len s is used t o p r o duce an im a ge o f a fixed

.
o bj ect o n a fix ed sc r ee n Sh o w th at in gen e r al the r e will

.
, ,
be t wo p o ssible p o sitio n s o f the len s an d pr o ve th at the ,
height o f the o bject is the geo m etr ic al m ean between the

heights o f the t wo im a ges .
44 A c o ppe r ce n t is 1 9 mm in di am ete r an d a sil ve r

. .
C h VII
. Pr o b le m s 2 5
5
h alf d o ll ar is mm in di a m ete r . H o w far fr o m a c o n .
v e x l e n s o f f o c al le n gth 1 0 c m m ust the s m all e r c o in be

.
pla ced so th at its im a ge in the len s will be just the si z e o f

the l ar ger o n e ?
An s It m ust be pl a ced in fr o n t of the le n s a t a dist an ce
.
o f eithe r
5
cm o r . cm .
4 Wh at m u st be the r a di us o f the cur ved su r fa ce o f a

.
thi pla o c on vex len s m ade o f gla ss o f in dex

n n - whi ch
will give a r eal i m age o f an o bj ect pla ced 2 c m in fr on t o f .
the len s an d m agn ified 3 tim es ? An s 9 mm . .

»
46 Fin d the m agn ific ati on o f a c on ve x len s o f fo c al

.
len gth in ch fo r an ey e wh o se dist an ce o f m o st distin ct

v i si o n is 1 4 in ches . An s 7 1 tim es . .
47 An o bj ect is pl a ced in fr o n t o f a c o n ve x len s at a dis

.
t an ce fr o m it equ al t o tim es the fo c al len gth Fin d the .
lin ear m ag n ific ation If the o bject is r e m o ved t o twice this

.
di st an ce wh at will be the m agn ific ati on ?

5
,
An s 2; .
48 An o bj ect
. cm hi gh is pl a ced 1 2 c m in fr o n t o f a
. .
thin len s of fo c al len gth 8 c m Fin d the p o siti o n si z e an d

.
,
n a tu r e o f the i m age (a ) f o r a c o n ve x le n s an d (b ) f o r a ,
c on c ave len s ; an d d r aw a ccur ate di agr am fo r e a ch c ase .
An s (a ) R e al in ve r ted i m age 10 c m high 24 c m fr o m

. .
,
.
len s ; (b) Virtu al e r ect im age 2 c m high

, ,
, ,
cm fr o m .
,
.
len s .
49 Whe n an o bj ect is pl a ced a t a p o in t R o n the a xis o f

.
a thin le n s o f f o c al le n gth f the i m a ge is e r ect a n d when

, ,
the o bject is m o ved t o a p o in t S the im age is the s am e si z e

as befo r e but in ve r ted ; sh o w th at
2 f
7
m
wher e m is a p o sitive n u m be r de n o t in g
the v alue o f the
rati o o f the si z e o f the i m a ge t o th a t o f the o b j ect
5
.
0 A sc r een pl a ced a t r ight a n gles t o the axis o f a thin

.
,
len s o f fo c al len gth f r eceives the ima ge o f a s m all o bj ect

,
.
If the i m age is 20 tim es as l ar ge as the o bj ect sh o w th at ,
the distan ce of the screen from the len s is equal to 2 1f

5
2 6 Mirr o r s ,
Prism s an d Le n se s [
Oh VII .
5Give
1 . c o n vex len s a c o n c ave len s a c on c ave m irr or
n a , ,
an d a c o n ve x mi r r o r e a ch o f f o c al le n gth 2 0 c m
,
An o bjec t .
is pl a ced in fr on t o f e a ch in turn at dist an ces o f 40 20 an d ,
1 0 cm D r a w di agr am s sh o win g the c o n st r ucti o n o f the

.
im age for e a ch len s an d e a ch m i rr o r an d fo r e a ch o f the

th r ee given p o siti on s o f the o bj ect ; an d fi n d the po sition
an d ch ar a cte r o f the im a ge in e a ch c a se
5
.
2 A pl an e m i rr o r is pl a ced an ywhe r e behi n d a c o n vex

.
len s with its pl an e at r ight an gles t o the axis o f the len s .
- n eedle is set up pe r pe n dicul ar t o the axis in the p r im ar y

A
f o c al plan e o f the len s Sh o w th a t the im age o f the n eedle
.
p r o duced b y r ays th at h ave p a ssed twice thr o ugh the len s

will li e als o in the pr im ar y fo c al pl an e an d will be o f the
s am e si z e as the o bject but in ver ted
5
.
3 An o bject is pl a ced in fr o n t o f a thin c o n ve x len s at

.
a dist an ce a fr o m it n o t g r e ate r th an twice its f o c a l le n g th f ;
an d a pl an e mi rr or is a djusted in the sec o n d ar y f o c al pl an e
o f the le n s Sh o w th at a r e al im age f o r m ed b y r ay s whi ch

.
h ave p assed twice th r ough the len s will be fo r m ed at a dis

t an ce b in fr o n t o f the len s an d th a t f Sh o w
als o th a t t he irn ag e is o f the s am e si z e as the o b j ect but in
v e r ted Dr aw a diagr am sh o win g the c on str ucti on of th e

.
im age
5
.
4 A c o n vex len s o f fo c al len gth 1 0 c m is pl a ced at a

. .
dist an ce o f 2 c m in fr on t o f a pl an e m i r r o r which is p e r
.
p e n di c ul ar t o the a x is o f the le n s W he r.e m ust a n eye be

pl a ced in fr on t o f the len s so th at it m ay see its o wn im a ge
by m ean s o f r ays which after h av in g t ra ver sed the len s
,
’
twice r eturn in to the eye as bun dles o f p arallel r ays ?

,
c m fr o m the len s
5
5
An s . . .
A thin c on vex len s o f fo c al length 1 0 in ches is pl a ced

5
.
in fr on t o f a c o n c ave mir r o r o f f o c al len gth in ches The .
distan ce between the len s an d the m irr o r is 1 0 in ches An .
o bj ect is pl a ced in fr o n t o f the le n s a t a n y dist an ce fro m it .
Sh o w th at its i m age fo rm ed b y r ay s whi ch h ave p assed

twice th r o ugh the len s will lie at an e qual dist an ce fr om the
Ch . VII] Pr o b l e m s 5
2 7
len s o n the o ther side o f it an d th at it will be o f the s am e

,
si z e as the o bject but in ver ted

5
.
6 A thin c o n vex le n s o f fo c al len g th 1 2 in ches is pl a ced

.
1 2 in ches in fr o n t o f a c o n c ave mi r r o r o f fo c al len gth 8 in ches .
An o bject is pl a ce d 3 in ches in fr o n t o f the len s Sh o w th a t

.
its irn ag e fo r m ed by r ays which h ave p assed twice th r ough

the len s is in the s am e pl an e as the o bj ect an d o f the sam e
si z e but in ve r ted
5
.
7 The fo c al le n gth o f a thin symm et r ic d o uble c o n c ave

,
len s m ade o f gl ass o f in dex is five in ches A lumi n o us .
po in t lies o n the axis so far away th at it m ay be c o n sider ed

as bei n g a t in fin i ty . Pr o ve th at its i m age fo r m e d by r ay s
whi ch ar e r eflected at the fir st sur fa ce is in ches in fr o n t
o f the le n s ; the i m age f o r m ed by rays whi ch a r e r efr a cted
twice at the fir st sur fa ce an d r eflected on ce at the sec on d

surfa ce is o n the o ther side o f the len s at a dist an ce o f
in ches fr o m it ; an d fin ally the im age fo rm ed by r ays whi ch
, ,
a fte r bein g r eflected twice at the sec o n d su r fa ce h ave e m e r ged
a g ain in t o the sur r o un di n g air is in ch fr om the len s o n

the side away fr o m the s our ce
5
.
8 A c o n c ave m i rr or o f r a dius r h as its cen te r at the

.
, ,
O ptic a l cen te r o f a thin le n s o f f o c al le n gth f an d the axes

, ,
o f le n s an d mir r o r ar e in the s am e st r aight li n e R ays co m

.
in g fr o m an axi al o bject p o in t at a dist an ce i t fr o m the len s

t r aver se the len s an d after bein g r eflected at the mi r r o r
pa ss th r ough the len s again an d e m er ge fro m it as a bun dle
o f r ays p ar a llel t o the axis . Pr o ve th at
=o
.
u r f
CHAPTE R VII I
C HA N GE OF C URVA T UR E O F T H E W A VE -FR O NT IN R E FLE C
T IO N A N D R E FRA C TIO N . DIO PT R Y YS S TE M
99 . C o n c e rn in g C ur vatur e an d its M e a sur e —

. Sin ce the
ra ys lin es o f a dvan ce o f the light-waves ar e alway s at
or
r ight a n gles t o the w a ve -su r fa ce o n e way o f in vesti
g atin g the pr o cedur e o f light is t o study the for m of the

wave-sur fa ce ; fo r in gen er al the effect o f r eflecti on an d r e
, ,
fra ctio n will be t o p r o duce an ab r upt ch an ge o f cur vatur e

o f the w a ve -fr o n t In this m eth o d atten ti o n is c o n c e n
.
t r at e d p r i m ar il y o n the w a ve -sur fa ce rathe r th an o n the

r ays the m selves ; but in r e ality the o n l y di ffe r e n ce betwee n
it an d the r ay-m eth o d c o n sists in a n e w p o in t o f view which ,
m ay h o weve r be se r vice able

, ,
Thus when a pl an e wave
.
,
1 s In c Ide t o
n n a le s the w a ve fr o n t o n e m e r ge n ce will n o
n -
,
l on ger be pl an e but cur ved in such fa shi on th at the light

waves either c o n ver ge t o o r diver ge fr o m a po in t in the sec o n d
fo c al pl an e o f the len s The effect o f the len s o r O ptic al
.
sy ste m 1 s t o i m p r in t a n e w cu r v atu r e o n the w a ve -fr o n t ,
an d if the ch an ge o f cu r v a tu r e which is thus p r o duced c an
be a scer t ain ed the fin al fo r m o f the w ave c an be deter min ed

,
b y m er e algeb r aic a dditio n o f the in itial an d im pr essed

cur vatu r es It will be n ecess ar y h owever to expl ain pr e
.
, ,
c ise ly wh a t is m e an t b y this te r m cu r v atu r e a n d h o w it is
m e a su r ed .
In p assin g al o n g an ar c o f a pl an e cu r ve fr o m a p o in t A
( g
F i .1 3 1 ) t o a p o i n t B the to ta l c u
,
rv a tu r e o f the a r c AB is
the ch an ge o f dir ectio n o f the cur ve between A an d B which ,
is eviden tly m ea sur ed by the an gle between the t an gen ts

t o the cu r ve at these t wo pl a ces This an gle is e qu al t o
.
the an gle at O between the n orm als AO an d B O which are

5
2 8
99] C ur v a tu r e o f an Ar e 5
2 9
per pen dicul ar t o the t an gen ts at A an d B The mean cur va .
ture between A an d B is the ch an ge o f this an gle pe r un it

len gth of the ar c AB If ther efor e the len gth o f the ar c
.
, ,
AB is den o ted b y a an d the m agn itude o f the an gle B OA
FIG v
1 3 1 — Me an c u r at ur e o f ar c A B m e asu r e d b y
h h
. .
¢/ a, w e r e a -de n o t e s l e n t
g o f ar c an d 4
) de n o t e s
a n g l e b e t we e n t h e n o rm al s A O an d B 0 .
by the m e an curvatur e between A an d B is equ al t o cp/a

go , .
An d the lim itin g v alue o f thi s qu o tien t when the p o in t B is

in fin itely n ear t o A is the m easur e o f the a ctu al cu r vatu r e
at the p o in t A o r a s we say the cur va tur e a t A
, ,
If the cur va .
tur e at A is den o ted b y the c apit al letter R then R is e qu al ,
t o the limitin g v alue o f go/a when the ar e a is i n defin itel y

s mall .
In Fig 1 3 2 the po in t B is supp o sed t o be i n fin itely n ear

.
t o A ; an d the po in t o f i n ter secti on C o f the n o rm als d r a wn

2 60 Mirr o rs ,
to the two c on tigu o us p o in ts A B o n the curve passin g ,
th r ough these t wo p o in ts is c alled the cen ter of cur vatur e

o f the cu r ve a t the p o i n t A ; the ci r cle desc r ibed in the
pl an e o f the cu r ve ar o un d this p o in t C as cen te r with r adius
FIG v p
d b — C u r at u r e o f ar c B AB a t o in t A m idw a b e t w e e n y
v v
. 132 , a an .
B an d B i s m e asu r e d b y t h e s ag it t a A D (a ) C o n e x (b ) C o n c a e a r c
.
, .
r = AC which will c o in cide with the given cur ve th r o ugh ou t

,
the in fin it e l y sm all ar c AB is c all ed the cir c le of cur vatur e

,
an d its ra dius r is c alled the r a di u s of c urvatu r e at the p o in t
A N o w sin ce b y defin iti on the a n gle go is equ al t o the ar c

.
BA divided b y the r a dius r th at is sin ce go = a/r the , , ,
cur vatur e at A is e qu al t o 1 /r ; th at is the cur vatur e a t an y ,
p oi n t on a cur v e i s equa l to the r e ci p roca l o f the r a di us o f curva
tur e at tha t p oin t, or
1
r
The sign o f the cu r vatur e is the s am e as th at of the r adius

o f cur v atu r e Acc o r din gly if the surf ace i s con vex wi th r e
.
,
sp ect to the i n ci den t li g ht, the cur va tur e i s to b e coun ted as p osi
tive , in c d an c e with
a c or o ur pr evi ou s usag e in t hi s res pect .
§ 99] Me asur e of C ur v a t ur e 26 1
Thus for exam ple when spher ic al w aves spr e ad o ut fr o m

, ,
a p o i n t -s o u r ce
,
the wave-fr on t at an y in st an t is c o n cave
a n d its cu r vatu r e is r eck o n e d the r ef o r e as n eg ative
,
If a ,
.
c on vex len s is in ter po sed at a dist an ce fr o m the po in t -s our ce

gr e ater th an its fo c al len gth the light waves will ther eby
,
-
be c o n ver ged t o a fo cus on the o the r si de o f the len s when ce

they will ulti m ately diver ge again While the w ave-fr o n t .
is advan cin g fr o m the len s t o the fo cus its cur va tu r e is p o s ,
itiv e ; a t the fo cus itself the w ave fr o n t c o ll apses i n t o a p o i n t

-
,
the cur vatur e of the w ave at this pl a ce bein g in fin ite ; an d

beyo n d the fo cus the cur vatur e bec o m es n egative As l o n g .
a s the w ave d o es n o t u n de r g o an y r eflecti o n o r r efr a cti o n ,
its cur vatu r e var ies c o n tin u ously ; wher e a s a sudden ch an ge

o f cu r v atu r e is i m p r i n ted o n the w ave when the r e is a t r an si
ti on fr om o n e m edium t o an o ther .
An o ther m eth o d o f m e a sur in g the cu r vatur e o f a s m all

ar c BB (Fig . 1 3 2 ) is in te r m s o f its bulge AD whe r e the ,
po in ts design ated by A an d D ar e the m iddle po in ts o f the

ar c an d its ch o r d . If the po in ts A an d B ar e so cl o se t o
gether th a t they m ay be r egar ded as lyin g o n the cir cle o f
cu vatu e c espo di g t o the po i t A the o di te
r r o rr n n n r n a D B,
= h
will be a m ean pr o po r tio n al between the t wo segm en ts in t o
which the di am eter of the cir cle is divided b y the p o in t D ,
so th at we h ave the p r o po r ti o n :
:
AD h = h : (2 r — AD) .
Sin ce the segm en t AD is always ve ry s m all in c o m p aris on

with the diam ete r o f the cir cle o f cu rva tur e o n ly a van ish
in g ly s m a ll e rr o r will be in t r o duced b y wr itin g 2r in pl a ce
,
o f (2r — AD) in the ab o ve p r o p o r ti o n Thus we o bt ain : .

,
2
h
AD ’
2r
i ce
or s n R = 1 /r ,
”2
AD 13
2
If the ar c BB is n o t in fin it ely s m all this equ atio n c on t ain s
,
a ce rt ain e rr o r which is m o r e an d m o r e n egligible in p r o

26 2 Mir r or s ,
p o r tion as the ar c is t aken s m aller an d sm all er Fo r a sm all .
a r c the r ef o r e we m ay say th at the seg m e n t AD is p r o p o r

, ,
t io n al t o the cu r va tu r e (R) at h e p o in t A a n d hen ce it

t ,
m ay be s aid t o m e a su r e the cu rv a tu r e at thi s pl a ce Thi s .
segm en t AD was c alled b y KE PLE R the sag i tta o f the ar c

“
BB bec au se of it s r esembl an ce t o an arro w o n a b o w ”
.
FIG . 1 33 — C ur
. va tu r e s o f a r c s F IG . 1 3 4— C u r
. v a tur e s o f
K
B AB a n d B B ar e in sam e AP d A Q in
h h
ar c s an
r a t io a s t e ir sa g it t a A D sa m e r a t io as t e ir
an d KD . s ag itt a; VP an d VQ .
Obvi o usl y
it d o es m easur e the bulge o r sag o f the curve
,
at A .In Fig 13 3 whe r e the st r aight lin e B D B is the c o m

.
,
m o n ch or d o f the s m all ar cs BAB an d B KB the cu r v atur e s ,
a t A an d K a r e evide n tl y in the r a ti o o f AD t o K D Or .
,
a g ain c on sider Fig 1 34 wher e the t wo ar cs AP an d AQ

,
.
,
h ave a c o mm on t an gen t at A If o n this t an gen t a po in t V

.
is t aken ve r y cl o se t o A an d if thr ough V a str aight lin e is

,
d r awn per pen dicul ar t o A V in t er sec tin g the t wo ar cs in

9 9] Sp h e r o m e t e r an d Le n s Gaug e
- 2 63
the p o in ts design ated by P an d Q the curv atur es at A will

,
be in the r atio o f VP t o VQ .
In m an y O ptic al p r o ble m s (as h as bee n e xpl ain ed in the

l ast t wo ch apter s) we ar e c on cern ed on ly with a very sm all
po r ti on o f the r efl ectin g an d
r efr a ctin g su r f a ce (c a se o f
p ar axi al r ays) an d un der

,
such cir cu m st an ces it is

especiall y c o n ven ien t an d
sim ple t o m e asu r e the cu rv
atu r es o f the w a ve -fr o n ts
befo r e an d after r efr a cti on

o r r eflecti o n an d the cu r v a
tur es o f the mi rr o r s o r
len ses b y m e an s o f thei r
s agittae In fa ct the o r di
.
n ary m eth o d o f dete r min in g

,
the cur vat ur e o f an Optic al

surfa ce with an in stru
m en t c all ed a sp her om eter
5
(Fig 1 3 ) c o n sists essen
.
F 135 — Sph
IG . m t
ero e er.
t ially in e m pl o yin g a mi
.
c r o m e t e r scr ew t o m e a su r e the sa g i tta o f the ar c wh o se
ch o r d is equ al t o the di am eter o f the cir cle cir cu m scr ibed

ab o ut the e q uil ate ra l t r i an gle f o r m ed b y the c o n ic al p o in ts
o f the t r ip o d which supp o r ts the in st ru m e n t o n the cu r ved
sur fa ce t o be m ea su r ed The sim ple len s-g aug e (Fig 1 36)

[
. .
used by o ptician s t o m ea sur e the p o wer o f a specta cle len s

is b ased o n the s am e pr in ciple In si z e an d e xtern al ap
.
p e aran ce it r ese m bles a w a tch e x ce p t th a t o n its l o we r side

it h as th r ee m etallic pin s pr o j ectin g fr o m it in p ar allel lin es
,
which all li e in a pl an e p ar all el t o the fa ce o f the g auge The .
t wo o uter pi n s ar e st ati o n a ry an d sy mm et r ic ally pl a ced so th a t

when the in stru m en t is held in a ve r tic al pl an e with the pi n s
po in tin g d o wn war ds the str aight lin e BB (Fig 1 3 2 ) j o in in g
,
.
the c on ic al po in ts o f the o uter pin s is h o r i z o n t al ; whe r e as

2 64 Mirr o r s ,
the o ther pin which is mi dway between the t wo o uter on e s

is c ap a ble o f bein g pushed upwar ds by a slight pr essur e so
th at its tip A which left t o itself falls a little belo w the
str aight lin e BB can be m a de t o ascen d a little ab o ve this
lin e The ver tic al dis .
pl a cem en t o f the tip A o f

the m iddle pin ab ove o r
bel o w the level o f the
ch o r d BB which is e qu al ,
t o the sag i tta o f the ar c

BAB wh o se cur vatur e is
t o be m e a su r ed is r egis ,
t e r e d o n the di al (see
1 08) b y the an gul ar
m o ve m en t o f a light h an d
o r p o i n te r with which the
m o vable pin is c o n n ected .
If the cir cle is d r awn

which p asses th r ough the
e n d p o in ts o f t he th-r ee
F 136 — L —
IG . .
g g en s au
pin s B A an d B the
e.
, ,
di am eter d r awn th r o ugh A will bisect the ch o r d BB at a

p o in t D ; an d sin ce the pr o ducts o f the segm en ts o f t wo
in ter sectin g ch or ds o f a ci r cle ar e e q u al we obt ain imm e ,
diat e ly
— = h2
AD (2r AD ) ,
whe e de tes the dius the ci cle

r r no ra of r an d 2h = c h or d BB .
Hen ce exa ctl y as ab o ve we o bt ain her e also :

, ,
2
AD
g r
a pp r o xi m ately ;
thus pr o vin g a gain th at the sag i tta AD is p r o p o r ti on al t o
the cur va tu re 1 /r = R In usin g the len s-gauge c ar e m ust
.
be t aken t o see th at the pl an e o f the i n st r um en t is n o t t ilted

o ut o f the ve r tic a l an d this is o n e r e a s o n wh y a sphe r o m ete r
,
is m o r e a ccur ate On the o ther h an d the len s-gauge b e

.
,
'
Sides bei n g m o r e h an d y a n d c o n ve n ien t

,
po sses ses a de ,
1 00] Plan e R e fr ac ti ng Sur fa c e 26 5
ci ded a dvan t age o ve r a spher o m eter suppo r ted o n a t rip o d
b y r e a s o n o f the fa ct th at it c an be used t o m e a sur e the
cur vatur es in diff er en t m er idian s o f a n on spher ic al sur fa ce -
o f r ev o luti o n fo r e x am ple the cu r v atu r es o f the n o r m al

, ,
sectio n s 1 1 1 ) o f a cylin d r ic al o r o f a t o r ic sur fa ce

H o w the le n s-gauge is gr adu ated will be e xpl ain ed p r esen tl y
1 00 R e fr ac tio n
. of a Sph e r i c al Wav e at a Pl an e S urf a c e .
The wh o le duty o f an o ptical sy stem ther efor e whether , ,
FIG . 1 37 , a .— v
Di erg en t s ph e r ic a l wa v es r e fr a c t e d at p l an e
su r f ac e fr o m a ir t o g l ass .
it be a sin gle len s o r m irr o r o r a c o m bin atio n o f such p ar ts

is t o im pr in t a cer t a in cur vatur e o n the sur fa ce o f the in
c ide n t w ave ; a n d if we c o n side r o n l y such p o r ti o n s o f the
wave fr o n ts as lie ver y clo se t o the axis o f sym m etry o f

-
the in stru m en t it is eviden t th at this m eth o d o f in vesti

,
gatin g the ch an ge o i cur vatu r e th at is p r o duced in the

w ave fr on t at the p o in t wher e the axis m eets it sh o uld le a d
-
t o p r ecisel y the sam e r esults a s h ave been f o u n d al r e a dy

26 6 Mirr o r s ,
Pr isms an d Len se s 1 00
in the c o rr espo n din g pr o ble ms c on cerni n g the r eflection

an d r ef r a cti o n o f p ar axi al ray s In f a ct a cc o r d in g t o thi s
.
,
m eth o d these r esults sh o uld be fo u n d t o a pply n o t m e r el y

,
t o the c a se when the r eflectin g a n d r efr a cti n g su r fa ces a r e

pl an e o r spher ic al but equ ally also t o the m o r e gen er al
,
c ase when these su r fa ces h ave an y fo r m wh atever p r o vided

they ar e symmet r ic al aro un d the Optic al axis
,
GLA S S
FIG . 137 , b — C o n
. v ph
erg en t s e r ic al
wa e s v r e fr ac t e d a t p l an e su rf a c e fr o m
a ir to g l a ss .
We sh all begin by in vestig atin g the sim ple c ase of the

r efr a cti on o f a Sph er ic al wave at a pl an e sur fa ce .
In the di a gr am s (Fig 1 3 7 a b c an d d) the str aight lin e Z Z

.
, , , ,
r ep r ese n ts t he t r a ce in the pl an e o f the p a pe r o f a pl an e r e
fr a ctin g su r fa ce sep ar atin g t wo m edia o f in dices n n ,

’
.
Ar oun d the po in t M as cen ter spher ic al wave s ar e suppo sed

t o be a dvan cin g in t h e fir st m e diu m (n ) t o war ds the r efr a ct
in g su r fa ce an d at a cer t ain in st an t when the distu r b an c e
,
1 00 ] Pla n e R e fr a c ti ng Sur fa c e 26 7
h as begu n t o affect a po in t B o n this sur fa ce the in ciden t

wave will be r epr esen te d in the pl an e o f the figur e by the
cir cular a r c EJE desc r ibed ar o un d M as cen ter with r a dius
equal t o B M ; the po in t design ate d by J lyin g o n the ar c
m idway between its t wo e n ds B B so th at th e st r aight , ,
lin e MJ is the pe r pen dicul ar bisect o r at A o f the ch o r d BB .
The t wo po in ts M J will be fo un d t o lie a lways o n o ppo site

,
G LA S S
FIG . 137 , c .— Di v e rg e n t s ph e r ic a l wa v e s r e fr ac t e d a t p la n e
sur f a c e f r o m g l ass t o a ir .
sides o f the r efra ctin g pl an e In Fig 1 37 a an d c wher e the

. .
, ,
p o in t M is sh o wn as lyin g in fr o n t o f the surfa ce Z Z the ,
ar c E J E is in dic a ted by a d o tted lin e bec ause it m ar ks the ,
p o sitio n which the in ciden t wave-fr o n t w o uld h ave h ad

if the r efr a ctin g su r fa ce h ad n o t been in ter p o sed But .
the waves tr avel fa ste r in the r ar er m ediu m (air ) th an in

the den ser m ediu m (gl a ss) ; an d c o n sequen tly the ver tex ,
o f the r efr a cted w ave -fr o n t i n ste ad o f be in g at the p o in t J

,
268 Mirr or s ,
Pr ism s an d Le n se s 1 00
on the axis will be at a p oin t K on this lin e an d ther efor e ,
the po sitio n o f the r efr a cted w ave-fr o n t at the m o m en t

when the distur b an ce arr ives at B will be r e pr esen ted b y
the ar c B KB o f a cir cle wh o se cen te r is at a po in t M ’
o n the ax is If fo r e xam ple the waves are r efr a cted fr o m

.
, ,
air t o gl a ss th a t is if n > n
,
the vel o city v in the fi r st m e
,
’
,
GL A S S
F IG . 1 37 , d .
-C o n v e rg e n t ph
s er i c alwa es v r e fr a c t e d a t p l an e su r f a c e from
g l ass t o a ir .
dium will be g r eater th an the vel ocity v in the se con d m e ’
dium so th at fo r this c a se AK will be sh o r te r th an AJ an d

, ,
the effect o f the r et ar d ation will be t o fl atten the w ave

fr on t as sh o wn in Fig 1 37 a an d b On the o ther h an d if
,
.
,
.
,
’
n <u then v > v so th at n o w AK will be l o n ger th an AJ
,
’
, ,
an d the e ffect o f the r efr a cti o n will be t o in c r e a se the cu r v a
tur e o r bul ge o f the wave-fr on t as sh o wn in Fig 1 37 c an d d ,

.
,
.
Sin ce (see 3 1 )
AJ : n ,
1 01 ] Sp h e r i c al R e fr ac ti ng Sur fac e 269
it fo llo ws th at
No w JA anthe sag i ttce

d KA 99 ) o f the s m all ar cs
ar e
E J E a n d B KE r espectively an d he n ce they ar e p r o p o r
, ,
t io n al t o the cu r v a tu r es o f these a r cs th a t is t o 1 /J M a n d , ,
1 / KM If the po in t B is in fi n itely n ear t o A we m ay put

'
.
,
J M = AM = u KM = AM = u ; an d thus we o bt ain
,
’ ’ ’
’
n n
I
u u
whi ch will be r ec o gn i z ed as the r el ati o n whi ch we fo un d

fo r the r efr a cti o n o f p a r axi al r ays a t a pl an e su r fa ce
1 01 R e f r a c ti o n o f a Sph e r i c al W av e at a Sph e r i c al S ur
.
fac e — Her e the s am e m eth o d is e m ployed as in the pr eced

.
FIG . 1 38 , a. — Di v e rg e n t s ph eri c a l wa v es r e fr a c t e d at con v ex su r f ac e
fr om a ir t o g l ass .
in g sectio n e a ch o f the diagr am s (Fig 138 a b c d

. In .
, , , , ,
e f g
, ,
a n d h) the ci r cul ar a r c ZZ r ep r ese n ts the t r a ce in the
,
plan e o f the pape r o f a m er idian secti o n o f the spher ic al

r efr a cti n g su r f a ce with its ve r te x a t A an d ce n te r at C The .
surfa ce is c o n vex in Fig 1 38 a b c an d d an d c o n cave in .

, , , ,
Fig 1 38 e f g an d h The p o in t M o n the a xis is the ce n te r

.
, , , ,
.
o f a syste m o f sphe r ic al w aves which a r e a dv a n ci n g in th e
fi rst m e diu m o f in dex n t o war ds the r efr a ctin g su r fa ce

,
.
In Fig 1 38 a c e a n d g the po i n t M li e s in fr on t o f the r e

,
.
, , , ,
270 Mirr o r s ,
fr a ctin g sur fa ce wher e a s in Fig

,
. 1 3 8 , b , d, f ,
t s p o in t
an d h hi
is situ ated o n the o the r side of the sur fa ce . The poin ts
G LA S S
FIG . 13 8 , b .
—C o n v erg en t s ph e r i c al wa v es r e fr a c t e d a t c o n v ex
su r f a c e fr o m air t o g l a ss .
m ar kedB B ar e two p o in ts o n the ar c Z Z ver y clo se

,
to
gether but at e qu al dist an ces o n o ppo site sides o f the Op
G LA S S
F IG . 1 38 , c. —Di v erg en t s ph e ri c al wa v e s r e f r a c t e d a t co n v ex
su r f ac e f r o m g l ass t o a ir .
tic al axis ; so th at the ar c B J B descr ibed ar o un d M as cen ter

with r a dius equ al t o B M sh o ws the p o sition o f the wave
fr on t of the in ciden t waves at the in stan t when the distur b
1 01 ] Sp he ric al R e fr a c ti ng Surfac e 27 1
an ce begin s t o affect the poin ts B B ; the p o in t whe r e this ,
ar e c r o sses the O ptic al axis bei n g design ated by J .
1C LA S S . l
FIG . 138 , d — C on . v e rg e n t s ph e r ic a l wa v e s r e f r ac t e d a t con v ex
su r f a c e f r o m g l a ss t o a ir .
When the waves en te r the sec o n d m ediu m , i n dex n of

’
they pr o ceed with augm e n ted or dim in ished speed a o
A IR
1 38 , — Di v ph e r ic a l v r e f r ac t e d
v
e . e rg en t s wa es
con ca e su rf a c e from a ir t o g l ass .
c o rdin g is gr eate r o r less th an n

as n In the di agr am s
’
.
Fig 1 3 8 a b e f the c a se is r ep r ese n ted whe r e n > n ; an d

’
.
, , , , ,
in the di ag r am s Fig 1 3 8 c d g h the sec o n d m ediu m is .

, , , ,
272 Mirr o rs ,
suppo sed t o be less highl y r efr ac tin g th an the fir s t (n ’

<n ) .
The cen ter o f cur vatur e o f the r efra ct ed waves at
G LA S S
F IG . 1 38 , f —
. C on v erg en t s ph e r i c al wa v e s r e f r ac t e d a t con ca v e
su rf a c e from a ir t o g l ass .
a p i t M o n the axis so th at the w ave f t in the sec on d

o n
’
,
- r on
m ediu m which p asses th r o ugh B B will be r ep r e sen t ed b y ,
G LA S S
FIG 1 38 , g — D i v ph e r i c al wa v e s r e fr ac t e d at c o h
v
. . e rg e n t s
ca e su r f ac e f r o m g l ass to a ir .
the ar c B KB o f a cir cle desc r ibed ar ou n d M as cen ter ’
r a dius equ al t o B M ; the p o in t whe r e this a r c c r o sses the

’
a xis bei n g design a ted b y K .
In e a ch o f the di agr am s o f Fig 1 3 8 on e o f the t wo ar c s .

1 01 ] Sp he r ic al R e fr ac ti ng Sur fa c e 2 73
E JE an d is sh o wn by a d o tted lin e bec ause o n a o

B KB , ,
c o un t o f the in ter po sitio n o f the r efr a ctin g sur fa ce Z Z the ,
p ar t o f o e o the o the
n r r o f these w ve fr o n ts which is c o m
a -
p r ised between B B d o es n o t a ctu ally m ate r i ali z e ; but this

,
cir cum st an ce d o es n o t in the le ast affect the geo m etr ic al

r el ati o n s .
Thus durin g the tim e the light t akes t o g o in the fi r s t

,
m ediu m fr o m J t o A (o r fr o m A t o J ) it will t r avel in the ,
GLA S S .
F IG 1 38 , h — C o n v ph e r ic a l wa v e s r e fr a c t e d at
v
. . e rg e n t s
c o n ca e su r f a c e f r o m g l a ss t o a ir .
sec on d m edium fr o m K t o A (o r fro m A t o K ) In o ther .
w ds the ptic al le gths 3 9 ) o f the a i l li e seg m en ts

o r , o n x a n -
AJ an d AK ar e e qu al an d the r efo r e ,
n . AJ n . AK .
This sh o ws ho w the p o sitio n o f the p o i n t M m ay be foun d ’

,
f o r we h ave o n l y t o lay o ff o n the axis a piece
an d tol o c ate the p o in t M at the pl a ce wher e the p e r p e n dic

’
ul ar bisect o r o f the ch o r d BK in te r sects the o ptic al axis .
D r aw the ch o r d B DB c r o ssin g the O ptic a l axis a t r ight

2 74 Mirr o r s ,
an gles at the p o in t D; then eviden tl y sin ce

, ,
= AD + DJ = AD — J D AK = AD = —
AJ , + K AD
D KD ,
we h ave n (AD ( KD ) -
J D) = n
’
AD — .
N o w r ec all in g the fa ct th at the p o in ts B B we r e assu m ed ,
t o be ver y cl o se t o the ve r te x A o f the sphe r ic al r efr a ctin g

sur fa ce we r em ar k th at the ar c s wh o se summits ar e at A J
,
a n d K ar e all ve r y s m al l ; an d he n ce the seg m e n ts AD J D

,
a n d K D m ay be r eg ar ded as the sa g i ttce o f these ar cs an d
pr o p o r ti on al t o their cur va tur es v iz 1 / r 1 / u an d .

, ,
1 /u r espectively whe e r = C u AM J M u = AM
= =
’ '
r ,
A , ,
’
KM a pp r o x im a tel y
’
,
I n t r o ducin g these values in the
.
e qu ati on a b o ve we o bt ain the ch ar a cter istic in var i an t r e

,
l ati on fo r the c ase o f the r efr a cti o n o f p ar axi al r ays at a

spher ic al sur fa ce v iz ,
.
,
1 1 1
n
( ) '
7 u
=n
7
‘
u )
in the s am e fo r m as was fo un d in 7 8 .
102 R e fl e c ti on o f a Sph e r i c al W av e a t a Sph e r i c al

.
r or —
. The p r oblem o f r eflecti on at a Spher ic al mir r or m ay
FIG 1 39 ,
. a .— Di v erg en t ph
s e r i c al wa v es re fl e ct ed at c on v ex m irr o r .
be in vestig ated in the s am e way In Fig 1 39 a an d b . .

, ,
the ar cs BAB B J B an d B KB r epr esen t the t r a ces o f the

,
mi rr or an d o f the w ave fr on t s o f th e in ciden t an d r e flec t ed

-
1 02 ] Sp h e r i c a l M irr o r 27 5
waves r espectively
, . In the c ase of r eflectio n the c on diti o n
evi den tly is :
KA = AJ ,
bec ause while the in ciden t wave a dvan ces al o n g the O ptic al
axis t hr o u g h t h e dist a n ce AJ o r J A the r eflected w ave will ,
tr avel in the o ppo site dir ection thr ough an equ al di stan ce
FIG 1 39 , b — Di
. . v e rg e n t s ph e ri c a l wa v es re fl e c te d a t c o n c a v e m ir r o r .
KA o r AK Ther efo r e the ce n te r M o f the r eflected

.
’
wave
m ay be f o un d by l ayin g o ff AK = J A an d l o c a tin g the p o in t
wher e the per pen dicul ar bisect or o f the ch o r d KB in ter
sects the axis .
Her e als o the segm en ts AD J D an d KD ar e t o be r e ,
g ar ded a s the m e a sur es o f the cur v atu r es o f the s m all ar cs

BAB EJE an d B KB r espectively an d p r o p o r tio n al ther e
, , , ,
fo r e t o the r ecipr o c als o f the r ad u o f cur vatur e v iz 1/r

, ,
.
,
1/ u an d 1 / u whe r e r = AC u = AM = J M
’
,
in the li mit whe n the a r cs a r e in fin i tely s m all N o w

, ,
.
276 Mirr o r s ,
th at is ,
J D + KD = 2AD ;
hen ce substitutin g the sym b o ls u u an d r we der ive the
, ,
’
,
a bsciss a-f o r m ul a f o r the r eflecti o n of p ar axi al r ays a t a
sphe r ic al m i r ro r v iz .
,
H z
which m ay be expr essed in wo r ds by s ayin g th at the c ur va
tur e f
o the mi r r or i s the a r i thmeti ca l m ean f
o the c urva tur e s
f the
o i n ci den t an d r e f l ec te d wa ve s at the ver tex o f the mi r r or ;
th at is ,
U U I
g
-
R
wher e U= l / a , U ’
/ =1 deun o
’
te t he cu r v a tu r es o f the in
c ide n t a n d r eflected w aves an d R = 1 /r de n o tes the cu r v a

,
tur e o f the m irr o r Thus fo r exam ple if an in ciden t pl an e

.
, ,
w ave (U = 0) is a dv an cin g p ar allel t o the axis o f the m ir r or ,
the cur v atur e o f the r eflected w ave will be twice th at o f

the m i rr o r an d c o n sequen tly the cen ter F o f the r eflected
, ,
wave-fr o n t will lie mi dway between the ver tex A an d the

cen ter C o f the m irr o r
Of c o u r se the c o n diti o n KA = AJ m ight h ave been de
,
r ived a t o n ce fr o m the c o n diti o n n AJ whi ch was .
foun d in 1 01 by puttin g in this equ atio n n —
5
in a o
’
,
n ,
c o r dan c e with the ge n e r a l r ule give n in 7 .
1 03 R e f r ac ti o n o f a Sph e r i c al Wav e th r o ug h an In
.
fi n ite y Th in Le n s
l — Sin ce as h as bee n sh o wn
.
,
a
h om o cen tr ic bun dle o f in ciden t p ar axi al r ays with it s v e r

'
t e x at a p o i n t M o n the ax is o f a thin len s is t r an sfo r m ed

in t o a h o m o cen tr ic bun dle o f em er gen t r ays with its ver tex
at the c o n jug ate p o in t M we kn o w th at if the waves ar e
’
,
S phe r ic a l bef o r e t r ave r si n g the le n s the y will iss u e fr o m i t ,
as sphe r ic a l w aves a t le a st in the n eighb o r h o o d o f the ax is

,
.
E a ch o f the di a gr am s (Fig 1 40 a an d b ) r ep r ese n ts a .

,
m e r idi an secti o n o f the le n s which is c o n vex in o n e figu r e

an d c o n c ave in the o the r As a m atter o f fa ct the len s is
.
1 03 ] In fi n it e ly T hin Le n s 2 77
a ssu m ed t o be in fin itely thin an d pe rh a ps it is well t o c all ,
p ar ticul ar atten tio n t o this fun d am en t al c o n sider ati on b e ,
c ause in the di agr am s in o r der t o exhibit the r el ati on s by ,
m ae n s o f the a
s g i ttce the le n s -thickn ess is sh o wn ve r y m uch
,
exagger ated .
FIG . 1 40, a. —D i v erg en t s ph e r i c al wa v e s r e fr a c t e d t hr o u g h t hi n con v ex len s .
Take a p o in t B o n the fi r st s ur fa ce o f the len s n o t ver y

1
far f r o m the ve r te x AI o f t hi s su r fa ce an d ar o un d the axi a l ,
o bject p o in t M a s ce n te r with r a dius equ a l t o B M desc r ibe

-
1
the cir cular a r c B JB 1 which is bisected by the a xis o f the

1
len s in the p o in t design ated by J ; eviden tly this ar e will ,
r e p r ese n t the t r a ce in the pl an e o f the di a g r a m o f the w a ve
fro n t o f the in ciden t waves a t the m o m en t when the dis

t ur b an ce r e a ches B N o w the distu r b an ce which is p r o p a
1 .
gated o n war ds fr o m B will pr o ceed a c r o ss the len s t o a 1
p o in t B o n the seco n d fa ce o f the len s a n d sin ce the len s

2 ,
is supp o sed t o be in fin itely thin the dist an ces o f B B 2 , 1,
fr o m the axis ar e t o be r egar ded as equ al th at is D B = , , 1 1
D B whe r e D D design ate the feet o f the p e r p e n dic u

2 2, 1, 2,
l ar s let fall fr o m B 1 B r espectively t o the axis o f the , 2, ,
len s If ther efo r e ar o un d the p o in t M c o n jugate t o M

.
, ,
’
a n a r c B K B is desc r ibed with r adius equ a l t o B M which ’

Z Z 2 ,
is bisecte d by the axis at the po in t design ated by K this ,
a r e will r ep r ese n t the t r a ce in the pl a n e o f the di a g r a m o f
the w ve fr o n t o f the em er gen t waves at the s am e in st an t

a -
2 78 Mir r o r s ,
th at the ar c B JB 1 sh o ws the wave-fr on t o f the in ciden t

1
w aves .
With M M as cen te r s an d with an y c o n ven ien t r adn

,
’
desc r ibe als o the ar c s GH SL in ter sectin g the axis of the ,
FIG . 1 40, b — Di . v e rg e n t s ph e ri c al wa v e s r e fr ac t e d t h r o ug hh
t in con ca v e l en s .
len s at G S an d m eetin g the st r aight lin es E l M B 2M in

, ,
’
,
H L r espectively ; so th a t these ar cs r epr esen t ther efor e

, , , ,
successive p o siti o n s of the wave-fr o n t befo r e an d a fter

t r an s mi ssi on thr o ugh the len s No w the Optic a l len g th o f .
the light p ath fr o m H t o L is e qu al t o th at al o n g the axis

-
o f the le n s fr o m G t o S an d he n ce if n den o te ’
n , , ,
the in dices of r efra ction o f the t wo m edia c on cern ed we ,
m ay wr it e
GA1 + n A1 A2 + n A2S
’
n . . .
an d sin ce
we o b t ain b y a ddition of these t wo equatio n s

(MB 1 + B zM ) + n
, ’
n . B 1B2
NOW .
MB 1 MJ , B zM
’
KM ’
,
B 1B 2 D1D2 ;
an d the r efo r e
n MJ
( — MA1 + KM A2M )
— ,
n
’
(A1 A2 D 1 D2)
1 04] R e duce d Dis t an c e 2 79
Substitutin g in thi s equ ati on the fo llo win g e xp r essi on s ,

v iz
M JMA l
— Al M j MJ-—
An} A1D 1 + D 1J Al D l — J Dl ,
KM A2M KM + M KA 2 KD2 + D 2 A2
’ ,
— , ,
A2
—
K Dz AzDg ,
A1 A2 AID 1 + D 1 D2 + D 2A2 AID 1 + D 1 D 2 — A2D 2 ,
we o bt ain :
(Al D l J D 1 + K D2 Ag Dz) (A1 D 1 — A2D2 )
’
n
— n
whi ch m ay be put fin ally in the fo ll o win g fo r m

” (K D z JDl ) ( ) (A D A2 D 2 )
’ — n —
— n 1 1 .
It has been assum ed her e th at the len s is surr o un ded by

the s am e m edium (n ) o n b oth sides but the s am e m eth o d ,
w oul d le a d t o a m or e gen er al for mul a fo r whi ch the in itial

a n d fi n a l m edi a we r e diffe r e n t .
E viden tly sin ce the p o in ts B 1 B 2 a r e ve r y n e ar the ve rti

, ,
c e s A I A2 the segm e n ts A 1 D 1 J D 1 An
, ,
KD m ay be r e , , , 2
gar ded as the sag i tta; o f the s m all ar cs B 1 A 1B 1 B 1J B 1 , ,
B A B 2 B 2KB 2 r espectively ; an d sin ce these ar cs all h ave

2 2 , ,
equ al ch or ds the r ecipr o c als o f the r adii o f cu r vatur e m ay be

,
substituted in the equ ati on ab o ve in pl a ce o f the sa g ittx .
Acc o r din gly if the r a dii o f the le s su rfa ces ar e den o ted
,
n -
by r 1 a n d if we put AM = J M = u
,
as ,
is pe r m issible in this c a se we der ive i m m e di ately the fa

mil i ar len s -fo r m ul a f o r the r efr a cti o n o f p ar axi al r ay s
,
VIZ I .
m
e t e r —
we s t
whe r e f den o tes the pr im ary fo cal len gth o f the len s .
1 04 R e du c e d D i stan c e
.
— If P Q design ate the p o siti o n s
.
,
o f t wo p o in ts lyi n g b o th in the s am e m ediu m o f r efr a ctive
in dex n a di stin cti o n h as a lr e ady been p o in ted out (see 3 9)

,
between the a ctu al o r abs o lute dist an ce o f these p o in ts fr o m

“
e a ch o ther an d the so —c alled o ptic al len gth o f the seg ”
m en t PQ o f the st r aight l in e j o in in g these p o in ts which ,
is o bt ain ed by m ultiplyin g the abs o lute len gth by the in dex

o f r efr a cti o n o f the m ediu m an d which is equ al the r efor e
A f ur ther distin cti on due o rigin ally t o GA USS

,
t o n PQ . .
, ,
2 80 Mir r o r s ,
is t o be m ade n ow by e m pl o yin g the ter m reduce d di stan ce

between P an d Q t o m ean n o t the pr o duct but the quo
, ,
ti en tf t
ohe di stan c e PQ b y the i n dex of f
r e r a cti on o f the medium
in whi ch the two p oin ts P a n d li e; Q th at is the r educed
, dis
?
P
t an ce fr om Q is e qu al t o 7
P to Thus fo r example if , ,
the m e dium is gl ass o f in dex an d if the dist an ce PQ
1 2 in ches the O ptic al dist an ce o r e q uiv alen t light-p a th in

,
air will be 1 8 in ches wher e as the r educed dist an ce will be

,
The r educed t hickn ess

ci
8 in ches . of a len s is c =—
, wher e
n
d = A1 A2 den o tes the dist an ce o f the sec on d ver tex A2 o f

the len s fr o m the fi r st ver tex AI an d n den o tes the in dex o f
r efr a cti o n o f the le n s -subst an ce The o ptic al dist an ce is .
n e ve r less an d the r educed dist an ce is n eve r gr e ate r

,
th an ,
the a ctu al dist an ce If the m edium is air . the o p

tical di st an ce an d the r educed dist an ce ar e b o th e qu al t o
the abs o lute di st an ce App ar en tly the fir st Use of the ter m
“r educed distan ce in this sen se in En gli sh o cc ur s in
.
,
”
PE ND LE B UR Y an d ms f len ses, tr eated

’
S Len ses syste o f ter
a
the ma n n er f
o G
U S S (C am b r idge
A A distin ct a d ,
van t age in the dir ectio n o f sim plific ati on is usu ally gain ed
in m athe m a tic al f o r m ul ati o n b y den o tin g a m o r e o r less
c o m plex fun cti o n b y a sin gle sym b o l ; an d m o der n o ptic al
wr ite r s n o t ably G U LLS TRA ND an d his disciples in G erm an y
, ,
h ave r ec o gn i z ed the c o n ven ien ce o f this ide a o f r educed

dist an ce an d utili z ed it t o expr ess the r el ati o n s between
”
o bject an d i m a ge in thei r si m plest f o r m s ; a s we sh all Sh o w
p r esen tly b y sever al exam ples .
In t hi s c o n n ecti on the a tten ti o n o f the stude n t n eeds t o

be c alled t o a p o in t which h as been all uded t o befo r e (see
but which is n o t always cle ar ly u n der st o o d Alth o ugh .
t wo p o in ts P Q m ay be situ a ted physic ally in differ en t

m edi a they m ay be r egar ded a s o ptic a lly in the s am e m e
,
dium .Thus an y po in t which is o n the pr o l o n gati o n in ,
o f t he lin e seg m e n t which r e pr es e n t s the

,
e ithe r dir ecti o n -

,
105
] R e fr a c ti n g Po we r 281
~
a ctual p ath of a r ay o f light thr o ugh a cer t ain m ediu m may , ,
an d in f a ct ge n e rally m u st be r eg ar ded a s a p o i n t bel o n gi n g

,
t o the m ediu m in questi o n n o m atte r wh at m ay be its a c

,
tu al physic al en vi r o n m en t No better illustr ati on o f this

.
n o ti o n c an be given th an is a ffo r ded by c o n sider in g the

fo ca l po in ts o n the axis o f a spher ic al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce .
The po in ts F an d F lie al ways o n o ppo site sides o f the v e r

’
t e x A but n o m a tte r whethe r the fi r st fo c a l p o in t F is

,
o n o n e side o f A o r o n the o ther it is t o be c o n si der ed

a lw ay s as a
,
po in t in the fi r st m edium ; an d Si m il ar ly , ,
the sec o n d fo cal p o in t F is t o be c o n sider ed always as

’
a p o in t in the sec o n d m ediu m so th a t the r educed dis ,
t an ce between F an d F is ’
b o th fo r a c o n ve r
gen t an d fo r a diver gen t system The r educed f oca l len g ths .
spher ical r efr a ctin g sur fa ce f an d

f th at the
of a ar e so
r educed dist an ce o f F fr o m F is equ al t o

’
7
it 7
The b o un d ary between t wo o ptic al m edi a is a twilight

zon e so t o spe ak which c an n o t be s aid p r o per ly t o b e
”
, ,
l o n g t o either m edium ; an d hen ce lin e ar m agn itudes which

r efe r specific all y t o the i n te r fa ce o r su r f a ce o f sep ar ati o n
c an n o t be defin itely a ssign ed t o o n e m edium o r the o ther .
This applies fo r e xam ple t o the r adius o f cur vatu r e o f a

, ,
m i r r o r o r o f a r efr a ctin g su r fa ce Whethe r a su r fa ce which

.
sep ar ates air f r o m gl ass is c o n ve x o r c o n c a ve we h ave n o ,
r ight t o say th at the r a dius o f cu r v a tu r e lies in the a ir o r

“
in the gl a ss ; an d thus we n eve r spe ak o f the r educed r a e
dius o f a r eflectin g o r r efr a ctin g su r fa ce

5
”
.
1 0 T e R e f r ac tin g Po w e r
.h —In the u -fo r m o f the a b
.
sciss a-equation which gives the r el ati o n between a p air o f c o n

jugate po in ts o n the axis we ar e c o n cern ed n o t so m uch with
,
the lin ear m agn itudes them selves th at is with the a bsciss ae , , ,
a s with the r ecip r o c als o f these m a g n itu des which a s we , ,
h ave seen r epr esen t the cu rvatur es o f the sur fa ces o f whi ch
t hese abscissae are the radii It is par tly for this r easo n
,
.
282 Mirr o r s ,
th at man y tea cher s o f ge o m etr ic al Optics r egar d the so
“
c alled curv atur e m eth o d o f studyin g these pr o blems as
”
“
b o th m o r e n atu r al a n d m o r e di r ect th an the r ay m eth o d .
”
Ther e is cert ain ly m uch t o be s aid in its favo r but the t r uth ,
is b o th m eth o ds h ave their a dvan t ages an d n either is t o

, ,
be pr eferr ed t o the o the r The studen t who desir es t o h ave

.
m o r e th an a m e r e ele m en t ar y kn o wledge o f o p tics will fi n d

it n ecess ar y t o be a c qu ain ted with b o th p o in ts Of View ; an d
when he h as att ain ed this p o siti on he will r eali z e th at the ,
t wo m eth o ds ar e per fectl y e qui v ale n t an d th at the disti n o

tion between them is m o r e o r less ar tificial
“
.
But whether we h ave the so c alled cur vatur e m eth o d

-
in min d o r n o t it will eviden tl y be a step in the dir ecti o n o f

,
sim plifyin g the absciss ae fo r mul a if we in tr o duce sym b o ls

-
fo r the r ecip r o c als o f the absciss ae a n d ther eb y ge t rid o f ,
the fr a ctio n al form s Thus in stea d o f em ployin g the r e

.
,
du c e d fo c al len gth it will be bette r t o in t r o duce a te r m fo r

,
the r ecipr o c al o f this m agn itude Acc o r din gly t he r ef r a ct

.
,
i n g p ower o f an o ptic al s ystem is defi n ed t o be the r ecip r oca l

of the r edu ce d p ri m a r y f oca l len g th These r ecipr o c al m ag.
n it ude s will be de n o ted b y c a pit a l it a lic lette r s Fo r e x .
am ple the r efr a ctin g p o we r o f an o ptic a l syste m will be de

,
n o ted b y F ; t h a t is a cc o r din g t o the a b o ve defin i t i o n :

,
n
F .
f
The r efractin g p o wer o f a sp her i ca l re r acti n g f f
sur ace (see
7 9) is
n n
n
’ — n R,
f f
den o tes the curvatur e
wher e R=
i of the sur face . If the
1
fi r st m ediu m is air (n = then F The r efr a ctin g po wer
f
of spher ic al r efra ctin g surfa ce is dir ectly pr o p o rti on al
a to
the cur vatur e o f the sur fa ce .
105
] R e fr a c ti ng Po we r 2 83
The r eflectin g p ower o f a sp heri cal mirr or (n

’
—n , f ’
f)
is defin ed in the s am e way v iz ,
.
,
n
— 2n R , .
f
wher e n den o tes the in dex o f r efr a cti on o f the m ediu m in
fr o n t o f the m i rr o r Thus alth o ugh the p o siti o n o f the
.
,
fo cal po in t (F) an d the m agn itude o f the fo c al len gth (f ) o f

a cu r ved m i rr o r will n o t be a lte r ed by ch an gin g the m ediu m
in fr o n t o f the mi r r o r its r eflectin g p o we r will be affecte d ;

,
a n d this wil l be the c ase whethe r the m i rr o r is c o n c ave o r
c o n vex If the fo cal len gth o f a m irr o r is 8 its r eflectin g

.
,
po wer wil l be o n e -eighth when the m irr o r is in c o n t a ct with

a ir (n = but it will be r aised t o o n e -Sixth if the m ediu m
in fr o n t o f the m i rr o r is w ate r
The r efr a ctin g p o wer o f a len s surr oun ded b y the s am e
m ediu m (n ) on b o th sides is
If the cur vatur es o f the t wo fa ces o f an in fi n i te ly thi n len s

a r e de n o ted by R 1 an d R th at is if 2, ,
F= ( — ’
n n ) (R1 W
R2) :
wher e n den o tes the in dex o f r efr a cti o n o f the len s -subst an ce
’
an d n de n o tes the i n de x o f r efr a cti o n o f the su r r o u n di n g
m ediu m If eithe r o n e o f these m e di a is ch an ged o the r

.
,
thin gs r em ain in g the s am e the r efra ctin g p o wer o f the len s

,
will be alter ed .
If F 1 F2 den o te the r efr a ctin g p o wer s o f the t wo surfa ces

,
o f a len s the n ,
F1 =
' — Fg = (n
(
n n ) 1,
R
an d in pl a ce o f the pr e cedin g equ ati o n we m ay wr ite
F F r i 17 2 ;-
a nd thus it appe ar s th at the f

r e r a cti n g p ower o f an in fi n i te ly
2 84 M irr o r s ,
thi n len s i s e qua l to the a lg e b rai c su m of the f

r e r a cti n g p ower s
of the len s-sur fa ces .
The r efr a ct in g p o wer o f a len s depen ds ther efor e o n ,
the cu r vatur es o f b o th fa ces but eviden tly a len s o f given

,
m ate r i al an d o f p r esc r ibed r efra ct in g p o we r m ay h ave ve r y

diff er en t fo r m s On e o f the m in o r pr o blem s o f o ptic al
“
.
c o n str uctio n is t o b en d a len s as the techn ic al ph ra se

”
,
~
is th at is bein g given the cur vatur e o f o n e fa ce o f the len s

, , ,
t o fi n d the cu r v atu r e o f the o the r fa ce so th at the r efr a ctin g

po wer o f the len s m ay h ave a given value If fo r exam ple .
,
the m agn itudes den o ted b y n n R2 an d F ar e a ssign ed ,

’
, ,
the cur vatur e of the fi r s t fa ce must be :

F
RI R2 +
If the medi a ar e difi eren t on the two si de s o f the len s, an d if

the in di ces o f r efr a cti on o f the th r ee m edi a in the or der in
whi ch they ar e t r ave r sed b y the light ar e den o ted by m ,
722 an d n we fi n d e asily the f o ll o win g fo r m ul a for the r e

3,
fr a ctin g p o wer o f an in fini tely thin len s

( — n =
F nz 2 ) 2 F I+F2 ,
R
f f
wher e the symb ols h ave pr ecisely the s am e m ean in gs as
befo r e .
It will be seen fr om these exam ples th at on e effect o f in

t r o du cin g the t erm r efr a ct in g p o we r is a si m plific ati on in
c o n se quen ce o f the fa ct th at the t wo m agn itudes den o ted
b y f an d f ar e n o w expr es sed in terms o f a Sin gle magni
’
tude F .
1 06 R e duc e d Ab sc i ssa an d Re duc e d Ve rg e n c e

.
— The
r educed absciss ae o f a p ai r o f c o n jug ate axi al p o in ts M M
’
,
ar e de fi n ed in e x a ctly the s am e way as the r educed fo c al
len gths The p o in t design ated b y M is t o be r egar ded al

.
ways as lyin g in the fir st m edium o f the system an d Sim , ,
il ar ly the p o i n t design a ted b y M is t o be r eg ar ded as lyi n g

,
’
in the l a st m ediu m e n ti r el y i rr espective o f the questi o n as

,
1 06] R e du c e d Ab sc issa an d R e duc e d V erg en c e 28 5
to whether either o f these po in ts is r e al or vir tual ,
as e xpl ain ed in 1 04 .
By way o f illustr atio n suppo se th at the Optical syste m

,
c o n sists o f a sin gle sphe r ic al r efr a ctin g su r fa ce sep ar a ti n g

t wo m edi a o f i n dices n an d n If the o rigin o f absciss a’
.
is t aken at the ve r tex A so th at u = AM ,

then ,
.
the r educed a bsciss a wil l be

ZZ
,
"
The r ecipr o c als of these
m agn itudes , den o ted by U U ar e c all ed the ’
,
r educed v er
g en ces ,
”
with r espect t o the po in t A ; thus ,
’
n n
U ’ ’
u u
These fun cti on s U U ar e the m e asur es o f the co n ver gen ce

,
’
o r dive r ge n ce o f the bu n dles o f o bj ect -r ays a n d i m a ge r ays ; -
a n d in this illust r ati o n these m a gn itudes ar e evide n tl y p r o
po r tio n al t o the cur vatur es o f the in ciden t an d r efra cted "
wave fr on ts at the in st an t when the distur b an ce arr ives

-
at the su r fa ce o f sep ar ati o n o f the t wo m edi a .
Si n ce 7 9) the absciss a—fo r m ul a fo r a sp heri ca l ref r acti n g

surf ace m ay be wr itte n in the fo r m :
this r el ati on m ay n ow be expr essed in the elegan t an d c o n
v e n ie n t fo r m
U
’
U+ F .
This s am e fo rmul a h olds in the c ase o f a sp her i ca l mir r or ,
in which c ase U ’
wher e n den o tes the in dex o f r e
fr action o f the m edium in fr o n t o f the m irr o r .
Mo r e o ver the s a m e fo r mul a U U+ F is foun d t o be

,
’
a pplic able t o the c a se o f an i nfin i te ly thi n len s If the len s .
is sur r oun ded by the s am e m edium (n ) o n b o th sides then ,
we must put U = n /u U = n /u an d F = n /f wher e n de

,
’ ’
,
’
n o tes the i n de x o f r efr a cti o n o f the le n s -subst an ce Or in .
c ase the l a st m ediu m (n ) is differ e n t fr o m the fi r st m edium

3
( )
n l the
,
n U = n 1 / u ,
a n d F = n /f I n b o th c a s es 1
the form ula will be foun d t o be iden tic al in fo r m with th a t

286 Mi rr o r s ,
Prism s an d Le n se s
given ab o ve In fa ct as we sh all see in C h apte r X the

.
, ,
fo r m ul a U U+ F is per fectly gen er al an d applic able t o

’
an y o ptic a l in st r u m e n t which is sy mm et r ic al a b o ut a n a xi s .
The a dvan t a ge o f a sin gle fo r m ula which h as such wide ap

p l i c ab ili t y is o b v i o us It is e a s y t o r e m e m be r th a
. t the re
(U ) the i n str ume n t i s
’
duce d v e r g en ce on the i ma g e-si de f
o
e qua l to the a lg e b r ai c sum o f the r e duce d v er g en ce (U) on the

o b ec t-si de an d
j the r e r a cti n g
f p owe r (F) .
If the absciss a ar e m e asur ed fr o m the fo c al p o in ts F, F

’
,
th at is if we put x = FM x = F M the m agn itudes

, ,
' ’ ’
Z X
j
'
, ,
ar ec alled the r educed f oca l p oi n t ver g en ces; an d the r el ati on

between X X is expr essed b y t h e e quation
'
’
,
-
XX — F 2
1 07 . Th e D i optr y
bvi o usly the
as Un it of C ur vatur e .
—O
,
m a gn itudes which h ave been den o ted a b o ve b y c a pit a l

it alic letter s sin ce they ar e all e qu al o r pr o po r ti on al t o
,
the r ecipr o c a ls o f cer t ain lin e ar m agn itudes ar e essen ti ally ,
me a sur es o f cu r v atu r e an d he n ce they m ust be desc r ibed o r ,
exp r essed in ter m s o f so m e un i t of cur va tur e which w ill itself ,
be depen den t o n the un it o f len g th Optician s guided b y .
pur ely pr a ctic a l c on sider ati on s wer e the fi r st t o r ec o gn i z e

the n eed o f a sui t able O ptic al un it fo r this pur po se The .
un it o f curv atur e which is n o w al m o st u n iver sall y used in

spect a cle o ptics an d which is c o mi n g t o be em pl o yed m o r e
a n d m o r e in all o the r b r an ches o f o ptics is the cu r v a tu r e
o f an a r c wh o se r a dius o f cu r v a tu r e is o n e m ete r T o thi s .
un it the n am e diop tr y has been given Or igin ally the !

.
,
Th m
e na
“ di p t i we fi t ug g t d b y M N Y
o r e f F as rs s es e O O ER o r an ce
i 1 8 72 ( A l LXVIII b i g d iv d f m
’
n d
se e u li ti qun n a es oc s e, e n er e ro
a S m p l wh “
,
th e G k ree
- 7 mte l th t m di pt i
i xe e n ce ca e a so e er o
—
r cs
”
wh i h w f m ly m u h u d b y i tifi w it
,
c as or er pp lyi g t t h
c se sc e n c r e rs a s a n o e
ph m
en o f en af ti o p i lly t h ug h l
re r a c Th
on w d i es ec a ro e n se s e or s
h d Di p t i i G m E tym
.
,
gen erally w itt di p t i F

r en o re n r en c an o r e n er an o
t E g li h f m w uld pp t b di p t y d
.
l g i lly t h
o ca , e c o r re c n s or o a e ar o e o r ,
an
thi p lli g h b
s s e n d pt d b y t h Am i
as e en t lt a f b o th
o e e e r can ra n s a o r s o
107] D iop ty
r 2 87
di o p t ry was defin ed as the r efr a ctin g p o wer o f a len s in air

o f f o c a l len gth o n e m ete r C o n seque n tly a le n s wh o se fo c al
5
.
,
len gth wa s 0 c m o r h alf a m ete r would h ave a r efr a ctin g .
po wer o f 2 dptr wher ea s an o the r len s of fo c al len gth 2 m eter s

.
,
w o uld h ave a r efr a ctin g p o we r o f dpt r In gen er al if .
the fo c al len gth o f a len s sur r o un ded b y air is f cen ti m ete r s

,
its r efr a ctin g p o we r will be l 00/f dpt r But a cc o r din g t o .
the defin i tio n which we h ave given the dio pt ry is a un it

n o t o f r efr a ctin g p o we r o n l y but o f an y sim il ar m ag n itude
,
o f the n atu r e o f a cur v atu r e Thus for exam ple if the .

, ,
r a dius o f a m ir r o r o r o f a Sphe r ic a l r efra ctin g s ur f a ce is h alf
a m ete r its cur vatur e is 2 dp t r If the dist an ces den o ted

b y f r u x etc ar e expr essed in m eter s the m agn itudes
.
,
.
, , , , ,
den o ted by the c o rr espo n din g c apit al letter s F R U X

,
, , , ,
etc will be in dio ptr ies Dr DR YSDA LE has suggested

.
, . .
th at we in t r o duce also the c o n ven ien t ter m s mi lli di op tr y

H e ctodi op tr y dp t r .
) an d Ki lodi op tr y
dp t r espectively t o the Kil o
.
) c o rr esp o n din g ,
r ,
m ete r ce n ti m ete r an d m illi m ete r a s u n its o f le n gth

,
Thus .
,
the r efr a ctin g p o wer o f a len s o f fo c al len gth 1 0 c m m ight .
be var i o usly descr ibed as equ al t o 1 00 millidio p trie s t o ,
1 0 di o pt r ies t o 0 1 H e c t o dio p t ry o r t o
,
Kilo di o p t r y
. .
But these ter m s h ave n o t c o m e in t o gen er al use .
If the fo c al len gth o f a le n s 1 I1 w ater (n = 1 3) is 13 c m . .
its r efr a ctin g po we r will be the s a m e as th at o f a le n s in

a ir (n = 1 ) o f fo c al le n gth 1 0 c m v iz 10 dp t r If the p ri ~
. . .
, ,
m ary fo c al p o in t o f a sphe r ic al r efr a ctin g su rf a ce is situ ated
LA N D O LT S a n d
’
T S C H E R NIN G
’
S b o ok s on h
p ysio l o g ic al o p t i c s ; n o t wit h
t
s an din g t h e fa c t th t t h e wo r d is usually sp e lle d d p ro n o un c ed
W
a an
di o p
t i n E n g l an d an d di 0p ter in Am e r ic a
re D r C RE in h is we l l k n o w n
h h th
. .
t t ex -b o o k o f
p ysics wr it e s di op tr i c T he aut o r h as c o n c lu de d at
hl
.
on the w o e i t is b e s t t o a do p t the sp e llin g u se d i n t h e t e xt

v h
.
T he u su al ab b r e i at io n D ; b u t as t is le t e r
of dio p t r y is a c a p it a l t
h
.
i s liab le t o b e c o n fuse d wit t h e sym b o ls o f m a g n itu de e m p lo y e d in t he

.
f o r m u l a , i t s e e m s p r e f e r a b le t o o llo w t h e usa g e o f VO N R O H R an d f
o the r m o de r n wr it e r s o n o p ic s wh o t
a e a do p t e d t h e a b b re ia ion hv v t
h h
dp tr , alt o ug do ub le ss m an y will o b j e c t t o
. t is lo n g o r m th f .
288 Mirr or s ,
an d Pr ism s Le n se s 1 08
(O ptic a ll y ) in a ir (n = 1 ) at a dist an ce o f 1 m eter fr o m t h e

vertex the r efr a ctin g po wer o f the sur fa ce will be 1 dpt r
, .
a n d the r a dius o f the sur f a ce w ill be e q u a l t o (n 1 ) m ete r s

’
,
wher e n den o tes the in dex o f r efr a ctio n o f the sec o n d m e

5
’
.
dium . If the r a dius o f cur v atur e o f a m i rr o r is 0 c m its .

,
r eflectin g po we r will be 4 dp t r if the r eflectin g su r fa ce is

5
.
in c o n t a ct with air (n = but it will be 4 , d p t r if the

.
sur fa ce is in c o n t a ct with water (n = ; These exam ples

ar e give n m e r el y t o illust r ate h o w the te r m di o pt r y is used .
1 08 Le n s G a u g e
- — The dial o the Opticia s le s g auge
f
’
. n n -
descr ibed in § 99 is usually gr a duated so as t o give in di

o p t r ie s the r efr a ctin g p o we r o f the su r fa ce whi ch is m e a su r ed
.
.
The r efr a ctin g p o wer o f a Spher ic al r efr a ctin g su r fa ce is

pr o po r ti on al t o its cur va tur e as we h ave seen
,
but
it is depen den t als o on the in dices o f r efr a ctio n o f the t wo
m edia If the fi r st m ediu m is air a n d if the in dex o f r e
.
fr a ction o f the sec on d m ediu m is den o ted by n then F ,
(n I) R The gauge a ctu ally m e a sur es the cu r vatu r e R an d

.
,
the r e a din gs o n the dial c o rr esp on d t o the values of R mul

t iplie d b y the fa ct o r (n l)-
. D i r ect r e adin gs o f the r efr a ct
in g p o we r (F) i m pl y the r efo r e th at the m ake r h as a ssum ed
, ,
a ce r t a in v a lue o f the in de x o f r efr a cti o n n ; an d if the a ctu al
value o f n is d iffer en t fr o m this a ssu m ed value the r eadin gs

,
will be err o n eo us The value o f n a ssum ed by the m aker is a

.
c o n st an t o f the in str u m en t which Sh o uld be m ar ked o n it ,
a lth o ug h it m ay e a sily be dete r m i n ed e m pi r ic a ll y by c o m

,
p ar in g the r ea d in gs with the deter mi n ation o f the cur v a tur e

as o bt ain ed with an o r din ar y S phe r o m ete r .
Supp o se th at th is c o n st an t is den o ted b y c an d th at we

,
wish t o use the gauge t o m ea sur e the r efr a ctin g p o wer (F)
o f a le n s o f n egligible thickn ess m a de o f gl a ss o f in dex n .
If the r efr a ctin g po wer s o f the t wo sur fa ces o f the len s ar e

den o ted by F 1 an d F2 an d th e cur vatur es b y RI an d R2 ,
then F F 1 + F2 wher e F l (n 1 ) R1 F2
= = —
,
= —
(n 1 ) R2 the
—
,
m in us sign in fr o n t o f the l a st e xp r essi on bein g n ecessary

bec ause the r efr a ction in this c ase t akes pl ace fr o m glass
109 ] Le ns-Sy s t em of N e g li g ib l e T h i c k n e ss 2 89
to But if the c o n st an t c has a value diff er en t fro m n

air .
,
the r e adin gs o f the in stru m en t fo r the t wo fa ces o f the len s

will n o t give the c o r r ect values F F o f the r efr a ctin g po wer s 1, 2 .
Supp o se the r e a din gs ar e de n o ted by F 1 F so th a t

’ ’
, 2 ,
(c 1 ) R Then eviden tly

= ’ — —
(c 1 ) R1 F
’
F1 ,
—
g 2 .
n —
l n — 1
_
FI —
F2 ’
—
c 1 c 1
an d hen c e
n -1
The gauge e a din gs -r m ust be m ul tiplied ther efor e by the

fa ct o r
n — l
—
c j
l
in order t o o bt ain the c o r r ect v alues o f the r efr a ctin g p o wer s .
Supp o se f or ex am ple th a t the gr a du ati o n s o n the di a l c o r

5
, ,
r esp o n d t o a v a lue c = l 4 an d th at the i n dex o f the len s

5
.
t o be m e a su r ed is n = 1 2 Then the value o f the fa ct o r

. .
is so th a t if the le n s g auge gives f o r the r efr a cti n g

-
p o wer F the v alue dp t r the c o r r ect v alue is o bt a i n ed .
b y multiplyin g this value b y

,
th at is the c o rr ect ,
value wil l be dp t r .
1 09 R ef r a cti o n o f Par axi a l R ays th ro ugh a T hi n Le n s

.
S yste m — Le t M 1 design ate the p o siti o n o f a p o in t c o n j u

’
.
gate t o a a ial o b j ect po in t with r espect t o an in fi n itel y

n x -
thin len s o f r efr a ctin g p o wer F 1 an d let the p o in t wher e ,
the axis c r o sses the len s be design ated by A I If the len s .
is surr oun ded by air an d if we put u 1 = A1 M 1

, ,
Ul / ,
= l ul
then
U1 '
= U1 + F 1 .
If n o w at a p o in t A2 o n the axis o f the len s bey o n d A 1 (such

th at the dist an ce d = A1 A is m ea su r ed in the dir ectio n in
2
‘
which the light is go in g) an o ther i n fi n itely thin len s is set

u p with its axis in the s a m e st r aight li n e with th a t o f the
fi st le s the
r n n M 1 m ay be
,
r egar ded as an axi al o bject p o in t
’
-
2 90 M irr o r s ,
M2 with r espect the sec on d len s ; an d if Mg design ates

to
’
the po sitio n o f the po in t c o n jugate t o M2 (o r M l ) with r e ’
s pect t o this len s then als o (suppo sin g th at the sec on d len s
,
is sur r o un ded b y air an d th at its r efr a ctin g p o wer is den o ted

b y F2) :
Uz
' —F
Ur i a
wher e U2 = 1 /u 2 U 2 = A2M2
’ ’
,
Obvi o usly the p o i t M is the im age p o in t c on jugate t o

’
n -
, 2
the axi al o bj ect p oin t M 1 with r espect t o the t wo len ses

- '
so th at r eg a r di n g the syste m a s a wh o le we m ay wr ite M M , ,
in pl a ce o f M 1 M 2 an d U U in pl a ce o f U1 Uz r espectivel y
’ ’ ’
, , , , .
N o w let us i m p o se the c o n diti o n th at the two thi n len ses

ar e i n con tac t wi th e a ch o ther o r th at they a r e as cl o se t o gethe r
a s p o ssible ; in o the r w o r ds th at the ax i al dist a n ce d betwee n

,
the len ses is n egligible If this is the c ase the po in ts A1 A2

.
, ,
a r e t o be r eg ar ded as a p a i r o f c o in cide n t p o in t s an d he n ce ,
U1 U2 ;
,
an d, ther efo r e ,
we m ay wr ite n o w :
U1 U+ F 1 , U U1 + F2
’ ’ ’
.
Elimin atin g U1
’
, we o bt ain :
U '
an d if we put
F = F I+ F2
we h ave fin all y
U ’
U+ F .
Sin ce thi s fo r m ul a is seen t o be iden tic al in b o th for m an d

m e an in g with the fo r m ul a f o r a s in gle thin len s it a ppe a r s ,
ther efo r e th a t a com bi n a ti on of two thin coaxi a l len ses i n

con ta ct i s e quiva len t to a si n g le len s of r ef ra cti n g p ower F e qua l
to the
.
a lg e b r ai c sum of the r ef r a cti n g p ower s F 1 a n d F2 of the
comp on en t len ses .
The o r etic ally this r ule

,
be a pplied t o a cen ter ed system
c an
o f a n y n umb er of thin len se s i n c on ta ct Thus the t o t a l r e .

,
cti
fr a n g p o we r o f a thi n len s—syste m will be
F = F 1 + F 2+ +F
1 1 0] Pr ism a ti c Po we r of Th in Le n s 29 1
wher e the t o t al n u mber of len ses is den o ted b y m . Thi s

for mul a m ay be wr itten
i =1
wher e F, den o tes the r efr a ctin g po wer of the i th len s .
In the c as e o f a ctu al le n ses pl a ced t o gether in thi s f ashi o n

it will always be a questi on H o w f ar ar e we j ust ified in
,
n eglectin g the t o t a l t hi c k n ess o f the syste m ? T wo a dj a ce n t

len ses m ay be pl a ced in a ctu al c on t act but a thir d len s c an ,
n o t be in c on t a ct with the fir st Mo r eo ver even when .

,
ther e ar e on ly t wo len ses their o utwar d forms m ay be such

,
th at it will n ot be po ssible t o pl a ce the m in t an gen ti al c o n

t a ct at their vertices alth o ugh they c an always be m ade
,
t o t o uch at t wo po in ts sy m m et r ic a lly situ ated with r espect

t o their c o mm o n axis Atten ti o n is dir ected t o this ques
.
ti on chi efly in c o n n ecti on with the m eth o d o f n e utr a liza

ti on o f len ses which is p r a cticed e xte n sivel y in the fittin g
o f spect a cle gl a sses T wo in fin i tely thin le n ses o f equ al an d
“
.
Oppo site r efr a ctin g p o we r s a r e s aid t o n eut r ali z e e a ch ”
o the r bec ause when the y a r e pl a ced in c o n t a ct their t o t al

,
r efr a ctin g po we r (F + F ) is e q u al t o z e r o
1 2 Str ictly spe ak .
in g the n eut r ali z ati o n o f a n egative gl ass b y a p o sitive gl ass

implies n o t on ly th at the fo c al len gths ar e equ al in m agn i
,
tude but al so th at the prim my fo c al p o in t o f o n e len s sh all

c o in cide with the sec o n d ary fo c al p o in t o f the o ther B o th .
o f these c o n diti o n s ar e r e ali z ed in a c o m bin ati o n o f a pl an o
c on cave with a pl an o -c o n vex len s fitted t o gether so as t o for m

a sl ab with pl an e p a r a llel Sides But even with the r elatively
.
thin len ses e m pl o yed in spect a cles sen sible er r o r s m ay be

in tr o duced by a ssumin g as is usually d o n e th a t the c o n
, ,
ditio n F 1 + F = 0 is the sole o r eve n the m ain c o n sider ati on

2
~
fo r n eut r ali z at i o n
.
1 1 0 Pri s mati c Po we r o f a Thi n Le n s — On ly such rays

. .
a s g o th r o ugh the O p tic al cen te r 88) e m er ge fr o m a le n s

with out bein g devi ated fr o m their o r ig in al di rection s The .
pr is m atic p o we r o f a thin len s which like the p o wer o f a

, ,
2 92 Mir r or s ,
Prisms an d Le n ses 1 10
F IG . 1 41 , p
d b — Pr ism a t ic o w e r o f in fi n i t e l y h
t in le n s C on v
v
a an . . ex ,
(b ) C o n c a e l e n s.
thi p r ism
n is m easur ed by the devi ation o f a
p assin g thr o ugh it depen ds n o t o n ly o n the r efr a ctin g p o wer
,
o f the le n s but a ls o o n the pl a ce whe r e the r ay en te r s the

“
len s In the a cco m p an yin g dia gr am (Fig 1 41 a an d b )

. .
,
1 1 0] Pr ism a ti c Po we r of T h i n Le n s 293
the po in t A design ates the axial po in t o f a thin lens o f r e

fra ctin g po wer F A r ay RB in ciden t o n the len s at B p asses
.
o ut in the di r ecti o n B S If M M design ate the po in ts

.
,
’
wher e the in ciden t an d em er gen t r ays cr o ss the axis then ,
A M EM = e is the a gle o f devi ati o ; a d if 0 L A M B de

=
’
n n n
n o tes the sl o pe o i the in ci de n t r ay an d 0 = A AM B den o te s

’ ’
the slo pe o f the em er gen t r ay eviden tly we h ave the r ela ,
tio n
e = 0
The dist an ce h = AB o f the in ciden ce-po in t B fr o m the axis
o f the le n s o r the in cide ce height o f the ray is c all ed b y
n -
the spect a cle m aker s the decen tr a tion o f the len s Sin ce
- .
the decen t r ati o n o f an O phth almic len s is always c o m p ar a

t iv e ly s m all the r ay R B m ay be r eg ar ded as a p ar axi a l
,
r ay an d hen ce we c an pu t 0 an d 0 in pl a ce o f t an d an d
’
,
tan d an d wr ite
’
0 L — hfl
,
u u
wher e u = AM U = l /u ,
Since the len s
is suppo sed t o be sur r oun ded b y air Acc o rd in gly
,
h (U U) ,
’
e
the devi ation -an gle 6 bein g expr essed in r adi an s if h u an d ,
u a r e all e xp r e ssed in te r m s o f the s am e lin e ar un it But

’
.
U U= F
’
an d hen ce
e =h F . ra dian s .
In this fo rm ul a the decen t r atio n h m ust be e xpr essed in

m ete r s if the r efr a ctin g p o we r F is given in di o pt r ies The .
ab o ve r el ati o n m ay be de r ived i mm edi ately als o fr o m

Fig 1 42 wher e the in ciden t r ay R B is d r awn p ar allel t o
.
,
the axis o f the len s so th at in this c ase 0 6 = 0; an d

,
’
AB h
i ce t an
S n 0
’
0
’ —
’ ’
— h F,
. we o bt ain ,
as a b o ve ,
FA f f
efi hF If a scr een is pla ced per pen dicul ar t o the in ciden t
.
light co min g in the dir ectio n RB a spo t o f light will be pr o ,
du c e d on the scr ee n at the p o in t N whe r e the st r aight lin e

2 94 Mirr o r s ,
RB m eets the scr een ; an d if n o w a len s is i n te r po sed at a

cer tain k n o wn dist an ce fr o m the sc r een the devi ati on 6 c an ,
e a sil y be deter m in ed by m e a su r in g the dist an ce N L th r o ugh

which the sp o t o f light is deflected .
H o wever b o th the r adian an d the m eter ar e in c on v e n

,
ie n tly l ar ge u n its fo r e xp r essi n g the v alues o f the s m all m ag
FIG . 1 42 — Prism at ic
. p o we r of in fi n i t e l y h t in l e n s ; in c ide n t r ay p ar all e l
t o a x is .
den o ted b y e an d h Optician s m e asur e the devi a

n it u de s .
tion in ter m s o f the cen tr a d o r in te rm s o f the p r i sm-di op try ,
which in the c ase o f s m all an gles as we h ave seen ,
is pr a ctically the s am e un it a s the cen tr a d If the an gle .
o f deviati o e p essed i c e t d o p ism di o pt r ies is de

n x r n n r a s r r -
n o ted b y p while 6 den o tes the value o f t hi s an gle in r a

,
dian s then ,
= 1 00 6
p .
Mo r e o ve r ,
if the decen tr ati on h is given in cen tim eter s in
stea d of in m ete r s we o bt ain the foll o win g for m ul a
,
=hF
p ; .
th at is ,
the de vi a ti on (p ) i n p r i sm (
-di o tri e s or cen tr a ds
p ) pro
du ced b y a thi n len s i n a n y z on e i s equa l to the p r o duct of the
r ef r acti n g p ower ( ) f
F o t he le n s i n d i op tr i es b y the r a di u s (h)
of the z on e i n cen ti meter s; o r as the o ptician s usu ally expr ess
it ,
the p r i sma ti c p ower f
o a thin le n s i n p r i sm—
di op tr i es i s
Ch . VIII] Pr o b l e m s 29 5
e qua l to the p r odu ct f
o the r e r a cti n g
f p ower o f the len s i n
exam ple
5
di op tr i e s b y the decen tr a ti on i n cen ti me te r s . Fo r ,
a Sp ect a cle gl a ss o f r ef r a cti n g p o w e r dp t r m ust be de

.
cen ter ed a b out cm or 4 mm in . . o r de r t o h a ve a p r is
m atic p o we r o f 2 p r is m dp t r - .
If in Fig 1 42 the dist an ce AP o f the scr een fr o m the len s

.
is 1 m eter the deflectio n LN in cen tim ete r s o f the sp o t o f

,
light wi ll be equ al t o the p r is m atic p o wer o f a len s o f fo c al

len gth f AF decen ter ed by the am oun t h = AB
’
.
PR OB LE M S
1 . is the cur vatur e o f a w ave afle ct e d by r eflectio n

How
at a pl an e m i rr o r ? H o w is the cu r vatu r e o f a pl an e w ave
affected by r e fl ecti o n at a S phe r ic a l m i r r o r ?
5
2 The dist an ce betwee n a lu m i n ous p o in t an d the eye
.
o f an o bse r ve r is 0 cm A pl ate o f gl a ss . 10 cm .
thick is in ter p o sed m idway between the p o in t an d the eye

,
with its t wo p arallel fa ces per pen dicul ar t o the lin e o f visio n .
Sphe r ic al waves sp r e a di n g o ut fr o m the lu mi n o us p o in t

ar e r efr a cte d th r o ugh the pl ate an d i n t o the eye Fi n d the .
cu v tu e
r a r o f the ave fro n t :(a ) just befo r e it en ter s the
w -
gl a ss (b ) imm e di ately a fter e n ter in g the gl a ss (0) im

,
m edi a tel y a fte r le avi n g the gl ass an d (d) when it r e a ches

,
the eye
5
.
An s (a ) —
. dpt r ; (b ) 3 § dptr ; (c) 3§ dpt r ; (d)
-
.
- . .
—2
édp t r .
3 . Wh at is the r efr a ctin g p o we r of a S phe rical r efr a ctin g

surfa ce of ra dius 20 cm . sep ar atin g air (n = 1 fr o m gl a ss
)
An s . dpt r . or dpt r .
,
a cc o r din g as the sur face
is c o n vex o r co n cave r espectively ,
.
4 If the c o r n e a o f the eye is r egar ded as a sin gle Sph e r i

.
c al r efr a ct in g su r f a ce o f r a dius m m sep ar ati n g a ir (n = 1 ) .
fr o m the a queo us hum o r (n wh at is it s r efr a ctin g ’
p o wer ? An s dpt r . .
2 96 Mirr o r s ,
Oh . VIII
5si g the d t
. U n the pr ecedin g p r o blem fin d the r e
a a of ,
fr a ctin g p o wer o f the c o rn e a when the eye is un der water

( n = An s N e ar l y dp t r . .
6 Wh at is the r eflectin g p o we r o f a c o n c a ve mir r o r o f

.
r a dius 20 c m whe n the r eflectin g su r fa ce is in c o n t a ct with

.
()a air (n = 1 ) a n d ()
b w a te r (u =i
§
5
An s .
(a) 1 0 dp t r ; .
(b) dp t r .
7 A c on vex Spher ic al sur fa ce

. dius cm separ ates of r a 2 .
air (n = 1 ) fr o m gl a ss (n Fin d the r efr a ctin g po wer

’
an d the r eflectin g p o we r o f the sur f a ce .
An s R efr a ctin g p o we r is + 2 dp tr ; r eflectin g p o wer is

. .
8 dp t r .
8 . The r eflectin g p o wer o f a spher ic al mirr o r in c on t a c t

with air is + 2 dptr D eterm in e the fo rm o f the mirr o r
. .
An s A c o n c ave mir r o r o f r a dius 1 m ete r

. .
9 A spher ic al m i rr o r is in c o n t a ct with a liquid o f r e

.
fr a c tiv e in de x n If the r eflectin g p o wer of the mir r o r is

.
+ 2 dpt r sh ow th at the m ir r o r is a c on c ave m ir r o r o f r a diu s

.
,
n m ete r s .
1 0 The in dex o f r efr a cti o n o f c ar bo n bisul phi de is

.
Wh at is the r eflectin g powe r o f a c on c ave mir r or o f r adi u s

5
2 c m in c o n t a ct with this liquid ?
. An s dpt r . .
1 1 Wh at is the r efra ctin g p owe r o f a thin s ymm et r ic

.
c on vex len s m ade o f gl ass o f in dex if the r adi us o f c ur

v at u r e o f e a ch su r f a ce is cm ? 5 .An s + 20 dpt r . .
1 2 The r ef a cti g p o we
. r n r o f a thin pl an o -c on vex len s
m a de o f gl a ss o f in dex is 2 0 dpt r Fin d the r a dius o f .
the curved sur fa ce . An s c m o r n e a r l y 1 in ch

. . .
13 A thi n c o n vex m eni scus len s is m a de o f gl a ss o f in

.
The r adius o f the fi r st su r fa ce is 1 0 an d th at of the

5
de x
sec o n d su r fa ce is 2 c m Assu mi n g th at the len s is sur
.
ro u n ded by air (n = fi n d its r efr a ctin g po wer .
An s .
+ 3 dptr .
14 If the len s in the pr ecedin g exam ple wer e

. m ade of
water o f in dex é wh at wil l be its r efra ctin g po wer ?

,
An s .
+ 2 dpt r .
Ch . VIII] Pr o b l e m s 29 7
1 5If the fi st su f ce
. the len s in No 1 3 wer e in c o n
r r a of .
t a ct with water (n 1 = § an d the sec o n d sur fa ce in c o n t a ct

with air (n wh at wil l be the r efr a ctin g po wer ?
3
An s . dp tr .
16 If the fir st surfa ce o f the len s in No 1 3 wer e in con

. .
t a ct with air (n 1 = 1 ) an d the sec o n d surfa ce in c o n t a ct with

water wh at will be the r efr a ctin g po wer ?
5
An s .
+ 4; dptr .
17 . exam ples 1 3 1 4 1 an d 1 6 suppo se the len s wer e

In , ,
r eve r sed so th at the o pp o site f a ce was tu r n ed t o the in ci
den t light Wh at would be the an swers t o these pr o blem s

.
then ?
An s The s am e an swe r s w o ul d be o bt ain ed for No s 13
5
. .
an d 1 4; but the an swe r s fo r N o s 1 an d 1 6 w o uld be in te r.
ch an ged .
1 8 Sh o w th at the l ate r al m agn ific ati on in a sphe r ic al

.
mir r o r a spher ic al r efr a ctin g su r fa ce o r an in fi n itely thin le n s

,
is equ al t o the r ati o o f the r educed ver gen c es U an d U ’

.
1 9 D esc r ibe the sphe r o m ete r an d the len s g auge an d

.
-
explain thei r prin ciples .
2 0 Sh o w h o w a pl an e w ave is r efr a cted th r ough a thin

.
len s an d derive fr o m a di agr am fo r this c ase the fo r mul a

,
fo r the r efr a ct in g po we r .
2 1 Sh o w h o w a pl an e w ave is r efr a cted th r o ugh a thi n

.
p rism an d derive the fo rm ula for the devi ati o n in term s o f

,
the r efr a ctin g an gle o f the p r ism an d the r el ative in dex of

r efr a cti o n .
22 The r efr a ctin g p o we r o f a th in len s is + 6 dpt r

. It .
is m ade o f gl ass o f in dex an d su r r o un ded b y air
If the r a dius o f the fir st sur fa ce is + 1 0 c m wh at is the

5
.
,
r adius o f the sec o n d su r f a ce ? An s r — 0 cm .

2 .
23 A c o n vex len s p r o duces on a sc r een

. cm fr o m .
the len s an i m a ge which is thr ee tim es as l ar ge as the o bj ect .
Fin d the r efr a ctin g po wer o f the len s An s dp t r . . .
24 A le n s gauge gr a du ated in di o pt r ies fo r gl a ss o f in

.
-
de x is u se d t o m easur e a thin d ouble c o n vex len s m ade

Mirr or s ,
Oh . VIII
of gl ass o f in dex The r e adin gs o n the di al give + 4 for
b o th sur fa ces Fin d the r efr a ctin g p o wer o f the len s a ssum
.
,
in g th at its thickn ess is n egligible

5
An s dp t r
. . .
2 M o der n spect a cle gl asses ar e m en iscus len ses with

.
the c o n c ave sur fa ce wo rn n ext the eye If the gl ass is t o .
give the pr o per c o r r ecti o n it is ver y im p o rt an t for it t o be

,
a d j usted at a ce r t ain m e a su r ed dist an ce fr o m the e y e In .
deter m in in g this dist an ce it is n ecess ar y t o a scer t ain the

ver tex depth o f the c o n c ave sur fa ce th at is the p e r p e n
”
, ,
dic ul ar dist an ce (t) o f the ver tex fr o m the pl an e o f the edge

o r c o n t o u r o f the su r fa ce If the di am eter o f this c o n t o ur
.
expr essed in m illim eter s is den o ted b y 2h an d if the r efr a ct ,
in g p o we r o f the su r face n ex t the eye e xp r essed in di o ptr ies , ,
is den o ted by F2 an d fin ally if the in dex o f r efr a cti on o f

, , ,
the gl ass is den o ted b y n Sh o w th at t he vert ex depth o f the

,
sur fa ce is appr o xiin at ely :

2
F2
t
n 1
-
mi llim e te r s.
Wh at is the r efr a ctin g p o we r len t which is e quiv a

5
26 . of a
len t t o t wo thin c on vex len ses o f fo cal len gths 1 an d 30 c m .

,
pl a ced in c on t a ct ? An s 1 0 dp tr . .
2 7 A c o n c ave le n s o f f o c al len gth 1 2 c m is pl a ced in .
c on t a ct with a c o n vex len s o f fo c al len gth Fin d

5
cm .
the r efr a ctin g p o wer o f the c o m bin atio n

5
An s dpt r . . .
28 The r efr a ctin g p o we r o f a thi n c o n c ave l en s is

. tim es
th at o f a thin c on vex len s in c on t a ct with it If the fo c al .
len gth o f the c o m bin atio n is 8 c m fi n d the r efr a ctin g p o wer

5
.
,
o f e a ch o f the c o m p o n e n ts An s —. 1 g an d + 3 dptr .
.
.
29 T wo thin len ses m a de o f gl ass o f in dices

.
, an d
ar e fitted t o gethe r with the sec on d su r f a ce o f the fi r st le n s
c o in ciden t with the fir st sur fa ce o f the sec on d len s

The r adii o f the sur fa ces ar e all p o sitive an d equ al t o 4 1 1 ,
an d 6 c m t a ke n in the o r de r n am ed
. Fi n d the r efr a cti n g .
p o wer o f the c o m bi n ati o n . An s dp t r . .
3 0 Wh at is the p r ism atic eff ect o f a len s o f p o we r + 4dp t r

. .
decen ter ed cm ? . An s 3 p r ism-di o pt r ies . .

Ch . VIII] Pr o b le m s 2 99
31 . thin c o n vex len ses h ave e a ch a f o c al len gth o f

T wo
1 in ch Fi n d the p o siti o n o f the sec o n d f o c al p o i n t o f the
.
c o m bin ati o n o f these t wo len ses when they ar e p l a ced with

thei r axes in the sam e str aight lin e :(a ) when they ar e in
c o n t a ct (b ) when they ar e sep ar ated by in ches an d ,
y
,
()c whe n the a r e sep a r a ted by 3 i n ches D r a w a di a g r am.
fo r e a ch c ase sh o win g the p ath o f a be am o f light c o mi n g

fr o m a di st an t axi al o b j ect po in t - .
An s (a ) H alf a n in ch bey o n d the c o m bin ati o n ; (b ) b e

.
tween the len ses an d 1 in ch fr o m sec on d len s ; (c) 2 in ches

beyon d sec on d len s .
3 2 A c o n vex len s o f fo c al len gt h 20 c m an d a c on c ave

5
. .
len s o f fo c al len gth c m ar e pl a ced 1 6 c m ap ar t Fin d the

. . .
po siti on s of the fo c al p o in ts o f the c o mbin ati on .
An s On e o f the f o c al p o in ts is 420 c m fr o m the c o n ve x

. .
len s an d 436 c m fr o m the c on c ave len s ; an d the o ther fo c al

.
p o in t is 36 c m fr o m the c on vex len s an d 20 c m fr o m the

. .
c o n c ave len s
5
.
3 3 H o w m uch m ust a le n s o f
. dpt r be decen te r ed in .
o r de r t o p r o duce a devi ati o n o f 3 cm

°
An s . .
34 The r a dius o f a Spher ic al su r f a ce is m e asu r ed by a

.
Sphe r o m ete r a n d f o un d t o be cm Me asur ed b y a .
len s gauge the r e adin g is

- dp t r Wh at is the in dex o f r e
.
fr a cti on o f the gl ass f o r which the r eadin gs o n the di al o f the

uge h ve bee c lc ted
5
g a a n a ul a ? A n s .
3 . The r adii o f e a ch sur fa ce o f a thin sym m etr ic d o uble

c on vex gl ass len s is 6 in ches The len s is suppo r ted with .
its lo wer fa ce in c on t a ct with the h o r i z on t al sur fa ce of still

water Assum in g th at the sun is in the z en ith ver tic ally
.
a b o ve the le n s an d th at its a pp ar e n t di am ete r is

,
fin d
the po sition an d si z e o f the sun s im age (Take the in dices ’
.
o f r ef actio n o f air gl ass a d water e qu l t

r n ,
a o 1 ;
i a n d é , ,
r espectivel y ) .
Ans A r e al i m age 1 2 in ches bel o w t he surfa ce o f the wate r

.
,
in ch in diam eter .
C HA PTE R IX
A S TIGMA T IC LE N SE S
111 . Curvatur e an d R e fr a c tin g Po we r of a No r mal S e c
t io n of a C urv e d R e fr ac tin g S urf ac e
The r efr a ctin g po wer
.
—
(F) o f a spher ic al su r fa ce is p r o p o r ti on al t o the cur va tu r e

(R) o f the su r fa ce th a t is F (n n ) R wher e n a n d n
= — ’ ’
, , ,
den o te the in dices o f r efr a ctio n o f the m edia o n O ppo site

sides o f the sur fa ce A spher ic al sur fa ce h as the
s am e cur vatur e in every m er idi an an d hen ce a ls o its r e ,
fr a ctin g p o wer is un ifor m so th a t the r efr a cted r ay s in

,
o n e m e r idi an pl an e a r e b r o ught t o the s am e f o cus as th o se
in an o ther m e r idi an pl an e But the sur fa ces o f a len s ar e

.
n o t a lw a ys Sphe r ic a l an d the r efo r e in o r de r t o asc e r

,
t ain wh at h appen s when a n arr o w bun dle o f r ays is in ci

den t per pen dicul ar ly on a cur ved r eflectin g o r r efr a ctin g
sur fa ce o f an y fo r m we m ust in vestigate the r eflectin g o r
,
r efr a ctin g p o we r in differ en t secti on s o f the sur fa ce ; an d

this m e an s th at we m ust in vestigate th e cur vatur e o f these
sectio n s In gen er al this is a pr o blem o f s o m e difficult y
.
,
an d in v o lves a m o r e o r less e x ten sive kn o wledge o f the
theo r y o f cur ved sur fa ces an d the m eth o ds o f in fin itesim a l

ge o m etr y No attem pt c an be m ade t o expl ain this theo ry
.
her e but fo r the studen t wh o is n o t a lr e ady fam ili ar with

,
it cer t ain gen er al defin itio n s an d pr o p o siti on s o f ge o m et r y

,
whi ch h ave a dir ect bear in g o n the o ptic a l pr o ble m s t o be

t r eated in this ch apter will be st ated as succin ctly as p o s
sible .
The n o rm al t o a cur ved sur fa ce at an y p o m t is a str aigh t

li n e dr a wn per pen dicul ar t o the t an gen t pl an e at th at p o in t .
The cur ved lin e which is t r a ced o n the s ur fa ce b y a pl an e

c on t ain in g the n or m al at a po in t A o f the surfa ce is c alled
300
1 1 1] t
No r m al Se c io n s o f C ur v e d Surfac e 3 01
a n or mal secti on thr ough this po in t The n o r m al sectio n s .
o f a sphe r e like the m e r idi an s o f l o n gitude o f the e ar th (a s

,
sum ed t o be a pe r fect sphe r e ) a r e all g r e a t c ir cles o f the

,
S phe r e an d thei r cu r v a tu r e s ar e e q u al
,
But gen er all y .
, ,
1 43 — N v :Ay p
p q
F IG o r m al se c t io n s o f su r f ac e d xA z la n e s of
p p
. . c ur ed x an
r in c i al se c t io n s ; xA P lan e of ob li u e n o rm a l se c t io n .
the curvatur es o f the n o r m al sectio n s th r o ugh a p o in t on

a cu r ved su r f a ce wil l v a r y fr o m o n e secti o n t o the n e xt ; so
th at if we im agin e a plan e c o n t ain in g the n o r m al t o be turn ed

a r o un d this li n e as axis we sh a ll fi n d th at fo r o n e Special
,
a z i m uth o f this r ev o l v in g pl an e the cu r ved li n e wh ich it
c ar ves out o n the sur fa ce will h ave the gr eatest cu rvatur e ,
a n d th at then a s the pl an e c o n tin ues t o r ev o lve the cu r v a
tu r e o f the secti on decr e a ses an d r ea ches its le ast v alue fo r

a n a z im uth which is e xa ctly 9 0 f r o m th at f or which the
°
curvat ur e was g r e atest Thus fo r exam ple in a cylin dri

.
, ,
c al su r fa ce the cu r v atu r e a t an y p o in t is le a st a n d equ al t o
z e r o in a n o r m a l secti o n wh o se pl an e is p a r a llel t o the a xis
o f the cylin de r an d it is g r e atest in a n o r m al secti o n m a de

,
3 02 M irr o r s ,
by a pl an e per pen dicular to the ax is . At ea ch p oi n t A of a
c urve d s ur a ce f the n or ma l secti on s o f g r ea test a n d le a st curva
tur es li e a lwa ys i n two p er p en di cula r p la n e s, which ar e c alled

the pl an es o f the p r in ci p a l secti on s o f the su r fa ce at A . The
lin es o f in ter secti on o f these pl an es with e a ch o ther an d
with the t an gen t pl an e a t A m ay be ch o sen as the axes
o f r efe r e n ce o f a syste m o f r ect an gul ar c o or din ates x y z , ,
wh o se x-axis is the n o r m al Ax (Fig The cen ter s o f .
cu rv atu r e o f the p r in cipal secti on s m a de b y the xy—plan e

a d
n the x z -pl an e will be design ated b y C an d C r e spe c y Z,
t iv e ly ; a n d the cur v a tu r es o f the p r in cip a l secti on s will be

den o ted b y R an d R so th at if r = AC an d
y y y
den o te the pr in cip al r a dii o f curv atur e o f the sur fa ce at

the po in t A we must h ave her e 99) Ry = 1/ry an d R
, ,
1 /r z .
N o w the r e is a r em ar k able ge o m et r ic al r elatio n between

the cu r vatur e o f an y n o r m al section at A an d the cur vatur es
o f the p r i n cip a l secti o n s o f the sur fa ce at this p o in t whi ch
will be st ated als o with o ut givin g the p r o o f Le t a pl an e .
c on t ain in g the n o r m al Ax in ter sect the t an gen t plan e (o r

y z —pl an e ) in the st r a ight li n e A P Fi
( g 1 43 ) a n d put A A
y P .
0 The cen te r o f cu r v atu r e o f t h e n o rm al secti on m ade

.
b y this pl an e lies als o o n the n o rm al Ax at a poin t which

m ay be design ated a s C 9 so th a t the r a dius o f cur vatur e ,
is A C 0= r 9 an d the cu r v a tu r e itse lf is R e = 1 /r o
, The c o n .
n e c t io n betwee n Re a n d the p r in cip a l cu rv a t ur es R an d y
R is exp r essed b y the f o ll o win g f orm ul a

z
R¢9 = R y
. cos
2
0+ Rz sin 0,.
2
wher e 0 den o tes the an gle which the n o rm al section m akes

with the xy-pl an e .
In a n o rm al secti o n a t r ight an gles t o the fir st we Sh o uld

h ave ther efor e
, ,
2 2
Ro+ 90 °
Ry . co s ( + Rz . sin (
or, sin ce cos ( Sin 0, sin ( = cos 0,
H—— 2
0
Re + 90 °
l c os .
§ 1 1 1] N o rmal Se c ti on s of C u r v e d Su r fa c e 3 03
Ad din g the cur vatur es Re an d Re + g o °

, we o bt ain the r el a
tio n
th at is ,
the a lg e b r ai c su m of the cu rva tur e s o f an y two n or ma l
se cti on s i n ter se cti n g e ac h other a t r i g ht a n g les at a p oi n t on

a c ur ved f
sur ace has a c on sta n t v a lu e , whi ch i s e qua l to the
a lg e b r ai c sum of the p r i n ci p a l cur va tur es at thi s p oi n t .
These theo r em s c o n cer n in g the cur vatu r es o f the n o rm al

sectio n s at a po in t o f a cur ved surfa ce ar e due t o the gr e a t
m athe m atici an E U LE R (1 7 07 who m ade n o t able c o n
t r ib ut io n s als o t o the the o r y o f o ptics .
Si n ce the r efo r e the cu r v atur e o f a su r fa ce at the po in t A

,
varies fr o m o n e a z im uth t o an other as h as j ust been e x

,
pl a in ed the po wer o f a r efr a ctin g sur fa ce will vary in

,
exa ctly the s am e way Acc o r din gly the p rin cip al sectio n s
.
,
fo r which the cu r vatu r e o f a r efr a ctin g su r fa ce has its gr e at

est an d least values (R R ) ar e also the sectio n s at this
y, 2
pl a ce o f gr eatest an d least r efr a ctin g p o wer s because

(n
’
(n ) Ry ) Rz
’
Fy -
n ,
Fy -n .
The r efra ct in g p o wer at this pl a ce in an o blique n o r m al

secti on which is in clin ed t o the xy-pl an e at an an gle 0will be
Fo= —
(n n ) Ro;
’
an d the r el ation between F e an d Fy , Fz is given by the

fo r m ul a :
F9 = F y
. cos
2
0+ Fz sin 0 .
2
an d m o r e o ver
F9 + F e + 9 0 °
Fy + Fz ;
th at is ,
the a lg eb r a i c su m of the re r a cti n g
f p owers i n an y two
n or ma l secti on s thr oug h a p oi n t on a c u r v ed r ef r a cti n g sur
fa ce is con sta n t a n d e qua l to the a lg eb ra i c sum o f the p ri n ci
p a l r efr a cti n g p wers

o .
Fo rexam ple in Fig 1 44 let A design ate a po in t o f a

, .
,
curved r efr a ct in g sur fa ce an d let the n o r m al at this po in t

be r ep r esen ted by the st r aight lin e Ax which in a cc o r d an ce
,
with the p r ecedin g discussi o n is t o be t aken as the x-axi s

o f a sy ste m o f r ect an gul ar c o o r din ates with its o r igin a t A .
3 04 Mirr o r s ,
The y-axis is r epr esen ted b y a st r aight lin e d r awn in the

plan e o f the p aper per pen dicul ar t o Ax T he pl an e o f the .
p aper r epr esen ts the pl an e o f o n e o f the p r in cip al sectio n s ,
whe ea s the xz pl an e at r ight an gles t o this plan e r epr esen ts

r -
F IG 1 44— C hi e f Of n ar r o w y
b u n dl e O f r a s n o r m al t o c u r e d v
p p
r ay re
:
. .
f r ac t in g surf ac e Pr i n c i al se c t i o n s xA y , xAz ; t a n g e n t l an e yAz .
the pl e the o the p i cip al secti o n The t an ge t pl an e

an of r r n . n -
at A is r ep ese ted b y the yz pl an e per pen dicul ar t o the

r n -
n o r m al C o n sider n o w a n ar r o w bu n dle o f r ay s which p r o

.
c e e din g fr o m a p o in t M o n the n o r m al a r e in ciden t o n the
cu r ved r efr a ctin g sur fa ce at p o in ts which ar e all very cl o se

to A This p oin t M m ay be design ated als o b y M o r b y
.
y
M a cc o r din g as it is r egar ded as ly in g in the o n e o r the o ther

z
o f the t wo p r in cip a l secti o n s ; o r it m ay be design ated a ls o
b y M 9 if it is t o be co n sider ed a s l yin g in an o bli que n o r m al

secti on which is in clin ed t o the xy—pl an e at an an gle 0 The .
chi ef r ay o f the bun dle is the ray whi ch c o in cides with the
n o r m al t o the su r fa ce a t A an d which p r o ceeds ther e fo r e
in t o the sec on d m e dium with o ut bein g devi ated A pl an e .
c on t ain in g this chi ef r ay will cut out fr o m the bun dle a p e n

cil of rays which will be r efr a cted at p o in ts o f the sur fa ce
which lie in a n or m al secti on The pen cil o f r ay s pro ceed
.
in g fr o m My in the xy— pl an e will be r efr a cted t o a p o in t M ’

y ,
whil e the pen cil o f r ay s p r o ceedin g fr o m M will be r efr a cted z
t o a p o in t M an d in gen e r al these p o in ts M an d M will

’ ’
, , y ,
be t wo difle r e n t p o in ts o n the n o r m al Ax No w if U U ’
“ y, y
.
den o te the r educed ver gen ces 1 06 ) o f the p a ir o f c o n j u

”
§ 1 1 2] Sur fac e s of R e v o lu t i on 30 5
gate p oin ts M M in o n e pr in cip al secti o n ; an d Sim il ar ly
’
“ y y
, , ,
if U U den o te the r educe d ve r gen ces o f the p ai r o f c o n

z, z
’ ”
jugate p o in ts M M in the o ther pr in cip al secti o n e v i ,

’
,
de n t ly we sh a ll h ave the fo ll o win g r el ati o n s :

Uz UZ + F
’
.
Z
Sim il ar ly ,ls o a pen cil o f r ays pr o ceedin g fr o m M 9 an d

a ,
m eet in g the r efr a ctin g sur fa ce at p o in ts in an o blique n o r

m al secti o n wil l be r efr a cted t o a po in t M o whi ch will lie
'
o n Ax betwee n M an d M so th a t
’ ’
y Z ,
Ue U0+ F e
’
.
If the bun dle o f in ciden t r ays is h om o cen tr ic th at is if

the p o in ts design ate d by M M an d M 9 ar e all c o in ciden t
, ,
y, Z ,
the U U Ue U The peculiar ity o f the im a gery

n = =
y
=
z .
c o n sists in the fa ct th at in ste a d o f o bt ain in g a sin gle im age

po in t M c o rr esp o n din g t o an o bj ect -p o in t M as in the c ase
’
,
o f a sphe r ic al r efr a ctin g su r f a ce we fin d her e a wh ole se ,
r ies o f such p o in ts lyin g o n the seg m e n t M M o f the n o r

’ ’
y z
m al Ax This will be e xpl ain ed m o r e full y in

. 1 13 .
1 1 2 S urf a ce s of R evo luti o n

. Cylin dr ic al an d T or i c .
S ur f ac e s —
The cu rved r eflect in g an d r efr a ctin g sur fa ces
.
o f o ptic a l mir r o r s an d len ses a r e a l m o st with o ut e x cepti o n
su rf ace s of r ev oluti on th at is sur fa ces gen era ted b y the r evo

, ,
lut io n o f the ar c o f a plan e c ur ve ar o un d an a xis in its pl an e .
Acc o r din gly it is desir able t o c all a tten tion t o s o m e o f the

,
speci al pr o perties o f these sur fa ces The cur ve t ra ced o n .
a sur fa ce o f r ev o luti o n by a pl an e c o n t ain in g the axis o f
r ev o luti o n is c alled a me r i di an secti on The n o r m als t o the .
gen er atin g curve ar e als o n o rm als t o the su r fa ce ; an d sin ce

the n o rm al at an y po in t o f the sur fa ce lies in the m er idian
secti o n which p a sses thro ugh th at p o in t it fo llo ws th at the ,
n o r m als t o a su r fa ce o f r ev o luti on all in te r sect the axis o f
r ev o luti o n .
The t wo p r in cip al secti on s at an y p o in t o f a surfa ce o f

r ev o luti o n a r e the m e r idi an secti o n which p a sses th r o ugh
th at p o in t an d the n o r m al secti o n which is per pen dicul ar

t o the m er idi an secti on The cen ter o f curvatur e o f the .
3 06 Mirr ors ,
l atter p rin cip al section lies o n the axis o f r evo lution at the
p o in t wher e the n o rm al c r o sses it .
N o t o n ly a r e the su r fa ces o f m ir r o r s an d len ses ge n e r all y

sur fa ces o f r evo luti o n but usu ally they ar e very Sim ple types
,
o f such sur fa ces A spher .
ic al sur fa ce m ay be con sid

er ed as gen er ated b y the .
r evo luti o n of a c ir c le
ar o un d o n e o f its di am e
ter s The o t h e r chief .
fo rm s o f r eflectin g an d r e
fr a ctin g sur fa ces ar e cyl
i n dr i ca l an d tor ic f
sur a ce s,
which
ls o c o m par a ar e a
t iv e ly e as y t o gr in d .
A cylin dri ca l surf a ce o f

r ev o luti o n is gen er ated b y
the r evo luti on o f a straight

lin e ab o ut a p ar allel str aigh t
lin e as axis c alled the a xi s ,
of the c yli n der A m eridi an .
section of a cylin der at a

poin t A o n the surfa c e
(Fig 14 ) will be a s tr aight . 5
lin e o f z e r o curvatur e ,
wher ea s the o ther prin cip al

secti o n at r ight a n gles t o
1 45 ti g p w
ax1 s O f the cy lin de r W1 11
F —R f f y lj
:P i ip l the
IG . . e r ac n o er o c n
d A ; b liq
d i l f ti
m d b y pl
r ca su r a c e r n c a se c on s
Ag be the ar c Of a cir cle

“ti AP
a e an e s an z o ue
a on ‘
wh o se cur vatur e is R = 1/r ,
wher e r den o tes the r adi us o f the cylin der If the y-axis .
,
is dr awn p arall el t o the cylin der-axis then R = 0 R = R; , y , ,
an d hen ce a cc o r d in g t o E ULE R S f o r m ul a given in § 1 1 1

’
,
the cu r vatu r e in an o bli que n o r m al section AP in clin ed t o

the axis of the cylin der at an an gle 0 will be
R0 R sin 0
2
. .
§ 1 1 2] y
C li n dr ic al R e fr a c ti n g Sur fac e 307
This r esult m ay be o bt ain ed als o in depen den tly by o b ser v

in g th a t a lth o ugh the a r cs Az an d AP in Fig 1 4 h ave the . 5
sam e sa g i tta their ch o r ds den o ted by 2h an d 2he ar e
un equ al in len gth bec ause h = he sin 0 N o w the cur va
,
. .
tur es o f t wo ar cs h avin g the s am e sag i tta ar e in ver sely pr o

p o r tion al to the squ ar es o f th e ir ch o r ds ; c on sequen tly
‘
,
2
R9 h
R 71 02
an d hen ce
R0 R sin.
2
0,
exa ctly as a b ove . Mor eo ver ,
in a n or m a l secti on p p
e r e n
F IG 1 46 — Pr in c i
. . p a l s e c t io n s o f t o ric su r f ac e .
dicul ar t o the sectio n AP, we fi n d, b y wr itin g in

pl a ce o f 0,
Rv+ 9o = R °
. co s
2
0;
an d ther efor e
Acc or din gly in the c a se o f a cylin d ric al r efr a ctin g sur

,
fa ce if the m axi m u m r efr a ctin g p o wer is den o ted by F ,
the r efr a ctin g p o wer in an o bli que section in clin ed t o the

,
308 Mirr or s ,
ax is at an an gle 0 will be F Sin 0 an d in a secti on at right .

2
,
an gles t o this F c o s 0 The r efr a ctin g p o wer F o f a cylin

2
. .
dr ic al r efr a ctin g su r fa ce m ay the r efo r e be c o n sider ed as , ,
in a cer t ain sen se c a p able o f r es o luti o n in t o a r efr a ctin g

p o wer F sin 0 in o n e o bli que section an d a r efr a ctin g p o wer
.
2
1
?
. .c -
o o c
1 47 , d b — T o r ic su r f ac e s (r e p r o du c e d f r o m PR E N ’
Op h tha lmi c Len s
p h
IG . a an . TIC E S
and P r i sms b y e r mi ssio n o f t h e au t or ) .
F . cos 2
0 in a secti on at r ight an gles to the fir st ; an d Sin ce
we c an say th at the a lg e b r ai c su m of the r e r a cti n g

f p owers i n
an y two mutu a lly p er p en di cu lar se cti on s a c yli n dr i ca l r e of
f r a cti n g surf a ce i s con stan t a n d e qu a l to the m a xi m um ref ct

r a
i n g p ower .
A tor i c or f ( c lled
tor oida l f r o m the
sur a ce
a r chitect so - a
ural ter m tor us a pplied t o the m oldin g at the b ase o f an

I on ic c olu mn ) is a sur fa ce Sh aped like an an ch or-r in g whi ch
§ 1 1 2] T o ric Surf a c e s an d Le n ses 309
is gen er ated by the r ev olution o f a c o n ic secti o n a r o un d an

axis whi ch lies in the pl an e o f the ge n e r at in g cu r ve but d o es
n o t p a ss th r o ugh its ce n te r The su r fa ce o f an aut o m obile

.
tyr e is a t or ic surfa ce bein g gen er ated b y the r ev o luti o n

,
o f the cir cul ar c r o ss -secti o n o f the t yr e a r o un d an axis p e r
1 48 , p p
d b — Pr in c i al se c t io n s O f t o r ic l e n se s (r e r o du c e d f r o m
N
FIG
p h
. a an .
PR E S Op h tha lm i c Len s es a n d Pr i s ms b y e r m i ssio n o f t h e a u t o r )

’
T IC E .
p e n di cu l ar the plan e o f the wheel at its cen ter To r ic

to .
r efr a ctin g su r fa ces ar e ge n e r ated a lw ay s b y the r ev o luti o n
o f the ar c o f a ci r cle (Fig The ar cs of the t wo p r in

.
c ip al secti o n s o f a t o r ic su r f a ce o f a le n s bisect e a ch o the r
at the ver te x A o f the su r fa ce so th at the n o r m al Ax is an ,
ax is o f symm et r y If the axis o f r evo luti on is p ar allel t o

.
the y axis o f the syste m o f r ect an gular c o o r din ates the

-
,
cen ter o f the m er idian secti o n th r ough A is at the cen ter

C o f the ge n e r a tin g ci r cle whe r e a s the ce n te r o f the o the r
y ,
p rin cip al sectio n at A is at the po in t o f in te r section C o i z

-
the n or m al Ax with the axis o f r evolution .
The diagram s Fig 1 47 a an d b (whi ch are c o pied fr o m

,
.
,
3 10 Mirr o r s ,
Pr ism s an d Le n ses 113
the beautiful d rawin gs o f Mr PR E NTIOE in his valuable

“
.
an d o r igin al ess ay o n Ophth al mic Len ses an d Pr isms in ”
the A meri ca n E n cyclop ce dia of Op thha lmolog y) Sh o w the t wo

pr in cip al for m s o f t o r ic sur fa ces The p r in cip al secti on s o f
.
s o m e types o f t o r ic len ses ar e in dic ated in Fig 1 48 a an d b .

,
.
A cylin d r ic al sur fa ce o f r evo luti on m ay be c on sider ed as

a speci a l f o r m o f t o r ic su r fa ce b y r eg ar din g t he seg m en t o f
the gen er at in g str aigh t lin e as the ar c o f a cir cl e with an

i n fin it e r a dius .
1 13 . R e fr a c tio n of a Narro w Bun dl e of Rays in c ide n t

N o r m al ly on a y
C lin dr ica l R e fr ac t in g Sur fac e . S tur m ’
s
Con o i d .
— In or der
bt ain a clear idea o f the ch ar a cter
to o
o f a bu n dle o f ray s r efr a cted a t a c y li n d r ic a l su r fa ce o r
thr ough a thin cylin dr ic al len s supp o se by way of ill ustr a

, ,
h
1 49 — C ie f r a y o f n arr o w b u n dl e m e e t s y
lin dr ic al r e fr ac t in g su rf a c e
y y
FIG
p
. . c
n o r m all ; a st ig m at ic b u n dl e o f r e f r a c t e d ra s Prin c i al se c t io n s xAy

.
a n d xAz .
ti on th at we c on sider a speci al c ase of the pr o blem wh ich we

,
h a d in 1 1 1 in c o n n ecti on with Fig 1 44 n am el y the c ase in

.
,
whi ch a n ar r o w h o m o cen t r ic bun dle o f in ciden t r ays o ri gi

,
n all y c o n ve r gin g t o w a r ds a p o in t M is in te r cepted befo r e it

,
r e a ches this p o in t b y bein g r eceived o n a c y li n d r ic a l r efr a ct
in g su r fa ce which is pl a ce d so th at the chief r ay o f the bun dle

m eets the su r fa ce n o rm ally a t a p o in t A an d p r o ceeds ther e ,
for e al on g the n o r m al Ax (Fig 1 49 ) with o ut bein g deflecte d

,
. .
t
As i g m a ti c B un dle of R y a s 11
Fo r c on ven ien ce o f delin eati o n the cylin d r ic al surfa ce is

,
r ep r esen ted in the figu r e as the fi r st su r f a ce o f an i n fini tely
thin pl an o -cylin dr ic a l len s but the e xpl an ati on is n o t e s

,
se n t ially affected by the fa ct th at it a pplies t o a bu n dl e o f
rays which h ave u n de r g o n e als o a sec o n d r efr a cti o n at the
pl an e fa ce of the len s The bun dle o f in ciden t r ays is n o t

.
r ep r ese n ted in the fi g ur e . The po in t whe r e the chief r ay

m eets the len s is design ated b y A In the d r awin g t hi s p o in t
.
A is m ar ked on the sec o n d o r plan e fa ce o f the len s but sin ce

the len s is suppo sed t o be in fini tely thin this po in t m ay be
,
r eg ar ded als o as ly in g o n the fi r st fa ce The plan e o f the

.
paper r epr esen ts the m er idian sectio n o f the cylin d ric al sur
fa ce thr ough the ver tex A an d hen ce the axis o f the cylin de r
,
is in thi s plan e an d p ar allel t o the str aight lin e Ay p e r p e n dic

ul ar t o Ax in the m er idian o r xy-plan e This m eridian pl an e
.
is o n e o f the prin cip al secti on s at the ver tex A o f the cylin

dr ic al sur fa ce ; whe r e a s the o the r p r i n cip al secti o n is the
xz pl an e at r ight an gles t o the pl an e o f the p a pe r
- The .
bun dle o f r ays is cut by these pr in cip al section s in a p en ci l

of m e r i di an r a ys lyin g in the m e r idi an xy— pl an e an d a p en ci l
of sa g i tta l r a ys (n a m ed by an a l o gy with the so -c alled s agitt al
sutu e i”
r n a n a to m y) lyi g the xz pl an e ; the chi ef r ay o f
n in -
the bun dle b ein g co mm on t o b o th o f these pen cils Sin ce it ,
is the lin e o f in te r sectio n o f the t wo p r in cip al sectio n s o f the .
bun dl e No w the m eridian r ays t r aver sin g the in fin itely

.
thin cyli n d ric a l le n s in a sectio n c o n t ain in g the axis o f the

cylin der will be en tir ely un affected in t ran sit an d will pr o
c e e d the r efo r e t o the p o in t M just as th o ugh the thin piece
o f gl a ss h ad n o t bee n i n te r p o sed in the way ; so th at this
po in t r egar ded n o w as the po in t o f r en de z vo us so t o spe ak ,
o f the m e r idi an r ays a fte r the y h ave p a ssed th r o ugh the

,
len s m ay also be design ated b y M as in fa ct it is m ar ked

’
y ,
in the di a gra m On the o the r h an d the r ays o f the s a gitt al

.
,
pen cil m eet the su r fa ce in po in ts lyi n g o n the ar c o f the sec

ti o n m a e b y the xz pl an e
d - a n d the r ays in this pl an e a r e
r efra cted just as the y w o uld be th ro ugh a pl an o S phe r ic al

,
-
312 Mirr o r s
,
Pr ism s an d Le n ses 1 13
len s the s am e cu r vatu r e as th at o f the cylin der ; an d a c

of
c o r din g ly a fte r p a ss in g th r o ugh the le n s the y will be b r o ught
t o a fo cus at a p o in t M o n the chi ef r ay Ax which in the

’
Z ,
c ase her e suppo sed will be between the len s an d the p o in t

M as r ep r esen ted in the figur e
y ,
’
.
The bu n dle o f r ays after r efr a ction is n o l on ger h omo cen tric ,
s o th a t a n o bj ect -p o in t is n o t r epr o duced in a cylin dr ic al

len s b y a sin gle im age po in t o r even b y a p air o f i m age p o in ts
- -
,
sin ce o n l y the m er idian an d s agitt al i m age -r ay s in ter sect

in the so -c alled i m a ge -p o in t s M an d M r espectivel y
’
.
y
Un de r such ci r cu m st an ces the bu n dle o f i m age r ays is s aid

,
-
t o be a sti g ma ti c (o r with o u t f o cus ) which in f a ct is the , , ,
gen eral ch ar a cter o f a bun dle o f o ptical r ays as will b e ,
fu r the r expl a in ed in C h a pter XV .
R ay s which ar e i n ciden t o n the c ylin d r ic al surfa ce in an

o bli q ue secti o n m a de b y a pl an e c o n t ain i n g the n o r m al Ax
will be b r o ught t o a fo cus at a po in t lyin g between M an d y

’
M as expl ain ed in 1 1 1 But the t wo p o in ts M an d M

z
'
,
.
y
’
,
’
h ave a super i or r ight t o be r egar ded as the im age-p o in ts o f

the astigm a tic bun dle o f rays n o t o n ly because they are
,
t h e im ag e p o in ts o f the t wo p r in cip a l pe n cils o f the bun dle

-
,
but als o bec ause the so c alled imag e-lin es o f the astigmati c
-
bun dle o f r ay s ar e l o c ated at these pl a ces as we sh all pr o ,
c e e d t o Sh o w .
I magin e a st r aight lin e d rawn o n the sur fa ce o f the cylin

de pr a r a llel t the y axi s an d at a sh o r t dist an ce fro m the
o -
xy pl an e
- an d c o n side r the pe n cil o f r ay s whi ch m eet the
,
su r f a ce in p o in ts lyi n g a l o n g this li n e ; these ray s a fte r p a ss
in g thr o ugh the len s will m eet in a p o in t in the xz—pl an e a

little t o o n e side o f the i m age-po in t M an d the ass e m bl age y
’
o f these im a ge p o i n ts will f o r m a ve r y sh o r t i m age-li n e p e r

-
p e n dicul ar t o the m e r idi an secti o n o f the bun dle o f r ay s at

the p o in t M ; just as th ough the pen cil o f m er idian r ays
y
’
h ad been r o t ated th r o ugh a ve r y s m all an gle ar o un d an

a xis p ar a llel t o the y-axis an d p a ssi n g th r o ugh M
’
An d z. ,
si mil ar ly if the pen cil o f sagitt al rays is r o t ated slightly

,
ST UR M C on o id
’
1 13] S 3 13
on b o th sides o f the xz-pl an e ar o un d an axis p ar allel t o the

z-axis a n d p a ssi n g th r o ugh the i m age -p o i n t M the im age ’
y ,
po in t M will t r a ce out a little i mage lin e per pen dicular t o

,
’ -
the s agitt al secti o n o f the astig m atic bun dle o f r ays Thus .
in ste a d o f a p o in t like i m a ge o f a po in t like o b j ect o r p o in t

,
- -
t o p o i n t c o rr es p o n de n ce betwee n o b j ect an d i m age th a t is

—
, ,
i ste d o the
n a f s o -c alled p un ctual i mag er y which we h ave
when p araxial r ays ar e r eflected o r r efr a cted at a spher ic al
surfa ce we o bt a in her e s o m ethin g essen ti all y diffe r en t ; fo r
,
in this c a se e a ch p o in t o f the o bj ect is r ep r o duced b y two
FIG . 5 U
1 0 — ST
. R M S c o n o id .
’
t y i m g e lin es ,
i n a - eac h p p
er en di c u la r to the chi e f ray f the
o
b un dle , on e in on e p r i n cip a l secti on an d the other i n the other
p r i n ci p a l se cti on
; th a
so t if the i m ge
on e of li es is ve r tic aal - n
,
the o ther will be h o r i z o n t al The i m a ge-lin e which p asses

.
th r o ugh the i m age—p o in t o f the m e ridian r ays lies in the

pl an e o f the s agitt al sectio an d vi ce ver sa
n -
,
.
The c ase in which an o bj ect p o in t is r ep r o duced by t wo-
Sh o r t im a ge —lin es is the sim plest fo r m o f a stig m atism an d ,
it is o n ly un de r ex cep ti o n ally favo r able ci r cum st an ces th at

it c an be a ctu ally r e ali z ed a s described ab o ve The astig
5
.
m a tic bu n dle o f r ays r ep r esen ted in Fig 1 0 which is c o m .

,
p l e t e ly sy mm et r ic a l in the t wo p r i n cip a l secti o n s is k n o w n
as ST U R M S con oi d a fte r the celeb r ated m a the m a tici an wh o

’
a ppe ar s t o h ave bee n the fi r st t o m ake a s y ste m atic i n vesti
g atio n (1 83 8) o f the ch ar a cte r istics o f a n ar r o w bu n dle o f

3 14 Mirr o r s ,
o ptica l r ays If the len s-o pen in g is deter min ed b y a s ma ll

.
cir cular st o p in a plan e at r ight an gles t o the o ptical axis

(o r x axis ) an d with its cen te r o n this axis the t r an sver se
-
secti o n s o f the a stig matic bun dle o f r efr a cted r ays m ade by
,
plan es pe r pen dicul ar t o the chi ef r ay (th at is p ar a llel t o

the yz pl an e) will be ellipses with their m aj or axes p arallel
,
t o the y axis in o n e p a r t o f the bun dle an d p ar a llel t o the

-
z— axis in t h e o the r p ar t These elliptical secti o n s bec o m e

.
n arr o we r an d n arr o we r as they a pp r o a ch eithe r o f the im age
lin es at b o th of which pl a ces the elliptic al secti on c o ll apses

,
in t o the m aj o r-axis o f the ellipse At s o m e in ter m edi ate .
p i t be wee the
o n t n t w o i age lin es the secti on o f the b un dle
m -
will be a ci r cle (the so c alled - “ cir cle o f le ast

1 1 4 Th in Cyli n dr i c a l an d T o r i c Le n se s —Optic al len se s
. .
m ay n o w be cl assifi ed in t wo p r in cip al gr o ups n am ely

an a sti g m a ti c (o r si m pl y sti ma ti c le n ses a n d a sti mati c len ses
, ,
g ) g
a cc o r di n g as t he i m age r y p r o duced b y the r efra cti o n o f
,
p ar
a, C on c a v e.
v
FIG . 5
1 1, a an
b, Con
.
e x.
y
d b — Pl a n o -c lin dri c al l e n se s .
i l r ays th r o ugh the len s is pun ctu al i m agery o r n ot

ax a
An astigmatic len ses ar e Sin gle fo cus len ses wher ea s astig ,
m atic le n ses m ay be s aid t o be d o uble fo cus len ses The .
essen ti al r equir e men t is th at the Optic al axis o f the len s ,

1 14] y
C li n dr i c a l Le n se s 31 5
which is gen er ally an axis o f sym m etr y sh all m eet b o th ,
fa ces n o rm ally an d an o ther c o n diti o n th at m ust

a l ways be fulfi lled in a n a ctu a l le n s is th a t the pl an es o f the
pr in cip al sectio n s at the ve r tex o f the fi r st sur fa ce sh all als o

be the plan es o f the pr in cip al section s at the ver tex o f the
sec o n d sur fa ce Astigm atic len ses ar e gen erally cyli n dr ic al
.
o r t o r ic .
C ylin dr ic al len ses ar e m ade in th r ee fo r m s n a m ely p lan o

cyli n dr i cal (o n e su r fa ce cyli n d r ic a l a n d the o the r pl a n e
, ,
FIG 1 2
. 5 ph
.
—S e r o -c y li n dr ic al l e n s .
. 5 ph
F IG 1 3 — S. e r o -c y lin dri c al l e n s .
Fig . 1 1,5 a an d b) , (b o th
sur f a ces cyli n d r ic a l
cr oss-cyli n dr i ca l ,
the axes o f the cylin der s bein g at r ight an gles) an d spher o ,
cyli n dr i ca l (o n e su r fa ce cylin d r ic a l a n d the o the r s p he r ic al
5
,
Figs 1 2 an d . All o f these fo r m s a r e quite c o mm o n in

m o der n s p ect a cle gl a sses but p r i o r t o 1 860 cylin d r ic al le n ses
,
wer e h ar dly e m pl o yed at all The fir st scien tific use o f a

.
cylin dr ic al len s seem s t o h ave been m ade by FR E SNE L

the pu p se bt i g lu i us
5
— i i m
(1 7 88 1 8 2 7 ) n 1 8 1 9 f o r r o o f o a n n a
no
lin e In 1 82 Sir GE O R G E A IRY (1 801

. a fte r wa r ds the
distin guished a str o n o m e r-r o yal at Gr een wich e m pl o ye d a c o n ,

3 16 Mir r o r s ,
c ave spher o -cylin d r ic al gl a ss t o c o rr ect the myOpic astig ma

tism o f o n e o f his eyes But it was n o t u n til DO NDE RS
.
( 1 8 1 8—
1 889 ) published his t r e a tise o n a stig m a tis m an d cyl
in dric al gl a sses in 1 86 2 th at thei r i m p o r t an ce began t o be

r ec o gn i z ed by o phth al m o l o gists all o ve r the w o r ld .
In a t o r ic le n s usu ally o n l y o n e o f the su r fa ces 1 s t o r ic

while the o ther is pl an e o r Spher ic a l The diagram s .
Fig 1 47 a an d b an d Fig 1 48 Sh o w the p rin cip a l t y pes o f

,
. .
, ,
t o r ic len ses .
Le t F 1 F g an d F” F i g de n o t e the r efr a ctin g p o we r s

y, , y , ,
o f the t wo su r fa ces o f an a stig m atic le n s in the xy-pl an e an d
xz-pl an e r espectivel y which a r e the pl an es o f the p r i n cip al

, ,
sectio n s o f the thi n len s with r espect t o its O ptic al cen ter A .
No w the t o t al r efr a ctin g p o we r (F) o f a thin len s was fo un d

t o be e q u a l t o the algeb r aic su m (F 1 + F 2 ) o f the
p o wer s of the t wo sur fa ces o f the len s ; so th at applyin g this
fo r mul a t o an a stig m atic len s we o bt ain fo r the r efr a ctin g
,
p o wer in the two pr in cip al secti on s :
In e a ch o f the fo llo win g special c a ses the l e n s is suppo sed

t o be su rr o u n ded b y the s am e m ediu m (n ) o n b o th sides ,
while the in dex o f r efr a cti on o f the len s itself is den o ted b y n ’
.
( ) Co
1 n side r fi r st the
,
c a,
se o f a p lan o-c yli n dr i ca l len s ,
whi ch in a pr in cip a l sectio n c o n t am in g the axis o f the cylin

de r a cts a s wa s r e m ar ked
,
like a Sl ab o f the s am e
m ate r i al with pl an e p ar allel fa ces ; whe r e a s in the o the r p r in
c ip al secti o n the e ffect is the s am e as th a t o f a pl an o -Sphe r ic al
len s of the s am e r a dius (r ) as th at o f the cylin der If the .
axis o f the cylin de r is p ar allel t o the y ax is an d if the pl an e

—
,
sur fa ce is supp o sed t o be the sec on d sur fa ce we Sh all h ave ,
in this c a se :
Fy , 1
= 2
= z 2
= 0
y, , ,
an d, c on sequen tly
Fy = 0, (n )R
’ -
n ,
wher e F den o tes the m axi m u m r efra ctin g po wer of th e cylin
drical su r fa ce an d R 1/r den o tes its cu r vatu r e

,
.
§ 1 14] C yli n dr i c al an d T o r i c Le n se s 3 17
If M design ates the po sitio n o f an o b j ect-p o in t lyin g o n

the o ptical axis (x axis) o f a thi pla o cylin d r ical len s a n d
n -n -
,
if M o design ates the po sitio n o f the c o rr esp on din g im age

’
po in t pr o duced by the r efr a cti o n th rough the len s o f the

rays which li e in the pl a n e o f a n o r m a l secti o n i n clin ed at
an an gle 9 t o the axi s o f the cyl in de r ; a n d if we put
AM u AM o U n /u Ue n /u é
’ ’ ’ ’
u , , , ,
Ue =
’
whe r e
U+ Fe, =
F o F Sin 2
. 0;
an d fo r the t wo pr in cip al secti on s :
Uy
’
= U, UZ = U+ F
’
.
(2) In a cr oss-cyli n the axes o f y an d z ar e p ar

dr i ca l len s
a ll el t o the ax es o f the cyli n de r s Assum i n g th at the cylin .
dr ical axis o f the fir st su r fa ce o f the len s is p ar allel t o the

-axi s we h ave fo r a thi n le n s o f this f o r m :
y ,
Fy r l Fz r2 = oy
Fy = Fy , 2 — n
) R1 ,
— —R
) (R 1 sin 0
2 2
F= (
’
n n .
2 cos
.
wher e R1 R den o te the m axi m um cu r va tu r es o f the cylin

, 2
der s an d F 0 den o tes the r efr a cti n g p o wer in a secti on in

clin ed at an an gle 0t o the axis o f the fir st Su rfa ce .
(3) In a th in sp her o cylin dri ca l len s if we suppo se fo r-

, ,
exam ple th at the axis o f the cylin d ric al sur fa ce is p ar allel

,
t o the y axis an d th at this su r fa ce is als o the fi r st su r fa ce

-
o f the len s then ,
Fy 7 1 = Oa Fy 9 2 = zi 2
= F2 r
Fy = Fy , 2 ) R2
’
—
(n -n
,
—
n ) (R 1 — R2) ,
— sin H Rg ) ;
—
2
( ) (R 1
’
Fe n n .
wher e den o te the m axi mum cu r vatu r es o f the cylin

R 1 , R2
dr ic al an d spher ic al fa ces r espectivel y an d F 9 de n o tes the , ,
r e fr a c t m g p o we r o f the c o m bi n ati o n in a pl an e i n cli n ed a t
an an gle 0t o the axis o f the cyli n de r .
(4) C o n sider fin a lly a thi n tor i c len s wh o se sec o n d fa ce

, , , -
m ay be supp o sed t o be sphe r ic a l so th at if T2 de n o tes

the radius o f this sur fa ce its r efr a ctin g po wer will be
,
,
18 M irr o r s ,
F2 : ( n — ’
n whe r e =
R2 1 / r
) R2 , Then if den o te
z .
the p r in cip al cur vatur es o f the t o r ic su r fa ce ,the r efr a ctin g

p o wer s o f the len s will be
Fy = < Fz = — — R2
) (Ry fl R2 ) ; ( ) (E
, ’
n
—
n —
n n z rl ) ;
5
Fe : (n n ) (R 1
2
0+ R sin d
2
’ —
y ,
. co s z ,1
.
—
Rg ) .
11 . T r an spo si n g of y
C l in dr i ca l Le n s e s
The o r ien t atio n —
o f a c y lin d r i c al r efr a cti n g su r fa ce is desc r ibed by a ssign i n g
the value o f the an gle go whi ch the axis o f the cylin der m akes
with a fixed lin e of r efer en ce In a cylin d r ic al spect acle .
gl ass this lin e o f r efer en ce is a h o r i z o n t al lin e usu ally im ag

in e d as d r awn fr o m a p o in t o pp o site the cen te r o f the p a
t ie n t s e y e either t o w ar ds his te m ple o r t o w ar d s hi s n o se ;
’
°
1 80
T E MPL E N OS E N o sE T E MPLE
FIG 1 4—. 5M . o de o f r e c k o n in g axi s o f c y lin dri c al e y e -g l ass .
an d the an gle th r o ugh which this lin e h as t o be r o t at ed in

a ve r tic a l pl an e in o r de r f o r it t o be p ar a llel t o the axi s o f
the cylin der is the an gle den o ted b y go In E n glan d an d .
Am er ic a it is cust o m ary t o im agin e the h o r i z o n t al lin e o f

r efe r e n ce as d r awn f r om the ce n ter of the g la ss towar ds tha t
temp le f
o the p a ti en t whi ch i s on the r i g ht-han d si de of an ob
ser ver supp sed o be djustin g the glass o n the p atien t s

to a
’
eye ; so th at fo r a gl ass in fr o n t o f either eye the r a dius vect or

is supp o sed t o r o t ate in a c ou n ter-cl o ckwise sen se fr o m 0
5
°
to as r ep r ese n ted in Fig 1 4 A d iffe r en t pl an was

. .
r ec o mm e n ded by the in te rn ati o n a l O phth a l m o l o gic a l c o n
gr ess which m e t in Na ples in 1 909 wher eby the an gle go was ,
t o be r eck on e d fr o m a n in iti al p o siti o n o f the r a di us vect o r

d r awn h o r i z o n t all y fr o m a p o in t o pp o site the cen ter o f the
eye towa r ds the n ose Acc or din g t o this plan the sen se o f
.
,
11 5
] T r an sp o sin g of y
C li n dr i c al Le n se s 319
t ti o n will be clo ckwise fo r o n e eye an d c o un ter-cl o ckwise

5
5
ro a
fo r the o the r eye as r e p r ese n te d in Fig 1

,
. .
A sphe r o -cylin d r ical gl a ss is desc r ibed in an O phth alm o

l o gic al p r escr iptio n by givin g the r efr a ctin g p o wer P o f
the cylin d ric al c o m po n en t an d the r efr a ctin g po we r Q o f
the sphe r ic al c o m p o n en t t o gether with the sl o pe go o f th e
,
a xis o f the cylin de r in a fo r m ul a which is usu all y w r itten

,
as fo ll o ws :
Q p
S h P cyl ax go
“
. .
, ,
wher e the sym b o l C m ean s c o m bin ed with .
Optici an s spe a k o f tr a n sp osi n g a le n s when they sub sti

tute a glass of o n e fo r m fo r an equivalen t gl ass o f an o ther
0 °
0 0
T E MPLE
; N OS E NO S E
5M
5 y
~
FIG . 1 — o d e o f r e c k o n in a xis o f c lin dric al eye- l a ss

.
g g .
fo rm All th at is n ecess ary fo r this pur p o se is t o see th at

.
the po wer s o f the len s in the t wo prin cip al section s r em ain

the s am e as befo r e The fo llo win g r ules f or tran sp osin g
.
cylin dr i ca l len se s m ay be useful :
(1 ) To tr an sp ose a sp hero-cyli n dri ca l len s i n to an other
sp her o-c yli n dr i ca l len s

-
or i n to a cr oss-c yli n dr i ca l len s :
A len s given by the fo r m ula Q sph P cyl ax go is
A
. .
.
v ,
e quivalen t t o eithe r o f the fo llo win g c o m bin atio n s :

Sphe r o cylin de r (P + Q) Sph C P cyl ax (go
/ N
-
a . . .
,
.
b C r o ss cylin de r (P + Q) cyl ax go C Q c yl ax
. . .
,
.
” .
The p o wer o f the Spher ical c o m po n en t in the o r igin al co m

bin atio n is Q dpt r in b o th pr in cip a l secti o n s an d the p o wer
.
,
o f the cy l in d r ic al c o m p o n e n t is P dp t r in the secti o n which is .
in clin ed t o the lin e o f r efe r en ce at an an gle (go so th a t
the c o m bin ed po wer in this l a tter section is (P+ Q) dptr .

3 20 Mirr or s ,
Acc o r din gly a Spher ic al su r fa ce o f p o wer (P + Q ) dpt

,
m ust be c o m bin ed with a cylin d r ic a l su r fa ce o f p o we r

— P d t r a n d o f a xis -m e With r espect t o the
p .
p (go
d o uble sign in the expr ession ( go the r ul e is t o select
a lw ay s th a t o n e o f the t wo Sign s w hi ch will m ake the Sl o pe
o f the c y lin de r axis p o sitive a r d les s th an

- Thus f o r ,
e xam ple + 8 dpt r sph C + 2 dpt r cyl ; ax 2 0 is e qui v a

,
. . . . .
°
len t t o + 1 0 dp tr sph C 2 dpt r cyl ax 1 10 o r t o

—
. . . . .
°
+ 1 0 dp tr c yl a x 2 0 C + 8 dpt r cyl ax
,
°
. . . . . .
, ,
(2) To tr an sp ose a cro s cylin

s - dri ca l len s i n to a sp he r o
c yli n dr i ca l len s
The c o m bin ati on P
cyl ax go R c yl ( 90 )
°
ax t
.
,
. .
,
.
go
is e quivalen t t o either o f the fo ll o win g
a Sphe r o -cy lin de r :
. P sph (R P) cyl ax (go or .
v
-
. .
R sp h C (P R) cyl ax go
,
b Spher o cylin der :

.
- — . .
,
. .
Thus +2 cyl ax 80 C + 3 cyl ax 1 7 0 m ay be r epla ced

. .
°
.
,
.
°
by either + 2 Sp h + 1 cyl ax 1 7 0 o r + 3 sph C

, ,
°
. . .
,
1 cyl ax .
,
.
(3) To tr an sp ose a sp heri ca l len s i n to a cr oss-cyli n der
Q Sph is equivalen t t o Q cyl ax go C Q cyl ax (go

. .
,
. .
,
.
wher e the an gle go m ay h ave an y value between 0 an d

5 5
°
Fo r exam ple + Sph is equi v alen t t o + cyl ax 1 0

5
°
. . .
, ,
+ c yl a x .
,
.
4
() The r ef r a cti n g p o we r s o f a to r i c s urf a ce in the p r in
c ip al secti o n s a r e F =
)/ =
—
(
’ ’
(n n r a n d y
F n L e t y z
us supp o se th a t the axis o f r evo luti on is p arall el t o the

-axis The t o ic r ef r a ctin g su r f a ce m a be r epl a ced by a
y . r y
Sphe r o -cylin d r ic a l len s in eithe r o f t wo w ay s as f o ll o ws : ,
. a . F Sp h C (FY F ) cyl axis p ar allel t o y—axis

z
— .
2
.
,
.
b F sph C (F F ) cyl axis p ar allel t o z axis

.
y
— .
z
-
y
.
,
.
1 1 6 O b l i qu e ly C r o ss e d Cylin de r s
.
—
O cul ists and o pt o m .
e t r ist s s o m eti m es p esc ibe a b

r r i- cy d ic l spect cle gl as s
li n r a a -
with the axes o f the cylin der s c r o ssed n o t at r ight an gles ,
(a s in the so -c alled c r o ss -cylin de r

) but at an a cute o r o btuse ,
an gle y ; an d as it is n o t e a s y t o g r in d a le n s o f thi s fo r m
'
,
the Optician pr efer s t o m ake an e quivalen t spher o cylin der -

§ 1 1 6] Ob li q u e l y C r o sse d C lin der s y 32 1
or a c r o ss -cylin der which will h ave pr ecisely the s am e o p

tical eff ect as the pr escr ibed c o m bin ation o f o bliquely cr o ssed
,
cylin der s His pr o blem m ay be st ated thus :

.
Bein g given the r efr a ctin g p o wer s F 1 F2 o f the t wo sur ,
fa ces o f the b i-cylin dr ic al len s an d the an gle 7 between ,
the dir ecti o n s o f the ax es o f the cylin der s it is r e qui r e d t o ,
c alcul ate the r efr a ctin g p o wer s P an d Q o f the cylin dr ic al

a n d sphe r ic a l c o m p o n e n ts r espectively o f the equiv ale n t
, ,
spher o -cylin dr ic al c o m b in ati o n t o gether with the di r ecti o n ,
o f the axis o f the cylin de r ; th at is it is r equi r ed t o t r an sp o se ,
F 1 cyl ax go F 2 cyl ax (go + 7 )

.
, .
Q , .
, .
cyl ax (s l a ) —
Q sph . P .
,
. o .
Sim ple w o r ki n g fo r m ul a f o r c o n ve r t in g o n e - of these len ses

in t o the o ther wer e devel o ped
fir st by Mr C HA R LE S F . .
PR E NT IC E The fo llo win g

.
m eth o d is b a sed o n a n ar
t ic l e On o bliquely c r o ssed
cyli n der s by Pr o fess o r S P
”
. .
TH O MPS O N p u blished in the

Phi losop hi ca l M ag azi n e (se
r ies 5
xli x
,
1 9 00 pp 3 1 6
.
, ,
.
In Fig . 1 6 5the
str aight
li n es OA an d OB a r e d r awn
p ar allel t o the cylin dr ic a l
a es o f the b i cyli n d r ic al le n s
x -
,
so th a t A A OB 7 Th r o ugh .
O d r a w an o ther str a ight lin e

OC an d let L A OG be de
by 0 In the sec F 1 5 b li q ly
,
n o ted 6 A f d IG xes o o ue c r o s se
y
. .
l d
ti o n o f the le n s at r ight c in ers
a n gles t o OC the t o t a l r efr a cti n g p o we r will be (see

1 1 2)
F1 . cos 2
-
M ir r o r s ,
a n d in the sect i o n c on t ain in g OC

2
F 1 sin .
The sum o f these t wo expr essi o n s is e qu al t o (F 1 + F2) an d

a cc o r di n g t o the the o r y o f cu r ved su r fa ces thi s sum
m ust a ls o be e qu a l t o the sum o f the m axi m u m an d mi n i
m um r efr a ctin g p o we r s o f the equi va len t sphe r o —cyl in d r ic al
len s No w o bvi o usly (P + Q) will be the m axim um (o r
.
, ,
m i n imu m ) r efr a c t in g p o wer in a secti o n o f the l atte r le n s

a t r ight a n gl e s t o the axi s o f the cy lin de r whe r e as Q will be ,
the m in im um (o r m axim um ) r e tr a ct in g p o wer in the sec

tion c o n t ain in g the axi s o f the cylin der ; a cc or din gly first ,
o f all we fi n d t h at we m us t h a ve
,
= F 1 + Fz .
No w the e
is a cer t ain value o f the an gle 0 say 0= a
r , , ,
f o r which the fi r st o f the t wo exp r essi o n s a b o ve will be a

m axim u m (o r m i n im u m ) an d the sec o n d a m in im um (o r
m axi m u m ) ; an d if we c an deter m in e this an gle a the p r o b ,
l e m will p r actic all y be s o lved bec ause then we sh all h ave ,
P + Q F 1 co s 2
a)
.
,
Q F 1 sin
2
a) ;
.
wher e (on the a ssum pti o n th at Q is t he mi n imum r efr act in g

po wer in the secti on c o n t ain in g the axi s o f t h e cylin der ) a
den otes the an g le b etween the cylin dri ca l a xi s of the sp hero
c yli n der a n d the c yli n dr i ca l axi s o f the c yli n der whose f
r e r act
i n g p ower i s den oted b y F l N o w in '

der t o ascert ai n this
. or
an gle a , all we h a ve t o do (as will be o bvi o us t o an y o n e

wh o is f am ili ar with the ele m en ts o f the d iffe r e n ti al c alcul us)
is fi r st t o diffe r e n ti ate the e xp r essi on
, ,
F1 cos 2
. 0)
with r espect t o 0 an d then after wr itin g a in pl a ce o f 0
, , ,
t o put the r esult an t e x p r essi on equ al t o z er o Thus we o b .
t ain the fo ll o win g e qu ati o n fo r fin din g the an gle a in t erm s

o f the kn o wn m a gni tudes F 1 F2 an d 7 : ,
— 2 F si n a c o s
1 . . a =
) 0;
§ 1 16] Ob li q ly
ue C r o sse d C li n de r s y 32 3
which m ay als o be put in the fo ll o win g fo rm

F1 F2
°
S in 2( y a) sin 2 a
f
Mo r e o ver si n ce ,
P ( ?
P Q) Q we fin d
,
P = F1 (c o s a sin a ) + F2 c o s ( y
2 2 2 f
a) — 2
Sin ( y
'
F c o s2
1 . a) ;
a n d if in this f o r m ul a we substitute the v a lue
we sh all fi n d :
5 ph
1 7 — Gra y p
l in dr ic a l c o m o n e n t (P) o f
ph y q v q y y
F IG ic al m o de o f fi n din g
p
. . c
s e r o -c lin de r e u i al e n t t o t w o o b li u el c r o sse d c l in de r s o f o we r s
F 1 an d F2 .
H e n ce ,
F1 F2 P
S in 2 (7 a ) sin 2a sin 2 7
3 24 Mirr o r s ,
which at on ce suggests an elegan t an d sim ple graphic al

s o luti o n o f the pr o blem Fo r eviden tly a cc o r din g t o the
.
, ,
a b o ve r el ati o n s the m agn itudes den o ted by F 1 F2 an d P

5
, ,
m ay be r ep r ese n ted in a di a gr am (Fig 1 7 ) by the Sides o f .
a t r i an gle wh o se O pp o site an gles a r e 2 ( y a) 2 a an d '

,
( 1 8
°
0 r espectivel y He n ce the r ule is a s fo ll o ws :
.
On an y st r aight li n e lay o ff a seg m e n t AB t o r ep r ese n t a o ,
c o r din g t o a cer t ain sc ale the m agn itude o f the r efr a ctin g
,
p o wer F 1 ; an d let X design ate the p o siti o n o f a po in t on AB

p r o duced bey o n d B C o n st r uct the A XB C e qu al t o twi ce
.
the an gle between the axes of the t wo given cylin dr ic a l c o m

p o n e n t s (A X B C = 2 y) an d a l o
'
n g the side B C o f t hi s a n gle
lay O H the le n gth B C t o r ep r ese n t the m a gn itude o f the r e
fr a ctin g po wer F Then the st r aight lin e AC will r e pr e
2 .
sen t o n the s am e sc ale the m agn itude o f the r efr a ctin g po wer
P o f the cylin d r ic al m e m be r o f the e q ui v alen t S phe r o
cylin dr ic al len s an d the A B AC = 2 a will be e qual t o twi ce
,
the an gle between the cylin dr ic al axes o f the sur fa ces wh o se

p o wer s ar e den o ted by F 1 an d P Fo r c alcul atin g the values .
o f P Q an d a we h a ve b y t r ig o n o m et r y the fo ll o win g sys

, ,
t e m o f for m ul a
F 1 + F2 —
P
1
2
t an 2 a
which will be fo un d t o be a pplic able in all c ases whether ,
the Sign s o f F 1 F2 ar e like o r u n like

,
.
Ther e is t o be sur e an o the r s o luti o n also in which the

, , ,
cylin d r ic al axis o f the spher o -cylin d r ic a l len s is in clin ed t o

the cylin dr ic al axis o f the cylin der o f p o wer F 1 at the an gle
a) . Fo r if the r efr a ct in g po we r Q o f the sphe r ic al
m e m be r is a ssu m ed t o be the m axi m u m (in ste a d o f the
m i n i m u m ) r efr a cti n g p o we r o f the spher o cylin d r ic al c o m
-
bin atio n the n (P + Q ) will be the m in im um po wer in a sec

t ion at r ight an gles to the axis of the cylin der ; an d in this
,
1 1 6] Ob li q u ly
e C r o sse d C ylin der s 32 5
c ase the r efr a ctin g po wer o f the cylin dr ic al c o m p o n en t will
be r epr ese n te d by the do tted lin e AC in Fig 1 7 which is ’
. 5
equ al t o AC in len g th but o ppo site t o it in di r ecti o n In .
fa ct in this c ase the fo r m ul a fo r P an d Q will be as fo ll o ws :

,
P V
F14
47 2 + P
Q
2
This r esult c ould h ave been o bt a in ed fr o m the fi r st r esult by
t r an spo sin g ; fo r a cc o r din g t o 1 1 Q sph C P cyl a x gb
,
5 ,
. .
,
.
is e quivalen t t o (P + Q) sph — P cyl a x (gb i . whe r e . .
the sym b o ls P an d Q den o te her e the po we r s o f the fi r st

c o m bin atio n .
Mo r eo ver Sin ce Q Sph

,
P cyl ax gb is e q uiv ale n t als o .
,
.
t ( + Q)
o P cyl a x g C Q
.b ,
cyl .a x (p i t wo o bliquely
.
,
.
c r o ssed cylin der s m ay be r epl a ced b y a c r o ss cylin der o f

-
p o wer s (P+ Q) an d Q In fa ct sin ce .

,
it fo ll o ws th at
Sin 7
-
2
5
so th at this fo rm ul a will give us the p r o duct o f the po wer s
o f the equiv ale n t c r o ss cyli n de r an d si n ce thei r su m P + 2 Q
-
,
F 1 + F the v a lues o f (P + Q) an d Q m ay be o bt a in ed in
2,
depen den tly with o ut fir st fin din g the value o f P

,
The fo llo win g n um er ical exam ple will ser ve t o illustr ate
the use o f the fo r m ul a :
Give n a c om b in ati on o f o bli quel y c r o ssed c ylin der s a s
fo llo ws :
+ 4cyl ax 20 .
,
cyl ax
.
° A
.
,
.
let it be r equir ed t o fi n d the equiv le t sphe cyli n der

a n r o -
a d als o the equiv le t c o ss cylin de r

n a n r - .
W e m ust put F 1
= + 4 bec ause F 1 de n o tes the p o wer o f
the cyl in der wh o se axis Sl o p e is the s m alle r o f the t wo Then
,
5
- .
F2 an d y (6 '
S ubstituti
°
n g these
v alues we fi n d :
,
Q =
326 Mirr o r s ,
Pr ism s an d Le n ses [
Oh . IX
Acc o r din gl y the given co m bi n ati on is e q uivalen t t o o n e o f
,
the thr ee fo ll o win g

5
+ 48 cyl ax 2 44 C . sph
, .
° ’
.
cyl ax 9 2 44 C . Sp h
,
.
° ’
.
cyl ax 2 44 C . cyl ax 9 2 44
,
.
° ’
.
,
.
° ’
= °
n = —
If y 90 the P F 1 F Q = F2 an d a = 0 o r 2,
°
, ,
P F2 F 1 Q = F 1 an d a = o ; so th at we c an wr it e
= — °
,
F 1 c y l ax gt 3 F2 c yl ax (gb i
.
,
. .
, .
is e quivalen t t o
F 1 sph C (Fz — Pl ) c yl ax (c fl =
. .
, . 5
F2 sph 3 —
(Fl F2) cyl a;
5
. .
, ax .
e xac tl y as foun d in 11 .
R
P OB LEMS
1 .The r adius of a c o n vex cylin dr ic al r efr actin g surfa ce

sep ar a tin g air fr o m gla ss is cm Wh at is it s .
r efr a ctin g p o we r in a n o r m al secti o n in cli n ed t o the axis o f
the cylin der at a n an gle o f An s dp t r . .
2 A cur ved r efr a ctin g s ur fa ce sep ar ates air a n d gl a ss

.
’
= 3 : an d the r a dii o f g r e atest an d le a st cu r va tu r e
( n n
at a po in t A o n the su r fa ce a r e r = + l o c m
5
an d r y
.
z
+ c m Fin d the in te r val betwee n the t wo pr in cip a l im a ge

.
po in ts c o rr espo n din g t o an o bj ect—p o in t lyin g o n the n o r m a l

t o the sur fa ce at A in fr o n t o f the su r fa ce an d at a dist an ce
o f 30 c m fr o m it
. . An s cm . .
3 The p r in cip al r efr a cti n g p o we r s o f a t hin a stigm atic

.
len s sur r o un ded by air ar e den o te d by F an d F The p r in y 2

.
i
c pa l im a ge -po i n ts c o r r esp o n d in g t o a n a xi a l o bject -po in t
M are design ated by M an d M If the O ptic al cen ter o f
y z .
the len s is design ated b y A an d if we put U = 1/u wher e , ,
u = AM the n
,
Fy — Fz
MM
F.+ U)
U) <
Ch . IX] Pr o b l e m s 32 7
The r efr a ctin g po we r s o f a thin astigm atic len s in the

5
4 .
t wo p r i n ci p a l secti o n s ar e + 3 an d + dp tr The le n s is .
m ade o f gl a ss o f i n dex Fin d the r a dii o f the t wo sur

fa ces fo r ea ch o f the fo ll o wi n g fo r m s :(a) C r o ss -c ylin der ;
()b S phe r o -cyli n de r ; )
c P l an o -t o r ic .
An s (a ) D o uble c o n ve x c r o ss -cyli n der

. r a du 1 0 an d ,
1 6 g c m ; (b ) D o uble c o n ve x sphe r o -cylin de r r adi us o f

5
.
,
Sp he r e 1 6 g c m r a dius o f cyli n de r 2
.
, c m ; o r c o n vex m e .
n isc u s sphe r o -cyli n de r ra dius o f sphe r e 1 0 c m r a dius o f
5
.
,
c ylin der 2 cm (c) Ra dii o f t o ri c sur fa ce 1 0 an d 1 6 cm

,
5
. .
The pr in cipal r efr a ctin g po we r s o f a thin len s ar e + 4

an d5 — dp t r
'
If the r efr a ctin g po wer in an o bli que n o r m al

.
secti o n is + 2 dp t r wh at will be its r efr a ctin g po wer in a

.
,
n o r m al secti o n a t r ight an gles t o the fi r st ? an d wh at is the
an gle o f in clin ati o n o f the + 2 secti o n t o the + 4 sect io n ?
An s — 3 d t r 28 °
7
’
.
p ; .
6 . cylin der s e ach o f po we r

T wo dp t r ar e c o m .
b in e d with thei r axes in clin ed t o e a ch o the r at an a n gle o f

°
32 3 0
’
5
Sh o w that the c o m bin ati o n is equiv ale n t t o
+ 0 1 8 sph + 2 c yl ax is midway betwee n the axe s o f
. .
,
the two given cylin der s .
7 Sh o w th at
5
.
+ 2 cyl a x 0 — 3 cyl ax 3 2 6 1 4
° A ° ’
. . . .
, ,
is equivalen t to
sp h 3 cyl ax 22 — . . .
°
,
8 Tr ansp o se
5 5
.
cyl ax 2 0 + 3 2 cyl ax 3 41
.
, . .
,
.
° ’
in t o the equivalen t Spher o -cylin der .
3 cyl ax
5
5
An s sph . . .
,
.
3 c yl ax 1
°
or Sph . .
,
.
9 Tr an spo se
5 5
.
cyl ax 0 C + 1 0 cyl ax 7 40 4
.
,
.
°
.
,
.
° ’
i t o the equivalen t Sphe r o cyli n der

n - .
An s sp h C cyl ax . . .
,
.
or S ph C cyl ax . .
,
.
3 28 Mir r or s ,
Oh . IX
1 0 Fi n d
. the spher o -c ylin dr ic al e quivalen t o f
5
+ 2 cyl ax 20 + 3 cyl ax
° A
.
.
,
.
v .
,
sp h 3 3 c yl
°
An s . .
v . .
, ax . 1
or sp h cyl . .
,
ax . 141 42
° ’
1 1 Tr an spo se
5
.
cyl ax 1 20
.
,
. cyl ax .
,
. 13
°
in t o the equivalen t c r o ss -cylin der .
° ’ A
eyl
°
An s . .
, ax . 98 30 8
12 .Tr an s po se + 4 cyl ax 80 .
, .
—2 c yl .
, ax . 1 20
°
in t o
the e q uiva le t c ss cylin der
55 5
5
n r o - .
An s . c yl ax 6. 0, .
° ’ A
c yl .
, ax . 1
°
C HA PT E R X
G E O ME T R IC A L T H E OR Y OF TH E S YMM E T R IC A L O PT IC A L
N
I STR U ME N T
1 17 . G raphi c al M e th o d
tr ac in g th e Path of a Par axial
of
R ay th ro ug h a C e n t e r e d S yste m o f Sph e r i c a l R e fr ac tin g

S urf a c e s — N e ar l y all O ptic al in st r um e n ts c o n sist o f a c o m
b in ati o n o f tr an sp ar e n t is o t r o pic m e di a e a ch sep ar ated
, ,
fr o m the n ext by a spher ic al (o r pl an e ) sur fa ce ; the ce n te r s

o f these su r f a ces lyi n g a ll o n o n e a n d the s a m e st r a ight lin e
c alled the op ti ca l a xi s o f the cen ter ed system o f spher ic al

sur fa ces which is an axis o f symm et r y In a sym m etr ic al
,
.
o ptic al i n st r u m e n t o f this ki n d it is suffi cie n t t o i n vestigate
the pr o cedur e o f p ar axi al r ays in an y m er idi an pl an e c o n

t ain in g the a xis .
The in dices o f r efr a ction o f the m edi a will be den o ted by

n l 72
,
etc n am e d in the o r der in which they ar e t r ave r se d
2, .
by the light ; so th at if m den o tes the n um ber o f r efr a ctin g

sur fa ces the in dex o f r efr a ctio n o f the l a st m ediu m in t o
,
which the r ays em er ge afte r r efr a ctio n at the mth sur fa ce

will be n w + The in dices o f r efr a ctio n o f the t wo m edi a
1 .
which ar e separ ated by the k th sur fa ce (wher e k den o tes

a n y in tege r betwee n 1 an d m in clusive ) will be n k an d n k +
1
.
,
The ver tex an d cen ter o f the k th su r fa ce will be design ate d

by Ak an d C k r espectively ; an d the r a dius o f this sur fa ce
,
w ill be de n o ted by r k = Ak Mo r e o ver if Mk Mk + 1

.
, ,
design ate the po sitio n s o f the p o in ts whe r e a p ar axial r ay

c r o sses the axis befo r e a n d a fte r r efr a ctio n r espectively at
the k th su r fa ce these p o in ts will be a p a ir o f c o n j ugate axi al
, ,
po in ts with r espect t o this sur fa ce ; an d the p o i n ts M 1 Mm i l

will ther efor e be a p air o f c on j ugate axi al p o in ts with r espect
,
, ,
329
3 30 Mirro r s ,
to the e n tir e cen ter ed s ystem of m spher ic al r efr a ct in g sur

faces
5
.
The a cco m p an yin g di a gr am (Fig 1 8) r epr ese n ts a m er id .
ian secti o n o f a n o ptic al system o f this ki n d The str aight .
lin e M 1 B 1 r epr esen ts the p ath o f a p ar axial ray in the fir st

m ediu m (n l ) which c r o ssi n g the axis a t M 1 m eets the fi r st
su r fa ce (y1 ) in the p o i n t m ar ked B 1 Sim il ar l y the p ath
'
.
,
FIG . 5 h p
1 8 — Pat
. Of ar axial r ay t h
r oug
f r a c t in g
h c e n ter ed s
su r f ac e s .
y st e m Of s ph e ri c al r e
of the r ay fr om t he fi r st sur fa ce t o the sec o n d sur fa ce is

Sh o wn b y the st r aight lin e B 1 B 2 which c r o sses the axis at M 2 .
Thus the e n ti r e c o ur se o f the r ay is sh o wn b y the b r o ken

,
lin e M 1B 1B 2B M 4 which is ben t in successio n at e a ch o f the

3
i cide ce po in ts B 1 B 2 B (suppo sin g th at m = 3 as r e pr e

n n -
, , 3 ,
Se n ted in the di a gr am ) .
The figur e sh o ws als o the p ath o f an o ther p ar axial r ay ,
em an atin g fr o m an o bj ect-p o in t Q 1 n e ar the O ptic al axis but

n o t o n it an d r ep r ese n ted he r e a s l yin g pe r pen dicul a r l y
ab o ve M 1 This r ay is the r ay which le aves Q 1 al o n g a st r aight

.
lin e which p asses thr o ugh the cen ter C 1 o f the fir st r efr a ctin g
sur fa ce an d also th r o ugh the p o in t Q which is c o n jugate t o 2
Q 1 with r espect t o this su r f a ce This p o i n t.

Q 2 c a n be l o
c at e d b y dete r m in in g the p o i n t o f in te r secti o n o f the st r a ight
lin e Q 1 C 1 with the str aight lin e Mn dr a wn pe r pe n dic u

l ar t o the axis a t M 2 Si m il ar ly the p o i n t Q c o n jug ate t o
.
, 3
Q 2 with r espect t o the sec o n d r efr a cti n g su r f a ce will be a t

§ 1 17 ] C en t er e d S ytm
s e of Sp h e rical Sur fac es 33 1
the po in t o f in ter sectio n o f the st r aight lin e Q C with the .

2 2
str aight lin e d r a wn per pen dicular t o the axis at M ; an d 3
so o n fr o m o n e su r fa ce t o the n ex t Pr o vided t h e r efbr e we .
kn o w the p ath o f o n e p ar axial r ay thr o ugh the syst em it

, ,
is e a sy t o c o n str uct the p ath o f a sec o n d r ay .
But the best gr aphic al m eth o d Of tr a cin g the p ath of a

p ar axial r ay thr o ugh a cen ter ed system o f spher ic al r efr act
in g su r fa ces c o n sists in applyin g the c o n str ucti on descr ibed
FIG . 5 ph
1 9 — Gr a
.
t e r e d s st e m o f sy
h
i c al m e t o d o f t r ac in g
e r i c alph
p h p
at of
r e f r a c t in
ar a x ia l r ay t h h r o ug cen
g su r f ac e s .
in § 76 , fo ll o ws :
as If the str aight lin e MIE 1 (Fig 1 9) r e p . 5
r ese n tin g the p ath o f the r ay in the fi r st m ediu m m eets the
per pen dicul ar e r ected t o the O ptic al ax is at the cen ter C 1 in

the po in t X 1 an d if o n this per pen dicul ar a sec o n d p o in t X 1
,
’
is t aken such th at C l : C l X1 = n 2 : then the str aight ’

n1 ,
lin e E 1X 1 will deter m in e the p ath 13l o f the r ay in the

’
sec o n d m ediu m Dr a w C 2Y p ar allel t o C X1 an d let Y2

.
2 1 ,
design ate the po in t o f i n te r secti o n o f the st r aight lin es

B 1 B an d C zYz ; an d o n C n
2 t a ke a po in t Y2 such th at ’
C Y : C Y n : an d d r a w the st r a ight li n e Y2 B 2 m eetin g

’ ’
2 2 2 n 2 3 g ,
the thir d r efr a ctin g sur fa ce in B an d i n ter sectin g in Z the 3 3
st r aight li n e d r awn th r o ugh C p ar allel t o C 2Y2 If o n 0 Z 3 .

3 3
a po in t Z is t aken such th at C Z :
3
’
C Z =n4: n then the 3 3 3 3
’
3,
str aight lin e B Z will deter m in e the p ath Of the r ay after

3 3
’
r efr a cti o n a t the thi r d su r f a ce This pr o cess is t o be re .
p e a t e d u n til the r ay h a s bee n t r a ced i n t o the l a st m ediu m .

332 Mir r o r s ,
1 18 . C al c ul ati o n of th e Path of a Par axial Ray th r oug h

a C e n te r e d S yt
s e m of Sph e r i c al R e f a c tin g Surf ac e s
r — Oh
v io usly , just the c a se o f a sin gle Spher ic a l r efr a ctin g
as in
sur fa ce an y figu r e lyi n g in a pl an e in the o bj ect -sp a ce
pe r pe n dic IIlar t o the O ptic al axis o f a ce n te r ed syste m o f

'
S phe r ic a l r efr a cti n g su r f a ces will be r ep r o duced by m e an s
o f p ar a xi a l r a ys by a si m il ar figu r e in the i m a ge -sp a ce a ls o
lyin g in a pl an e pe r pe n dicul ar t o the o ptic al axis .
Mo r e o ve r if we put
“
,
Ak Mk Ak M k + 1
'
k . uk ,
the absciss a-fo r m ul a 7 8) fo r the lath sur face m ay be wr it

t en
n k +1 71 k nk u — n ];
uk uk rk
If also we e m pl o y the sym b o l

dk Ar Ak + 1
to den o te the dist an ce o f the ver tex o f the (k + 1 ) th sur fa ce
fr o th at o the k t sur fa ce o r the so c alled axi a l thi ck n e ss
m f h -
o f the (k + 1 ) th m ediu m the n evide n tl y : , ,
— d
k ;
which en ables us t o p ass fr o m o n e su r fa ce t o the n ext .
If i these s c all ed r ecur r e n t for m ul a we give k in suc

n o -
cessi o n the va lues k 1 2 = (m l ) an d if also in the

,
—
, ,
fi r s t for m ul a we put fin ally k m we sh all Obt ain (2m 1 )

= —
,
e qu ati o n s ; an d if the c o n st an ts o f the syste m ar e all kn o wn ,
th at is if the values o f all the m a gn itudes den o ted b y n r

, ,
an d d a r e give n t o gether with the in iti al v alue u 1 which ,
den o tes the absciss a o f the axi al O b j ect p o in t these (2m 1 )

,
- —
,
equ ati o n s will en able us t o deter m in e the value o f e a ch o f

the u s in successi o n The p o siti on o f the i m age p o in t Mm + 1
’
.
c jugate t o the axi al O bj ect p o in t M 1 will h ave been a s oer

o n -
t ain e d whe n we h ave fo un d the v alue o f the a bsciss a u m

’
.
The secon dar y f oca l p oi n t o f the system is the p o in t F ’
wher e a p ar axi al r ay which is par allel t o the axis in the fir st

m ediu m c r o sses the a xis in the l ast m ediu m ; an d if we put
il l : 00 then um = Am F will be the absciss a o f the sec o n d
,
’ ’
1 1 8] La t e r al M ag ni fi c a tio n 3 33
ar y fo c a l po in t with r espect t o the ve r tex o f the l ast su r fa ce .
Sim il ar ly the p r i mar y f oca l p oi n t is the p o i n t F wher e a p ar

,
axi al r ay m ust c r o ss the a xis in the fi r st m ediu m if it is t o
e m er ge in the l ast m edium in a dir ecti o n p ar allel t o the axis .
In t his c a se the r efo r e we m ust put u m o a n d s o lve fo r

’
c
, ,
u = A 1 F in o r de r t o o bt a i n the a bsciss a o f the fo c a l p o i n t F

1
with r espect t o the ver tex O f the fi r st sur fa ce o f the system .
The f oca l p lan es ar e the pl an es at r ight an gles t o the axis

at the f o c a l p o in ts F F
’
,
Mo r e o ve r if we put yk = Mk
,
then a cc o r din g t o the ,
for m ula for the la ter a l mag n ificati on in a spher ic al r efr a ct in g

sur fa ce we c an wr ite fo r the lath su r fa ce
'
21k +1 ”I: uk ,
'
yr 774.+ 1 uk
an d if we give It all in tegr al values fr o m k = 1 t o k = m we

sh all Obt ain m equ ati o n s o n e fo r e ach sur fa ce wher ein the
, ,
de o i at
n m n o r o f the r ti o the left h an d side o f e a ch o f
a o n -
these p r o po r ti o n s will be the s am e as the n u m er at o r o f the

c o rr espo n din g r ati o in the pr ecedin g o n e o f the ser ies Hen ce .
,
if we m ultiply t o gether all o f these e qu ati o n s an d if fin ally , , ,
we put
y yl ) y
,
=
ym + 1 : u = n 1; n
l
=n m
+l r
we Sh all o bt ain
’ ’
y n u 1 u2 . .
’
y n u r us . .
which m ay be wr itten als o

k =m
wher e the sym b o l II pl a ced in fr o n t o f an expr essi on in this

way m e an s m e r ely th at the c o n t in ued p r o duct o f all te r m s
o f th at type is t o be t a ke n Thus h avi n g fou n d the values
.
o f all the u s b o th p r i m e d an d u n p r i m ed we c a n c a lcul a te

’
, ,
by this for mul a the later a l mag n ifica ti on p r o duced b y the

3 34 Mir r ors ,
en tir e cen t e r ed sys t e m o f Sphe r ic al r efr a ctin g su r fa ces for

a n y give n p o siti o n O f the o bject -p o i n t .
Mo r e o ve r fo r the lath su r fa ce the so -c all ed SMITH

,
H E LMH O LT Z for m ul a 86 ) will h ave the fo rm

nk -
yk 0k = n k +1-
yk + 1 9k +1;
whe r e 0k = A Ak Mk B k ; an d if her e als o we give I
t all values
in successi o n fr o m h 1 t o k = m we sh all O bt ain ,
72 1 4
91 .
=
01 n 2 .
v2 . 92 = “
n m -l-l '
y l
m -l' om + l i
an d fin ally :
0,
wher e n , n
’
an d y, y
’
h a ve the s am e m e ani n gs as a b o ve , an d
0: 01 , 0 4-1
111
119 . Th e l C ar din al Po in ts of an O ptic al Syste m

so —c al e d .
The m eth o ds which h ave j ust been e xpl a in ed a lth o ugh ,
pe r fectly sim ple in pr i n ciple in vo lve a m o r e o r less tedi o us,
p r p c e ss o f t r a cin g the p a th o f a p ar axi a l r ay fr o m o n e su r fa ce

t o the n e x t thr o ugh o ut the e n tir e syste m We h ave n o w
5
5
.
t o expl a i n the celeb r a ted the o r y o f GA U S S (177 7 1 8 ) which —
was devel o ped (1 841 ) in o r der t o a v o id a s m uch o f t hi s l ab o r

as p o ssible by keepin g st e a dilv in view the fu n d am e n t a l r e
,
l at io n s betwee n the o bj ect -sp a ce an d the i m a ge-sp a ce It is .
e a sy t o sh o w th a t the im a ger y p r o duced by a symm etr ic al o p

tic al in st r um en t in the vicin ity o f the axis is c o m pletely de
t e r m in e d SO s o o n a s we kn o w the p o siti o n s o f the fo c a l p o in ts
a n d o n e p a ir o f c o n jug a te p o in ts o n the axis t o gether with ,
the r ati o o f the in dices o f r efr a cti o n o f the fir st an d l ast m edia

o f the syste m H o wever fo r this pur p o se ce r t a in p air s o f
.
,
c o n jug ate axi al po in ts ar e distin guished ab o ve o ther s o n

a cc o u n t o f their si m ple ge o m et r ic a l r el ati o n s ; a n d O f these
the m o st im po rt an t ar e the p r in cip a l p oin ts an d the n oda l

p o i n ts
. These t w o p a i r s o f c o n j ug a te p o i n ts t o gethe r with ,
the fo c al p o in ts ar e s o m etim es c alled the ca r di n a l p oi n ts o f

,
the O ptic al system We Sh all expl ain n o w h o w these p o in ts

.
a r e defi n ed .
( )
1 Th e F o c a l P la n e s a n d th e F o c a l P o i n ts
—In eve r y .
cen ter ed system Of spher ic al r efr a ctin g sur fa ces ther e ar e

§ 1 19 ] Pr in c ip a l Plan e s an d Pr in c ip a l Po in t s
t wo (an d on ly t wo ) t r an sver s al pl an es at r ight an gles t o the

ax is which ar e ch ar a cte r i z e d by the fo ll o win g pr o pe r ties :
A b un dle o f p a r a xi a l o b e c t-r a j
ys whi ch a ll m ee t i n
p oi n t a
in on e of these p la n es (ca lled the p r i ma r y f oc a l p lan e ) wi ll

e me r g e f r om the system a s a c yli n dr i ca l b un dle of p a r a lle l
i m a g e —r a y ;
s an d, sim il ar ly ,
a c yli n dr i ca l b un dle of p a r a lle l
o b e c t-r a ys
j wi ll e m er g e f r om the syste m a s a b un dle o f i ma g e
r a ys whi ch a ll mee t i n a p oi n t i n the o ther on e o f these p la n es
(ca lled the se con The po in ts in which these
dar y f oca l p la n e) .
fo c al pl an es ar e pier ced by the axis ar e the p r i mary an d sec

r espectively
’
on dar y f oca l p oi n ts F an d F ,
.
( ) The Pr in ci p a l P lan es a n d the Pr i n cip a l Poin ts Again

2 —
,
in eve r y sym m et r ic a l o ptic a l syste m the r e is o n e (an d o n ly

o n e ) p a i r o f c o n j ug a te t r an sve r s a l pl an es ch ar a cte r i z ed by
the pr o per ty th at i n these p la n es obj e ct an d imag e a r e con

,
g r u e n t; a n d the r
, ef o r e a n y str a ig ht li n e dr a wn p ar a llel to the
,
wi ll i n ter sect these p lan es i n a p a ir of co n j ug a te p oi n ts

a xi s .
These ar e the so -c alled pr i n cip a l p la n es, o n e bel o n gin g t o

the o bject -Sp a ce (the p ri mar y p r i n cip a l p lan e) an d the o ther
bel on gin g t o the im a ge-sp a ce (the secon da r y p r in cip a l p lan e) .
The po in ts H H whe r e the o ptic al axis cr o sses the pr in

,
’
c ip al pl an es a r e the p r i n ci p a l p oi n ts o f the syste m Atte n .
tio n was fir st dir ected t o these p o in ts by M O E B IU S in 1 829 ,
but it was GA U S S who r ec o gn i z ed their sig n ific an ce fo r the

devel o pm en t O f si m ple an d c on ven ien t gen er al fo r m ul a in
the the o r y o f o ptic a l im ager y .
In the p r i n ci p a l p lan es the la ter a l mag n i cati on i s un i ty, fi

th at is , y y (An d hen ce the p r in cip a l pl an es an d p r in cip al
’
.
po in ts c a lled als o especia lly by En glish wr ite r s the un i t

ar e , ,
p la n es an d the un i t p oin ts ) C o n side r f o r e x a m ple the c a se o f , ,
5
.
a Sin gle sphe r ic a l r efr a ctin g su r fa ce f o r which we fo u n d 8 ) ,

'
y _ f
’
v f + u f
I f we put y = y,
’
we u = u = 0 which m e an s t h at the
fin d
;
’
p r i n ci p a l p oi n ts of a sp her i ca l r ef r a c ti n g surf a ce coi n ci de wi th

e a ch othe r a t the v er tex of the surf a ce We saw likewise
336 Mir r or s ,
th at these p o in ts c o i n cided with e a ch o ther at t he Optic al

cen te r o f an i n fin itely thin len s
A useful r ule is as fo llo ws :
T o an y r ay in o n e r egi o n (O bj ect sp ce o i mage sp ace)
- a r -
which go es th r o ugh the fo c al p o i n t bel on gin g t o t h at r egio n ,
d b — F o c al p p p p
r in c i al o in t s (H H )
’
p y
o in d
v v
F IG . 1 6 0, a an . ts an ,
d (b ) d i t t ic al st e m
( )
a c on erg en t an e rg e n O s .
ther e will c o r r esp o n d a r ay in the o ther r egion which is p a r

a llel t o the axis an d the r ectili n e ar p o r ti o n s o f the p ath o f
,
§ 1 1 9] No dal Plan e s an d No dal Po in t s 33 7
the r ay in these t wo r egio n s will i n te r sect in a po in t lyin g in

the p r in cip al pl an e o f th at r egi o n t o which the fo cal p o in t in
question belo n gs ; as is illustr ated in the a ccom p an yin g dia
gr am s at W an d at V (Fig 1 6 0 a an d b ) ’
.
, .
(3) The N oda l Pla n es an d the N oda l Poin ts Fin ally in .

-
,
ever y ce n ter ed system o f spher ic al r efr a ctin g su r fa ces the r e

is also a p air o f c on jugate t ran sve r s al pl an es ch ar a cter i z ed
b y the p r o pert y th at the an g le be tween a n y p air of obj ect
,
FIG . 1 6 1 — Prin c i
. p pal o in t s (H , H )
’
an d n o dal p o in t s
(N ,
whi ch i n ter sect i n p oi n t lyin g i n the so ca lled p r imar y

r ays a -
n oda l p lan e wi ll b e exa ctly e qu a l to the an g le b etwe en the c or
r esp on di n g p a i r o f i ma g e-r a ys whi ch mee t i n the j

c on ug a te
p oi n t f
o the The n oda l p oin ts N N
sec on da r y n oda l p lan e .
,
’
whe r e the axis m eets these pl an es wer e r em ar ked fir st by

M O S E R in 1 844 but they we r e b r o ught in t o pr o m i n e n ce
5
,
thr o ugh the wo r k o f LIS TING (1 84 ) with wh o se n am e the r e

fo r e they ar e gen e r a lly a sso ci ate d The distin guishin g fe a .
tu e o this pai o f c o j ugate a i al po i ts is th at j r a y

r f r n x n o b ec t-
an d i ma g e-r a y cr o ss the a xi s a t the n oda l p oi n ts a t exa c tly the

sa me slop e exam ple if the st r aight lin e N U (Fig 1 6 1 )
. Fo r ,
.
r ep r ese n ts the p ath o f a n O bject -r ay which c r o sses the ax is
a t the p r i m ar y n o d a l p o i n t an d m eets the p r i m ar y p r i n cip a l
pl an e in the po in t m ar ked U the pa th o f the c o r r espo n din g

,
i m a ge-r ay will be r ep r ese n ted by a st r aight lin e N U which ’ ’
is dr awn par allel t o N U a n d which m eets the seco n d ar y pr in

M irr o r s
’
3 38 ,
c ip al pl an e
the po in t m ar ked U SO th at if A H NU = 0
in ’
, ,
then 9 .
Obvi o usly the qu a d r il ate r al N UU N is a p a ra llel o g r am

,
’
,
an d he n ce H N = H N ; th a t is the s tep f r om o n e of the p r i n

’ ’
,
ci p a l p oi n ts to the c or r e sp on di n g n oda l
p oi n t i s iden ti ca l wi th
the step f r om the o ther p r i n ci p a l p oi n t to i ts corr esp on di n g n oda l
p oi n t The n o d al p o in ts ther efo r e lie a lways o n the s am e
.
, ,
S ide o f the c o rr esp o n di n g p r i n ci pa l p o i n ts an d a t equ al dis
t an ces fr o m them If the pr im ar y n o d al p o in t an d pr in cip al

.
p o in t c o in cide the s am e will be t r ue o f the sec o n d ar y n o d al

,
p o in t a n d pr in cip a l p o in t M o r eo ver sin ce N N = UU .

,
’ ’
HH the i n t e r va l betwee n the n o d a l pl an es is p r ecisel y the

’
,
s am e a s the in ter v al between the pr in cip a l pl an es .
If in the S H H E LMH O LT Z fo r m ul a 1 1 8) we put 0

M IT - ’
0 we fi n d fo r the l a ter a l m a gn ific ati o n in the n o d a l pl an e s

,
o f a ce n te r ed syste m o f sphe r ic a l r efr a cti n g su r fa ces

I
y n
y n
wher e n an d n den o te the in dices o f r efr a cti o n o f th e fir st

’
an d l a st m edi a r espectively ,
Applyin g thi s r esul t t o the .
c a se o f a sin gle Spher ic a l r efr a ctin g sur fa ce we O bt a in fo r '
the n o d a l p o in ts N N the c o n diti on s u = u = r th at is

,
’ ’
, ,
AN = AN = A C C o n seque n tly the n o d al p o i n ts o f a sphe r

’
.
,
ic a l r efr a ct in g su r fa ce c o i n cide with e a ch o ther at the cen ter

C o f the su r fa ce ; as m ight h ave bee n in fer r ed at o n ce fr o m
the fa ct th at a cen t r al r ay is n o t devi at ed b y r efr a cti on at a
S pher ic al su r fa ce .
4
( ) V a r i o us w r ite r s o n o ptics h a ve distin guished o the r
p air s Of c o n j ugate axi al p o in ts besides the p r in cip al p o in ts

a n d n o d a l p o i n ts but n o n e o f these can be s aid t o h ave
,
a chieved a pe r m an e n t pl a ce in the lite r atu r e O f the subject

'
We m ay m en ti o n the so c alled n eg a tive p r in cip a l p oin ts in -

,
t r o du c e d by T O E PLE R in 1 87 1 which a r e ch a r a cte r i z ed b y ,
the fa ct th at f or thi s p air of p oin ts the la ter a l mag n ificati on i s

— 1 ; th at is y — th t the i m ge is i ve ted
’
e qu a l to y s o a ,
a n r ,
an d o f sam e si z e as O bj ect Pr o fesso r S P T H OMPS ON hav . . .

,
§ 120] C on s t r uc ti on of Im ag e 3 39
mg this p r o pe rt y in view h as r e n a m ed the m m uch m o r e

— ,
h appily the symmetr i c p oi n ts o f the o ptic al system .
t t h I m e - t Q c o n j ug ate to an
’
1 20 C o n s ruc i o n
. O f t e a g P o in
Extr a axi a l O b j e c t Po in t Q
- - — If the p r i n cip a l pl an es an d
.
fo c al pl an es h ave been deter m in ed it will n o t be n ecess ar y ,
t o t r a ce the p ath o f a r ay in the i n te r i o r o f the syste m Su p .
1 6 2 — C o n st r u c t io n p Q j j p
o b e c t - o in t Q
y
FIG Of im a g i t ’
to
p
. e- o n con u g at e
in an o t ic a l s s t e m .
po se e xam ple th at Q (Fig 1 6 2 ) design ates the p o siti o n

,
fo r , .
O f an O b j ect -p o i n t n o t o n the ax is ; the p o siti o n o f the p o i n t
Q c o n jugate t o Q m ay be c o n str ucted a s fo ll o ws

’
Thr o ugh Q d r aw a str aight lin e QV p ar allel t o the axis '
m eeti n g the sec o n d ar y p r i n cip al pl an e in the p o i n t m ar ked

V an d also an o ther str aight lin e QF m eetin g the p rim ary
’
pr in cipal pl an e in the po in t m ar ked W The r equir ed p o in t .
Q
’
will be f o u n d a t the p o in t o f in te r secti o n o f the str aight
lin e V F with the str aight lin e WQ d r a wn p ar allel t o the
’ ’ ’
a xis The feet o f the pe r pe n dicul ar s let fall fr o m Q Q o n ’

.
,
t o the a xis will l o c ate a ls o a p a i r o f c o n juga te a xi al p o i n ts

M M The c o n str ucti on is see n t o be e n tir ely si m il ar t o
,
’
.
th at given in 7 1 8 1 an d 92 The c a se r ep r esen ted in the

, .
figur e is that O f a con ver g en t op ti ca l system in which p ar allel ,
o b j ect r a ys ar e c o n ve r ged t o a r e a l fo cus a t a p o i n t in the
sec o n d ar y fo c al pl an e The studen t sh o uld d r aw for him

.
340 Mirr o r s ,
self the c o rr esp o n din g diagram fo r the c ase of a diver g en t

op ti ca l system .
1 21 . ti on of t h e No dal Po in ts N N
C o n str uc g de ,
’
.
—H av 1n
t e r mi n e d the p o siti o n o f the p o i n t Q c o n jugate t o Q we c an

’
,
e a sily l o c ate the p o siti o n s o f the n o d al p o i n ts N N

’
Fo r , .
e xam ple o n the st r aight lin e WQ (Fig 1 6 2) t ake a po in t Z

,
’
.
such th at Z Q = H H an d d r aw the str aight lin e QZ m eetin g

’ ’
,
the pr im ar y pr in cip al pl an e in the p o in t U Dr a w UU p ar .

’
allel t o the a x is m eetin g the sec o n d ar y p r in cip al pl an e in
the p o in t U E viden tl y the str aight lin es QU an d Q U will

’
.
,
’ ’
FIG . 1 63 — C o n st r u c t io n of n o d al p o in ts (N , an d p ro of of
I F = FR
’ '
r e l at i o n .
be p ar allel an d the p o in ts wher e they cr o ss the axis will b e

,
the n o d al p o in ts N N ,
’
A Sim pler way o f c on st r uctin g the n o d al po in t s N N is ,

’
a s fo ll o ws :
Th r o ugh the p r i m ar y fo c al p o in t F d r aw a st r aight lin e

FW m eetin g the p r i m ar y p ri n cip al pl an e in the p o i n t m ar ked
W an d thr o ugh W d r a w a str aight li n e p ar allel t o the axis
,
m eeti n g the sec o n d ar y f o c al pl an e In a p o in t m ar ked I in

’
Fig 1 6 3
. This p o i t I is the im age p o in t o f the in fini tely
. n - ’
dist an t p o in t I o f the st r aight lin e FW The str aight lin e .
d r aw n th r o ugh I p ar a llel t o FW will m eet the axis in the

’
sec o n d ar y n o d al p o in t N ; an d the po siti on o f t he o ther n o d al

’
p o in t N c an be fo un d i mm edi ately .
The diagr am sh o ws als o th at

FH NF ’ ’
§ 12 1 ] C on s t ruc ti on of Im a g e 341
when ce it foll o ws 1 19) th a t
Acc or din gly , the step f r om on e n oda l p oin t to the corr esp on d
in g f o ca l p oi n t i s i den ti ca l wi th the s tep f r om the other f o c a l
p oi n t to i ts c or r esp on di n g p r i n ci p a l p oi n t
,
. In fa ct the th r ee
,
segm e n ts o f the axis FF H N an d H N all ’

,
’ ’
h ave a c o mm on
h alf-way p o in t .
I n ciden t ally an o ther useful r el ati on m ay be seen at a

,
gl an ce in Fig 1 6 3 Le t R design ate the p o i n t whe r e the r ay

. .
IH which p asses through the p r im ar y pr i n cip al p o i n t cr o sses
1 64— C o n st ru c t io n p Q j j p
e c t - o in Q
y
FIG Of im ag e - o in t ’
Ob in
p
. . c o n u g at e to t
an O t i c al s st e m .
the pr im ar y fo c al pl e ; the c esp o n di n g an will or r i age r ay

m -
p a ss thr ough the sec on d ar y p r in cip al p o in t H an d c r o ss the ’
sec o n d ar y fo c al pl an e at I ; an d o bvi o usly sin ce FR H W ’

, ,
an d H WI F ar e b o th p ar allel o g r am s
’ ’
,
I F = FR ;
’ ’
C o n seque n tly , a p ir
a o f j
c on ug a te r a ys p assi n g thr oug h the
p r i n c i p a l p oi n ts H H ,
’
wi ll cr oss the f oc a l p la n es a t e qua l di s
ta n ces f r om the a xi s , b ut on Op p o si te si de s ther e of .
This r esult m ay be utili z ed in the c o n st r uctio n o f the

po in t Q (Fig 1 64) c o n jugate t o the O b j ect-po in t Q Le t
’
. .
X design ate the po in t wher e the str aight lin e QH cr o sses

the pr im ar y fo c a l pl an e ; an d t ake a po i n t Y in the sec o n d ary ’
f o c al pl an e such th at F Y = XF The n the r equired p o i n t Q

’ ’
.
’
342 Mir r or s ,
will be at the p o in t o f in ter sectio n o f the st r aight li n e H Y ’ ’
with either o f the st r aight lin es W Q o r V F sh o wn in the ’ ’ ’ ’
figu r e .
1 22 T h e Foc al Le n g t h s f f — Le t us e m pl o y the s ym b o ls
’
.
.
,
co w t o de n o te the sl o pes o f a p ai r o f c o n jug ate r a ys which

’
,
p a ss th r o ugh the pr i n cip al po in ts H H ; thus in Fig 1 64 ,

’
,
.
A FH X = w A F H Y w ; an d si n ce in the c ase o f p ar axi al

’ ’ ’ ’
,
r a ys we m ay w r ite w a n d w in pl a ce o f t an w an d t an w
’ ’
(see we h a ve :
FX FY
’ ’
FH FH
’ ’
Acc or din gly divi din g o n e Of these equ ati on s b y the o ther
, ,
a n d t a ki n g a cc o u n t o f the fa ct th a t F Y = XF
’ ’
we
O bt a in :
FH
FH
’ ’
(0
Sin ce the
l ater al m agn ific atio n in the pr in cip al pl an es is
e qu a l t o + 1 th at i s sin ce y = y
,
the SMIT H-H E LM
,
’
H OLT Z fo rm ula 1 1 8) for the p air of c on jugate poin ts

H H t akes the fo r m
’
,
w =n
’ ’
n . . to,
wher e n an d n den o t e the in dices o f r efr ac t ion of t he fi r s t

’
an d l ast m edi a o f the O ptic a l syste m .
If th er efo r e the f oca l len g ths of the op ti ca l system ar e de

, ,
fi n ed a s the a b sci ssce o

f th e p r i n ci p a l p oi n ts wi th r esp ec t to thei r
cor resp on di n g f oca l p oi n ts, a put

,
if w e f th t is
= FH ,
f
’
wher e f an d f den o te the pr im ar y an d sec o n d ar y fo c al len g ths

’
,
r espectively the n c o m bin in g the r el atio n s fo un d ab o ve so

,
as t o eli m in ate the an gles w an d w we fi n d :

’
,
which m ay be put in w or ds as fo llo ws :The f oca l len g ths f

o
a c en ter ed system o f sp her i ca l r e r a cti n g f f

sur a ce s a r e pr opr o
ti on a l to the i n di ces o f r e r acti on
f o f the fi r st a n d la st me di a ,
a n d a r e op p osi te in si g n ; ex cept in the sin gle c a se when the
o pt ic al system i n clude s a n odd n u mb er of re flecti n g f
sur a ce s,
§ 1 22] Fo c al Le n g h s t of Op ti c al S yt s e m 343
in whi ch c ase the f oca l len g ths wi ll have the same sig n
‘
(th at is ,
in thi s ex cepti on al c ase f/f ,

’
It a ppe ar s ther efo r e th at the fo r m ul a

, , ,
which was fo un d 7 9 an d 9 6 ) t o h o ld fo r a si n gle sphe r ic al

r efr a cti n g su r f a ce a n d f o r a n in fi n itely thi n le n s e xp r esses , ,
in fa ct a pe r fectly ge n e r al r el ati o n which is t rue o f an y

,
cen ter ed system o f spher ic al r efr a cti n g sur fa ces C o n sider .

,
fo r e xam ple the o ptic a l syste m o f the h u m an eye in which

,
the fir st m edium is (n 1 ) an d the last m edium is the

a ir =
’
To I o t o
c
To J ai oo
'
FIG 1 6. 5 .
— F o c al le n g t h s (f f )
,
’
of an o p t ic al y
s st e m .
c lled vitr eo us hu m o r wh o se i n dex o f r efr a cti o n is n

so - a
’
In GuLLS TR A N D s sche m atic eye (see 1 30) the

5
5
’
pr im ar y fo c al len gth is fo un d t o be f = + 1 7 0 mm . .
,
when ce a cc o r di n g t o the ab o ve for m ul a the sec on d ar y

mm
, ,
fo c a l len g th is f = ’
.
In p ar ticul ar when the medi a of obj e ct-sp a ce a n d i mag e

,
"=
sp ace a re i den ti ca l (n n ) , the f o ca l len g ths a r e e qua l i n ma g
n i tude , b ut f
opp osi te This inis the
sig nc a se with ’
f) .
m o st o ptic al syste m s si n ce they a r e usu ally su rr o u n ded by

,
air .Acc o r din g t o the defin iti on s o f t he fo c al len gths given

ab o ve it f o ll o ws f r o m
, 1 2 1 th at
an d hen ce we see th at the n oda l p oi n ts (N N ) of,

’
a n op ti ca l
system sur r o un ded -

b y the sa m e me di um on b oth si des coi n ci de
wi th the p r i n ci p a l p oi n ts (H , whe n =n then

’
fo r n ,
= =
FH f f FN ,
— ’ - .
3 44 Mir r o r s ,
The fo c al le n gths o f a cen ter ed system o f spher ic al re
fr a ctin g sur fa ces m ay be defin ed als o exa ctly as in

5 5
83
an d 9 If in Fig 1 6 we put A H FW =
. .
we c an wr ite
HW
FH
H V FH
’ ’
— _
f —
’ f
t an 0 t an 0
an d sin ce t an 0= 0, t an we
h ave :
’ '
FI FJ
f r f /
0 0
Acc o r din gly , w e m a y a ls o defi n e the f o c a l le n gths a s f o ll o ws
The f o ca l len g th of the o bj ec t-sp a ce (f ) i s equa l to the r a ti o of
the li n e ar ma g n i tu de of an i ma g e f or me d i n the f oca l p la n e
o f the i ma g e-sp a ce to the app are n t (or an g u lar ) mag n i tude of

the corr e sp on di n g ly i n fi n i te ly di stan t o bj e ct; an d, si mi l arly ,
the
f o ca l len g th of the i mag e-sp ace (f is e qua l to the r a ti o o f the

li n e ar mag n i tude of a n obj ect lyin g i n the f oca l p lan e of the
obj e c t—
sp a c e to the a p p aren t (or a n g u lar ) mag n i tude of i ts i n
fi n i te ly di sta n t i ma g e .
The fo c al len gt hs be said ther efor e to m e asur e the

m ay , ,
mag n if yi n g p ower o f the o ptic a l i n str um e n t fo r if the app ar a ,
tus is a d apted t o an emm etr o pic eye the im age will

be for m ed at in fin it y an d the m agn ifyin g p o wer will be deter
,
m in ed by the r ati o o f the app ar e n t si z e o f the i m age t o the

a ctu al si z e o f the o bj ect (see C h apte r X III ) .
1 23 Th e I m ag e -E quati o n s in th e c ase o f a Symm e tri c al

.
O pti c al Syst e m — The im a ge-e qu atio n s are a s ystem o f r e

.
lat io n s w hi ch e n able us t o fi n d the p o siti o n o f an im age

p o in t Q (Fig 1 6 2) c o n jug ate t o a given o bj ect -p o in t Q
'
. .
T h e p o siti o n o f the p o in t Q will be give n b y its t wo c o

o r di n ates r efe r r ed t o a s yste m o f r ect an gul ar a x es in the
o bj ect -sp a ce in the m e r idi an pl a n e in which the p o i n t Q lies .
N atu r all y the O ptic al ax is will be selected as the axis o f

,
a bsciss ae an d eithe r the p r im ar y f o c a l p o i n t F or the p r im ar y
pr in cip al p o in t H as the o r igin Thus if we put .

,
FM = x, HM = U ; MQ = y ,
1 23 ] Th e I m a g e -E q u a t i o n s 34 5
the bject p i t Q will be the po in t (x y) o r the p o i n t (u y)
O - o n
, , ,
a cc o r di n g a s we t a ke the o r igi n at F o r H r espectively ,

.
Si m il ar ly in the i m a ge -sp a ce if we put

“
, ,
F
/
M r
x
i
, H M
I ! I
,
MQ / r
y
r
,
the c o or din ates o f Q will be den o ted by y ) o r (u y )

’ ’ ’
,
’
a cc o r di n g as the o r i g i n o f this syste m o f axes is at F o r H

’ ’
,
r espectively .
The i mag e-e qua ti on s

’
a . r e e rr ed
f to the f o ca l poi n ts F , F
The fo ll o win g pr o p o r ti o n s ar e o bt ai n ed fr o m the t wo p ai r s
o f si m il ar t r i an g les F H W FM Q an d F H ,
’ ’
V ’
,
F
’
MQ ’ ’
HW MQ M
’
FH
’ ’ ’
F
MQ FM
’
H V
’ ’
FH
’
an d sin ce
FH =f ,
we fi n d i m m edi ately :
’
y f
y x
when ce t he c o o r din ates x y c an be foun d in t e rm s Of the ’

,
’
given c o or din ates x y a n d the fo c al len gths f f , ,

’
.
These for m ul ae which we r e o bt ain ed fo r m e r ly fo r c e r

5
,
t ain sim ple speci al c ases 69 8 a n d 9 3 ) ar e see n the r e , ,
fo r e t o be e n ti r ely gen er al an d a pplic able alw ays t o an y

,
sy m m et ic l ptic l system The so c alled N ewt o n ian

r a O a - .
fo rm o f the absciss a-r elatio n v iz

1m :
Sh o ws th at the p r o duct o f the fo c al -p o in t absciss ae is c o n st an t .
b . The i m a g e -e qu a ti o n s r e e r r ed
f to the p r i n c i p a l p oi n ts
H ,H Aga in the fo ll o wi n g pr o p o r ti o n s ar e der ived fr o m

’
.
—
,
the t wo p air s Of sim il ar t r i an gles FH W QVW an d F H V ,

’ ’ ’
QWV
I / l
WV VQ _ H M VW ’ ’
WQ ’ ’
H
’
M ’
H W FH H V H ’
FH FH
’ ’ ’ ’
F
’
an d sin ce (y
’ —
y) an d
—
y)
’
(y , we fi n d
’ — u
’ — u
’
y y_ y y
~
’ ”
y J
3 46 Mirr o r s ,
These r el ati o n s give the fo ll o win g exp r essi o n s fo r the l at er al

m ag n ific a ti o n
f
'
y
y f +u f
C le ar in g fr a cti o n s we o bt ai n :
,
=0
,
an di v idi n g thr o ugh by

d u u .
’
,
we h ave well -kn o wn
absciss a -r el a ti o n
I
1 0;
u it
which m ay als o be o bt ai n ed dir ectly by substitutin g x f u ,
in the equ ati o n x x

’ ’
ff . .
By m e an s o f these fo r m ul ae the c o o r din ates u y m ay ,

’
,
’
be fo un d in ter m s o f t he given c o or din ates u y an d the ,

.
fo c al len gths f f ,
’
.
Si n ce =0 we h ave als o an other e xp r es

si o n fo r the later al m agn ific atio n v iz ,
.
,
’ ’
y _ n u .
’
y n . u
which h as likewise been O bt ai n ed al r e ady in the special c ase

o f a si n gle sphe r ic a l r ef r a ctin g su r fa ce
A sim ple an d c o n ve n ien t m eth o d o f l o c ati n g t h e p o siti o n s

o f p a irs o f c o n jug ate axi al p o i n ts is suggested by the ab
sci ss r el ati o n
a -
u u
whi ch m ay be put in the fo llo wi n g fo r m
Supp o se , ther efo r e th at the axi al lin e segm en t H F is sh o ved ’ ’

,
al on g the O ptic a l a xis u n til the sec o n d ar y p r i n cip a l p o in t H

’
is b r o ught in t o c oin cide n ce with the p r i m ar y p r i n cip a l p o in t

H an d th at the n the O ptical a xis in the i m age -spa ce (x ) is ’
'
, .
tur n ed ab o ut H u n til it m akes a fin ite an gle with the Op

tical axis in the O bj ect -sp a ce (x) as r epr ese n ted fo r exam ple , ,
Th r o ugh t he fo c al p o i n ts F an d F d r aw t h e
,
’
in Fig 1 6 6
. .
1 2 3] The Im a g e E
- qu ti a on s 3 47
str aight li n es FS p ar allel t o H F an d H F r e spe c

an d FS
’ ’ ’
,
t iv e ly a n d let S design a te thei r p o i n t o f i n te r secti o n

,
The n .
a n y st r a ight li n e dr a wn th r o ugh S will i n te r sect a

’
t a n d x in
a p a ir o f c o n j ug ate axi a l p o i n ts M M ; fo r if we put u = H M

’
in the equ ati o n a bo ve the e qu ati on will

,
an d ,
1 66 — C o n st ru c t io n p M j
j p y
of o in
’
FIG
p
. . t con ug at e to
a xi al O b e c t - o in t M in an o t i c al s st e m .
e v iden tly be s atisfied The ve r tex S o f the p ar allel o gr am

.
H F SF is the ce n te r o f pe r spective o f the t wo p o i n t -r an ges

’
’
x an d x .
c . The i ma g e-equa ti on s r e er r ed
f to an y p ai r of j
c on ug a te
’
axi a l p o i n ts O, O .
If the o r igin s o f the t wo system s Of r ect an gul ar axes a re

a p a ir o f c o n jug a te ax i a l p o i n ts O O wh o se dist an ces f r o m
’
,
the fo c a l p o i n ts F F a r e de n o ted by a a r espectively so

,
’
,
’
, ,
th at FO = a F O = a ; an d if we put
,
’ ’ ’
OM = z ,
x = a+z
,
an d if these v alues o f a an : d x
’
a re substituted in the equ a
tio n s
348 M ir r o r s Pr isms an d Le n se s
, 1 23
we o bt ain
y f
ff .
’
, the r el ati o n between 2 an d z
’
m ay be put in
Z 2
whe r e the c o n st an ts are n o w a an d a i n ste ad o f f an d f ’ ’

.
Supp o se fo r e x am ple th at the p a ir o f c o n jugate axi al

, ,
po in ts O O is ide n tic al with the p a ir o f n o d al p o in ts N N ;

,
’
,
’
then
a = F O = FN = —f ’
,
—
f;
so th at the i ma g e equa ti on s
r ef er r ed
- to the n oda l p oi n ts
will h ave the fo llo wi n g for m s :

’ ’
—f
f f 1 0)
y f 2
2 Z
,
y —
Z f
,
f
wher e z = NM ,
ter ms
5
d . The i mag e-equa ti on s in f
o the f
r e r a ctin g p ower
an d the r e du ce d v er g e n ces (see 10 an d
The r efr a ctin g p o wer o f the ptic a l s ystem is defin ed

5
o
1 0 ) by the r el ati o n s :
wher e n n den ot e the in dices Of r efr a ctio n o f the fir st an d

,
’
l ast m edi a Simi l ar ly the r educed ver gen ces

.
,
with
r espect t o t he p r i n cip a l p o in ts a r e :
n n
U
u
If the r efor e in the i m age e qu ati o n s r e ferr ed t o the p ri n

, ,
-
c ip al p o i n ts we eli m in ate f f an d u u b y m e an s O f these

’ ’
, ,
tw o p a ir s o f f o r m ul ae we O bt a i n the i m,
a ge -equ ati on s in t h e
fo ll o win g e xceedin gl y useful an d c on ven ien t form
9
2
3 3
— :
If the lin e ar m a gn itudes ar e m e asu r ed in term s of the m ete r

124] Mag n ifi c a tio n -R at io s 3 49
as u n it len g th the m agn itudes den o ted her e by U U

of , ,
’
an d F wi ll all be e x p r esse d in di o pt r ies
1 24 T he M ag n ifi c ati o n —
. R ati o s an d th e ir M utual R e
l atio n s —
(a ) The la ter a l mag n ifi ca ti on y
. This h as al .
r e a dy bee n defi n e d a s the r ati o O f c o n j ug ate lin e-seg m e n ts
lyi n g in pl an es a t r ight an gles t o the O ptic al axis The fol .
l o wi n g expr essi o n s we r e Obt ain e d fo r this r ati o in 123 :

U
’ ’ ’ ’
_ y _ f x f f . u n u .
U
’ ’ ’ ’
y x f f + u f f . u n . u
when ce we see th at the l a te r al m agn ific ati o n is a fun cti on

o f the a bsciss a o f the O bj ect -p o m t a n d th at in a n y O p tic al
systemit m ay h ave an y value fr o m 00 t o

,
00 depe n din g
o n the p o siti o n o f the O b j ect .
()
b T h e a xi a l m a g n ifi ca ti on o r dep th-r a ti o x If x x de .
,
’
n o te the a b s c issee with r espect t o the f o c al p o i n ts o f a p a i r
—
o f c o n jug ate a xi a l p o i n ts a n d if x l c x + c de n o te the a b
—
, ,
’ ’
s c issae O f an o the r p a i r o f such p o in t s im m edi ately a dj a ce n t -
t o the fo r m e r the n si n ce , ,
x x =
’ ’
= x+ c
.
f f
.
( )
an d sin ce m o r eo ve r the p r o duct c c is a s m all m a gn itude o f .
’
the sec o n d o r de r a s c o m p ar ed with either o f the s m all fa ct o r s

an d is the r efo r e n egligible we fi n d
’
6 or c , ,
The r ati o c : c o f s m all c o n jugate seg m e n ts o f the a xis

’
is c lled the
a a xi a l o dep th m ag n ifi ca ti on
r - If this r ati o is .
den o ted by the sym b o l x then a cc o r di n g t o the equ ati o n , ,
a b o ve :
’
0 x
c x x 2
so th at wher e as
, the la ter a l ma g n i fi
i s i n ver se ly p ro
c a ti on
p or ti on a l to the a b sci ssa x , the dep th-m a g n ifi ca ti on i s i n v erse ly
p r op or ti on a l to the squa r e of x . In fa ct the r el ati o n bet ween

,
the axial m agn ific ati o n an d the l at e r al m ag n ifi c a t io n m ay

'
be e xpr essed as fo ll o ws
3 0 5 Mirr o r s ,
The i l ax a m agn ific ati o n

depth el o n gati on of a s m all
or -
O bject is p r o p o r ti o n al t o the s q u ar e o f its l a te r a l m a gn ific ati o n .
If the r efo r e we t a ke a ser ies o f o r din ates 1 2 3 4 etc

, , , , , , ,
.
(F ig a.l l o f e q u a l height a n d a t e q u a l i n t e r v als a p a r t
'
e
1 2 3 4 5 e 7 8 F
FIG . 167 — R e lat io n

. b e twee n axi al or ph
de t -m a g n ifi c at io n an d l at e r al
m a g n ifi c at io n .
(like telegr aph po les ) their im a ges will be of un

a r ow of ,
e qu al heights an d at un equ al dist an ces a p ar t ; but the in

t e rv als betwee n the success i ve Im ages will i n c r e ase o r di
m in ish far m o r e r a pidl y th an the c o r r esp o n di n g ch an ges in
thei r heights Acc o r din gly the im age o f a s o lid Object c an
.
,
n o t in ge n e r a l be sim il ar t o the O bj ect but will be dist o r ted

, , , ,
sin ce the dim en si o n p ar allel t o the axis o f the O ptic al s yste m

is a lter ed ver y m uch m o r e th an the dim en si o n s at r ight an gle s
t o the axis This un even distr ibuti on o f the images o f Ob
.
F IG 1 6 8 — An g u l ar m ag n ifi c at io n
. . o r con v e r g e n c e-r a t io .
j e c ts a t n
“
diff er e t dist an ces expl ain s the cur io us eff ect no
t ic e ab le in m o de r n
bi no cul ar fi eld-gl a sses o f high p o wer ,
but see n als o in o pe r a-gl asses an d telesc o pes in which the ,
successive pl an es o f l an dsc a pes seem e xagger a ted an d flat ,
ten ed al m o st like the flat scen er y o f the theater Thi n t r ees .
an d hedges f o r e xam ple see m t o o ccupy defi ni te pl an es ; a n d

, ,
Ch . X] Pr o b le ms 3 1 5
the m or e dist an t O bjects appe ar t o be c o m pr essed up to w ar d
th o se in fr o n t o f them (Pr o fess o r S P TH O MPS ON ) . . .
(c) The a n g u la r mag n i fi ti ca on or so-c a lled c on v e r g e n ce
r a ti o 2 If the sl o pes o f c o n a r ays ar e den o ted by 6

. j ug te ,
th at is if we put 0= 4FMJ 0 = A F M I (Fig

, ,
’ ’ ’ ’
.
wher e M M design ate the p o in ts wher e the r ay c r o sses the

’
a xis in the o b j ect sp a ce an d i m a ge sp a ce r espectively an d

,
- -
, ,
J an d I design ate the p o i n ts wher e it cr o sses the pr im ar y

’
a n d sec o n d ar y f o c a l pl an es the n eviden tly : ,
F I
’ ’
FJ
t an 6
m t an 0
W
But the fo c al len gths ar e defin ed by the e quati on s 1 22)
’ ’
F I FJ
_
f ’ f
t an 0 t an 0
an d ther efo r e
I I
F I
t an 0
’
f
E lim in at in g the in ter cepts E l we o bt ain
’
an d
’
F I,
t an 6
’
x f
’
t an 0 f x
wher e the ra tio z = t an 9

’
:
is c alled the
t an 0 (o r 0
’
0)
a n g u la r m a g n ifi c a ti on o r the con v er g en ce-r a ti o It is dir ectly .
p r o po r tio n al t o the a bsciss a x o f the O bj ect -po in t M .
The th ee ag c t
r m n ifi a io n -r ati o s x y an d z ar e c o n n ected ,
b y the follo win g r el at ion :
PR OB LE MS
1 Taki n g the in dex O f r efr a ctio n o f w ater

.
th at the sun s r ays p a ssin g th r o ugh a gl o be o f w ater 6 i n ches

’
sh o w 5
4
3 ,
in di am ete r will be c o n ve r ged t o a fo cus 6 i n ches fr o m the

,
cen ter o f the s pher e .
2 A s m all o b j ect is p l a ced at a dist a n ce u f r o m the n e ar e r

.
s ide o f a so lid r efr a cti n g sphe r e O f r a dius r an d o f r efr a ctive

5
3 2 Mirr o r s ,
Oh . X
in de x n Sh o w th at the dist an ce o f the im age from t he o ther
.
side o f the spher e is

—
2r u r )( n u r
. .
2 (n l )u (n 2) r
an d the l ater al m agn ific ati o n
fin d .
3 A lum i n o us p o i n t is situ ated at the fi r st fo c al p o i n t o f

.
an i n fi n itel y thi n s ym m et r ic d o uble c o n ve x le n s m a de o f
gl a ss (o f in dex an d su r r o u n ded b y air The r adius o f

5
.
e a ch sur fa ce is 1 c m Sh o w th at the im age fo r m ed b y r ays

.
whi ch h ave been twice r eflected in the i nter i o r o f the len s

befo r e em ergin g ag ain in t o the air will be on the o ther side
of the le n s at a dist an ce o f c m fr o m i t . .
4 An Op t ic al syste m is c o m p o sed o f t wo e q u al d o uble

.
c o n vex len ses The in dex o f r efr a cti on Of the gl ass is n

.
an d the r a dii thick n esses etc , a r e a s fo ll o ws : ,

.
,
Tl : T4= 47 9 2 243 ;
.
d2 = 2 4287 . .
If an in cide n t p ar axi al r ay c r o sses the axi s at a distan c e

u1 = fr o m the ve r tex o f the fir st sur fa ce sh o w ,
th at the e m er gen t r ay will c r o ss the axis at a dist an ce u 4

5
’
2 fr o m the ve r te x o f the l a st su r fa ce
5
.
A GLE IOH E N in his Lehr b uch der g eometr i schen Optik

“
. .
gives the fo llo win g d at a o f P G O E R z s d o uble an astigm at .

’ ”
ph o t o gr a phic o bj ective c o m p o sed o f th r ee cem en ted len ses

, ,
the fi r st bein g a p o sitive m en iscus O f c r o wn gl ass the sec o n d ,
a d o uble c o n c a ve fli n t gl a ss le n s an d t he thi r d a d o uble c o n

,
v e x c r o w n gl a ss le n s :
5 5 5
In di ces o f r e r a c ti on
f
n1 =n = 1
; 5 n z= 1 . 1 17 ; ng =1 . 4 78 ; n 4= 1 6 12
.
Ra dii
T4 — O 1 2 6 66 29
.
Thi ck n e sses
dl 7 dz d3
Sh o w th at the sec o n d fo c al po in t Of this system is at a dis
t an ce o f fr o m the ver tex o f the l ast su r fa ce (See .
Ch . X] Pr o b l e m s 5
3 3
schem e for c alculati o n Of p ar axi a l r ay th r o ugh a cen ter e d

system o f spher ic a l r efr a ctin g sur fa ces ,
6 D efi n e the n o da l p o i n ts N N a n d sh o w th a t FN
’
.
,
—
f wher e F F design ate the po siti on s of the fo c al
’
FN
’ ’
, ,
po in ts an d f f den o te the fo c a l le n gths o f the O ptic al system

,
’
.
Un der wh at cir cum st an ces ar e the n o d a l p o in ts ide n tic al

with the pr in cip al p o in ts ?
7 D e
. r ive the im a ge -equ atio n s r eferr ed to the pr in cip al
po in ts .
8 G ive n the p o siti o n s o n the o ptic al axis o f the p r in cip al

.
po i n ts a n d o f the f o c a l p o i n ts ; c o n st r uct the n o d a l p o i n ts .
Also c o n str uct the po i n t Q c o n j ug ate t o a given o bj ect

,
’
po in t Q Dr aw di agr am s for c on ver gen t an d diver gen t

.
system s .
9 Pr o ve t h at
.
’
n f
.
+ n .
f
wher e f an d f
’
den o te the fo c al le n gths o f the Optic al system ,
an d n an d n
’
den o te the in dices o f r efr a ctio n Of the fir st an d
l ast m edi a .
10 A sm all cube is pla ced o n the axis o f a sym m et r ic a l

.
O ptic a l i n st r u m e n t with o n e p ai r O f its fa ces pe r p e n dicul ar
t o the a xis Fi n d the t wo pl a ces whe r e the i m age o f the cube

.
will als o be a cube (Assum e th at the i n str um e n t is sur

.
r o u n ded by the s am e m ediu m o n b o th sides ) .
An s At the p o i n ts fo r which the l ate r al m agn ific ati o n is

.
+1 or 1 .
11 b j ect is pl a ced 3 in ches in fr o n t o f the p r im ar y

. An O
fo c a l pl an e o f a c o n ver gen t o ptica l system Sh o w th a t the .
i m age will be o n e -an d-a—h alf ti m es as l ar ge a s it was a t fi r st

if a pl ate o f gla ss (n = o f thickn ess 3 i n ches is i n te r p o sed
in fr o n t O f the o b j ect .
1 2 Sh o w th a t the axi al m a gn ific a ti o n a t the n o d al p o i n ts

.
h as the s am e v alue as the l ate r al m agn ific a ti o n in the n o d al

pl an es .
13 A sym m et r ic al o ptic a l i n st r u m e n t is su r r o u n ded by

.
the s am e m e diu m on b o th sides If the im ages Of t wo sm all .

3 4 5 M irr o r s ,
Oh . X
O bj ects A an d B o n the axis ar e for m ed at A an d B sh o w ’ ’
th at the r ati o Of A B t o AB is e qu al t o the pr o duct o f the

,
’ ’
l ater a l m agn ific ati o n s for the p air s o f c on jugate p o in ts A A ,

’
an d B B
’
.
,
1 4 Sh o w th at in a symm et r ic al O ptic al i n s tru m e n t the r e

.
a r e t wo p a ir s Of c o n jug ate p o i n ts o n the a x is fo r which a n
in fin itely s m all a xi al displ a cem en t o f the Obj ect will c o r _
r esp o n d t o a n e q u a l displ a ce m e n t o f the i m a ge ; a n d th at the
fo c al p o i n ts ar e m idway between these po i n ts

5
.
1 .Sh o w th a t in a symm et r ic al o ptic al i n st r u m e n t sur

r o un ded b y the s am e m ediu m o n b o th sides the r e a r e t wo
p o in ts o n the axi s wher e O bj ect an d im age will be in the sam e

pl an e ; an d th at if a den o tes the dist an ce between the pr in
c ip al p l an es the dist an ce betwee n these t wo p o in ts w
,
ill b e
16 . In cen te r ed system o f m spher ic al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce s

a
the ver tex o f the k th sur fa ce is design ated by Ak A p ar .
a xi al r ay c r o sses the axis befo r e r efr a cti o n at the fi r st su r fa ce
a t a p o i n t M 1 which c o i n cides with the p r i m ar y fo c al p o i n t F
o f the o ptic a l syste m Befo r e an d after r efr a ctio n at the

.
k th sur fa ce thi s r ay c r o sses the a xis at Mk an d Mk + 1 r e ,
sp c t
e iv e ly If w e put
. u k
= A k M k u k
= A k M k + 1 sh o w t h a t ,
’
,
u2 u ; u
i
. .
f . FA1 ,
u 1 u2 um— l
wher e f den o te s the pr im ar y fo c al len g th o f the O pt ic al

. .
system .
1 7 If the s ym b o ls uk uLe m pl o yed in the s am e se n se a s

.
, ,
in the p r ecedi n g p r o ble m r efe r t o a p ar axi al r ay whi ch is ,
in ciden t o n the fir st sur fa ce O f the system in a dir ection

p ar allel t o the Optic al axis sh o w th at ,
n u 1 u2 um um
“
.
. . .
’
f ,
u2 u 3 um
f um
n 2 u3
'
o o o e . . 0 e
wher e f f den o te the fo c al len g ths o f the system an d n n

,
’
,
den o te the in dices Of r efr a cti o n o f the fi r st an d l a st m edia .
1 8 Em pl o y in g the fo r m ul ae o f N O 17 deter m i n e the fo c al

. .
,
len gths Of a hem ispher ic al len s Of gl ass o f r efr a ctive in dex

Ch . X] Pr o b le m s 3 5
5
an d fin d the po siti o n s Of the p r i n cip al pl an es an d the
fo c al pl an es .
An s If r de n o tes the r a dius o f the cur ved su r fa ce an d if

.
,
dist an ces ar e m e a sur ed fr o m the ver tex o f this sur fa ce the ,
dist an ces o f the fo ca l p o i ts a e 2r an d + 7 r/3 an d the

n r -
,
dist an ces Of the pr in cip al p o i n ts ar e 0 an d + r/3 The fo c a l .
len gth is twice the len gth o f the r a dius .
1 9 If a p ar ax i a l r ay p r o cee din g o r igi n ally in a di r ecti o n

.
,
p ar a llel t o the axis o f a cen te r e d system O f spher ic al r efr a ct

in g sur fa ces (a s in No . c r o sses the axis in the m edium O f
in dex n k a t a p o in t Mk wh o se dist an ce fr o m the ve r te x o f
the k t su f ce is k Ak Mk (Uk
h r a u = sh o w th a t
1 d
F 1 ,k = F 1 ,k
(U k -1 + Fk -1
wher e Fk den o tes the r efr a ctin g p o wer o f the kth sur fa ce ,
F ur de n o tes the r efr a cti n g p o wer o f the syste m o f su r fa ces

b oun ded by the 1 st an d k th in clusive (F 1 1 = F 1 an d ,
an d dk _1 = Ak _1 Ak de n o tes the a xi a l thick n ess betwee n the
su r fa ces b oun din g the m ediu m o f in dex n k .

C HA PT E R XI
C O MP O UND S Y S TE MS . T H IC K LE N SE S A ND BN
C O M I A T IO NS
OF LE NSE S A ND MIRR O R S
12 5
. Fo r m ul a f o r C o mb in ati o n of TW O O pti c al S yt
s e ms
in te r m s Of th e Fo c al Le n g th s Supp o se th a t the O ptic al —
system c o n sists o f t wo p arts I a n d II e a ch c o m p o sed of ,
a ce n te r ed syste m o f sphe r ic a l r e tr a c t in g su r fa ces with their
o ptic a l a x es in the s a m e st r a ight li n e On a st r a ight li n e .
p ar allel t o this c o m m o n O ptic al axis t ake t wo po in ts P P ,

’
( g
F i . which we sh a ll a ssu m e t o be a p a i r o f c o n jugate
p o in ts with r espect t o the c o m p o un d s ystem (I III ) an d ——
F '
H '
1 6 9 — C o m b in a t i o n p y Le tt e r s wit h su b sc ri t s p
p y
F IG of t ic a l s st e m s
h p
. . two O .
su b sc r i t s r e f e r t o c o m
p y
r e fe r t o c o m o n e n t s s t e m s ; l e t t e r s w it o u t
o u n d o r r e su l t a n t s st e m .
sin ce these p o in ts ar e o n the s am e side o f the O ptic al axi s

an d at equ a l dist an ces fr o m it eviden tly they m ust li e in , ,
the p r i n cip a l pl an es o f the c o m p o un d system Ac

c o r din g ly the feet O f the pe r pe n dicul a r s d r a wn fr o m P P
’
, ,
t o the o ptic a l ax is will be the p a ir O f p r i n cip a l p o i n ts H H

’
,
O f the c o m p o u n d syste m .
On the o ptic al axis select a p o in t F 1 for the p o siti on Of

3 6 5
§ 12 5
] C o mb in a io n t of Two Op ical S t yt s e ms 3 7 5
the pr im ar y fo c al po in t o f syste m I an d select a ls o the p o si '
tio n s o f the pr in cipal po i n ts H 1 H 1 an d H H 2 o f system s , 2,

’
I an d II r espectively Th r o ugh F 1 dr aw the st r aight lin e

,
.
PW 1 m eetin g the p r i m ary p r i n cip a l pl an e o f syste m I in the

po in t W 1 ; t ake H I W I = H 1W 1 an d d r aw the st r aight lin e
’ ’
,
W l G 2 p ar allel t o the axis m eetin g the p r i m ar y p r i n cip al

’
pl an e o f system II in the po in t G ; t ake an d 2
d r aw the st r aight li n e G P which m ust n ecess ar ily cr o ss 2

’ ’
,
the O ptical axis at the sec o n d ar y fo c al po i n t F o f syste m II 2

’
.
Le t the st r aight li n e d r a w n th r o ugh P p ar allel t o the o p

tic al axis m eet the pr im ar y an d sec o n d ar y p r in cip al pl an es
O f syste m I in the p o i n ts desig n a ted by V1 a n d VI
’
r e sp e c
t iv e ly ; an d select a p o i n t o n the O ptic a l axis fo r the p o siti o n

o f the sec o n d ar y fo c a l p o i n t F 1 o f syste m I Thr ough F 1 ’ ’
.
d r aw the st r aight lin e V1 F 1 m eetin g the p r i m ar y pr in cip al

’ ’
pl an e o f system II in L ; t ake H 2 L2 = H 2L2 an d d r aw the 2

’ ’
,
st r aight lin e L2 P which will c r o ss the o ptic al axis in the

’ ’
,
sec on d ar y fo c al p o in t F o f the c o m po un d system ’

.
Le t the st r aight lin e d r awn th r o ugh P p ar allel t o the o p

’
tic al axis m eet the pr i m ar y an d sec on d ar y p r in cip al pl an es

o f syste m II in the p o i n ts K 2 an d K r espectively ; a n d let
’
2 ,
O design ate the p o i n t o f i n te r secti o n o f the p ai r O f st r aight

lin es W 1 G 2 an d V1 L2 The p oin t whe r e the st r aight lin e K2O
’ ’
.
c r o sses the o ptic al axis will be the p o siti o n o f the pr im ar y ”
fo c al p o in t F Of syste m II Le t the str aight lin e K2F m eet

2 .
2
the sec o n d ar y p r in ci p al pl an e o f syste m I in the po in t T I ’
a n d t a ke H 1 T 1 = H 1 T I then the st r aight lin e PT 1 will cr o ss

’ ’
the O ptical axis at the pr im ar y fo c a l p o in t F o f the c o m

p o un d system .
The di agr am c on st r ucted a cc o r din g t o the ab o ve dire c

ti o n s r epr esen ts a per fectly gen er al c ase The fo c al len g ths .
O f the c o m p o n e n t syste m s a r e : = H = H
’
d
’ ’
f 1 F 1 f l F 1 1 an 1,
f 2
= F 2 H 2
, f 2
’
a n d the f o c a l le n gths O f the c o m p o u n d
system ar e : f = F H f FH
= The step fr o m the sec o n d ar y
,
’ ’ ’
fo ca l p o in t Of the fi r st syste m t o the p r im ar y fo c al p o i n t o f

the system will be de n o ted b y the sym b OlA ; thus A = F1 F2 ,
’
.
3 8 5 Mirr o r s ,
No w if we kn o w the p o siti o n s o n the O pt ic al axis Of the
fo c al po i n ts F 1 F l a n d F 2 F2 o f the t wo c o m p o n e n t system s
,
’
,
’
,
t o gether with the values Of the fo c al len gths f 1 f 1 an d f 2 f 2 ,

’
,
’
,
it is e asy t o c alcul ate the p o siti o n s o f the fo c al p o i n ts F F ,

’
a n d the v alues o f the f o c a l le n gths f f Of the c o m p o u n d

’
,
s ystem ; as will n o w be sh o wn .
The p o siti o n o f the pr im ar y fo c al p o in t F o f the c o m p o un d

syste m m ay be fo un d fr o m the fa ct th at F an d F 2 ar e a p air
O f c o n jug ate ax i a l p o i n ts with r espec t t o syste m I an d he n ce ,
12 3 . a)
’
R F P1 F2 .
An d, si m il ar ly the p o siti o n Of the sec o n d ar y fo c al p o in t F

,
’
m ay be fo u n d fr o m the fa ct th at F 1 an d F ar e a p air o f c o n
’ ’
jugate po in t s with r espect t o system II so that ,
’ ’ ’ ’
F2 F E2F 1 .
f f2
2 .
Acc or din gly the p o siti o n s Of the fo c a l p o in ts F F With r e

, ,
’
spect t o the kn o wn p o in ts F 1 F2 r espectivel y ar e give n b y

,
'
, ,
the fo llo win g for m ul ae :

'
_ zif f
-
.
A A
In der t o fi n d the fo c al len g ths f f we m ay pr o ceed
or ,
’
,
a s fo ll o ws :
In t he si m il ar t r i an gles FH P FH 1 T 1 we h ave ,
FH HP
FH 1 H 1T 1
an d sin ce
H P H 2K2 , H IT 1 Hl Tl : l ’
the pr o port i on ab o ve m ay be wr itten

FH H 2 K2
H 1 T1
’
FH 1
’
No w fr o m the simil ar tr i an gles F2E 2K2 , F2 H 1 T 1

’ ’
a ls o :
H 2K 2 F2H 2
,
Hl Tl FZH I
l ,
§ 12 5
] C o m b in a ti on of T wo Op ti c al Sys t em s 5
3 9
an d hen ce
No w F H 1 = FF 1 + F 1 H 1 —A
(f f );
an d F zH l
’ —A .
Acc o r din gly puttin g FH f

, ,
F2 H 2 =f 2 , we O bt ain
A
wher eby the pr i m ar y fo c al len gth o f the c o m p o u n d syste m
m ay be c alcul a ted .
Si m il ar ly fr o m the figu r e we o bt ai n the r el ati o n s

,
PH H P H 1 V1 FI H I
I I I / , , I I
F Hz H 2 L2
’
H 2L2 F1 H2
’ ’ ’ ’
an d sin ce
F Hz ——A
(f z l )
I l r
,
Pi H z = F 1 F 2 l F 2H 2 =f 2 + A ,
' ' --
we O bt ain an an al o go us ex p r essi o n fo r the sec o n d ar y fo c al

le n gth o f the c o m po un d syste m ,
as fo ll o ws :
' '
I f 1 f2
-
f
A
By var yin g the in ter val A which is the co mm o n de n o m ,
in at o r O f all these e xp r essi o n s it is o bvi o us th at it is p o ssible ,
with t wo give n c o m po n e n t system s to Obt ai n c o m bi n atio n s

o f widely diffe r e n t O ptic al e ffects In p a r ticul ar whe n .
,
F 1 c o i n cides with F so th a t the in te r val A v a n ishes the

’
2, ,
fo c a l po in ts F F will be situ ated b o th at i n fi n ity so th a t

,
’
,
the fo c a l len g ths f f will be in fin i te als o This is the c ase

,
’
.
,
fo r e xam ple with the O ptic al in st r um e n t k n o wn as the tele

,
~
sc o p e ; an d a cc o r din gly an y O ptic al syste m which tr an s

, ,
fo rm s a cylin dr ic al bun dle O f par allel r ays i n t o a n o the r

cyli n d r ic al b un dle o f p ar allel r ays is c alled a telescopi c (o r
af o ca l) system The sim plest illust r atio n o f such a syste m
.
is affo r ded b y a sin gle pl an e r efr a ctin g su r fa ce o r by a pl an e

m ir ro r .
3 60 M irr o r s ,
1 26 . Formul a f o r C o mb in ati on of t
TW O O p ic al Syste ms
in te rm s o f t h e R e fr ac tin g Alth o ugh the for m ul a
Po we r s —
de r ived in the p r ecedi n g sectio n ar e ver y si m ple an d c o n

v e n ie n t G ULLS T RA N D s syste m o f fo r m ul a in te r m s o f the
’
,
r efr a cti n g p o we r s p o ssesses ce r t a i n a dv a n t a ges a n d is eve n
m o r e useful The l atte r fo r m ul a m ay be der ived im m e di

.
a tely f r o m the fo r m e r as will n o w be sh o w n
In G U LLS T R A N D S syste m the i n te r v a l betwee n the t wo

.
,
’
c o m po n e n t O ptic al system s is expr essed n o t b y A but b y , ,
the r educed di stan ce 1 04) c Of the pr i m ar y p r in cip al po in t

H 2 o f syste m II fr o m the sec o n d ar y p r i n cip al p o i n t H 1 o f
’
s yste m I Thus if n 1 n 2 an d n 2 n den o te the in dices o f

.
, , , 3
r efr a cti o n o f the fi r st a n d l a st m edi a o f s y ste m s I an d II ,
r espectivel y the n ,
H 1 H2
’
”2
The c o n n ecti o n between the t wo m a gn itudes c an d A
e asily o bt ain ed ; fo r sin ce
’
F l Fz
we fi n d i m m edi ately :
A —
f2 .
No w let us i n t r o duce the fo llo win g sym b o ls

”1 ”2 71 3 72 3
F2 ’
F I
f1 f1 f2 f2 f f
wher e F 1 F 2 den o te ther efo r e the r efr a ctin g p o wer s o f the
, , ,
c o m po n e n t system s an d F den o tes the r efr a cti n g p o wer O f

the c o m p o un d system 1 0 an d 1 2 3 d)
'
H e n ce sin ce 5 ,
.
,
72 2
,
F1 F2
we m ay wr ite
71 2
(F 1 + F 2
F 1 F2 .
No w if this v lue o f A is substituted

a in either Of the form ul a
’
, f 1 f2
f 3
=
§ 1 26] C o mb in a io n t of Two Op ic al S t yt s e ms 36 1
an d if the fo c al len gths ar e expr essed in ter m s Of the r efr a ct

in g po wer s we fi n d :
,
F = F 1 + F2
whi ch is G ULLSTRAND S fo r m ul a fo r the r efr a ctin g po wer
’
o f the c o m p o u n d syste m in te r m s o f the r ef r a cti n g p o we r s
o f the t wo c o m p o n e n t syste m s an d o f the i n te r v al c betwee n
them .
Likewise if in the fo r m ul a
,
P1 F
A
F
we elim in ate f f an d f 2 f an d put
1, 1
’
2 we , 2
’
A = — n Ob
F 1 F2 .
t ain fo r the r educed steps R F an d F2 F the fo llo win g ’ ’

ex
pr essio n s
, ,
Pl F F2 F2 F - FI
.
’
n1 F F1 F F2
The p o sitio n s Of the fo c al p o i n ts F F o f the c om po un d sys
. .
’
,
t e m with r espect t o H 1 H 2 r espectivel y ar e O b t ai n ed as

’
, ,
fo ll o ws
= F1F — n 1
H 1F H 1F1 + F1 F / 1,
F
'
Hz F
’
an d if her ein the v alues of RF an d F2 F

’ ’
are substitut ed ,
an d if als o we n o te th a t
— —
F F 1 = F2 (1 F F2 = F 1 (1
we Obt ain fin ally
Hg F
,
E 1F F1
’
1 C . F2 1 C .
M F na F
Mo r e o ve r sin ce
,
H 1H H 1 F + FH
HH2
’ ’
the GULLSTRA N D system o f fo r m ul a fo r the c o m bin atio n of
t wo O ptic al s y ste m s m ay be wr itte n as fo ll o ws

H 1H H2 H
’ ’
F2 F1
. c’ 0;
72 1 F 72 3 F
F = F 1 + F2 C . F 1 F2 . .
Accor din gl y ,
if the p o siti o n s of the pr i n cip al p o in ts H1, H1
’
3 62 Mir r o r s ,
an d H2, H 2 the t wo c o m p o n en t system s the r efr a ctin g

’
of ,
po wer s F 1 F2 an d the i n dices o f r efra cti o n n 1 M an d n ar e

, , 3
k n o wn we c an c alcul ate the r educed i n te r v al c an d fi n d the

,
r efr a cti n g p o we r F o f the c o m p o u n d syste m a n d the p osi
ti o n s o f the p r i n cip al p o i n ts H H We sh all see n um er o us ,

’
.
a pplic ati o n s O f these f o r m ul a in the succeedi n g secti o n s o f
t his ch apter .
1 27 Th i c k Le n se s B o un de d b y Sph e r i c al S urf ac e s
. .
Whe n a ce n te r ed system o f Spher ic al r efr a cti n g su r fa ces c o n

sists o f t wo su r fa ces it c o n stitutes a Spher ic al len s i n vo lvin g
,
th r ee m edi a v iz the m edium o f the in ciden t r ays (n l ) the

,
.
, ,
m ediu m c o m pr ised betwee n the t wo S phe r ic al su rfa ces ,
s o m etim es c alled the len s -medium (n 2) an d the m edium o f ,
the em er gen t r ays (n ) which is gen er ally but n o t n ecess ar ily

3 ,
the s am e as th at o f the in ciden t r ays Usu ally a len s is de .

,
sc r ibed by assign in g the values O f the thr ee in dices o f r e

fr a cti o n an d the p o sitio n s o f the cen ter s C 1 C 2 an d the v e r ,
tices A 1 A2 o n the O ptic al axis ; the usu al d at a bein g the

,
r a dii T1 = A 1 01 T = A 02 an d the thickn ess d

, 2 2 A 1 A2 The .
len s m ay be r eg ar ded ther efo r e as a c o m bin atio n o f t wo

, ,
S phe r ic al r efr a cti n g su r f a ces wh o se r efr a ctin g p o we r s F 1 F2
5
,
a r e give n b y the f o r m ul a 10 )
-
71 3 72 2
F2
Sin ce the pr in cip al p o in ts o f a spher ic al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce

c o in cide with e a ch o ther at the ver tex o f the sur fa ce 81
H 1 H2
’
A 1 A2
an d the in ter val c an d the r efo r e
na nz
Acc o r di n gl y ,
if b y
,
way of a bb r evi ati on ,
we in t r o duc e the
speci al sym b o l
N =n z
i (71 2 —
(n 2 —n
3) ( z
” — M W
to den o te a c o n stan t of the len s , we O bt a in b y substituti n g
,
§ 1 27 ] T h i c k Le n s Fo rmula 3 63
the values o f F 1 F2 an d c in the fo r m ul a F F 1 + F2

,
the fo ll o win g expr essio n fo r the r ef r a cti n g p ower F of a le n s

N
n 2 r1 r2. .
wher e the value o f F will be given in dio pt r ies in c ase the

dist an ces r 7 an d d a r e all m e a su r ed in m ete r s
1, 2
The p osi ti on s of the p ri n cip a l p oin ts (H H ) of a len s are ’
deter m i n ed in the s am e way b y the fo r m ul a :

,
A IH n2 n A 2H 3 n n1
’
2
T2 . d, ‘
”1 71 3
an d the p ositi on s of the f oca l p oi n ts (F F ) m ay likewise be ,

’
c alculated fr o m the fo ll o win g expr essi on s :

’
A F AF
a 2
_ — — n —n d
= u2 r 2 +
.
( n2 n3 )d .
7 3
n 2 r1 .
( 2 1)
When is usu ally the c a se the len s i s

,
as , sur roun ded b y the
same medi um on b oth sides we m ay put ,
’
n1 =n 3 = n n 2 =n ;
,
an d then the ab o ve fo rm ul a bec o m e

N (n — n ) { n (r 2
, ’
:
’
n . r1 r2
.
Al H Ag H
, ,
7L n
Al F —
A2 F — ’ —
n
n .
(
r2 + n n ) d
n N ( n n )d
The n oda l p oi n ts (N N ) of a len s su rr o un ded by the s am e
,
’
m ediu m o n b o th sides c o in cide with the p r i n cip al p o i n ts
The po sitio n s o f the fo c a l p o in ts an d pr in cip al po in ts

m ay be e xhibited in the c a se o f a thick c o n ve r ge n t le n s in
the fo llo win g m an n er as described in GRIMSE H L S H an db uch
,
’
der Physik
T wo thi n plan O -le n ses , e a ch 4 c m in di am eter , ar e c e .
m e n te d with C an a d a b als am t o the O pp o site fa ces O f a gl ass

‘
v : (a ) Lo c a t io n o f s e c ohd f o c al
IG .
p
1 7 0, a,
p p p
b c , an d d — D oub le c o n e x l e n s
p
.
,
(b ) Lo c a t io n o f fi r st f o c a l o in t (F )
p p p p p p
r in c i a l o in t
’
o in t (F ) a n d
r in c i a l
p p p p
o in t s (F F ) a n d
’
o in t (H ) ; (c ) Lo c a t io n O f f o c a l
an d r in c i a l
M v :
,
n c i al o in t s
p y i
i l l i f
o in t s (H
h h p h p
, d
( ) e n s c u s c o n e x e n s o c a t o n o r
a n d f o c al o in t s
, s o wi n g t e ir u n s mm e t r ic al o sit io n s wit r es e ct to
t h e su r f a c e s o f t h e l e n s
.
§ 1 28]
“V e t e x R e f
r rac ti on
”
of Le n s 36 5
cube Of edge 4cm an d m ade o f the s a m e gl ass so as t o fo rm
.
,
a thick sy m m et r ic d o uble c o n ve x le n s a s r ep r ese n ted in ,
Fig 1 7 0 a b a n d c A di a ph r a gm with th r ee p ar allel h o r i z o n

.
, ,
.
t al s li ts is pl a ce d in the p a th o f a cylin dr ic a l be am o f p a r allel

r ays so a s t o sep ar ate it i n t o th r ee s m a lle r be am s a n d the ,
len s is a djusted so th at the m iddle be am pr o ceeds alo n g

the axis Of the len s The paths o f the r ays in air c an be
.
r e n de r e d visible by to b a cc o -sm o ke an d m ay be ph o t o
gr aphed In this way figu r es will be o bt ain ed sim il ar t o
.
tho se sh o wn in the di agr am s The po siti o n Of the sec o n d .
ar y fo c al p o in t F is sh o wn by the po in t o f c o n ve r ge n ce o f
’
the r ays o n em er gen ce (Fig 1 70 a ) A po in t in the sec o n d .

,
.
pr in cipal plan e o f the len s m ay be lo c ated b y fin din g the

po in t o f in ter sectio n o f an in ciden t r ay p ar all el t o the axis
with the c o r r espo n din g e m er gen t r ay a s in dic a ted
by the d o tted li n es in the figu r e ; an d the sec on d p r in cipal

po in t H will be at the fo o t O f the pe r pe n dicul ar dr o ppe d
’
fr o m this po i n t on t o the axis If the r ays ar e sen t thr o ugh .
the len s fr om the O ppo site side (th at is fr o m r ight t o left in ,
the dr awi n g Fig 1 7 0 b ) they will in ter sect o n em er gen ce

,
.
, ,
in the p r im ar y fo c al p o i n t F ; an d the p o siti o n o f the pr im ar y

pr in cip al po in t H m ay be fo un d in exa ctly the s am e way
a s a b o ve The t wo diagr am s Figs 1 70 a an d b ar e co m
. .
, ,
b in e d in o n e in Fig 1 7 0 c In Fig 1 7 0 d the le n s is c o n

.
,
. .
, ,
c ave t o war ds the i n ciden t ligh t an d c o n vex when viewed

fr o m the o ther side ; an d this figu re sh o ws ver y cle ar ly ho w
the fo c al po in ts F F an d the pr in cip al po in ts H H m ay be
,
’
,
’
b o th un syrn rn e tr ic ally pl a ced with r espect t o the len s al ,
th ough her e als o we h ave a s befo r e FH = H F ’ ’
“ Ve rte x Re fraction of a Thick Le n s

, ,
1 28 S o cal l e d
.
- .
The step fr o m the sec o n d ver tex (A ) o f a le n s t o the sec o n d 2
f o c al p o i n t which m ay be den o ted by v is s o m etim es

“
,
c alled the b a ck fo cus o f the le n s ; th at is v = A2F If ”

,
’
.
the len s is surr o un ded by the s am e m e diu m (n ) o n b o th

S i des ,
then v/n = (1 whe r e F den o tes the r efr a ct
in g p o we r o f the l e n s F 1 de n o tes the r efr a cti n g p o we r o f
,
3 66 M irr o rs ,
the fi r st sur fa ce an d c = d/ n den o t es t he r educed thickn ess

,
’
.
The r ecipr o c al Of thi s magn itude v/n is c all ed t he ver tex r e

f r a cti on Of the len s an d its r elat i on to the re
v
fr a ctin g p o wer is given by the f o r mul a

F F
V — ’
1 C . F1 n n
.
d
ri ?
7
If F is g iven in di o ptr ies the values o f d an d r 1 m ust be e x

,
p r essed in m eter s ; an d then the expr essio n ab o ve wil l give

the value o f V in dio ptr ies The im po rt an ce o f thi s fun ctio n
.
V in the the o r y o f m o de r n spec ta cle le n ses h as bee n po in ted

o ut by VO N R O H R ; it is m e a su r ed fr o m the sec o n d f a ce o f the
len s bec ause th at is the side n ext the eye When a len s .
(with sphe r ic al surfa ces) is r eve r sed b y tur n in g it thr o ugh

1 80 ar o u n d an y lin e pe r pe n dicul ar t o its axis the r efr a cti n g
0
,
p o wer F r em a in s the s am e whe r e a s the vertex r efr a cti on V

,
wil l be dif fer en t un less the le n s is a symm etr ic len s o r in

fin itely thin in which l atter c a se d = 0 an d V = F Thus
, .
,
whe r ea s the r efr a ctin g po wer o f a len s is the s am e whether

the light tr aver ses it fr o m o n e side o r the o ther the vertex ,
r efr a cti on depe n ds esse n ti a ll y o n w hi ch side O f the le n s is
pr esen ted t o the in ciden t r ays .
1 29 C o mb in at i o n o f Two Le n se s
.
— Le t us t ake the sim .
p l e st c ase an d su pp o se th at the syste m is c o m p o sed Of two

,
i n fi n i te ly thi n ao -axia l len ses e a ch sur r o un ded by air

,
Le t .
A 1 an d A2 design ate the p o i n ts whe r e the o ptic al a xis m eets

the two len ses an d let the in ter val b etween them be d en o ted
,
by c; that is put c = A 1 A2 Sin ce the p ri n cip al po in ts Of

,
.
an in fin itely thin len s c o in cide with e a ch o ther at the

p o in t A wher e the axis c r o sses the len s an d s in ce the in ter ,
v e n in g m ediu m is a ssu m ed t o be a ir o f in de x u n it y
’
this ,
dist an ce 0 h as her e the s am e m e an in g as the r educed in

t e rv al c = H 1 H 2/n 2 in the ge n er a l fo r m ul a o f § 1 2 6 Ao
’
.
c o r din g l y we m ay wr ite i mm e di a tely the fo ll o wi n g syste m

,
o f fo r m ul a f o r a c o m bi n a ti o n O f t wo thi n le n ses O f r efr a cti n g

§ 12 9] C omb in a ti on of T wo Le n se s 367
po wer s F 1 F sur r o un ded , 2, on b o th sides by air an d sep a

r ated by the dist a n ce 0:
F F 1 + F2
C . F2
AzH
T
1 C . F2 1 C . F1
A IF
F F
These for m ul a m ay ls o be e xp r essed in te r m s
a of the fo c a l
len g ths f l an d f 2, as f o ll o ws
_
Al H
f _
C, AH A1 F = — A2F
r f<
f1 c )
.
2 ,
f2 f2 fl
The p o sition s of the fo cal p o in ts F, F
’
an d the p ri n ci
1 7 1 , a —C o m b in a t io n o f t w o t hi n l e n se s ph h
p
Gra ic a l m e t o d
FIG
p
. . .
O f d e t e r m in i n g t h e o sit io n s o f t h e fi r s t f o c a l o i n t (F ) a n d
p rin c i a l p p
o in t (H ) : h h
C a se w e n b o t l e n s e s a r e c o n e x v .
p al p o in ts H H O f ,
’
a c o m bi n ati o n O f t wo i n fin itely thi n
len ses surr o un ded by air m ay be c o n st r ucted ge o m et r ic all y
a s fo ll o ws :
368 Mir r o r s ,
Dr a wstr aight lin e t o r epr esen t the c o mm on axis o f the

a
p air o f thin len ses an d m ar k the po in ts A 1 an d A2 (Fig 1 7 1

, .
,
a b a n d c ) whe r e the ax is c r o sses the le n ses a n d a ls o the

, , ,
po sitio n s Of the p r i m ar y fo c al po in ts F 1 an d F2 Thr o ugh .
F2 d r a w a st r aight li n e per pe n dicul ar t o the ax is an d t a ke

o n it a p o in t K such th at F2 K = F 2A2 =f 2 ; this p o in t K ly i n g
,
F iG 171, b h
C o m b in at io n o f t wo t in l e n se s ph
Gr a h
ical m e t o d
p p
. . .
p p
o f d e t e r m in i n g t h e o sit io n s o f t h e fi r st f o c al o in t (F) a n d
p r i n c i al o in t (H ): h v
C a se w e n fi r st l e n s is c o n c a e a n d se c o n d
v
le n s c o n e x .
a bo ve belo w the axi s a cc or din g as the sec o n d len s is c on

or
v e x o r c o n c a ve r espectively
,
Th r o ugh K d r a w a st r aigh t
.
lin e p ar allel t o the axis an d thr o ugh A 1 a str aight li n e p e r

p e n di c ula r t o the axi s ; an d let L design ate the p o i n t whe r e
these t wo lin es in ter sect M o r e o ver let P design ate the
.
,
po in t o f in ter secti o n o f the p air o f str aight lin es LF 1 an d KA I .
The fo o t o f the per pen dicular let -fall fr o m P o n t o the axis

will be the pr i m ar y fo c al p o in t F O f the c o m po u n d syste m ;
an d the o r di n a te FP will be equ a l t o the p r i m ar y fo c a l le n gth
f o f the c o m p o u n d syste m ; a n d he n ce if the qu a d r an t o f a

12 9] C o m b in a ti on of T wo Le n se s 36 9
cir cle is described ar o un d F as cen ter with r a dius FP it will ,
cut the axis at the pr im ar y pr i n cip al po in t H which lies t o ,
the r ight o r left Of F a cc o r din g as the po in t P falls ab o ve o r

belo w the axi s .
Acc o r din g t o this c o n str ucti o n the po in ts P an d K ar e ,
a p ai r o f c o n juga te e xtr a axi al p o i n ts with r espect t o the

-
h ph h
p p p p p
FIG . 17 1 , c .
-C o m b in a t io n of t w o t in
l e n se s Gr a ic a l m e t o d o f d e
.
t e r m in in g t h e o sit i o n s o f t h e fi r st f o c al o in t (F ) a n d r in c i al o in t
: h v
(H ) C a se w e n fi r st l e n s is c o n e x a n d se c o n d l e n s c o n c a e v .
fir st le n s ; so th at the c o n str uctio n r e ally c o n sists in l o c atin g

the o b j ect p o in t P which is im aged by the fi r st len s in the
-
p o in t K This will help the studen t t o r e m e m ber the c o n

.
str ucti o n .
In o r de r t o sh o w th at the c o n st r ucti o n is c o r r ect let J ,
design ate the p oin t o f in ter sectio n o f the p air o f str a ight
lin es FP an d LK Then sin ce J P an d FP a r e c o rr espo n din g
.
a ltitudes O f the si m il ar t r i an gles PLK a n d PF A 1 we h ave : 1 ,
JP LK A 1 F2 A 1 A2 + A2 F2 C —
fz
FP Fl A l F l Al F l Al fl
No w J P J F + FF K F2 + FP FP
= = = —
f 2 , an d ther efor e
F P —
—
f2 6 f2
FP fl
an d if t hi s e qu a tio n is s o lved fo r FP we fi n d ,
3 70 M ir r o r s ,
il lgr eem en t with the for m ul a fou n d ab o ve

a . Mor e o ve r , in
the sim ilar t r i an gles A IFP an d A1 F2K ,
A 1F A 1 F2
FP F2K
an d sin ce A1 F2 C
= —
f2 ,
F2K =f 2 , FP =f , W 8 fin d
Al F
f f 2 0)
f2
whi ch is likewise in agr eem en t with the fo rm ul a fo un d ab ove .
Si m il ar l y m ar k the p o siti o n s o f the sec o n d ar y fo c al po in ts

,
F 1 a n d F2 an d th r o ugh F 1 d r aw a st r aight lin e p e r pe n dic

’ ’ ’
,
ul ar t o the o ptic al axis an d t a ke o n it a po in t O such th at

,
F1 O
’
Thr o ugh O dra w the st r aight lin e OR p ar
all el t o the a xis an d th r o ugh A 2 a st r a ight li n e pe r pe n dic ul ar
,
t o the axis ; an d let R design a te t h e p o i n t whe r e these t wo

lin es in te r sect Then if Q design ates the p o in t o f in t e r se c
.
tio n Of the st r a ight lin es F2 R an d A20 th at is if Q is the ’

, ,
i m a ge o f O in the sec o n d len s the sec o n d ar y fo c al po in t F O f

,
’
the c o m bin atio n will be at the foo t o f the pe r pen dicul ar

d r awn fr o m Q t o the O ptic al axis an d the sec o n d ar y p r in ,
c ipal p o in t H will lie o n the axis a t a dist an ce F H = F Q

’ ’ ’ ’
.
This c o n st r ucti o n m ay be pr o ved il l a m an n er en tir el y an

alo g o u s t o the p r o o f give n a b o ve .
1 3 0 O pti cal C o n stan ts o f G ull str an d s S c h e matic Eye

.
’
.
As a fu r the r illust r at i o n o f t he use Of the for m ul a fo r the
C OR N EA
LE N S
AQ U U EO S V IT R E O U S
F IG 1 7 2 — Sc
. . h e m a t ic e y e .
c om bin atio n Of t wo O ptic al system s let us appl y them to ,
the c alcul atio n s O f the r efr actin g p o we r (F) o f the hum an

e ye t o gether with the po sitio n s Of the pr in cip al p oin ts
,
§ 1 30] C on s t t
an s of Sch e m a ti c E ye 371
an d the fo c al po in ts (F Fo r this pu r p o se we sh all use

,
the d at a o f G ULLS T RA N D S sche m atic eye (in its p assive

’
state a cc o m m o datio n en tir ely r elax ed) which ar e given

in the thir d e diti o n o f H E LMH O LT Z S H an db uch der p hysi olo
,
’
g i sc he n Op ti k B d I (H a m bu r g u Leip z ig
,
. pages 300 .
,
a n d 3 01 a s fo ll o ws (see Fig
,
.
In di ce s f
o f
r e r a c ti on :
C orn ea n2
Aque o us an d vit r e o us hu m o r s n m ;,
Len s m n s
Le n s c o r e
- n s
Posi ti on o f f
ssur a ce s :
Po ste r i or su r fa ce o f c o rn e a
An ter i o r sur fa ce o f l en s :
l e n s-c o r e
len s-c o r e :
len s :
Ra dii f
o sur ace s f :
An ter i o r sur fa ce o f c o r n e a : r1 = 7 7
. mm .
Po ste r i o r r2 =
An ter i o r r3
r 4=
len s r s
C o n side r fi r st the c o r n e a-syste m c o m p o sed o f the a n

, ,
t e r io r a n d p o ste r i o r su r fa ces o f the c o r n e a The r efr a ctin g .
po wer o f the an ter io r sur fa ce is :

dp t r ; .
an d th at of the po ster i o r sur fa ce is :

dp t r .
The r educed in ter val betwee n the t wo sur faces ls
A 1 A2
n2
3 72 M ir r or s ,
Hen ce if F 1 2 den o tes the r efr a ct ing po wer

,
of the c or n e a
system wher e ,
F m = F 1 + F2 Cl Fl -
- Fz,
we fin d
F 12 dpt r .
The po siti s the p i cip l p i ts

on of r n a o n of the c o rn e -
a s yst em
a r e give n b y the f o r m ul a :
A1H 1 2 61 . F2
ui F 12
when ce we fin d :
A1H 1 2 mm A1H 12 mm
’
. .
,
The len s-system is c o m po sed o f fo u r r efr a cti n g sur fa ces .
The fi r st t wo sur fa ces fo r m the so -c alled an ter io r c o r tex a n d

the l a st t wo sur fa ces the p o ste r i o r c o r tex The r efr a ctin g .
p o we r o f the an ter i o r sur fa ce O f the len s is

72 4 72 3
+ 5dp t r ; .
an d th at o f the an te r i o r sur fa ce O f the len s c e is - or
7l 5
m
+2 5 2 8 dp t r .
The r educed i n ter val between these mo sur fa ces is

A3A 4 5
-46
n4 1 3 86
.
Hen ce if F 4 den o tes the r efr a ctin g p o wer

, 3 of the c o m bin a
ti o n th at is if
, ,
F 3 4 F3 + F 4
we fin d F 4= . dpt r
3 .
If the pr in cip a l p o in ts Of the an ter i o r c o r tex ar e design ated

by H 4 H 4 then
3 , 3
’
,
A 3H 3 4 6 3 17 4
713 F3 4
when ce we O bt a in :
A 1 H 3 4= mm .
,
A 1 H 4 + 3 7 7 8 mm
3
,
.
so th at the p r i n cip al p o in t s Of the an terior c ortex are coin

e id en t wit h e a ch o the r .
§ 130] C on s t t an s of Sc h e ma ic E ye t 3 73
Pr o ceed in g in the s am e way with the po ste r i o r c o r te x we ,
h ave :
71 6 -
71 5 dpt r . F6
n7 — n 6
+ 8 3 33 dp t r .
, ,
A A6 5
an d hen ce if
F 56
we fi n d : F 5= 6 dp t r .
Mo r e o ve r sin ce ,
A H 55 C5 F
6 .
6 A 6H 56
’
5
CF5 .
71 5 F5 6 72 7 F5 6
we h ave fin ally fo r the p o siti o n s Of the pr in cip a l p o i n ts Of

the po ste ri o r c o r tex
A 1 H 5= 6 mm A 1 H 5= mm ; .
, 6
’
.
so th at H 5 a nd H 5m ay a ls o be r eg a r ded as c o i n cide n t
’
6 6 .
If the r efr a cti n g p o wer O f the len s-system as a wh o le is

de n o ted b y L then ,
L F 3 4+ F 5 6
_ F3 4F
3-
‘
~
56;
wher e
H 3 4H 5
’
6
71 5
an d if P, P
’
desig te the p i cip al p i ts o f the le s system
na r n o n n -
,
then
H 3 4P F 6
8- 5
n a L
Acc or din gly we ,
fin d :
L= dp t r ; .
A1 P = mm , mm
’
. A1P .
La stly ,
c o m bi n in g th e c o r n e a -syste m an the le n s-syste m
d ,
we o bt ain fo r the r efr a ctin g p o wer of the en tir e O ptic al sys

t e m o f the eye
F = F12 + L C . F 1 2 L, .
wher e
'
_
l P
c
72 3 1 33 6
.
3 74 Mirr ors ,
n H
,
PH F12
’
C .
F 71 7 F
wher e H H design ate the p o siti o n s o f the pr in cip al po in ts Of
,
’
the eye Thus we fi n d

5
.
,
F + 8 6 4dp t r .
A 1 H = + 1 3 48 m m A H = mm .
, l
’
.
If the fo c a l len gths o f the eye ar e den o ted by f an d f the n ’

, ,
sin ce f = n 1/F an d f n 7/ F we O bt ai n :
’
,
m mm
’
f = .
, f .
The fo c al p o in ts F , F
’
ar e l o c ated as fo ll o ws
mm mm
’
A1F A1F
GU
. .
,
In LLS TRAN D Sschem atic eye the len gth o f the e yeb a ll
’
is t aken as 24 mm an d ther efo r e the sec o n d fo c al po in t F

.
,
’
is n o t o n t he r etin a but mm bey o n d it ; so th at the .
sche m atic eye is n o t e mm e tr Opic but hyp e r me tr Opic (see

5
1 3) t o the e xte n t o f 1 dpt r .
1 3 1 C o m b in ati o n of Th r e e O pti c al Sy ste m s — It is fr e

.
quen tly the c ase especially in pr o blem s c o n n ected with

,
physio l o gic al o ptics th at we desir e t o fi n d the r esult an t O f

,
th r ee c o -axial o ptic al system s o f kn o wn r efr a ctin g p o wer s

F 1 F2 an d F sep ar ated by give n i n te r vals c l c2 whe r e
, 3 , ,
H l Hz
'
Hz Hs
’
na na
the pr in cipal p o in ts o f the c om po n en t s ystem s bein g de sig

n at e d b y H 1 H ; H 2 H 2 ; an d H H The in dice s O f r e
’ ’ ’
, l , 3, 3 .
fr a cti o n o f the fir st an d l ast m edia o f s ystem I ar e den o ted

by n 1 n 2 ; o f system II by n 2 n ; an d Of system III b y n n 4
, , g 3, .
Her e let us em pl o y the s ym b o l D t o den o te the r efr a ctin g

po wer O f the c o m po u n d system (I + II ) an d the letter s G G , ,
’
t o desi g n ate the p o siti o n s o f the p r i n cip a l p o i n ts O f this p ar

tial c o m bin ati o n E viden tly a cc or din g t o the for m ul a
.
,
derived in 1 26 we m ay wr ite ,
D = F 1 + F2
Hl G
' ,
01 . F2 Eg G 01 . F1
m D na D
13 1 ] C o mb in a io n t of T hr e e Op tic al Sy st e m s 37 5
No w let F den o te the r efr a cti n g po wer o f the c o m bi n ati o n
o f syste m s I II an d III an d let H H design ate the po si ’
, , ,
tio n s o f the pr in cip al po i n ts o f this c o m po un d system Then .
if the r educed in ter val between (I + II ) an d III is den o ted

by k th at is if
, ,
then als o
F = D + F3
GH
’ ’
k F3 . H3 H
m F 72 4
G H3 H2 H3
’
G H2
’ ’ ’
na na ns
we fi n d
C1 . F 1 + 02 1 )
D
If n ow these equ atio n s ar e so as t o eli m i n a te D c o m bin ed
a n d h the fo ll o wi n g system of f or mu la f or the c om bi n a ti on of
,
thr ee op ti ca l systems will be O bt ai ned fi n a lly

— C
F = F1 (1 02 . F3) + F2 (1 1 . F1) (1 6 2 F3 ) + F 3 (1
H IH
F (l —0 F1)
1 .
B3 H
’ ’
n4
—
1 02 . F3
In the speci al c a se whe n the comp oun d system i s symmet
r i c a l wi th r e sp e c t to system II th at is whe n n = n a n d n 4= n 1 , , g 2
a n d c = c = c an d F = F 1 the fo r m ul a a b o ve will be si m pli

2 1 3 ,
fi e d as fo ll o ws :
F = (1 C . F 1) ( 1 l F2
2 F --
H 1H H ’
H3
’
c
n1 n1 1 c . Fl
Thus if an O ptic al syste m is symm etr ic al with r espect t o
,
a m i ddle c o m p o n en t p ar t o f the syste m the pr i n c ip al ,
p o i n ts (H H ) will be s y m m et ric ally pl a ced a n d thei r p o si

,
’
,
t ion s will be in depe n den t o f the r efra ctin g p o wer F2 o f the

3 76 Mir r o r s ,
m iddle s yst em These l atter fo r m ul a sh ould be c o m par ed

“
.
with the fo r m ul a fo r a thick m ir r o r t o be devel o ped in ”
the fo llo win g sectio n .
1 32 Th i c k M ir ror
.
” —
The gen er al fo r m ul a which h ave
.
been der ived in this ch apter ar e a pplic able a ls o when

the cen ter ed syste m Of spher ic al sur fa ces in cludes o n e o r
m o r e r eflectin g su r fa ces p r o vided th at r eflecti o n is t r e ated
,
as a speci a l c a se o f r efr a cti o n a cc o r di n g t o the m eth o d e x
5
,
pl ain ed in 7 Thus for exam ple if the r ays ar e r eflected

.
, ,
at the k t h su fa ce o f the syste m we m ust put n k + 1

r — nk ; ,
an d c o n seque n tly if the r eflecti n g p o we r o f this su r fa ce is

, ,
de o ted by Fk we sh all h ave in a cc o r d

n ,
an ce with the ch a r a cte r istic r equi r e m e n t th at the fo c al
len g ths o f a spher ic al m i rr or ar e iden tic al that is f f ’

’
, ,
(see
A special c ase o f m uch in ter est an d pr a ctic al i m po rt an c e
o ccu r s whe n the la st s urf a ce of the system a cts a s a mi rror ,
the r ays o f light ar r ivin g ther e bein g r eflected b a ck thr o ugh

the system as so t o em er ge fin ally a t the fir st sur fa ce in t o
the m edium o f in dex n l wher e they o r igin ated Fo r e x .
a m ple this h a ppe n s a lw a y s ln the c a se o f an o r din ar y gl a s s

,
mirr o r whi ch is silve r ed at the b a ck The r ays r etu r n in t o .
the air in fr o n t o f a m ir r o r Of this ki n d after h avin g twice

t r aver sed the thickn ess o f the gl ass an d the failur e t o t ake ,
a cc o un t o f the r efr a cti o n s fr o m a ir t o gl a ss an d fr o m gl a ss
t o air is s o m etim es r esp o n sible fo r se r i o us e rr o r s in the

m e asu r em en t o f the fo c al le n gth O f a gl a ss m i r r o r silve r ed
at the b a ck The im a ge pr o duced by r ays whi ch h ave been
.
p arti all y r eflected fr o m the sec o n d sur fa ce o f an o r din ar y

len s is Often ver y distur bin g alth o ugh the i n ten sity Of the ,
r eflected light is usu ally c o m p ar a tively feeble un less the
sec o n d sur fa ce o f the le n s h as bee n silve r ed .
The n am e thi ck mi rr or h as been applied by Dr SE ARLE ”

.
!
t o an y c o m b in ati on o f ce n te r ed spher ic al r efr a cti n g s ur fa ce s
:T h d t m i ti f th f l l g th f thi k
viii P t i 1 9 1 1 5 5
G F C S AR
. . . E LE e e er na on o e o ca en O a c
mi r ro r P C mb Phi l S
r oc . a r.ii . 1 —12 6 oc . x ar .
.
, , , ,
1 32 ] Th i c k Mirr o r
‘
3 77
wher ein the r ays ar e supp o sed t o be r eflected at the l a st sur

fa ce an d t o r eturn thr o ugh the syste m in the O p p o site sen se
“
.
It m ay ea sily be sh o wn th at a thick m i r r o r as thus de

fi n ed a cts exa ctly like a sin gle spher ic al r eflectin g su r fa ce
“
(o r thin m i r r o r as we m ay c all it h avi n g in m i n d a ce r
,
'
,
t ain an al o gy which e xists her e between len ses an d m i rr o r s) ,
wh o se ver tex an d cen ter h a ve per fectly defin ite an d c al cu

“
l able p o siti o n s depen din g o n the c o n st an ts o f the thick
mi r r o r This is pr o ved by Dr SE A R LE in a sim ple m an n e r
.
”
.
as fo ll o ws
In Fig 1 7 3 the syste m is r ep r ese n ted a s c o n sisti n g O f

.
thr ee Spher ic al sur fa ces the fi r st t wo fo r m in g a thick len s

,
LE NS M IR R O R
FIG 1 7 3 — D ia g r am
. . of h
t ic k m ir r o r s y st e m .
an d the l a st sur fa ce bein g a s p he r ic a l m ir r o r with its ver tex

a t a p o i n t A o n the a x is O f the le n s D r a w the st r aight lin e
.
Q V p a r a llel t o the a x is o f the syste m t o r ep r ese n t the p a th o f

a n i n cide n t r ay ; which a fte r t r a ve r si n g the le n s an d bei n g
r e fl ected at the m ir r o r will a g ai n e m e r ge fr o m the le n s a n d
c r o ss the axis at the sec o n dar y fo c a l p o in t (F ) Of the system ’

.
The po in t V design ates the p o in t o f i n te r sectio n o f the in

c ide n t r ay QV an d the c o r r esp o n di n g e m e r ge n t r ay VF
’
,
a n d he n ce this p o i n t m ust lie in the sec o n dar y p r i n cip a l
pl an e O f the system C o n seque n tly the fo o t o f the ,
per pen dicul ar let fall fr o m V o n t o the ax is w ill be the sec

o n dar y p r i n cip al p o i n t H But b y the pr in ciple o f the r e
’
.
3 78 M irr o r s
,
v e r sib ilit y o fthe light p th - a if the str aight lin e F V is '
r eg a r ded a s a n i n cide n t r ay the n VQ will be the p ath O f the

,
c o r r espo n din g e m er ge n t r ay an d sin ce in this c ase the e m er

,
gen t r ay is p ar allel t o the a xis the c o rr esp o n din g in ciden t

,
r ay F V m ust c r o ss the a xis a t the p r i m ar y f o c a l p o i n t F

’
,
so th a t the t wo fo c a l p o i n ts F a n d F will be c o in ciden t

’
.
Mo r eo ve r the p o in t V m ust lie in the p r i m ar y pr i n cip al

,
pl an e an d hen ce the t wo pr in cip al pl an es ar e c o in ciden t

,
.
But these ar e the ch ar acter istics o f a spher ic al m i rr o r an d

“ “
,
it is eviden t th at the thick m irr o r is equivalen t t o a thin

”
m i rr o r with its ve r tex a t H (o r H ) a n d its ce n ter at a p o i n t

” ’
K such th at H K = 2 H F
The fo ur i m ages o f PUR K INJ E ar e the c at o ptr ic i m ages
form ed in the eye b y r eflectio n at the an ter i or an d po ster i or
sur fa ces Of the c o r n e a an d the c r yst allin e len s ; whi ch ar e Of -
fun d am en t al im p o r t an ce in dete r m in in g the cur vatur es an d

po sitio n s O f the r efr a ctin g sur fa ces in the O ptic a l system o f
the eye The fi r st im a ge is pr o duced b y dir ect r eflectio n at
.
the an ter i o r sur fa ce o f the c o rn e a but the o ptic al s ystem s

,
which give r ise t o the thr ee o ther im ages ar e m o r e o r less

c o m plic ated H o wever a cc o r din g t o the a b o ve expl an atio n
.
, ,
e a ch o f these syste m s m ay be r educed t o a s in gle r eflectin g

sur fa ce o f a ppr o pr i ate r a diu s with its cen ter at a cert ain
defini te pl a ce t o be ascer t a in ed b y the c o n ditio n s o f t he
pr o blem On e o f these c a ses will be i n vestigated pr esen tly
.
,
as s o o n a s the fo r m ul a for a thick m ir r o r h ave bee n devel
O ped .
The r a dius an d p o sitio n s o f the ver tex an d cen ter o f the

“
equivalen t thin m ir r o r m ay e asily be c alcul ated by m e an s
”
Of the ge n e r a l fo r m ul a which we r e O bt a i n ed in the p r e c ed
in g secti o n fo r a c o m bin ati o n o f th r ee O ptic a l system s He r e .
the fir st system (I ) o f r efr a cti n g po wer F 1 m ay be r egar ded

as c o m p o sed o f the e n ti r e le n s -syste m l yi n g in fr o n t o f the
r eflecti n g sur fa ce ; while the m ir ro r itself O f r eflecti n g p o we r
F2 m ay be r egar ded as the seco n d syste m (II ) In this c a se

[
the thir d system (III ) will be the len s-system r ever sed an d ,
1 32]
“T hi c k M i rr o r ”
3 79
its r efr a ctin g po wer will be the s am e as th at o f system I ,
th at is F = F2 but the p r in cip al p o in ts H an d H o f syste m

, 3 3 3
’
III will c o in cide with the p r in cip al p o i n ts H an d H r e 1

’
1,
sp e c t iv e ly o f syste m I ,
Ab o ve all we m ust i m p o se her e .
the c o n ditio n s th at
n3 -
n2
— n ’
n 4 —n —
n
, 1 ,
whe r e n den o tes the i n dex Of r efr a cti o n o f the m edium o f

the Ob j ect sp a ce an d n de n o tes the in dex o f r efr a cti o n O f
-
’ “
the m ediu m in c o n t a ct with the r e fl ectin g su r fa ce These .
c o n diti o n s t ake a cc o un t Of the fu n d am e n t al fa ct th at the

se n se o f p r o p a g ati o n o f the light is r eve r sed by the m i rr o r .
The pr in cip al po in ts H H o f the m i rr o r c o i n cide with e a ch

2, 2
’
o the r a t its ve r te x which will be desig n a ted he r e by the
lette r A If ther efo r e c l c2 den o te the r educed in te r vals

’
.
,
betwee n the fi r st syste m an d the m ir r o r an d between the

m ir r o r an d the thir d syste m we h ave : ,
H A AH H A ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
1 3 l
C2
n n s n
an d he n ce
:
c l = c2 = c , say .
Mo r e o ve r if the ,
ra dius Of the r eflectin g sur fa ce is den o ted
I
2
by r
’
,
the n F I n t r o ducin g these r el ati o n s in the
ge n e r al fo r m ul a fo r the c o m bi n atio n o f th r ee o ptic al S y s
te m s we O bt a i n the fo ll o wi n g exp r essi o n s fo r fi n di n g
the re f le c ti n g p owe r (F 1 3) d the p osi ti on s
an f
o the p ri n ci p a l
”
p oi n ts H 1 3 , H 13 f
’
o a thi ck mi r r or
F 1 3 (1 — F1)
= C .
(2F 1 + F2
r
i
i
— c . F1) { 2 17 1 (1
H 1H 1 3 HlHls
’
C
n n 1 — c . Fl
Acc o r din gly we see n o t o n ly th at the pr i n cip al p o in ts O f
“
,
a thick m ir r o r a r e c o i n cide n t with ea ch o the r but th at

“
,
the p o sitio n O f the ve r tex H 1 o f the equivalen t thi n m i rr o r 3
is en tir ely in depen den t Of the p o we r F o r the cu r vatur e o f 2

80 Mir r o r s ,
Pr ism s, an d Le n se s 1 32
the actu al m i r r o r The p o siti on o f H 1 do es depen d o n the

.
3
p o siti o n o f the ve r te x A o f the a ctu al m i r r o r ; but fo r an y

’
“
m ir r o r pl a ced a t A the ve r te x o f the equiv alen t thin mir
’
ror
”
will be at the s am e p o in t H 1 It m ay be n o ted th at
“
3.
the fo r m ul a fo r the r eflectin g po wer Of a thick mi r r o r is ”
iden tic al in fo r m with the ex pr essi o n fo r the r efr a ctin g po wer

o f a c o m p o un d syste m which is symm et r ic with r espect t o
a m iddle m e m be r (see e n d O f
“
If the cen ter o f t he equi valen t thin mirr or is design ated
by K then its r a dius will be
,
H 1 3K
an d hen ce
Hl K 01 7 — 2
2
n 2F 1 + F 2
If the su r fa ce o f the m ir r o r (II ) is p la n e then F2 = 0 an d
“
, ,
in this c a se the fo r m ul a fo r the e q uiv alen t thin m ir r or

bec om e
I
H H H
m f? f? f l
” ”
fi l o — a
1 .
The distin guishin g ch ar a cter istic o f the im ager y in a

Sphe r ic al m i rr o r is th a t a p a ir o f c o n j ug a te axi a l p o in ts M M
’
,
is h ar m on ic ally sep ar ated by the ver tex H an d the cen ter K

o f the m ir r o r th at is (KH MM ) An in te r est
’
, ,
in g speci a l c a se o ccu r s when on e of the p oi n ts K or H i s a t

i n fin i ty; f o r in th at c a se the r eflecti n g p o wer o f the m i rr o r
v an ishes Wh e n the ce n te r o f the m irr o r is at an
in fin ite dist an ce fr o m it the m l rr o r lies m idway betwee n ,
o bj ect an d im a ge an d the l ate r al m ag n ifi c a
tion is e qu al t o + 1 which is the c a se o f an o r din ar y

pl an e m irr o r But o n the o ther h an d if the m irr o r itself
.
, ,
is at an in fin ite dist an ce while the cen te r K r em ain s in the,
r egi o n o f fin ite sp a ce it is the cen ter o f the m ir r o r in this

,
c ase th at is alw ays m idway between Obj ect an d i m age th at ,
is M K = KM an d n o w the l ater al m agn ific ati on wil l b e

,
’
,
e q u al t o 1 th at is the im ag e will be Of the sam e si z e as

, ,
'
132]
“T hi ck Mirr or ”
38 1
the o bject bu t in ver ted (y y ) B o th O f these speci

’
a l
.
c ases m ay be r e ali z ed by a thick m ir r o r ; fo r the c o n di ”
“
tio n th at the r eflectin g po we r o f the equi valen t thin m ir r o r
sh all van ish (F 1 = 0) r equi r es th at either
3
2F 1 + F2
In the form e r c ase the cen te r o f the m i rr or (K ) is at in fin ity ,
a n d in the l atte r c a se the ve r te x o f the m i rr o r (H m) is a t
in fin ity If ther efo r e the dist an ce between the an te r i o r le n s

“
.
system an d the fin al r e fl ecti n g su r fa ce o f a thick m ir r o r ”
is c = 1 / F1 the syste m will pr o duce an in ve r ted i m a ge o f the

,
sa m e si z e as the o b j ect n o m a tte r whe r e the O b j ect is pl a ced

“
.
,
As an illust r ati o n o f the use o f the for m ul a for a thick

m ir r o r c o n sider the O ptic a l system in the eye which pr o
”
,
duces the thi r d o f the so c alled PUR K INJ E i m a ges t o which

-
,
a llusi o n was m a de e ar lie r in this secti o n The thir d i m age is .
fo r m e d by r ays which c o m in g fr o m an e xter n al s ou r ce en te r

the eye an d a fter h avin g t r a ve r sed the c o r n e a syste m an d
,
the a queo us hu m o r ar e r eflecte d at the an te r i o r sur fa ce o f the

c r yst a lli n e le n s ; whe n ce r etu r n i n g th r o ugh the s a m e m edi a
in the r eve r se o r de r they issue a ga in i n t o the air In o r de r

“
.
t o fi n d the thi n m i rr o r which is equiv a le n t t o this syste m

”
,
we sh all em pl o y the c o n st an ts o f GULLS T R A N D S schem atic ’
e y e a s give n in 1 30 The ve r te x o f the an te r i o r su r f a ce O f

.
the c o rn ea will be design ated by A1 a n d the p r in cip al po in ts

o f the c o r n e a -syste m by H 1 a n d H We fo u n d th at A H
5
’
1 1 1
m m an d A 1 H m m ; a ls o F 1 = + 43 0
’
.
1 .
,
.
dp t r whe r e F 1 de n o tes the r efr a cti n g p o we r o f the c o r n e a

.
,
syste m . T h e r eflecti n g p o we r o f the an te r i or su r fa ce O f the

len s is given b y the for mul a :
wher e n s= l 336
. an d r3 = m ;
. a cc o r din gl y we ,
fin d
F2 dpt r .
382 M ir r o r s ,
The r educed dist an ce betwee n the c o r n e a-system an d the

fir st sur fa ce O f the len s is :
H l As
’
7l 3
wher e A3 design ates the ve r tex Of this sur fa ce ; A 1A3 =

Thus we Obt ain :
5
m .
,
c = 0 002 7 3 2
. .
Substitutin g these n um er ic al values in the system o f fo r

m ul a fo r a thick m i r r o r we fi n d fo r the r eflectin g po wer o f
”
“
,
the e q uiva len t thin m ir r o r in this c ase : ”
F 13 dp t r ; .
an d fo r the p o sitio n s o f its ver tex H 1 3 an d its cen ter K

H 1 H 1 3 = + 3 09 6 8 m m
. .
, mm .
Acc o r din gly the system th at pr o duces the o f the thir d

PU R K INJ E i m ages in G U LLS TRA N D S p a ssive schem atic eye
,
’
is e quivalen t t o a c o n vex m ir r o r Of r a dius m m with .
its ver tex at a dist an ce o f mm fr o m t he ve r tex o f the .
an te r i o r sur fa ce O f the c o r n e a .
Fo r m ul a fo r c alcul ati n g the r eflecti n g p o we r F 1 o f a 3
thick m ir r o r m ay a lso be O bt a in ed in ter m s o f differ en t

”
d at a fr o m th o se em pl o yed in the expr essio n s whi ch h ave

been deduced a b o ve Suppo se fo r e xam ple th at we ar e
.
, ,
given the r efr a ctin g po wer (F) O f a cen ter ed system Of

S phe r ic a l r efr a ctin g su r fa ces the p o siti o n s o f the pr in cipal
,
p o in ts o f the system (H an d the i n dices o f r efr a cti o n

,
o f the fi r st an d l a st m edi a (n t o gether with the r a dius

,
(r ) an d the p o siti o n O f the ve r te x (A ) O f the l a st sur fa ce ;

’ ’
an d th a t it is r equi r ed t o dete r m in e in te r m s o f these d at a the
ch ar a cter istics O f the im a ger y pr o duced by light which p r o

cee d in g f r o m the O bj ect -sp a ce th r o ugh the syste m is p a r ti a lly
r eflected a t the l a st su r fa ce a n d a ga i n p ar ti a lly r efr a cted at
the fir st sur fa ce in t o the o r igin al m edium In o r der t o s o lve .
this pr o ble m in the sim plest way it is c o n ve n ien t t o em plo y ,
a m a the m a tic a l ar tifice which will be fo u n d t o be se r vice a ble
in o the r O ptic a l p r o blem s The r efr a cti n g p o wer O f an in

.
fin itely thin c o n cen tr ic len s is e qu a l t o z er o an d it is e asy t o ,

1 32]
“Th i ck Mirr o r ”
3 83
sh o w th at such a len s m ay be in ser ted a n ywher e in a n Opti

c al syste m with o ut affecti n g at a ll the r esult an t i m a ge r y
(see Le t us supp o se the r efo r e th at the given o ptic al

, ,
system is ter m in ated by an in fin itely thin l ayer O f m ater ia l o f

in dex n b o un ded by t wo c on cen t r ic Sphe r ic a l sur fa ces the
’
,
fir st o f which c o in ci des with the l a st su r fa ce o f the given

system Un der these cir cum st a n ces the r esult an t system m ay
.
“
be c o n side r ed as c o m po un ded o f th r ee c o m po n en t syste m s ,
n am ely ( )
,
1 the give n syste m o f r ef r a ct in g p o we r F 1
= F ,
I
Z
(2) a m irr o r of r eflectin g po we r F2 an d (3 ) the gi ven
r
system r ever sed Hen ce if ,
H A
’ ’
’
n
the fo ll o win g fo r m ula will be O bt ain ed in the s am e way as
a b o ve :
F 13 = (1 c . F) F —
(1 c F) .
HH13 H H 13 ,
C 0
n n 1 c . F
which ar e sim il ar in fo r m t o the p r evio us expr essi o n s but ,
c he r e h a s a diffe r e n t m e an i n g a n d F de n o tes the r efr a cti n g
p we
o r O f the e ti e le s system an d n o t m e r ely o f th at p ar t
n r n -
o f the syste m which is in fr o n t O f the r eflecti n g su r fa ce .
A pr o blem o f c o n sider able i n ter est especially in c o n n ec ,
ti o n with the O ptic al system O f the hum an eye is the in v e s ,
t ig atio n o f the p r o cedu r e o f the light which a fte r bei n g p ar

t ially r eflected a t the l a st su r fa ce o f the syste m (as in the
c a se ab o ve) is a ls o p ar ti ally r eflected at the fir st sur fa ce so ,
th at it em er ges fi n ally i n t o the la st m edium o f in dex n The ’

.
i m a ger y in this c a se m ay be deter m in ed by a ddin g a sec o n d

in fin itely thin c o n c en t r ic len s which is a ssu m ed t o be m a de
,
o f m a te r i a l o f i n de x n a n d wh o se sec o n d su r f a ce c o i n cides
with th at o f the fir st su r fa ce O f the syste m Acc o r din gly .

,
n o w we sh all h a ve five syste m s in all n a m ely the fi r st th r ee , ,
sy ste m s wh o se r eflectin g p o we r F 1 was O bt ain ed ab o ve 3 ,

Mir r o r s ,
Oh . XI
a fo ur th s y stem c o n sistin g of the fir st su r fa ce Of the len s
2n
syste m a c tl n g as a m i rr o r , wh o se r eflecti n g p o wer l s F 4
r
whe r e r den o tes the r a dius O f this sur fa ce an d a fifth system ,
o f r efr a cti n g p o we r F 5F The e n tir e syste m wh o se r efr a ct

.
,
in g p o we r m ay be de n o ted by F 1 5 an d wh o se p r i n cip a l p o in ts ,
m ay be design ated by H 1 5 H 1 5m ay the r ef o r e be c o n side r ed

’
, , , ,
as c o m p o u n ded o f 3 syste m s o f p o we r s F 1 2 n /r a n d F sep 3, ,
a r at e d b y the in te r v a ls 01 a n d 0 whe r e (if A design ates t he 2,
ver tex o f t he fir st su r fa ce o f the len s-s ystem )

AH 1 AH 3
n n
Acc o r din gly b y substitutin g F 1 in pl a ce Of F 1 2n /r in pl a ce

, 3 ,
o f F 2 a n d F in pl a ce o f F in the f o r m ul a o f
,
1 3 1 fo r the
3
c o m bi n atio n O f thr ee O ptic al syste m s we Obt a in her e : ,
2
5 Z (1 — 01 F 1 3) (1
L
F1 = F1 3
(1 —
T
.
(1
E 1 3H 1 5 F
Cz - _ F1 3
CI-
HH5 ’
1
’
I
n
Bein g given the m agn itudes den o ted b y n n r r an d F ,

’
,
’
,
an d the p o siti o n s o f the p o i n ts design ated by A A an d H H

’ ’
, , ,
an d h a vi n g fo u n d b y m e an s o f the p r evi o us fo r m ul a the
m a gn itude de n o ted b y F 1 an d the p o siti o n o f the p o i n t

3
design ated by H 1 (o r we c an in t r o duce these d at a an d

3
r esults in the e x p r essi o n s a b o ve a n d thus dete r m in e the r e
fr a ctin g p o we r F 1 5an d the dist an ces AH 1 5 A H 1 5o f the pr in ’ ’

,
c ip al p o i n ts H i H 1 5fr o m the ver tices A A Of t he fir s t an d

’ ’
s, ,
l ast sur fa ces r espectively

,
.
PROB LE MS
1 . Fin d
the r efr a ctin g p o wer an d the po sitio n s o f the fo c al
p o in ts an d p r in cipa l p o in ts o f e a ch o f the foll o win g gl a ss
len ses surr o un ded b y air (n = 1 n a n d m a ke an a o ,
’
Ch . XI] Pr o b l e m s 38 5
curate sketch o f e a ch le n s m ar kin g the po sitio n s Of the ,
po in ts m en tio n ed
5
.
()
a D o uble c o n ve x le n s Of r adii 10 c m an d 1 c m an d o f . .
thick n ess 3 c m .
(b ) D o uble c on c ave le n s with s am e d at a as a b o ve

5
.
()
0 M e n iscus le n s f o r which r 1 = + c m r 2 = + 10 cm .
,
.
,
an dd +3 cm .
(d) M e n iscus len s fo r which r1 = +6 cm .

,
r2 = + 3 cm .
, an d
d= cm .
A pl c vex len s with its cur ved sur fa ce O f r a dius

5
()
e an o - o n ,
cm turn ed t o war ds the i n ci den t light ; d =

.
, cm .
(f ) Sym m et r ic c o n vex len s the r a dius o f e a ch su r fa ce

bein g c m ; d = 5 . cm .
,
(g ) Sym m etr ic c o n c ave len s with s a m e dat a a s ab o ve

5
.
( )
h A m e n iscus le n s with r a dii r 1
= + c m r 2 = + 8 cm .
,
.
,
an d thickn ess d =
5
cm .
()
i A m e n iscus le n s with r a du r 1
= + 8 c m r 2 = + cm .
,
.
,
an d thickn ess d = cm .
(7) A m e n iscus le n s with r a du r 1 = + 8 c m r 2

= + 7 cm .
,
.
,
an d thickn ess d + 3 cm .
A c ve le s with its cu ved su fa ce o f r a dius

5 ()
5
to p l an O - o n x n r r ,
cm turn ed t o w ar ds the in ciden t light ; d = + c m

.
, .
An swers :
A2 H
’ ’
A1F A2 F
i n dp t r . in c m . in c m . in cm . m cm .
— l l 66 7
( )
a .
+ 0833
(b ) + 0 7 69
— l 66 7
(c ) .
(d) + 46 6 7
(e )
(f ) + 0 1 70 -0 1 70
(g ) + 0 164
5
(h)
(i ) + 0 9 41 + 0 88
(i ) 00 00
(It)
2 In
. a s ym m etr i c len s — r =r
2 ) su r r o u n ded b y th e
386 Mirr o r s ,
Pr ism s an d Le n se s Oh XI
[ .
s am e m edium (in dex n ) o n b o th sides sh o w th at , we

the fo ll o win g syste m o f fo r m ul a
N —
) (n n )
’ ’
= (n -n
d
N
’
A IF A2 F
—
)
’
’
n d n . r
n r2 n n
AH 1 A 2H ’
n n N
If the fir st fa ce o f a len s is pl an e an d if t he
3 .
,
the cu r ved fa ce is den o ted by r sh o w th at ,
n — n Al H _ d
F =_
;
r n n
A1F r d A214 "
n u —n u n
An d if the sec on d fa ce o f the len s is plan e ,
n n A H Cl 2
I
= A1 H— - 0; etc .
r n n
If either fa ce o f a len s is pl an e the r efr a ctin g p o wer Of t he ,
len s is equ a l t o th at o f the cur ved sur fa ce an d is e n t ir el y in

depen de n t o f the thick n es s o f the len s ; an d m o r e o ver o n e , ,
O f the p r i n cip a l p o i n ts c o in cides with the ve r te x o f the cu r ved
fa ce .
4 If the r a dl l r 1 a n d r 2 of the t wo su r fa ces o f a len s ar e

.
b o th p o sitive an d if 7 is gr e ater th an r 1 sh o w th at the len s

, 2 ,
is c ver ge t p vided the le s m edium is m o r e hi ghly r e

o n n r o ,
n -
fr a ctin g th an the su rr o un din g m edium

5 “
.
A len s o f z er o -cur va tu r e is a c r e scen t -sh a ped m en is

.
”
cus fo r which r 2 = r 1 = r Sh o w th at such a len s is always

.
c on ver gen t u n less it is in fin itel y thin ; an d th at this is the

c ase whether the len s -m edium is m o r e o r less highl y r efr a ct
in g th an the su r r o u n di n g m ediu m .
6 Sh o w th at a m e n iscus le n s fo r which
.
’
r 1 > r 2 > 0 an d n >n
is diver gen t pr o vided its thickn ess is less th an

T2 )
n
’
—n
Ch . XI] Pr o b le m s
7 . Sh o w
th at in an y m en iscus le n s surr o un ded by air at
least o n e o f the p r in cip al p o i n ts m ust lie o utside the len s .
8 A . so -c alled con cen tr i c len s is o n e fo r which the ce n te r s

o f cur v a tu r e o f the t wo f a ces a r e c o i n cide n t (d = r 1 r ) It -
2 .
m ay be d o uble c o n ve x o r m e n iscus Sh o w th a t the r efr a ct .
in g p o we r O f a c o n ce n t r ic le n s su r r o un ded b y the s am e m e
dium o n b o th sides is
’ —n
( ) 1 1
(
n n
”
It
,
71
7 7
7
l
2
an d th at the pr in cip al p o in ts c o in cide at the c o mm o n ce n ter

of the t wo su r fa ces .
9 Fin d the r efr a ctin g p o w e r an d the p o siti o n s o f the fo c a l

.
po in ts an d pr in cip a l po i n ts o f e a ch O f the fo ll o wi n g c o n cen t r ic

gl a ss len ses (n su r r o un ded by air
’
an d d r a w
a ccu r a te sketch o f e a ch len s sh o wi n g the p o siti o n s o f the
p o in ts n am ed
(a ) Do uble c o n vex len s with r adn r 1 + 1 0 c m r 2
5
.
,
(b ) Me n iscus le n s with r a dii r 1 + c m r 2 + 2 c m

5
. .
,
An s .
() a F = + 20 dp t r . A1F = + cm . cm .
,
A 1 H = + 10 AH
5 5 AH
() 1 0 dp t r , A 1 F
’
cm .
, 2 2 cm .
; b F .
+1 cm .
,
A2FA H = + cm
’ —8 cm .
, 1 .
, 2
’
= +2 cm .
1 0 F in d the fo c a l le n gth a n d the p o siti o n s Of the p r i n

.
c ip al p o i n ts o f a c o n ce n t r ic gl a ss le n s su r r o u n ded by a ir
(n =1
,
with r a dii r 1 = + 8 c m r 2
= + c m .
,
5 .
An s f = — 40 c m A H = + 8 c m
. cm .
, 1 .
,
.
1 1 Wh at is the r efr a cti n g p o we r O f a c o n ce n t r ic gl a ss

.
.
m e n iscus le n s su r r o u n ded b y a ir (n = 1 n the r a dii

5
’
,
bein g cm an d 3 c m ? . An s F = . dp t r . .
12 T h e r adius o f the sec o n d su r fa ce o f a c o n ce n t r ic gl a ss

.
len s sur r o un ded by air (n = 1 n is + 3 c m an d its r e ,

’
.
,
fr a ctin g p o wer is 2 dpt r D ete r m i n e its thickn ess

— . .
An s mm. If it we r e n o t t o o he avy this w o uld

.
,
be a fair ly go o d for m o f spect a cle gl ass for a e ar sighted n -
pe r so n .
1 3 If the t wo p r i n ci p a l p o i n ts o f a le n s su rr o u n ded by
.
the s am e m ediu m o n b o th sides c o i n cide with e a ch o ther at

3 88 M i rr o r s ,
Oh . XI
a p o i n t m idw ay bet ween the t wo vertices wh at is the fo r m ,
o f the le n s ? An s A s o lid sphe r e .
1 4 The r efr a ctin g p o we r o f a s ym m et r ic gl a ss le n s sur

.
r o u n ded b y air (n = 1 n is + 1 0 dp t r an d its thic k ’

.
, ,
n ess is cm D e t er min e t he r adius o f the fi r st su r fa ce

. .
5A s lid sphe e is
An s . cm .
1 . o sym m etr ic c o n cen t r ic len s If the

r a .
r a dius is de n o ted b y r sh o w th at we h a ve the fo l

l o win g system o f fo r m ul a fo r a s o lid spher e surr o un ded b y
the s am e m ediu m (n ) o n b o th sides
2 —
(n n )r
’
’ ’
—n
n . r (2 n )
If the pl an e su r fa ce o f a gl a ss hem isphe r e o f in dex n
16 .
,
’
a n d su r r o u n ded o n b o th sides by a m ediu m o f i n de x n is ,
tur n ed t o w ar ds the i n cide n t light an d if r den o tes the r adi us ,
o f the cu r ved su rf a ce sh o w th a t ,
_
m
" n ’
, a r A2H =O
,
AIF
’
A2F
n —n
17 . bj ect is pl a ced in fr on t O f the pl an e sur fa ce o f

An o
a gl a ss he m isphe r e o f i n de x a n d r a dius 3 i n ches

,
at a ,
dist an ce o f 1 0 i n ches fr o m this su r fa ce Fi n d the p o sitio n .

,
n atu r e an d si z e o f the i m age .
An s A r e a l i n ve r ted i m a ge o f s am e si z e as o bj ect wil l

5
.
, , ,
be fo r m ed at a dist an ce O f 2 in ches fr o m the o bject

'
1 8 Wh a t is the r efr a cti n g p o we r o f a gl a ss sphe r e (n

’
.
1 6 § c m in di am ete r (a ) su r r o un ded b y air
5
.
,
a n d (b ) su r r o u n ded b y w ate r (n = i§
An s .
() a + 8 dpt r ; ()
b .
+ 3 d p t r .
\
19The r a dius o f e a ch su r fa ce o f a
. sy mm et r ic c o n vex
gl a ss len s (n is 10 cm an d the thick n ess o f the le n s
5
’
.
,
is mm Wh a t is its r efr a cti n g p o we r (a ) when the thick

.
n ess is n e g l e c t e d a n d (b ) whe n the thick n ess is t a ke n i n t o

,
»
a cc o u n t ? 4p
An s (a ) + 1 0 dp t r ; (b ) + 9 4 d t r . . .
20 The radii of a con vex men scus g l a ss le n s (n =

i
’
. . .
Ch . XI] Pr o b le ms 389
surr o un ded by air (n = 1 ) ar e c m an d cm (a) If the . 5 .
le n s is in fin itely thi n wh a t is its r efr a ctin g po we r ? (b) If

,
t h e thick n ess O f the le n s is 1 c m wh at is its r efr a cti n g po we r ? .

,
An s .
( ) F = + 1 0 d tr
a p ; .
()
b F = + 1 1 ; dp t r .
21 . D ete r min e
the a gl a ss len s o f in fo c al len gth (f) o f
de x su rr o un de d by a ir fo r which r = +9 2 ,
( )
1 whe n thick n ess d = 0 an d 2 whe n thick n ess d = + l
( ) ,
.
= — 1 80 = —
An s .
(1 ) f ; (2 ) f 270
A plan e o b j ect is pl a ced at r ight an gles t o the axis Of
.
22 .
a pl an o -c o n ve x le n s a t a dist an ce o f c m in fr o n t O f its .
cur ved sur fa ce The len s is m ade o f gl a ss o f in dex

.
an d the thickn ess O f the len s is cm The r a dius o f the .
cur ve d su r fa ce is cm Sh o w th at the i m age will be at .
i n fin ity an d th at in o r der t o see distin ctly the i m age o f a

, ,
po in t in the Ob j ect which is 2 c m fr o m the axis an eye b e .

,
hi n d the le n s m ust l o o k in a dir ecti o n in clin ed t o the axis

o f the le n s a t a n an gle O f n e ar ly 12
°
2 3 The r efr a cti n g p o we r o f a m e n iscus spect a cle gla ss is

.
+ 6 dp t r a n d r .
= 2
,
r 1 d = 6 mm The in dex Of r efr a cti o n
2 ,
.
is Fin d the r a dii r 1 an d r 2 an d the ver te x r e fr a c

tion V
An s . r1 = + 436 . cm .
, r2 = cm .
,
V = + 6 2 9 dpt r
. .
24 The thickn ess o f a specta cle gl a ss is

. m m an d .
,
the i n dex o f r efr a cti o n is The r efr a cti n g po wer O f the

fi r st sur fa ce is dp t r an d th at o f the sec o n d su r fa ce .
,
is dp t r Fi n d the r efr a ctin g p o we r o f the le n s an d its

.
ver tex r efr a cti o n

5
An s F = . dpt r ; V = + 7 09 dp t r . . . .
2 A p ar axi a l r ay is i n ciden t o n the c o r n ea o f GULL

.
S TRA N D S sche m atic eye 1 30) in a di r ecti o n p ar a llel t o the

’
a xis Tr a ce the p ath o f this r ay th r ough the eye a n d de

.
ter m in e the po siti o n o f the sec o n d ar y fo c al po in t F (see ’
c alculati on -schem e an d c alcul ate the f o c al le n gths

,
f f
,
a cc
’
o r di n g t o the f o r m ul a de r ived in p r o ble m N o 1 7 .
at the e n d o f C h apte r X .
An s D ist an ce O f F fr o m the ve rte x o f the c o r n ea is

‘
’
.
mm ; f = mm
’
= mm
. .
, f .
3 90 Mirr o r s ,
Oh . XI
26 The r educed thickn ess Of a s ym m etr ic spec ta cle gl a s s
.
is de n o ted b y c If V den o tes its ve r tex r efr a cti o n sho w

.
,
th at
F
2
27 A h o llo w gl o be o f gl a ss is filled with w at er The di .
a m e t e r o f the w a te r sphe r e is i n ches an d the thickn ess o f

the gl a ss shell is in ch ShOW t h at a n ar r o w b e am o f .
°
'
p ar allel r ays dir ected t o war ds the ce n ter o f the gl o be will b e

c o n ver ged t o a po i n t i n ches fr o m the o utside sur fa ce ,
the in dices Of r efr a ctio n Of gl as s an d water bein g 2 an d

g,
r espectively .
2 8 Wh a t is the fo c a l le n g th o f a c o m bi n ati on o f t wo thi n

.
c o n vex len ses e a ch o f fo cal le n gth f pl a ced at a dist an ce

, ,
a p ar t e q u a l t o 2f /3 ?
2 9 An O ptic al syste m is c o m p o sed O f t wo thi n c o n ve x

.
len ses Of r efr a ctin g p o wer s + 1 0 dpt r an d dp t r . .

,
the st r o n ger len s bein g t o war ds the in ciden t light Fin d .
the r efr a ctin g po wer Of the c o m bin atio n an d the po sitio n s

o f the pr in cip al po in ts an d fo c al p o in ts whe n the dis
t an ce between the len se s is :(a ) cm ; ()
b 2 c m ; a n d 5 . 5 .
(c) 40 c m .
An s (a ) C o n ver ge n t system : F = 1 3§ A1H

5
. dpt r ; .
; A
cm H . c m 2
’
c m ; A2 F . c m
A1 F =
;
— .
’
.
()
b Telesc o pic s yste m : F : 0 ; f o c a l a n d p r i n cip a l p o i n t s
all a t i n fin ity ; (c ) D ive r ge n t s y ste m : F — 1 0 dp t r ; A 1 H .
-2 6 cm ; A 2H . cm ; A1 F = —
’
16 cm ; A2F . .
’
+ 30 c m .
3 0 An
. pt ic al system is c o m po sed o f t wo thin len ses
o ,
n am ely a fr o t c o c a ve le s o f p o we
,
n n n r — 1 0 dp t r an d a r ear .
c o n vex len s o f po wer + 6 § dpt r Fin d the r efr actin g po wer .
o f the c o m bi n a ti o n an d the p o siti o n s O f the fo c al p o i n ts a n d
p r in cip al p o in ts whe n the in ter val between the len ses is :

(a ) cm .
; (b ) 5,
cm .
; (0) cm .
; (d) 2 0 c m .
( ) D ive r ge n t sy st e m : A1H =_
5 5 5
— 1 d tr
An s . a F § p . 1 0c m ; .
— 1 cm
A2H —7 cm (b ) Tele
’
m
’
=
; A 1 F = + 0 c .
; A 2 F = . .
;
Ch . XI] Pr o b l e m s 39 1
sc o pic syste m :F = 0 fo c al an d p r i n cip al p o i n ts all at

5
,
i n fi n ity ; (c) F = + g dptr ; A 1 H = + 0 c m ;

5
. cm ; . .
6
— 70 cm ; A F = + 19 c m ; (d) C o n ve r ge n t syste m
’
A F
1
= .
2 .
F = + 1 0 dpt r ; .cm ; A 2 H = + 20 c m ; A 1 F .
’
.
1
+ 30 c m
’
+3 cm .
,
A2 F = .
31 . thin c o n vex len ses O f fo c al len g ths f an d f ar e

T wo 1 2
sep ar ated by an i n ter va l equ al t o 2f 2 If f 1 = 3f wh at is .

2, ,
the fo c al len gth o f the c o m bin ati o n ?

An s C o n ve r ge n t syste m o f fo c al le n gth 3f /2
.
2 .
3 2 T wo len ses o n e c o n ve x an d the o the r c o n c ave a r e

.
, ,
S ep ar ated by a n i n te r v al 2 a The c o n vex len s is the fr o n t

.
len s a n d its fo c al len gth is a while th at o f the c o n c ave le n s

, ,
is a Fi n d the fo c al le n gth o f the c o m bin atio n an d the

— .
p o sitio n s o f the p r i n cipal po i n ts an d fo c al po in ts ;

An s f a/2 ; A 1 H A2 H
= .
= = — a A 1 F 3 A 2F
= — 3 a/2
’ °
,
’
.
3 3 Whe r e a r e the p r i n cip al pl an es o f a syste m o f t wo thi n

.
c o n vex le n ses o f fo c a l len gths 2 in ches an d 6 i n ches sep ar ated ,
b y an i n te r val o f 4i n ches ?
An s The p r i n cip al pl an es c o i n cide with the fo c al pl an e s
.
O f the st r o n ge r le n s .
34 The Obj ective o f a c o m p o u n d m ic r o sc o pe m ay be r e

.
g ar ded a s a thi n c o n vex le n s O f fo c al le n gth i n ch The .
O cul a r m ay a ls o be r eg a r ded a s a thi n c o n ve x le n s O f f o c a l
len gth 1 i n ch The dist an ce betwee n the t wo le n ses is 6

.
i n ches Whe r e m ust a n o bj ect be pl a ced in o r de r th at its

.
i m a ge m ay be seen disti n ctly by a per s o n wh o se dist an ce O f

distin ct visio n is 8 i n ches ?
in ch l n fr o n t o f the Obj ective
5
6
An s .
—
8 3
.
3 The fo c al le n gths O f the Ob j ective an d o cul ar o f a c o m

.
p o un d m ic r o sc o pe ar e i n ch an d 1 i n ch r es p ectively If ,
.
the dist an ce o f disti n ct visio n is 1 2 i n ches fi n d the distan ce ,
betwee n the Ob j ective a n d o cula r whe n the o bj ect viewed is

5i n ch fr o m the Ob j ective in ches
5
An s . . .
36 A thi n c o n ve x le n s o f fo c a l le n gth
.
,
i n ches is pl a ced ,
midwa y betwee n t wo thi n c o n c ave le n ses e a ch o f fo c al len gth

1 0i n ches The dist a n ce betwee n the fi r st le n s a n d the sec o n d
.
39 2 M irr o r s ,
Oh . XI
is 5 -
i ches n .
'
Fi n d t he
fo c al len gth o f the system an d the p o ‘
sit io n s o f the p r i n cip a l p o i n ts .
An s f + 6 § i n ches ; the p r in cip al p o i n ts a r e 3 3; in che s

.
1
fr o m the o utside len ses .
3 7 In the p r ecedi n g p r o ble m supp o se t h at the t wo ,
o utside le n ses ar e c o n c a ve ever yt hin g else r e m ain in g the

,
s am e .
An s f + 6 ; i n ches
. The pr in cip al po in ts ar e o n Op
.
p o si t e sides o f the m iddle le n s a n d 1 ; in ches fr o m it .
3 8 A thin c o n ve x le n s o f fo c al le n gth 1 0 i n ches is pl a ced

5
.
, ,
in fr o n t Of a c o n c a ve m i r r o r o f fo c a l len gth i n ches the dis

5 ,
t an ce betwee n them bein g in ches The light t r a ver ses the .
len s is r eflected at the m irr o r an d a ga in p asses th r o ugh the

“
, ,
len s Fin d the fo ca l len gth o f thi s S O-c all ed thick m ir r or

.
”
an d the p o siti o n s o f the p r i n cip a l p o i n ts .
An s f + 6 in ches ; the p r in cip al p o i n ts c o i n cide with

5
.
e ach o ther at a p o in t i n ches behin d the ver tex o f the m ir r o r .
39 In the p r ecedin g p r o ble m supp o se th a t the le n s is

.
,
c o n c ave ever ythin g else r em a in in g the s am e

,
.
An s f + 6 2; i n ches ; the p r in cip a l p o i n ts c o iri cide with

.
e a ch o ther a t a p o in t between the len s an d the m irr or an d

ches f the f e
5
313; in r o m o r m r .
40 In fr o n t o f e a ch o f the syste m s desc r ibed in No s 3

. .
,
3 6 3 7 an d 3 8 an O bj ect o n e in ch high is pl a ced at a dist an ce

5
, , , ,
Of in ches fr o m the fir s t m em ber O f the system Fin d the .
po sitio n si z e an d n atu r e o f the i m age in e a ch c ase

5
.
,
An s In N O 3 :
. A r eal in ver ted im age 2 in ches beyo n d
.
, ,
the thir d len s an d in high In N o 36 : A r e al in ver ted

. . .
,
im age 3 0 i n ches beyon d the thir d len s an d 4 in ches high

, . .
In N o 3 7 : A r e al in ver ted im a ge 2 in ches in fr o n t Of the

.
, ,
len s an d in high In N O 3 8 :
. . A r eal in ver ted image .
, ,
3 0i n ches in fr o n t O f the le n s an d 4i n ches high .
41 The cen te r O f a c o n c ave m i rr o r o f r a dius r c o in cide s

.
, ,
with the o ptic a l cen te r o f a thi n len s o f fo ca l len gth f an d , ,
the ax es o f len s an d m irr o r ar e in the s am e straight lin e The .
light t r ave r ses the le n s is r eflected at the m irr o r a n d a ga in

, ,
Ch . XI] Pr o b le m s 39 3
t r aver ses the le n s Sh o w th at the system is e quivalen t t o a

.
thin m ir r o r o f r adius with its ce n ter a t the s am e

pl a ce a s the cen te r o f the given m i r r o r .
42 A ce n te r ed syste m O f le n ses (I ) is pl a ced in fr o n t Of

‘
“
.
a sphe r ic a l m i r r o r a n d the wh o le c o n stitutes a thick

m i rr o r ,
as e x p l ai n ed in
”
1 32 Sh o w th a t the ve r tex A an d
.
the cen ter C o f the a ctual m i r r o r ar e the i m ages o f the ver tex
“
-
H an d the ce n ter K r es p ectively o f the equivalen t thin

, ,
m i rr o r ,
which ar e pr o duced by the le n s -system I in the
m ediu m o f i n de x n betwee n syste m s I a n d II
“
2 .
43 A thick m i r r o r c o n sists O f a thin le n s O f fo c al le n gth

.
”
f 1 a n d a sphe r ic a l m i r r o r o f f o c a l le n gth 1 pl a ced c O2

-a x i a ll y
so th at the fo c a l p o i n t o f the m i r r o r c o i n cides with the O p ti
c al ce n te r A o f the thi n le n s Sh o w th at the f o c al le n gth o f

“
1 .
the e quivalen t thin mi rr o r is ”
fi 3
an d th at the po siti o n s o f the ve r tex H an d the cen ter K ar e
g ive n b y the f o ll o wi n g e x p r essi o n s
—
f l f2 f 1 +f 2
Do es it m ake an y differ en ce whether the len s is c on vex o r
c o n c a ve ?
44 At e a ch o f the fo c al p o i n ts o f a thin c o n ve x le n s o f
.
fo cal len gth f is pl a ced a thi n le n s O f fo c a l len gth f Fi n d

2 1 .
the fo c al len gth o f the c o m bi n ati o n O f the th r ee le n ses an d

the p o sitio n s O f the pr i n ci p al p o in ts D o es it m ake a n y dif
.
fe r en ce whether the t wo e qu al o utside len ses ar e c o n vex or

c o n c ave ?
An S f A 1H = H A '
3
_
f 1 f2
4 5A thi
. c o n vex len s o f fo c al le n gth 1 0 cm is pl a ced in
n .
fr o n t o f a pl an e m ir r o r a t a dist an ce O f 8 c m fr o m it Fin d
“
. .
the r a diu s o f the equivalen t thin m ir r o r an d the p o siti on ”
O f its ve r te x H .
394 Mirr o r s ,
Oh . XI
“
An s The e q uiv ale n t thin m i r r o r is a c o n c ave m i rr o r Of
5
.
r a dius 0 c m with its ve r te x 3 2 c m be h in d the pl an e m i r r o r

. . .
46 The ax es o f th r ee thin c o n ve x len ses a r e all in the

.
s am e st r aight lin e the i n ter val between the fir st an d sec o n d

,
len ses bein g o n e i n ch an d the i n ter val between the sec o n d

an d thi r d le n ses bei n g h alf an i n ch The fo c a l le n gths o f the .
fir st sec o n d an d thir d len ses ar e g

, a n d 3 i n ch re , ,
spe c t iv e ly A pl an e O bj ect is pl a ced at r ight an gles t o the

.
a x is o f the le n s -system ; sh o w th at an in ve r ted im a ge o f the

sam e si z e as the O bj ect will be fo r m ed in t h e pl an e Of the
O b j ect .
47 A pl an o -c o n c ave flin t gl a ss len s o f i n de x is c e

‘
m e n t e d t o a d o uble c o n ve x c r o wn gl a ss le n s Of i n de x
The r adii an d thi ckn esses ar e as fo llo ws :r 1 = o r
54 5
o 2
+ 0 19 mm .
,
r3 = mm ; . d1 = + 2 1 mm .
,
d2
mm . Fin d
the fo c al len gth Of the c om bin atio n an d
the po siti o n s O f the pr in cip al po in ts .
mm ; dist an ces Of pr in cip al po in ts fr o m

5
An s f . .
the pl an e sur fa ce + 46 6 an d + 7 908 mm , . .
48 A pl a o c o n c ave fli n t gl ass le n s o f i n de x
. n - is cc
m e n te d t o a d o uble c o n vex c r o wn gl a ss le n s o f in dex
The r a dii an d thickn esses ar e as fo ll o ws : r 1 = + 2 2 00 m m .
,
r2 mm .
,
r3 = oo
; d 1
= + 2 6 o mm ,
d 2
= + 2 0 0 m m . .
Fi n dthe fo c al len gth o f the c o m b in ati o n an d the p o siti o n s o f
the p r in cipa l p o in ts
5
.
An s .
f + 2 26 m m ; . distan ces Of prin cip al po in ts fr o m
pl an e su r fa ce an d
, mm .
49 The r a dn a n d thickn ess o f a symm et r ic d o uble c o n vex

.
len s ar e 1 0 c m a n d 1 c m r espectively The len s is m a de o f

. .
,
.
gl ass Of in dex an d su rr o u n ded by air o f i n de x u n ity .
A po r tio n o f the light whi ch e n te r s the len s will be r eflected

at the sec o n d su r fa ce a n d p a rti ally r efr a cted at the fi r st
sur fa ce fr o m gl ass b a ck i n t o the air Fin d the r adius r e .

,
fle c t in g po we r an d p o sit i o n o f the ve r tex O f the equivale n t

thin m ir r or .
”
An s C o n c ave m i r r o r o f r a dius
. mm r eflecti n g .
,
Ch . XI] Pr o b le m s 39 5
po we r with its ve r te x + 0 90m m fr o m the v e r
dpt r .
,
.
t e x o f the fi r st fa ce o f the le n s
5
.
0 In the c a se o f the le n s in the p r ecedin g p r o ble m as

.
-
,
sum e that the light is r eflected i n ter n ally twice in successio n

an d issues fi n ally a t the sec o n d fa ce i n t o the air Fin d the .
r efr a ctin g p o we r an d t h e p o siti o n s o f the p r in cip al p o i n ts
fo r the i m age r y p r o duce d by these rays .
An s R efr a cti n g p o we r
. dp tr ; dist an ces o f p r in
,
.
c ip al p o i n ts fr o m ve r tex Of fi r st su r fa ce Of the len s + 1 0 94 ,
5
an d mm .
In GU LLS TRA N D
sche m atic eye in its st ate o f maxi
’
1 . S
mum accommoda ti on the c r yst allin e len s c o n sists o f an o ute r

symm et r ic d o uble c o n vex len s O f in dex n 4= n = 1 386 (see
“
6 .
e n cl o sin g an i n n er sym m et r ic d o uble c o n vex c o r e ”
len s o f in dex n 5 = 1;406 ; the i n n e r p o r ti o n bei n g sym m e tr i

c ally pl a ced with r espect t o the surr o un din g o ute r p ar t
'
.
The r adii o f the sur fa ces ar e as fo llo ws

Oute r p o r ti o n :
5
5
r =A C = mm 3 3 3 .
I n n er p o r tion : r4= A 4C 4
= +2 6 0mm .
Mo r e o ve r ,
A3A4= AQ C = A A6 5 5 C 4A6 = 0 6 7 2
. 5
mm ; .
A 4A5
= C5
C 4= A 4C 4 C5 A5 mm .
The en tir e le n s is su rr o un de d by a m ediu m o f in dex n 3
n = 1 336 Sh o w (1 ) th a t the r efr a cti n g p o we r o f the i n n e r

“
7 . .
p o r tio n o r c o r e le n s is F 45 = dp tr an d th at its .
,
p r in cipal p o i n ts a r e m m fr o m the an te r i o r a n d po s .
t e r io r Su r fa ces Mo r e o ve r e m pl o yi n g the fo r m ul a o f 1 3 1
.
, ,
sh o w (2 ) th at the r efr a cti n g p o we r o f the e n ti r e le ns in c ase
O f m ax i m u m a cc o m m o d a ti o n is F = dptr an d th at 36 .
A H = HM A :
5
mm
/
3 36 s .
2 Usi n g the d at a o f the pr ecedi n g p r o ble m fi n d the

.
,
r efr a cti n g p o we r (F ) an d the p o siti o n s o f the p r i n cip a l p o i n ts
(H ,
H ) o f G U ’
LL S T R A N D S sche m a tic eye in its st a te
’
o f m a x i
m um a cc o mm o dati o n : bein g given a cc o r din g t o the r esults ,
of 1 3 0 th at the r efr a cti n g p o we r o f the c o r n e a syst em is

,
dptr an d th at A 1 H 1 2 = mm A 1 H 1 2
’
F 12 . .
,
39 6 M irr o r s ,
Pr ism s an d Le ns e s [
C h . XI
mm .
,
arrd a ls o th at fo r m axim um a cco mm o d ation
5
5
A1 A 3 mm .
An s F = + 7 0 7
. . dpt r ; . A 1H = + 1 772
. mm ; . Al H
'
5
+ 2 086 m m .
3 . thin len ses o f fo c al len g ths f l an d f ar e pl a ced on

T wo z
the s am e axis with the sec o n d fo c al po in t (P ) o f the fi r st l

’
len s c o in ciden t with the fir st f o c al po in t (F2) o f the sec o n d

len s so as t o fo r m an a fo c al o r t e le s00pic system Sh o w
,
.
th at the l ater al m a gni fic ati o n is c o n st an t an d equ al t o

f z/f l a n d
,
th a t the a n gul a r m a g n ific a ti o n is li kewise c o n
st an t an d equ al t o the r ecipr o c al o f the l ater al m a gn ific atio n

5
.
4 If (as in H uY G E N s s o cul ar ) t wo th in le n ses a r e pl a ced

.
’
o n the s a m e axis with their sec o n d fo c al p o i n ts in c o in cide n c e ,
sh o w th at the sec o n d fo c a l p o in t o f the c o m bin atio n is m id

way betwee n this c o m m o n fo c al po in t a n d the sec o n d le n s ,
a n d th a t the devi ati o n p r o duced by the sec o n d le n s is t h ice r
th at pr o duced by the fir st (a ssum in g th at the an gles ar e

sm a ll ) .
C HA PT E R XII
A PE R T URE AN D FIE LD O F O PT IC A L S Y S TE M
133 . Lim itati o n un dle s b y D iaph r ag m s or Stops

of -
Ray B .
— The ge o m et r ic al the o r y o f o ptic al i m a ge r y which h a s bee n

devel o ped in C h apte r X was b a sed o n the a ssum pti on o f
p u n c tu a l c or r esp on den ce betwee n o b j ect -sp a ce a n d im a ge
spa ce whe r eby e a ch po in t o f the o b j ect is r ep r o duce d by
,
o n e p o in t an d by o n e po in t o n ly in the im a ge ; a n d o n this
, ,
hypo thesis sim ple r elat i o n s in the fo r m o f the so c alled -
im age equ ati o n s 1 23 ) wer e o bt ain ed fo r dete r m in i n g the

-
po siti o n an d si z e o f the im a ge in ter m s o f the fo c al len gths

o f the o ptic a l syste m When we atte m pted t o r e ali z e the
.
im ager y e xpr essed by these equ ati o n s we we r e o bliged t o ,
c on fin e o ur selves t o the so -c alled p ar axi al r ays c o m p r ised

within the n arr o w cylin d r ic al r egi o n im m edi ately sur r o un d
in g the axis o f symm et r y o r o ptic al axis o f the ce n te r ed sys
t e m o f S phe r ic al r efr a ct in g o r r eflectin g su r fa ces B a sed o n .
the s am e assum pti o n s ce r tain r ules we r e give n fo r c o n

st r u c t in g the im a ge -p o in t Q c o rr esp o n di n g t o a g ive n o b j ect
,
'
p o in t Q Fo r exam ple a p air o f st r aight li n es was d r awn

.
,
thr ough Q (Fig . o n e p ar allel t o the o ptic a l a xis a n d
m eeti n g the sec o n d p r in cip al pl an e o f the syste m in a p o i n t

V an d the o ther go in g thr ough the p ri m ar y fo cal p o in t F
’
,
an d m eeti n g the fi r st p r i n cip a l pl an e in a p o i n t W The .
r equi r ed p o in t Q was sh o wn t o lie a t the p o i n t o f in t e r se c

’
tio n of the st r aight li n e V Q d r a wn th r o ugh the sec o n d

’ ’
,
fo c al po in t F with the st r aight lin e WQ d r awn p ar allel t o

’
,
’
the axis The po siti o n o f the p o i n t Q h a vi n g been l o c ated

.
’
,
the pr o blem was c o n si der ed a s s o lved an d we we r e n o t p ar ,
t ic ul ar ly c o n ce r n ed w ith i n qui r i n g Whethe r the st r aigh t

lin es used in the c o n st r ucti o n r epr ese n ted the p aths o f a o
397
398 M irr o r s ,
tu al r ays th at fo r m ed the i m age at Q As a m atte r o f fa ct ’

.
,
the p ai r o f ge o m et r ic a l lin es which is e m plo yed her e will

gen e r ally n o t bel o n g t o the bu n dle o f o ptic al r a ys b y which
the im a ge r y is a ctu ally p r o duced ; a n d a gl an ce at the dia
gra mwill sh o w h o w the di am eter o f the len s an d the si z e o f
F IG . . v y
1 7 4— E ff e c t i e ra s as dist in g uis h ed fr o m ra y s u se d in m a ki n g g e o
m e t r ic al co n st r u c t i o n s .
the o bj ect c o n t r o l the selecti o n o f the r ays th at ar e r e ally

e ff ective in p r o duci n g the im age .
In Ch a pter I a tte n ti o n wa s c alled t o the fa ct th a t eve r y

o ptic al i n st r u m e n t is p r o vided with s o m e m e a n s o f cutti n g
o ut such p o r ti o n s o f a bu n dle o f r a ys a s f o r o n e r e a s o n o r
a n o the r a r e n o t desi r a ble ; which is usu a lly a cc o m plished ,
a s h a s bee n e x pl a i n ed by in ter po sin g in the p aths o f the

,
r ays at s o m e c o n ve n ie n t pl a ce a pl an e O p a q ue sc r ee n at
r ight a n gles t o the ax is c o n t a i n i n g a ci r cul ar a pe r t ur e with
its ce n ter o n the axis Ther e m ay i n deed be sever a l such

.
, ,
di ap hr a g ms o r stop s disp o sed a t v ar i o us pl a ces al o n g the

ax is o f the i n st r u m e n t A per fo r ated sc r een o f this kin d is
.
c alled a f ron t stop a r ear stop o r an i n teri or stop a cc o r din g

, ,
as it lies in fr o n t o f behi n d o r withi n the syste m r espect

, ,
iv e ly The r im s an d faste n i n gs o f the len ses a c t in the s am e

.
w y s
a a the di a ph r a g m s t o li m it the r ay bu n dles
- The st o ps .
h ave var i o us duties t o pe r fo rm their chi ef fun ctio n s bein g,

1 34] Ap e r tu t
r e -S o p 3 99
to cut the view o f i n disti n ct p ar ts o f the i m a ge (li m it a

o ff
ti o n o f the field o f v ie w) t o cut o ut such r ays as wo uld ten d

,
t o m ar the p e r fecti o n o f th a t p ar t o f the i m a ge which is t o

be in spected (li m it ati o n o f the a pe r tur e o f the syste m ) an d
fin ally t o n ullify in j ur io us r e fl ectio n s fr o m the sides o f the
, ,
tube o r o ther p ar ts o f the i n st r um e n t .
134 T he Ape rt ur e S to p an d th e Pu pil s of the Syst e m

.
-
.
T o an eye l o o k in g i n t o the i n st r u m e n t fr o m the si de o f the

o b j ect a fr o n t st o p (which m ay be the r i m o f the fi r st le n s
,
o f the syste m ) will be the o n ly o n e th a t will be V isible di
r e c t ly. An y o the r st o p o r le n s r im will be see n o n ly by m e an s

-
o f the re a l o r vi r tu a l i m a ge o f it t h at i s c a st by th a t p ar t o f
the o ptic al syste m which is between it a n d the eye Sim i .
lar ly if the eye is di r ected t o w ar ds the i n st r u m e n t fr o m the

,
im age side a n in te r i o r st o p o r a fr o n t st o p m ay be see n by

-
,
m e an s o f the i m a ge o f it th at is p r o duced by the p ar t o f the

system th at lies between it an d the eye N o w these im p al .
ab l e st o p -i m ages whethe r visible o r n o t a r e j ust as e ffect

p , ,
ive in cuttin g o ut the r ays a s if they we r e a ctu al m ate r i al

st o ps ; bec ause o b v i o usly an y r ay th at go es thr o ugh an
,
a ctu a l st o p m ust n ecess a r ily p ass eithe r r e ally o r vi r tu all y

,
th r ough the c o r r espo n din g p o i n t o f the st o p-i m age ; wher eas

a r ay th at is o bst r ucted by a st o p will n o t g o th r o ugh the
o pe n i n g in the s t o p i m a ge -
.
Th at o n e o f the sto ps which by vi r tue o f its si z e an d p o

sit io n with r espect t o the r a di ati n g o bj ect is m o st eff ective
in cutti n g o ut the r ays is disti n guished as the a p e r tu r e-stop

o f the syste m a n d in o r de r t o dete r m i n e which o f the
seve r al st o ps per fo r m s this o ffice it is n ecess ar y fi r st o f all , ,
o f the a xi a l o b j ect p o i n t M with o ut

,
t o a ssig the p o siti o

n n -
,
which the a pertur e o f the system c an h ave n o m e an in g Ac .
c o r din g ly we m ust supp o se th a t the i n st r u m e n t is f o cused

,
o n s o m e selected p o i n t M o n the a x is which is r ep r o duced
by an i m age at the c o n j ugate p o in t M The t r a n sver s al

,
’
.
pl an es at r ight an gles t o the axis at M an d M will be a p air

'
o f c o n jug ate pl an es fo r it is a ssu m ed he r e th a t the i m a ge r y

,
400 Mirr o r s ,
is ide a l an d o f the s am e ch ar a cter as th a t pr o duced by par

axi a l r a ys . N o w this p a i r o f c o n jug a te pl an es plays a ve r y
i m po r t a n t r ole in the theo r y o f an o ptic a l in str um en t so ,
th a t he r ea fter we sh all r efer t o the o bj ect-plan e as the f o cus

p la n e ( o r the pl a n e which is in f o cus o n the sc r ee n ) a n d t o
the c o n jug ate pl an e In the i m a ge-sp a ce as the scr een -p la n e .
N o w if the eye is supp o sed t o be pl a ced o n the axis at the

po in t M an d dir ected t o war ds the in str um en t the st o p o r ,
st o p-im a ge wh o se a per tu r e subten ds the s m all est an gle at M

is c all ed the e r ce p up i l o f the system All the effective
n t a n - .
r ay s 1 )
1 in the o bj ect sp a ce m ust be dir ected t o war ds
-
po in ts whi ch li e withi n the cir cumf er en ce o f the cir c ul ar

o pe n in g o f the e n t r a n ce-pupil . In ge n e r al the e n tr an ce
,
pupil is the i m a ge o f the a per tur e-st o p a s seen by lo o kin g in t o

the i n str um en t in the dir ectio n o f the light c o m in g fr om the
o bj ect ; but if the a pe r tur e -st o p is a fr o n t st o p i t will als o ,
be the e n t r an ce—pupil .
O n the o ther h an d whe n the e y e is pl a ced o n the axis at

,
the po in t M so as t o l oo k in t o the in str um en t thr o ugh the

’
o the r e n d the st o p o r st o p-i m a ge whi ch subte n ds the s m a llest

,
a n gle at M is c a lled the exi t-p up i l a n d all the e ffective r ay s

’
,
when they e m er ge fr o m the in st r um en t m ust g o r e ally o r ,
vir tu ally thr o ugh the o pe nin g o f the exit-pupil In this

, .
st ate m en t it is t a citl y a ssum ed th at M is a r e a l i m age o f M ;

’
o the r wise it w o uld n o t be p o ssible fo r the eye pl a ced a t M

’
,
t o l o o k in t o the in st r u m e n t thr o ugh the e n d fr o m w hi ch the

r ays e m e r ge . But in an y c ase the exit -pupil is the sto p o r
st o p-im age which subten ds the sm allest an gle at M Ge n ’
.
e r all y,
the exit—pupil will be the i m age o f the a per tur e-st o p
as see n by l o o k i g in t o the in str um en t fr o m the im age side ;
n -
but if the ape r tu r e st o p is a r ear st o p it will be itself the

-
,
exit-pupil .
Si n ce the effective r ays e n te r the s y stem thr o ugh the

e n tr an ce-pupil in the o b j ect sp a ce a n d le a ve it thr o ugh the
-
exit -pupil in the i m a ge-sp a ce it is evide n t th at the exi t

,
u
p p i l i s t he i m a g e o f the e n tr a n c e - u il
p p so tha t the p up
,
il /
§ 13 5
] En t r a n c e -Pup il of E ye 401
design ate d by O
’
cen ter s , an d O ,
ar e a p ai r f
o j
con ug a te a xi a l
p oi n ts wi th r esp e c t to the en ti r e syste m .
The a pe r tu r es o f the r ay-bu n dles in the o bj ect -sp a ce ar e

determ i n ed by the en t r an ce-pupil o f the syste m ; an d the
exit pupil s a si il
- h a m a r o ffice in the im age sp ace E a ch o f
- .
the pupils is the co mm o n b a se o f the c o n es o f effective r ays

in the r egi o n t o which it bel o n gs
5
.
13 Ill ustr ation s The n am e pupil a pplied t o these

.
—
a pe r tur es by A BB E wa s suggested by an an al o g y with the
o ptic a l syste m o f the eye The p upil o f the eye is the c o n

.
t r a ctil e a per tur e o f the c o l o r ed ir is the im age o f which

p r o duced b y the c o rn ea an d the a q ueo us hu m o r is the e n
,
t r an ce pupil o f the eye c o r r espo n din g t o wh a t is po pul ar ly

-
“
c alled the bl a ck o f the eye bec ause it lo o ks bl a ck o n the ”
,
d ar k b a ckgr o un d o f the po ste r io r ch am be r o f the eye Sin ce .
the ce te O the e t ce pupil is the i m age o f the cen ter

n r o f n ra n -
K o f the ir is -O pen in g for m ed by r ays th at ar e r efr a cted fr o m

the a queo us hum o r thr o ugh the c o r n e a in t o the air the n , ,
by the p rin ciple o f the r ever sibility o f the light p ath we -

,
m ay als o r egar d K as the i m a ge o f O fo r m ed by r ays which

a r e r efr a cted fr o m a ir (n = 1 ) th r o ugh the c o r n e a i n t o the
a que o us hu m o r (n The a pp ar e n t pl a ce o f the eye

’
pupil var ies slightly in differ en t in dividuals an d in the s am e

i n dividu a l at differ e n t a ges If we a ssu m e th at the po in t 0 .
is m m fr o m the ve r te x (A ) o f the c o r n e a th at is if we
.
, ,
put u = 0003 03 m the n U = n / u = 330 dpt r An d if we t ake

. .
,
.
the r efr a ctin g po we r o f the co r n ea a s F 42 dp tr

then sin ce U U+ F we fi n d U = 3 72 dpt r an d c o n sequen tly
,
’
,
’
.
U m ; so th at with these d at a the

’
.
pl an e o f the i r is is fo u n d t o be at a dist a n ce o f m m fr o m .
the ver tex o f the c o r n e a Thus we see th a t the e n t r an ce

.
pupil o f the eye is ver y n e ar ly m m in fr o n t o f the i r is . .
As a sim ple illust r ati o n o f these p r i n ci p les c o n side r an ,
o ptic al syste m which c o n sists o f a n i n fi n itely thi n c o n ve x
len s with a sto p pl a ce d a little in fr o n t o f it In t he dia

5
‘
.
,
gram (Fig 1 7 ) the st r a ight lin e D G pe r pe n dicul ar t o the

.
402 M ir r o r s ,
ax is o f the len s r ep r esen ts the diam eter o f the len s which
lies in the m er idi an pl an e o f the p ape r The diam eter o f .
the st o p o pen in g is sh o wn by the st r aight lin e B C p ar allel

-
to DC The cen ter s o f the len s an d st o p ar e desig n ated b y

.
“
E t r an ce
Pl a n e
F IG . 17 5p
.
— O t ic al s y st e m c o m p o se d o f
st o p .
h
t in con v ex l e n s wit h fr o n t
A an d K r espectively The po siti o n o f the fo cus-pl an e is

,
.
deter m in ed by the axi al o bj ect po i n t M which in the figur e -

,
is r epr esen ted a s lyi n g in fr o n t o f the len s bey o n d the pr i

m ar y fo ca l pl an e The s o lid an gle subten ded at M by the
.
o pe n i n g in the st 0p is supp o se d t o be s m alle r th a n th at
subten ded by the r im o f the len s ; th at is as her e sh o wn , ,
4AM C < A AM G an d c o n seque n tly the fr o n t st o p a cts he r e

, ,
b o th a s a per tu r e-st o p an d e n t r an ce—pupil so th at the cen ter K ,
o f the a pe r tu r e -st o p is likewise the ce n te r 0 o f the e n t r a n ce
pupil Lo o kin g thr o ugh the len s fr o m the o ther side o n e

.
,
will see at O a vi r tu al er ect i m a ge B C o f the a per tu r e st o p

’
,
- ’ ’
B C an d he n ce this i m a ge is the e x it pupil o f the syste m

,
- .
The an gle E M G is the a per tur e an gle o f the c o n e o f r ays

-
th at c o m e fr o m the axi a l o b j ect -po in t M in the fo cus-pl an e ;

a fte r p a ssi n g t hr o ugh the syste m these r ays m eet at M in ,
’
h
t e sc r ee n -pl an e the a per tur e an g le o f the bun dle o f r ays
,
-
§ 13 5
] Pu p il s of Op ti c al Sy s t e m 403
in the irn ag e-spa ce bein g The effective r ays

c o m in g fr o m a p o in t Q in the fo cus -pl an e ar e c o m pr ised
within A B Q C in the o b j ect sp a ce an d A B Q C in the - ’ ’ ’
im a ge spa ce If the b j ect p o in t do es n o t lie in the

- . o -
fo cus -pl an e an d yet n o t t o o far fr o m it the o pen in g B OC will

, ,
a c t as e n t r a n ce -pupil f o r t hi s p o in t a ls o Thus f o r exam ple .
in o r der t o c o n str uct the po in t R c o n juga te t o an o b j ect

, ,
’
p t R which d es
o in o n o t lie e a ctly in the fo cus pl an e we
x -
,
h ave m er ely t o dr a w the st r aight lin es R B RO R C un til , ,
they m eet the len s an d c on n ect these l a tter p o in ts with B

,
’
,
O C r espectively by str aight lin es whi ch will in te r sect in

’ ’
, , ,
the i m age-po in t R ’
.
Again c o n si der a system c o m po sed o f t wo equ al thin

,
c on vex len ses wh o se ce n ter s ar e at A1 an d A2 (Fig 1 7 .
p y p q h
1 7 6 — O t ic al s st e m c o m o se d o f t w o e u al t in c o n e x l e n se s wit v h
pp y
FIG .
in t e ri o r sto l a c e d m id w a b e t w e e n t h e t w o l e n se s .
with a s to p UV pl a ced m idway betwee n the m ; if the cen ter

o f the st o p is desig n a ted by K the n A 1 K = KA 2 The im a ge
,
.
o f the st 0p as see n th r o ugh the fr o n t le n s is B O C an d its ,
im a ge as seen by l o o kin g thr o ugh the o ther len s in the 0p

p o sit e di r ecti o n is these i m a ges bei n g equ a l in si z e
a n d sym m et r ic ally situ ated with r espect t o the st o p itself .
The im age o f the r im o f e a ch le n s c ast by the o the r len s

sh oul d als o be c o n st ructed but fo r the s ake o f sim plicity
,
these im ag es are n ot d rawn in the fi g u r e bec ause the di ,

404 M ir r o r s ,
am e t e r s of the len ses ar e t aken sufficien tly l ar ge as c om

p ar ed with the diam ete r o f the st o p in ter po sed between
them at K t o i su e th at the l atter cts as per tu e st o p
n r a a r -
with r espect t o the a i al object po i n t M o n which the in

x -
st r um en t is suppo sed t o be fo cused C o n se quen tly sin ce .

,
the st o p-im age B C subten ds at M an an gle less th an th at

‘
subten ded by the r im o f the fr on t len s o r by the ima ge o f

the r im of the sec on d len s it will be the en t r an ce pupil o f
,
-
the system ; an d simil arly B C which is the im a ge o f B C

, ,
’ ’
fo rm ed by the system as a wh o le will be t he exit -pupil .
Thus in o r der t o c o n str uct the i m a ge po in t M c o n jugate

,
- ’
t o the ax i al o bj ect p o i n t M we h a ve m er ely t o dr aw the

-
,
str aight lin e M C an d t o deter m in e the p o in t whe r e this lin e

m eets the fi r st len s ; an d fr o m the l atter p o in t d r a w a str aight
lin e th r o ugh the p o i n t V in the edge o f the st o p t o m eet the
s ec o n d le n s ; a n d fin ally d r a w the st r a ight li n e w hi ch j o in s
, ,
this l atter p o in t with the po in t C in the edge o f the exit ’
pupil ; this li n e will cr o ss the ax is at the r e qui r ed po in t M ’
in the sc r ee n -pl an e . Si mil ar ly d r a wi n g fr o m the o bj ect,
po in t Q the thr ee r ays QB Q0 an d Q C we c an c o n tin ue , ,
the p aths o f these r ays fr o m the fir st len s t o the sec o n d

th r o ugh the p o in ts U K an d V r espectively in the st o p
, , ,
o pe n i n g ; an d si n ce the r ays m ust issue fr o m the sec o n d len s
so as t o g o th r o ugh B O an d C r espectively in the exit

’ ’ ’
, , ,
pupil their c o m m on p o in t o f in ter secti o n in the im age

,
spa ce will be the p o in t Q c o n jugate t o Q In the dia gr am

’
.
the p o i t Q is t ake i the f cus pl an e ; but the s am e c o n

n n n o -
str ucti on will a pply a ls o t o determ in e the po sitio n o f an

im age po i n t R c o n j ug a te t o an o bject -p o in t R which d o es
- ’
n o t lie in the fo cus -pl an e .
1 3 6 Ape rtur e -An g l e C a se of Two or M ore En tr an c e

5
. .
Pupil s —
. The an gle OMC = rj (Figs 1 7 an d 1 7 6 ) subten ded .
at the a i al o bj ect p o i n t M by the r a dius O C o f t h e e n t r an ce

x —
pupil is c lled the p er tu e an g le o f the O ptic al system If

a a r - .
we put O C = p (whe r e p is t o be r eck o n ed p o sitiv e o r n e g

ative a cc o r di n g as the p o i n t C lies ab o ve o r bel o w the axis )
13 6 ] S yt
s em wi h Twot En t r an c e -Pup ils 40 5
d OM = z ,then t am) p/ like if ’
I : —
m
an z n a n n e r . 1
7 ,
A O M C de n o tes the a n gle subte n ded a t the p o i n t M c o n

’ ’ ’ ’
jugate t o M by the c o esp i g

r r o n d n r a d ius o f the e it pupil
x -
an d if a ls o then t an
The pu pils o f an o ptic al system depe n d esse n ti ally as h as ,
been st ated o n the po siti o o the a i l bj ect po i n t M o n

,
n f x a o -
FIG 1 77 — C a se
. . of t wo en t r an c e -pp u il s .
which the in str um en t is fo cused In the diagr am (Fig 1 77 ) . .
I an d II r epr esen t a p air o f st o ps o r st o p-im ages a s seen

by an eye l o o kin g in t o the fr o n t e n d o f the i n st r um en t J oi n .
o n e e n d o f the di a m ete r o f o n e o f these o pe n i n gs by st r a ight
li n es with b o th en ds o f the diam eter o f the o the r O pe n i n g ;

a n d let the p o i n ts whe r e the st r a ight li n es c r o ss the ax is be
design ated by X an d Y The two ape r tu r es subten d equal

.
a gles
n a t these p o i ts an d he n ce if the o b j ect p o i n t M c o
n -
in cides with either X o r Y the en t r an ce-pupil o f the system

,
m ay be eithe r I o r II ; in fa ct fo r these t wo speci al p o siti o n s

,
o f M the r e will be t wo e n t r an ce -pupils a n d o f c o u r se als o
If the o b j ect -po i n t M lies between X an d

, , ,
t wo e xit -pupils .
Y the n in the c a se r epr esen ted in the figur e the O pen in g II

,
will subten d a sm aller an gle at M th an the o pen in g I so

406 Mir r o r s ,
th at the fo rm er will ac t as the e n tr an ce-pu p il But fo r an y .
o the r p o siti o n o f the ax i a l O bj ect -po in t M besides th o se

a b o ve m e n ti o n ed the o pe n i n g I will be the e n t r an ce -pupil .
1 3 7 Fi e l d of Vi e w
. . The limit atio n o f the aper tur es Of
-
the bu n dles o f e ffective r ay s is n o t the o n ly Office o f the

st o ps an d le n s fasten in gs On e o f their m o st im p o rt an t
.
fun ctio n s is t o defin e the exten t o f the o bj ect th at is t o be

r ep r o duced in the i n st r um e n t as h as bee n p o i n ted o ut in -
sever al sim ple illustr ati o n s in the e ar lier p ages o f thi s b o o k

(see 9 ,
16, 7 3 an d In the a dj o i n in g di agr am
i whe e the e t ce -pupil o f the s y ste m is r e r e
( g
F . r n r a n p
se n ted by the o pe n in g B C the o ther st o ps o r st o p im ag e s in the
,
-
o bj ect sp a ce a c t like cir cul ar win d o ws o r p o r t h o les th r o ugh

- -
which the r ays th at ar e dir ected fr o m the v ar i o us p arts of

the O bj ect t o w ar ds p o in ts in the o pen sp a ce o f the en tr an ce
pupil will h ave t o p ass if they ar e t o succeed in getti n g
thr o ugh the in st r um en t with o ut bein g i n te r cepted o n the
way E vide n tl y th at o n e o f these O pe n in gs which subte n ds
.
,
the sm all est an gle at the ce n ter O o f the e n tr an ce-pupil will

lim it the exte n t o f the field o f V iew in the Obj ect -Sp a ce This
i
O pe n in g whi ch is r ep r ese n ted in the figur e b y O H is c alled
the e n tra n c e p o t; an d the m ate r i a l st o p o r le n s r im which

- r -
is espo sible o it is c alled the fi e ld stop

r n f r -
Le t the st r aig ht li n e C H dr awn thr o ugh the upper ext r e m

ities of the di am eter s B C an d C H o f the e n tr an ce-pupil an d
e n t ran ce-po r t m eet the O ptic al axis in the p Oin t design ated
by L an d the fo cus -pl an e in the po in t design ated b y U If .
thi s str aight li n e is r ev o lved ar o u n d the axis o f the in stru

m e n t the p o in t U will desc r ibe a cir cle in the fo cus -pl an e
,
ar o u n d the axi a l O bject -p o i n t M as ce n te r ; a n d it is O bvi o us
th at an y p o in t in this pl an e within the cir cum fer e n ce o f t hi s

cir cle o r i n deed an y Obj e ct -po in t c o n t ain ed i n side t he
, , ,
c o ni c al sur fa ce gen er ated b y the r evo lutio n o f the straight

lin e p assin g thr o ugh C an d H m ay se n d r ays t o all p ar t s
,
O f the e n t r an ce -pupil which will n o t be i n te r cepted an y
wher e in the in str um en t Thus the en tir e apertur e Of t he

.
,
§ 137 ] F i e ld of Vi ew 407
e t n r ance pupil will be the c o mm o n b ase o f the c o n es o f e f

-
.
f e c t iv e r ays e m an ati n g fr o m s o ur ces which lie wit hi n this

r egi o n o f the Obj ect sp a ce
- .
En t r a n c e
FIG 1 7 8 — Fie l d of v
ie w of p t ic a l y ste m o n s i de O f ob j d e t e rm in e d
pp p
. . O s e ct,
b y the en t r an c e - u il an d the en t r a n c e- o rt .
Again the str aight li n e OH d r awn thr o ugh the ce n te r o f

,
the e n tr an ce-pupil a n d the upper edge O f the en tr an ce-po r t

will ete i e a sec d li iti g p o i t V in the fo cus pl an e
d r m n o n m n n -
which is far ther fr o m the O ptic al axis th an the fir st p o in t U ;

408 Mi r r o r s ,
an d in c a se Of Obj ect -p o in ts lyin g in the fo cus-pl an e betwee n

U a n d V the secti o n s O f the bu n dles o f e ff ective r ay s m a de
by the pl a n e o f the e n t ran ce-pupil will h ave ar e as th at ar e
c om pr ised between the en tir e ar e a Of the O pen in g o f the
e t a ce pupil an d h alf th at ar e a ; an d thi s will be t rue like
n r n —
wise with espect r t o a l l th o se po i ts in the O bj ect sp a ce th at

n -
ar e c o n t a i n ed betwee n the t wo c o n ic al su r f a ces ge n e r ated
by the r evo luti o n o f the st r aight li n es C H an d OH ar o un d

the axis o f sym m etr y Such p o in ts will n o t li e o utside the
.
field o f View but altho ugh they c an utili z e m o r e th an h alf

,
the o pen in g o f the e n t r an ce -pupil they ar e n o t in a po sitio n

,
t o t ake a dvan t age o f the e n tir e o pe n i n g .
Fi n all y the st r a ight li n e B H dr aw n t hr o ugh the l o wer

,
edge o the e t a ce pupil an d the upper edge o f the en tr an ce

f n r n -
p o r t which c r o sses the o ptic al axis at the p o in t m ar ked J

, ,
will determ in e an extr em e p o in t W in the fo cus -pl an e whi ch

is m or e r em o te fr o m the axis than the p o in t V ; an d it is evi
den t fr o m the figur e th at Obj ect —p o in ts in the fo cus -pl an e
which li e in the an n ul ar sp a ce between the t wo cir cles de
sc r ibed ar o un d M as cen ter with r adii MV an d MW ar e ~
even m or e u n fav o r ably situated for se n din g r ays in t o the

en tr an ce -pupil bec ause the y c an n o t utili z e as m uch as h alf
,
o the pupil o pe n i n g
f - In f a ct the eff ective r ays which c o m e
.
,
fr om the far thest p o in t W p ass thr o ugh the cir cum fer en ce
o f the pupil an d an y p o i n t lyi n g bey o n d W wi ll be wh o ll y
,
i n visible th at is en tir ely o utside the field o f View o f the

, ,
in str um e n t .
Thus we see th at the fo cus -pl an e is divided i n t o z o n es b y

,
th r ee c o n cen t r ic cir cles o f r a dii MU MV an d MW Obj ect ,

.
p o in ts lyi n g in the i n ter i or cen tr al z o n e sen d their light

thr o ugh the e n t r a n ce pupil witho ut let o r hi n dr an ce o n the
-
p ar t Of the fi e ld-st o p ; so th at this is the b r ightest p ar t o f

the field But in the two o uter z o n es ther e is a gra du al f ad
.
in g aw ay O f light u n til we r e a ch fi n a lly the b o r de r o f c o m plete

d ar kn ess The t hr ee r egio n s o f the field o f View in the O bj ect
.
s pa ce ar e usu ally defin ed b y the an gles 2 7 1 2 7 an d 2 7 2 , ,

§ 138] Le n s an d E ye 409
wh o se ver tices ar e o n the O ptic al axi s at the po in ts L O an d ,
J r espectively ; so th at 7 1 = £ SLH 7 = £ SOH an d 7

, , 2
A SJ H If the
. r a dii o f the e n t r a n ce -pupil an d e n tr an ce
po r t ar e den o ted by p = OC an d b SH an d if the dist an ce ,
o f the e n t r an ce pupil fr o m the e t r a ce p o r t is de n o ted b y

- n n -
c = SO the n ,
b b +p
t an
'
yl
-
,
t
C C C
The field View in the im ge sp a ce is deter m in ed in like

of a -
m an n e r The i m.age o f the e n t r an ce -p o r t O H with its cen ter

at S whi ch is p r o duced by the e n tir e O ptic al s y ste m is the
, ,
exit-po r t G H with its cen ter at S ; an d by p r i m in g all the

’ ’ ’
letter s in the expr essi o n s ab o ve a sim il ar system o f equ ati on s

will be Obt ain ed fo r defin i n g the thr ee r egi o n s 27
’
G en er ally
,
an d o f the field o f V ie w in the i m age -sp a ce .

,
the edge o f the fiel d is c o n si der ed as determ i n ed b y the c e n

t e r O f the pupil th at is by the an gle 2 7 in the o bj ect -sp a ce
, ,
an d the an gle 2 7 in the i m age -sp a ce

’
.
1 3 8 Fiel d o f Vie w of Syste m C o n si stin g o f a Thin Le n s

.
an d th e Eye —
A sim ple but ve r y i n st ructive illust r ati o n o f
.
the pr in ciples expl ain ed in the fo r ego i n g sectio n is affo r ded

by an o r din ar y c o n vex len s used a s a m agn ifyin g gl ass In .
o r de r t o O bt a i n a vi r tu al m ag n ified i m age with a le n s o f

,
this kin d the dist an ce o f the gl ass fr o m the O bj ect m ust n o t

,
ex ceed the fo c al len gth o f the le n s a n d the n when the im age ,
is Viewed thr o ugh the gl a ss the i r is o f the Obser ver s eye ,

’
will a ct as the aper tu r e-st o p o f the system n o m atte r wher e ,
the eye is pl a ced pr o vide d the di am eter o f the pupil o f the

,
eye is less th an th at o f the len s as is p r a ctic ally n e ar ly al

w ays the c ase Mo r e o ve r sin ce the pupil o f the eye is the
,
.
,
c o mm o n b ase o f the bun dles O f r ays which c o m e t o it fr om

the v ar i o us p arts o f the i m age it is the e xit -pupil o f the ,
system an d its i m age in the gl ass is ther efo r e the e n tr an ce

, , ,
pupil If the eye is pl a ced o n the axis o f the le n s bet wee n

.
the len s an d its sec o n d fo c al p o in t (Fig the en t r an ce .
pupil will be a virtu al im age o f the pupil o f the eye an d will

41 0 Mir r or s ,
lie the s am e side o f the len s as the eye ; if the eye is pl a ced
on
at the sec o n d fo c a l p o i n t O f the gl a ss the e n t r a n ce -pupil will

,
be at in fin it y (see an d fi n all y if as r ep r ese n ted in

, , ,
— Fi e l d O f v h v
ie w o f t in c o n e x l e n s w e n t h e h
F IG 179
p ey e
. .
is b e t w e e n t h e l e n s an d it s se c o n d f o c al l a n e .
Fig . 1 80,the eye is pl a ced at a po i n t 0 beyo n d the sec o n d ’
fo c al p o in t o f the c on vex len s O H the cen ter o f the en tr an ce

,
pupil will be at a p o in t 0 o n the s am e side o f the len s as the

o bj ect M Q The dist an ce between the eye an d the sec o n d
.
fo c al po i n t o f a c o n vex len s used as a m agn ifyin g gl ass is

n eve r ver y g r e a t a n d c o n seque n tly the dist an ce O f the c e n
, , ,
t e r O O f the e t rn a n ce pupil fr o m the fir st fo c al p o i n t is r el a

-
t iv e ly alw ays quite l ar ge The r im O f the gl ass a cts as the

.
fi e l d—st o p an d it is at the s am e ti m e b o th the en tr an ce-po rt

,
an d the e xit -p o r t o f the syste m ; an d he n ce the field o f view
exp o sed t o the eye in the i m age -sp a ce is e n ti r el y an alo g o us

t o the field which w o uld be see n by a n eye l o o ki n g th r o ugh
a ci r cul ar win do w o f the s am e fo r m di m e n si o n s a n d po siti o n
‘
as the le s n Si ce the e it p o r t is r ep r ese n ted he r e a s bein g

n
. x -
§ 1 38 ] Le n s an d Ey e 41 1
at a c o n sider able dist an ce fr o m the e it pupil the field o f x -

,
view wil l a p pe ar vign etted th at is the b o r der will n o t be

, ,
sh ar ply o utlin ed but the field will fade o ut im per ceptibly

,
1 80 — Fi e l d h v h p
y p
FIG . . O f V ie w o f t in co n le n s w e n the
ex eye is l ac e d
be on d the se c o n d f o c a l la n e .
t o war ds the e dges If the di am eter o f the len s is den o ted

.
by 2 b an d if the dist an ce o f the eye fr o m t he len s is den o ted

,
by c AO then t an 7
= ’
,
= — b / c whe r e
’
The ,
e xten t o f the field as m e asur ed by the an gle 2 7 is in de p e n ’
de t f the si e the pupil f the eye If t e c pl an e

f h f -
‘
n o z o o o u s .
c o in cides with the fi r st fo c al pl an e o f the m a gn ifyi n g gl ass ,
the di am eter o f the visible po r ti o n O f the o bj ect will be 2g
In c o m po un d m icr o sc o pe o r in an ast r on o m ic al telesc o pe

a
the Ob j ect -gl a ss pr o duces a r eal i n ve r ted i m age o f the o bj ect ,
an d thi s i m a ge is m a gn ified by the O cul ar which is esse n ,
t ially a c o n ve r ge n t o ptic a l syste m o n the o r de r o f a c o n ve x

len s used as a m a gn ifyi n g gl a ss In the i n te r i o r o f the in .
st rum en t between the O b j ect -gl a ss a n d the o cul ar at the ,
pl a ce whe e the r e a l i m age is c ast by the Object gl ass

r —
,
ther e is usuall y in ser ted a m ate r i al st o p which cuts O ff the ,

41 2 Mirr o r s ,
ra gged edge o f the field o f view so th at o n ly the cen t ral ,
p o r ti o n which sen ds c o m plete bu n dles o f r ays th r ough the

i n str u m e n t is visible t o the eye .
In the D utch telesc o pe the O cul ar is a dive r ge n t O ptic al

system which m ay be r epr esen ted in a di agram b y a c on
’ '
F S
— y p p
O c u l ar s st e m O f G A LILE O s t e l e s c o e r e r e se n t e d in t h e dia
y
’
F IG 181
h v h
. .
D i ag r a m s o w s h o w t h e r a s , a ft e r
g r a m b y a t in c o n c a e l e n s
hv p h h j pp
.
t h e O b e c t -g la ss , e n t e r t h e
j
a in g a sse d t r o u g u il o f t h e o b se r v
v
.
p
In e r t e d im a g e o f dist a n t o b e c t in t h e o b j e c t-g l a ss o f t h e
’
er s eye B C
’ ’
.
t e l e s c o e is f o r m e d a t M Q ; M Q is t h e im a g e o f M Q in t h e o c ul a r
’ ’
j
.
O H is t h e im a g e o f t h e r im O f t h e O b e c t g la ss in t h e o c ul ar
’ ’ - ’ ’
C is
. B
t h e im a g e O f B C in t h e o c ul ar .
c ave len s (Fig 1 8 1 ) which is pla ced between the Obj ect
.
glass an d the r e al i m a ge O f the o bj ect in the o bj ect -gl ass ;

so th at so far a s the o cul ar is c o n ce r n ed this i m age is a v ir ,
tu al o bj ect sh o wn in the figur e by the li n e-segm en t MQ

,
.
The eye in this c ase is usuall y a djusted ver y cl o se t o the

c o n c ave le n s The pupil o f the e ye is r epr ese n ted in the
‘
figu r e by the o pen i n g B C with its ce n ter o n the axis at O

’ ’ '
its i m age in the len s is B C Her e als o just as in the c ase o f

.
,
a c o n ve r ge n t O cul ar the pupil o f the e y e will a c t as the e x it

,
pupil un less the di am eter o f the len s is so s m all th at the

len s -r im itself per fo r m s this Office The i m a ge o f M Q is .
M Q whi ch l at ter will be e r ect if M Q is i n ve r ted an d sin ce

’ ’
'
M Q is always i n ve r ted in the si m ple telesc o pe the fi n al ,
i m a ge in the D utch telesc o pe is e r ect In the c a se o f the .
D utch telesc o pe the rim Of the o cul ar le n s d o es n o t lim it

139 ] C hie f R y
a s 41 3
the field o f view but this is lim ited by the rim o f the o bj ect
,
gl ss hich is the e t ce po rt o f the telesc o pe He n ce

a ,
w n r a n - .
,
the im age O f the O bject -gl ass in the o cul ar is the exit po r t
5
-
“
.
This im age (c alled the eye r in g- 1 9 ) is r ep r ese n te d in ,
the dia gram by the o pe n in g O H with its ce n ter o n the ’ ’
a x is a t S The o bj ect-po in t Q as sho wn in the figu r e is

’
.
, ,
just at the edge o f the fiel d bec ause the i m a ge-r ay c o m in g,
fr o m Q whi ch is dir ected t o wa r ds the ce n ter O o f the exit

’ ’
pupil is m a de t o p ass thr o ugh the edge o f the exit-po rt (7 ’
A
13 9 . T he C hi e f R a y s —
E ve r y
bun dle o f eff ective r ays
e m an atin g fro m a po in t o f the o b j ect c o n t ain s o n e r ay which
i n a ce r t ai n se n se is the ce n t r a l o r r ep r ese n t ative r ay o f the
c o n figu r atio n an d which m ay the r efor e be distin guishe d as

the chief r ay (see The r ay which is e n titled t o this
p reem in en ce is evide n tly th at o n e whi ch in t r ave r sin g the
m e diu m in which the a pe r tu r e -st o p lies p a sses th r o ugh the
ce n te r K Of this sto p If the o ptic al syste m is fr ee fr o m the
.
so c alled abe r r ati o n s

-
, b o th sphe r ical an d ch r o m atic (as is
,
a ssu m ed in the p r ese n t discussi o n ) the chief r ay o f the

bun dle m ay als o be defin ed as th at r ay which in the o b j ect
,
sp a ce p asses thr ough the cen ter O o f the e n tr an ce-pupil ;

but the fi r st defin itio n is p r efer able bec ause it is a pplic able
t o a ctu al a s well a s t o ide a l O ptic al syste m s .
The t o t ality o f the chief r ays c o m in g fr o m all p a rts o f the

o bj ect c o n stitute the r efo r e a h o m o ce n t r ic bu n dle o f r ays
, ,
in the m edi u m whe r e the a pe r tu r e-st o p lies a n d these r ays ,
pr o ceed e xa ctly as th o ugh they had o rigin ated fr o m a lu

m i n o us po in t a t K .
If the pe tu e st o p is ver y n ar ro w c o m p ar able say with

a r r -
, , ,
the d im e n sio n s o f a pin -h o le the a per tu r es o f the bun dles O f

,
e ffective r ays will be c o rr esp o n din gly s m all ; an d in the li m it

whe n the o pe n i n g in the st o p m ay be r ega r ded as r educed t o
a m e r e p o i n t a t its ce n te r K the r ay -bu n dles will h a ve c o l
,
l a pse d in to m e r e skelet o n s so t o spe ak e a ch o n e r ep r ese nted

, ,
b y its chief r ay It is bec ause the chief r ays are the las t
.
41 4 M irr o r s ,
sur vivo r s o f the ray-bun dles th at it is p ar ticul arly im po r

t an t in n early all O ptic al pr o blem s t o i n vestigate the pro
c e du r e O f these m o r e o r less ch a r a cte r istic r a ys ;
1 40 Th e .s o c all e d
- B l ur -Cir c l e s (o r C ir c l e s o f Dif
f us i o n ) in th e Sc r e e -
n P1an e — N o w if the c ar din al p o i n ts O f
.
the O ptic al syste m ar e a ssign ed the i m age-r elief c o r r espo n d ,
in g t o a th r ee — di m e n si o n a l O bj ect m ay be c o n st r ucted po i n t
by po in t a cc o r di n g t o the m eth o ds which h ave been e x
,
pl ain ed But as a m atte r Of fact the im age pr o duced b y

.
, ,
Sc r e e n
FIG 1 82 —D i a r am h o wi n how obj e c t-r e lie f d im a g e -r e l ie f
p p pp p ro
. .
g s g an are
p vy
j e c te d i n f o c u s- l a n e a n d s c r e e n - l a n e f r o m t r a n c e - u il d e x it
pp h p
en an
u il , r e s e c ti e l ; a n d t h e b l ur c ir c l e s i n t e se lan e s .
an ptic a l i n str u m en t in ste a d o f bein g left as it wer e

O , , ,
fl o atin g in sp a ce is a l m o st i n var iably r eceived o n a sur fa ce

,
o r sc r ee n o f s o m e k in d as fo r e xam ple the gr o u d gl a ss

n -
, , ,
pl ate Of a ph o t o gr a phic c am er a In c ase the im age is v ir .
tual a s in a m ic r o sc o pe o r telesc o pe it is in ten ded t o be

, ,
viewed by the eye l o o ki n g i n t o the i n str u m en t so th at her e ,
a ls o in the l a st an alysis the i m a ge is p ro j ected o n the sur
fa ce Of the r etin a o f the Obse r vin g eye This r eceivin g su r

“
.
fa ce is c alled tech n ic a l ly the sc r ee n whi ch affo r ds a ls o ,
an e x pl an a ti o n o f the n am e sc r ee n pl a n e
- 1 34) a s a pplied
t o the pl a e c o jug a te t o the fo cus pl an e
n n — .
In the di a g r am (Fig 1 82) t h e sc r ee n -pl an e is pl a ced at

.
.
1 40]
“B lur -C ir c le s ”
41 5
r igh t an gles t o the axis at the po in t m ar ked M which is ’
c o n jugate t o the a xi a l o bj ect po in t M so th at this po in t is

-
,
seen sh ar ply fo cused o n the sc r ee n E vide n tly h o weve r

.
, ,
the o ptica l syste m c an n o t be in f o cus fo r all the differ en t

po i ts o f the o b j ect r eli ef at the s am e tim e bec ause the
n -
,
sc r ee n pl an e is c o n jugate t o o n ly o n e t r an sve r s al pl an e o f
-
the o b j ect-spa ce n a m ely the fo cus -plan e pe r pe n dicul ar t o

, ,
the axis at M Thus fo r exam ple the r epr o ducti on O f a

.
, ,
s o lid o bject such a s a n exten ded view o f a lan dsc a pe o n the

gr o un d -gl ass pla te o f a cam er a is n o t an i m age at all in the
st r ict o ptic al sen se o f the ter m i n asm uch as it is n o t c o n
,
j ugate t o the e n tir e o b j ect with r espect t o the ph o to graphic

O b j ective .On ly such p o i n ts o f the O bj ect as lie in the fo cus
plan e will be r epr o duced by sh ar p cle ar -cut im age-po in ts
i the scr ee pl an e (as fo r e xam ple the p o i n t m ar ked 1 in
n n -
, ,
the figu e) ; whe e a s Obj ect po i n ts situ ated to o n e side o r

r r -
the o ther o f the fo cus -pl an e will be depicted m or e o r less in

disti n ctly o n the sc r ee n -pl an e b y s m all lu m in o us a r e a s which
a r e secti o n s cut o u t by this pl an e fr o m the c o n es o f i m a ge
r ays e m an ati n g o r igi n ally fr o m p o i n ts o f the O b j ect suc h as
th o se m ar ke d 2 3 in the diagr am These little p atches o f

.
li ght o n the scr ee n which ar e usu ally elliptic a l in fo r m a n d

,
, ,
wh o se dim en sio n s depen d o n o b v i o us geo m etr ic al fa ct o r s ,
such s the dia eter a d po siti o f t e it pupil etc

a m n o n h e x -
“
.
, ,
a r e the so -c a lled ci r cles o f di ffusi o n o r

”
b lur -ci r c les in ,
c o n sequen ce o f which det ails o f the im age as p r o jected o n

the scr een ar e n ecess ar il y i m p air ed t o a gr e ater o r less
degr ee .
It is a sim ple m atter t o r ec on st r uct the O bject -fi g ur e

which is o ptic ally c o n jugate t o this c o n figur atio n Of im a ge
“
p o in ts an d blur -ci r cles in the sc r een -pl an e which will
”
,
O bvi o usly be a si m il a r c o n figu r ati o n o f O b j ect -p o i n ts a n d

“blur -cir cles all lyin g in the fo cus-pl an e Mo r eo ver sin ce
”
.
,
the e it pupil is c o j ugate t o the e t ce pupil the c o n es

x - n n ra n -
,
o f r ays in the O b j ect -sp a ce c o r r esp o n di n g t o th o se in the
i m age-spa ce m ay be e asily c o n st r ucted b y t aki n g the po i n ts

41 6 Mir r o r s ,
Of the O bj ect elief as ve tices d the e t ce pupil as the

-r r an n r an -
c o mm on b a se o f these c o n es The tout en semb le o f the sec .
ti on s o f all these bun dles Of O bj ect-r ays m a de b y the fo cus

pl an e will eviden tly be the figur e in the o b j ect -sp a ce th at
c o r r esp o n ds t o the r epr esen t atio n o n the sc r een an d a o ,
c o r din g t o the theo r y o f O ptic al im ager y these t wo pl an e

“
c o n figur ati o n s will be sim il ar This vic ar i o us o bj ect in .
the fo cus-pl an e is s o m etim es c alled the pr oj ected cop y of the

obj e ct-re li ef bec ause it is Obt ain ed b y pr o j ectin g the p o in ts
,
O f the o bj ect fr o m the e n t r a n ce pupil o n the fo cus pl an e

- - .
1 41 Th e Pupil -C e n t e r s a s C e n te r s of Pe r spe c t iv e o f
.
O b j e c t Spac e an d I m ag e Spac e
- - —It h ar dl y n eeds t o be
“
.
p o i ted o ut th at t he blur cir cles which ar ise from this

n -
j
1 8 3 — Pr o e c t io n j e c t- p
p vy
FIG of Ob r e l ie f d im a g e -r e lie f in f o c u s- l a n e an d
p pp pp
. . an
sc r e e n - l a n e f r o m t h e cen ters o f e n t r a n c e - u il a n d e xi t - u il , r e s e c t i el .
m o de epr o ducin g a s o lid O b j ect o n a pl an e (o r cur ved)

of r
sur fa ce ar e due t o n o faults o f the O ptic al syste m itself but ,
a r e n ecess ar y c o n seque n ces o f the m o de o f r ep r ese n t a ti o n ,
h avin g their o r igin in fa ct in the o bj ect-spa ce b y vir tue O f

, ,
the pr o cess em pl o yed The o n ly p o ssible way o f dimin ish

.
in g o r eli m in ati n g the i n disti n ct n ess o r l a ck o f det ail in the

r ep r o ducti o n O f p ar ts o f the O b j ect th a t do n o t lie in the
fo cus-pl an e c o n sists in r educin g the diam ete r o f the a pe rtu r e

st o p o r in
“st o ppin g d o wn the in str um en t as it is c alled
”
.
, ,
§ 142 ] Dis t an c e of Ph o t o g r ap h 41 7
If the st o p-O pen in g is c o n t r a cted m o r e an d m o r e un til fin ally

it is n o l ar ge thr a n a fi n e p in -h o le the pupils li kewise will ,
te n d t o bec o m e m e r e po i n ts at their cen ter s O O (Fig ’
“
.
,
a n d the blu r -ci r cles b o th in the fo cus -pl an e a n d in the

”
sc ee pl an e will dim in ish in a r ea p ar i p assu an d ultim ately

r n -
c o ll apse als o in t o the po in ts whe r e the chief r ays cr o ss this

p air o f c on j ugate pl an es The po in ts m ar ked I II III .
, ,
etc whe e the chief ays belo gi g t o the O b j ect po in ts 1

,
. r r n n —
, ,
2 3 etc c r o ss the f o cus -pl an e an d which ar e the cen te r s o f

“
,
.
, , ,
the so c a lled blur cir cles in this pl an e ar e O bt ain ed

- -
”
, ,
the r efo r e by pro jectin g all the p o in ts o f the o bject fr o m the

,
ce te o f the e t ce pupil
n r n r a n - o n t o the fo cus pl an e
- This .
m o de O f r ep r esen tin g a th r ee -dim e n si o n a l O bject is h o weve r , ,
in n o wise peculi ar t o the O ptic al syste m itself but is the ,
Old fam ili ar p r o cess o f p e r sp ecti v e r ep r odu cti on by ce n t r a l
pr o jecti o n o n a pl an e Thus the pupil cen ter s O O ar e t o

.
,
-
,
’
be r egar ded as th e ce n ter s of p ersp ective o f the Obj ect -Sp a ce

an d i m a ge sp a ce r espectively -
,
.
1 42 Pr op e r D i stan ce o f Vi e win g a Ph oto g r ap h

.
—
These .
pr in ciples expl a in why it is n ecess ar y t o view a ph o to gr aph

at a ce r t ai n dist an ce fr o m the eye in o r de r t o o bt ai n a c o r
r ect i m p r essi o n o f the O b j ect which is depicte d Supp o se .

,
fo r e xam ple th at O O (Fig 1 84) design ate the ce n te r s o f

’
.
, ,
the pupils Of a ph o t o gr aphic len s an d th at an Object N R is ,
r ep r o duced in the scr een -pl an e by the per spective Co py

M Q wh o se si z e is o n e k t h o f th at o f the p r o j ecti o n M Q o f
’ ’
the b j ect the fo cus plan e No w if the pictur e is t o pr o

O i n - .
duce the s am e im pr essi o n as was pr o duced by the o rigin al

itself o n an o bser ver with his eye pl a ced at O the ph o t o ,
gr aph m ust be held in fr o n t o f the eye at a pl a ce P such th at

‘
the visu al an gle K OP which it subte n ds at the cen ter o f

r o t ati o n o f the eye sh a ll be equ al t o the an gle Q OM ; th at is ,
the dist an ce PO in the figur e m ust be equal t o o n e k th o f

the dist a ce o f the ce te o f the e t a ce pupil fr o m the
n n r n r n -
fo cus-pl an e o r PO = M O/h If (as is usu ally the c ase w . ith

a a dsc a pe le s ) the f o cus pl a n e is at i n fi n it y the n PO will
,
l n n -
,
41 8 Mirr or s ,
be e qu a l t o the fo c al len gth (f ) o f the O bj ective G en er ally .
spe aki n g we m ay say ther efo r e th at the c o r r ect dist an ce

, ,
fo r viewi n g a ph o t o g r a ph o f a dist an t o bj ect is e qu al t o the

,
fo c al len gth o f the o bj ective this dist an ce bein g m easur ed

,
FIG 1 84— C o rr e c t dist an c e

. . of v
i e win g ph oto g ra ph .
fr om the pictur e t o the cen ter Of r o t ati o n Of the o bser ver s ’
eye Acc o r din gly if the fo c al len gth is less th an the dis
.
,
t an ce between the n e ar p o in t o f the eye an d the cen ter o f '
r o t a ti o n
,
which in the c a se o f a n o r m al e mm e t r Opic eye o f
an a d o lesce n t is a b o u t 1 0 o r 1 2 c m it will be im po ssible t o
.
,
see the pictur e distin ctly with the n aked e y e an d at the sam e
ti m e un der the c o rr ect visu al an gle Mo r eo ver even if th e
.
,
fo c al len gth o f the ph o t o gr a phic len s wer e n o t less th an thi s

least dist an ce o f distin ct visi o n the eff o r t o f a cc o mm o d ati on
,
which the eye h as t o m ake in o r der t o fo cus the im age sh ar ply

o n the r eti n a u n de r the c o rr ect visu al an gle will supe r i n duce
an illusi o n whi ch will be di ffe r e n t fr o m the i m p r essi o n o f
r e ali t y whi ch it is the pu r p o se o f the pictu r e t o c o n ve y In .
the c ase o f a pho t o gr aph m a de by an Obj ective o f very short

fo c al len gth it is p o ssible i n deed t o m ake an e n l ar ged c o py
which m ay be viewed at t he c o r r ect dist an ce but thi s is ,
a lw ay s m o r e o r less t r o ubles o m e an d e x pe n sive Dr VO N . .
R O H R h as i n ve n ted an i n st r u m e n t c alled a v er an t which is

in gen i o usly design ed t o o v e r c o m e as far as po ssible the dif
fi cultie s ab o ve m e n ti on ed ; so th at viewed t hr o u g h this ap
§ 143] Pe r sp e c t iv e E lo n g a ti on of Im a g e 41 9
p ar atus the p ho t o gr a ph is seen m o r e o r less exa ctly as the

O b j ect a p p e a r ed .
1 43 Pe r s p ective E l o n gati on o f I m a ge
.
— If the sc r een .
plan e is n o t fo cused exa ctly o n the im age-po in t R (Fig ’

.
FIG 1 8
. 5 p v
— Pe r s
. e c ti e elo n g a t io n o f im a g e .
t his po in t w ill be sh o w the sc ee by a blu ci r cle n on r n r -
wh o se cen ter will be a t the p o in t Q which is the pr o j ecti o n ’
of R
’
fr o m the cen te r O o f the exit-pupil Le t e = L M ’
.
’ ’
de o te the dist a ce o f the scr ee pl an e M Q fr o m the i m age

n n n - ’ ’
pl an e L R wher e L M design ate the feet O f the p e r pe n

’ ’
,
’
,
’
di c ular s d r o pped fr o m R Q r espectively o n the a xis

’ ’
.
, ,
Fr o m the di a gr am we o bt a i n the p r o p o r ti o n
MQ / r
O
/
M /
O
/
M r
I !
LR OL
/ I
which m ay be wr itten
- e
) ,
wher e y
’
y =L
’
R
’
an d z
’
Mo r e o ve r si n ce ,
6 m ay be r eg ar ded as s m all in c o m p ar is o n with z we O bt ain : ’

,
e
y
’ —
y g a ppr o xim ately
2
.
,
The diff er en ce (y — y is the m e asur e Of the p er sp ective

’
e lon g a ti on du e t o i m pe r fect fo cusi n g .
If the exit pupil is a t i n fin ity the n R Q will be p ar allel

-
,
’ ’
t o the a xis a n d y = y ; an d u n de r these ci r cu m st an ces the

’ ”
,
per spective r epr o ducti o n in the sc r ee n pl an e will be O f the -
s am e si z e as the im age n o m atte r ho w m uch it is o ut o f fo cus

,
.
42 0 M irr o r s ,
1 44 T e l e c e n tr ic S
. yt
c o m m o n l ab o r at o r y use o f
s e ms — A
an o ptic a l i n st r u m e n t
is t o a scer t ain the si z e o f an in a c c e s
sible o r in t an gible Object fr o m the m e a sur ed di m en sio n s O f
its i m age as deter m in ed b y m e an s of a sc ale o n which the
p y : h v
1 8 6 — T e l e c e n t r ic O t ic a l s st e m C a se o f a t in c o n e x l e n s wit f r o n t h
p j
Fig
p p
. .
in fi r st f o c al lan e O b e c t r e r e se n t e d b y LR ; b lu r r e d im a g e
pp h p
st o .
M Q a e ar s O f t h e sam e siz e a s s ar im ag e L R
’ ’ ’ ’
i m a ge is pr o j ected ; but in gen er al un less the sc ale is exa ctly

, ,
in the s am e pl an e a s the i m a ge the r e will be a p ar all ax e r r o r

,
in the m e asu r e m e n t O f the i m a ge due t o its pe r spective

el on g ati on H o wever if the chief r ays in the im age—sp a ce
.
,
a r e p ar a llel t o the a x is which m ay be e ff ected by pl a ci n g the

,
pupil lies in the p r im ar y

a pe r tu r e -st o p so th a t the e n t r a n ce —
fo c al pl an e o f the i n st r u m en t as illust r ated in Fig 1 86 the

,
.
,
pe r spective el o n ga tio n v an ishes (g y = 0 as expl ain ed

— ’ "
,
in a n d c o n seque n tl y the im age y = L R will ap ’ ’

, ,
pear o f the s am e si z e as its p r o jectio n y = M Q n o m atter ’ ’ ’
whether it lies in the s am e pl an e as the sc ale o r n o t .
Si m il ar ly if the a pe r tu r e -st o p is pl a ced so th at the e n

,
t ce pupil is at in fi ity an d the e xit pupil lies the r efo r e in

r a n - n -
the sec o d ar y fo c al pl e the chief r ays i the Obj ect sp a ce

n a n n
,
-
will then all be p ar allel t o the O ptic al axis .
Syste m s o f this desc r ipti o n in which o n e o r o the r o f the

two p r o j ecti o n ce n t er s 0 O is at in fi n it y ar e said t o b e
’
,
1 44 ] Ke r a t o me t er 42 1
te lecen tr i c This is the p r in ciple o f n e ar ly all system s fo r

.
m icr o m ete r m e asu r e m e n ts o f O ptic a l i m a ges .
A sim ple illust r ati o n Of a device Of this ki n d th at is tele

ce n tr ic o n the side n ext the O b j ect is affo r ded by the o ph
t h alm ic in st r u m e n t c alled a k er a tom e ter which a s the n am e , ,
i m plies is in ten ded pr im ar ily t o m e a su r e the diam eter o f the

,
c o r e a o the app a e t diam eter o f the eye pupil It is used

5
n r r n - .
a ls o t o m e a su r e the dist an ce o f a c o rr ecti o n -gl a ss 1 4)

fr o m an am et r o pic eye which is an i m p o r t an t fa ct o r
in the p r esc r ipti o n Of spect a cles The in st r um en t c o n sists
.
essen tially o f a l o n g n ar r o w tube n ea r the m id dle Of which

is m o un ted a c on vex le n s o f lo w po wer a dj usted so th at its
,
sec o n d fo c al po in t F c o in cides exa ctly with the cen ter o f a

’
s mall a pe rtu r e in a m et al disk pl a ce d at the e n d o f the tube

wher e the Obser ve r puts his eye At the O pp o site e n d o f the .
tube a sc ale gr aduated in h alf-millim eter s is m o un ted so th at
E ye o f Le n s
Pe e 9 H o l e
Eg c o f Ob ser v er
S ca l e
FIG 1 8 7 — D iag r a m o f in st ru m e n t c a ll e d k e r a t o m e t e r a s u se d t o m e a su r e
.
p ,
.
t h e dist an c e o f s e c t a c l e g l a ss f r o m t h e c o r n e a of t he ey e .
its upper edge c o i n cides with a h o r i z o n t al di am eter o f the

tube at this pl a ce The upper p ar t o f this e n d o f the tube
.
is cut away in o r der t o a d m it sufficien t light t o illu min ate the

sc ale .
When the ker at o m eter is used t o m e asu r e the dist an ce

between the vert ex o f the c o r n e a an d the ver tex O f the c o r
r ecti o n gl a ss it is pl a ced with its
-
,
a x is a t r ight an gles t o the
-
lin e o f sight o f the p atie n t as r epr ese n ted in the di a gr am

,
( g
F i . the sc a le bein g b r o ught as n e ar as p o ssible t o
422 Mirr or s ,
the p atien t between his eye an d the spect a cle-gl a ss The .
dist a n ce AB t o be m e asur ed is pr o j ected o n the sc ale b y

r a ys th a t a r e p a r a llel t o the a xis o f the le n s so th a t whe n ,
the o bser ver l o o ks th r o ugh the i n st r um en t he c an r ea d Off

this dist a n ce o n the i m age Of the sc ale .
Pr a ctic all y the s am e p r in iple is e m pl o yed a ls o in B A DA L s

’
c
o p tom e ter f o r m e asu r in g the visu a l a cuit y o f the e y e It .
— p h p
p
B A DA L s o t o m e t e r , wi t
’
s e c o n d f o c al
’
o i n t (F ) of
v p
F IG . 1 88 .
j y
e x l e n s a t fi r st n o d a l o in t o f a t ie n t s e y e ; f o r m i n g in
’
h
con
c o n u n c t io n wi t t h e e y e a t e l e c e n t r i c s st e m .
c o n sists o f a sin gle c on vex len s m o un ted at On e e n d O f a l on g

gr a du ated b ar which is pr o vided with a m o va ble c ar r ier
h o ldi g a test ch ar t o f s o m e kin d If the len s which usu all y
n - .
,
h as a r efr a cti n g p o we r o f ab o ut 1 0 di o pt r ies is a djusted ,
ab o ut 9 c m in fr o n t Of the c o r n e a so th a t its sec o n d f o c al

.
p o in t F c o i n cides with the n o d al p o in t o f the eye (Fig

’
.
a r ay m eeti n g the le n s in a di r ecti o n p ar a llel t o the a xis w ill
e m er ge fr om it so as t o g o th r o ugh the n o d al p o in t o f the
p h p
p
— ’
t o m e t e r , w it se c o n d f o c a l
’
o in t (F ) O f
F IG .
v
1 89
. BA DA L s o
p a t i e n t s e y e ; f o rm i n g i n
j p y
’
a t fi r st f o c a l o in t o f
h
con exle n s
con u n c t io n wi t t h e e y e a t e l e sc o i c s st e m .
eye an d then ce t o the r etin a with o ut ch an ge O f dir ectio n .
Acc or din gly just as th o ugh a

,
n ar r o w a pe r tur e we r e pl a ced
Ch . XII] Pr o b l e m s 42 3
at the n o d al po in t o f the eye the si z e O f the r etin al i m a ge

,
will n o t be alte r ed whether the O b j ect o r ch ar t o n the b ar be

far o r n e ar ; whe r e a s the disti n ct n ess with which the det a ils
o f the O b j ect a r e see n w hi ch a ff o r ds the m e a su r e o f the Visu a l
a cui ty will depe n d o n the dist a n ce o f the o b j ect

,
.
,
An o ther m eth o d O f usin g thi s o pt o m eter is t o pl a ce the

len s a b o ut 2 c m far the r fr o m the eye a s sh o wn in Fig 1 89
.
, .
,
so th a t n o w its sec on d f o c a l p o in t lies in the an te r i o r f o c a l
pl an e Of the eye Un der these cir cu m st an ces an in cide n t

.
r ay p r o cee di n g p ar allel t o the a xis will e m e r ge fr o m the le n s
an d c r o ss the axis at the a n te r i o r fo c al p o in t o f the eye so ,
th at after tr aver sin g the eye-m edi a it wil l a gain be p ar allel

t o the a xis C o n seque n tly her e als o the im a ge fo r m ed o n
.
,
the r etin a will be Of the s am e si z e n o m atter whe r e the Ob j ect

is pl a ced o n the b ar in fr o n t o f the len s just a s if ther e wer e ,
a n arr o w st o p a t the a n te r i o r fo c al p o in t o f the eye In this .
l atte r a dj ust m ent the len s an d the eye t o gethe r c o n stitute

a n o ptic a l syste m which is te le ce n tr i c on b o th sides th at is , ,
a te lescop i c system
PR OB LE MS
1 A cylin d r ical tube 2 c m in diam ete r an d 1 0 c m l o n g

.
,
. .
,
is cl o sed at o n e e n d by a thin c o n vex len s o f fo c al len gth 4c m .
If this e n d Of the tube is p o in te d t o w ar ds a dist an t o b j ect ,
wh at will be the p o siti o n an d diam eter o f the en tr an ce

pupil ? An s 6 ; c m in fr o n t o f the le n s ; di am ete r 1 2? c m
. .
1
.
2 In the p r ecedi n g p r o ble m whe r e w o uld the o b j ect h a ve

,
.
,
t o be in o r de r th at the le n s itself mi ght a c t a s e n t r an ce
p u p fl?
An s In fr o n t o f the len s n o t m or e th an 20 o r less th an
.
,
4 c m a w ay . .
3 If in No 1 the o the r e n d o f the tube is cl o sed by a thi n

. .
eye -len s wh o se fo c al le n gth is such th a t whe n the c o m b in a

tio n is p o i n ted at an o b j ect 24 c m fro m the O b j ect gl ass the
.
-
,
bun dles o f r ays issuin g fro m the eye-len s ar e cyl in dr ic al fi n d ,

424 Mirr or s ,
Oh . XII
the p o siti on s o f the pupils o f the system an d the fo c al len gt h
o f the eye -le n s .
An s E n t r a n ce -pupil 6 c m in fr o n t o f o bj ect -gl a ss ;

. .
exit -pupil c o in cides with ey e -gl ass ; fo c al len gth o f ey e -gl ass ,
cm .
4 In
. the p r ecedin g pr o blem wh at will be the an swer s o n
the suppo siti o n th at the o bj e ct is 1 2 cm fr o m the O bj ect .
gl ass ?
A s E t r a ce pupil c o i cides with O bject gl ass ; e xit
n . n n - n -
pupil is eg c m beyo d eye gl ass ; fo c al len gth Of eye

n .
-
gl ass 4c m
5
.
,
. A r e al in ver ted im age Of an e xten ded O bj ect is for m ed

by the Obj ect -gl ass o f a sim ple a str on o m ic al telesc o pe in the
p r im ar y fo c al pl an e o f the eye-gl ass The fo c al len gths o f
.
the o bj ect -gl a ss an d eye -gl a ss ar e 2 feet an d i n ches r e ,
sp e c t iv e ly a n d thei r di am ete r s a r e 6 i n ches an d 1 i n ch

, ,
r espectively If the distan ce O f the O bject fr o m the o bj ect

.
gl a ss is 240 feet fi n d the p o siti on an d diam eter Of the e u

,
t r an ce po r t an d the diam eter o f the p o r ti o n o f the Obj ec t

-
th at is c o m pletely visible th r o ugh the telesc o pe .
An s .E n tr a ce p r t is
n - o feet fr o m O bject gl ass an d
-
,
its diam eter is feet ; diam eter Of visible po r tion of oh

j e ct
, feet .
6 A thi n c o n ve x le n s o f fo c a l le n gth 1 0 c m an d di am ete r

. .
4 c m is used as a m a gn ifyi n g gl a ss If an e y e a d a pted for

5
. . .
p ar allel r ays is pl a ced at a dist an ce o f c m fr o m the len s .

,
wh at will be the diam eter Of the p o r tion o f the o bj ect th at

c an be see n disti n ctly ? An s 8 c m . .
7 The di am eter O f a thi n c o n ve x len s is 1 i n ch an d it s

.
,
fo c al len gth is 1 0 in ches The len s is pl a ced m idw ay between

.
the eye an d a pl an e Obj ect which is 1 0 i n ches fr o m the eye .
H o w m uch o f the Obj ect is visible t h r o ugh the le n s ?

An s L; i n ch . .
C HAPTER XIII
O PT ICAL S Y ST E M O F T H E E Y E N IF YIN G PO WE R
. MA G
OF O PT IC A L IN S T R U ME N T S
14 5
. Th e H uman Ey The o r g an o f visi o n is c o m p o sed
e. —
O f the eye -b all whe r ei n the visu al im pulses a r e p r o duced b y

,
the im pa ct o f light ; the o ptic n er ve which tr an s m its these

excit ati o n s t o the b r ain ; an d the visu al cen ter in the b r ain
wher e the sen s ati o n o f visi o n c o m es t o c o n sci o usn ess .
The eye-b all (Fig 1 90) lyi n g in a b o n y s o c k e t o n a cushi o n

.
O f fa t an d c o n n ective tissue in w h ich it is f r ee t o tu r n in all

,
di r ecti o n s with little o r n o fr icti o n co n sists o f an al m o st ,
spher ical d ar k ch am ber filled with t r an sp ar en t O ptica l m edi a

,
which fo r m the O ptic al system o f the eye (Fig The .
o ute r p r o tecti n g e n vel o pe o f the eye -b all is the t o ugh w hi te ,
m e m b r an e c alled fr o m its h ar d n ess the scler oti c coa t o r sc ler a

“
, , ,
po pul arly kn o wn as the white o f the eye This O p a que .

”
m e m b ran e is c o n tin ued in fr o n t by a r o u n d o pe n i n g o r win

do w c alled o n a cc o u n t o f its h o r n y te xtu r e the c or n ea The
, ,
.
c o r n ea is beautifully t r an spar en t an d its m ir r o r like sur fa ce

,
-
fo rm s a slight pr o tuber an ce sh aped s o m ethin g like a w atch

gl ass o r a pr o l ate Spher o id In the in ter i o r o f the eye the
.
s cle r o tic c oa t is o ve r l a id with the d a r k -c o l o r ed chor oi d which

c o n t ain s the bl o o d -vessels th a t n o ur ish the eye an d als o a
l ayer o f b r o wn pigm en t a ctin g t o pr o tect the d ar k ch am ber
O f the eye fr o m di ffused light Behin d the c o r n e a lies the
.
a n ter i o r cha mb er filled with t r an sp ar e n t flui d c alled the
a queous humor . This an ter io r ch am ber is lim ited behin d the

i ri s
,
which ,
r ich in bl o o d -vessels i m p ar ts t o the eye its ch ar
,
a c t e r ist ic c o l o r . This is an O p a que scr een o r cur t ain which

c o n t ain s a cen tr al h o le the pupi l which is ci r cul ar in the
, ,
human eye The a pe rtur e o f a bun dle o f r ays e n ter i n g the

5
.
42
426 Mirr o r s ,
14
eye fr o m a lum i n o us p o in t in p r o p o r tio n t o the dim en sio n s

,
o f the eye is e n o r m o us a s c o m p a r ed fo r e xam ple with the

,
s am e m agn i tude in a telesc o p e :

, ,
a n d the O ffice o f the pup il is
sh i y
n
/
:h
A0 s uc
W 3
21 y
o ur
u 3ac
to sto p d o wn this a pe r tur e t o suit able pr o p o r ti o n s The .
pupil c o n tr a cts o r dil ates in vo lun t ar ily an d r egul ates the

qu an tity o f light th at is a dm itted t o the eye In the st r ue .
tur e o f the i r is ther e ar e t wo sets o f fiber s the c ir cul ar an d

,
5
14 ] H um an E y e
“
the r adi atin g ; when the cir cul ar fiber s c o n t r act ,
c on tra cts an d when the ra di atin g fiber s c o n t r a ct

, ,
dil ates In the fr o n t p ar t o f the eye the ch o r o id lin in g is

.
b o r der ed at the e dge o f the c o r n e a by a ki n d o f folded d r ape r y

the so c alled ci li ar y b ody whi ch is hidde n fr o m with o ut b e
-
,
428 Mirr or s ,
14
hin d the i r is an d which c on t ain s the delic at e syste m Of

m uscles which c o n t r o l the m ech an is m o f a cc o mm o d ati o n .
The crysta lli n e len s c o m po sed o f a per fectly t r an sp ar en t

subst an ce is in dir ectly att a ched t o the cili ar y b o dy by a
b an d which su rr o un ds the edge o f the len s like a r in g an d
which is disp o sed in r a dial fo lds s o m ewh at a fter the m an n er
O f a n eck -fr ill This b an d is the susp en sor y lig amen t o r zon ule
.
of Z i n n .The len s itself is d o uble c o n vex the p o ster i o r sur

fa ce bein g m o r e str o n gl y curved th an the an ter i o r sur fa ce
,
The subst an ce Of the len s c on sists O f l ayer s Of differ en t in

dices O f r efr a cti o n in cr ea sin g t o war ds the cen ter o r c o r e Of the
len s The en tir e sp a ce behin d the len s is filled with a t r an s
.
p ar en t j elly-like subst an ce c alled the vi tr eous humor which ,
h as the s am e i n de x O f r efr a cti o n as the a q ue o us hu m o r ,
n a m el y ,
The li ght -sen sitive r etin a lyin g o n the in side O f the ch or o id

is e x ceedin gly delic a te an d t r an sp ar en t In spite Of its .
‘
slight thickn ess which n o wher e ex ceeds mm the str u e .

,
tur e o f the r etin a is ver y c o m plic ated an d n o less th an t e n ,
l ayer s h ave been distin guished (Fig The l ayer n ext

.
the vitr e o us hum o r is c o m p o sed O f n er ve-fi b r e s spr e a din g

o u t r a di all y fr o m the o ptic n e r ve This l ayer is c o n n ected
.
with the fo llo win g l aye r c o n t ain in g the l ar ge g an gli o n o r

n e r ve -cells an d this in tu r n is c o n n ected by an a pp ar atus
,
o f fiber s a n d cells with the peculi r light sen sitive elem en ts

a -
o f the r eti n a the so -c a lled visu a l cells which fo r m the

,
“ h a e il
l ar y l ayer .These visu al cells c o n sist o f ch ar a cter istic
”
el o n g ated b o dies which ar e distin guished as r ods an d con es .
The r o ds ar e slen der cylin de r s while the c o n es o r bulbs ar e

,
s o m ewh at thicker a d flask sh aped They ar e all disp o sed

n - .
per pen dicul ar ly t o the sur fa ce o f the r etin a cl o sely p a cked ,
t o gethe r so as t o fo r m a m o s aic l ayer at the b a ck o f the

,
r eti n a .
N e ar the cen te r o f the r eti n a at the b a ck o f the eye a little ,
t o the te m p o r a l side is l o c a ted the ye llow sp o t o r ma c u la lutea ,
wher e the visu al cells ar e c o m po sed m o stly o f c on es This

,
.
5
14 ] H um an E y e 42 9
is the m o st sen sitive p ar t Of the r etin a especi ally the m in ute ,
pit o r depr essi o n at the cen ter o f this ar e a c alled the f ovea ,
c en tr a li s
,
which c on sists en tir ely o f c o n es den sely c r o wded
t o gether .
As c o m par ed with an artifici al o ptic a l in st rum en t the ,
1 .
Rh a b u t e 3 0k “
e ..
Qa m e .
J Ex t m h al
' Rg in er
F IG 1 9 2 — S t ru c t u r e
. . Of t he r e t in a o f the h u m an e y e .
fiel d o f view O f the i mm o bile eye is ver y exten sive am ou n tin g

5
,
t o ab o ut 1 0 l ate r ally an d 1 2 0 ve r tic ally The di am ete r

° °
.
o f the f ovea ce n tr a li s c o r r esp o n ds in the field O f visi o n o f the
eye t o an an gul ar sp a ce which m ay be c o ve red by the n ail

o f the fo r e fi n ge r e xte n ded at ar m s le n gth In this p art o f
’
.
the field visio n is so a cut e th at det ails o f an Obj ect c an be

430 M irr o rs , Pr ism s an d Le n se s I
§ 145
distin guished as sep ar ate p r o vided their an gul ar dist an ce is
n o t less th an o n e m i n ute O f ar c (c
f § 1 0) If the a pp a r e n t si z e
.
o f a n O bj ect is so s m all th a t its im a ge fo r m ed o n the r etin a a t
the f ovea cen tr a li s c o ver s o n ly a sin gle Vis u al cell the O bj ect ,
cea ses t o h ave an y a pp ar en t s1 z e a t all an d c an n o t be dis

t in g u ish e d fr o m a p o i n t The si z e o f the r etin al im age c o r r e
.
Sp o n din g t o an O bj ect wh o se a pp ar e n t si z e is o n e m in ute O f
ar c is fo u n d by c alcul ati o n f r o m the k n o w n o ptic al c o n st an ts
Of the eye t o be mm An at o m ic al m easur em en ts

.
give a sim ilar value fo r the diam eter o f a visu al cell .
The in ver ted im age c a st o n the r etin a o f the ey e h as been

c o m p ar ed t o a sketch which is r o ughly o utlin ed in the o uter
p ar ts but which is m o r e an d m o r e fin ely ex ecuted in t o war ds
,
the cen ter un til at the f ovea cen tr a li s itself the det ails ar e
,
ex quisitely fin ished Thus o n l y a c o m p ar atively sm all

.
,
p o r tion Of an exter n a l Obj ect c an be seen di stin ctl y b y the

,
eye at an y o n e m o m en t If all the p ar ts o f the field O f View

.
we r e p o rt r ayed with e q u al viv i dn ess at the s am e tim e an d

c am e t o c o n sci o usn ess at o n ce the spect at or w ou ld be c o m
,
p l e t e l y bewilde r ed a n d u n a ble t o c o n ce n t r a te hi s a t t e n ti on
o n a p ar ticul ar sp o t o r ph a se Of the O bj ect .
The en ds o f the r o ds n ext the ch o ro id c on t ain a c o l orin g

m atte r whi ch is sen sitive t o light the so -c alled vi sua l p ur p le
, ,
which is ble a ched white by e xp o sur e t o b r ight li ght but ,
which is r en ewed in d ar kn ess by the l ayer o f cells lyin g b e

twee the ch id
n o r o a n d the etir n a The light distur b an ce
.
—
ar r ivin g at the r eti n a pe n et r a tes it as far as the b a c ill ar y
laye r o f r o ds an d c o n es an d the stim ulus is t r a n sm itted b a ck

,
thr o ugh the in ter p o sed a pp ar atus t o the l ayer Of n er ve

fib e r s an d then ce c o n ducted t o the op ti c n e r ve in c o mm un i
c ati o n with the b r a in .
N o t far fr o m the cen te r o f the r etin a a little t o the n asal

,
side the ptic er ve pie ces the eye b all thr o ugh the scler a
,
o n r -
an d ch o r o id . Her e the r et in a is in ter r upted so th at an y light ,
which falls o n the o ptic n er ve itself c an n o t be per ceived .
Thi s is the pl a ce Of the so c alled bli n d sp ot (pu n ctum cre c um)

- -
§ 1 46] Op ti c al C on s t t an s of Eye 31
Of the eye C o r r esp o n di n g t o the ar e a o f the blin d spo t

.
,
ther e is a g ap in the field o f visi on o f the eye am o un tin g t o

a b o ut 6 h o r i z o n t ally an d 8
°
ve rtic ally The dim e n sio n s O f
°
.
the b lin d spo t ar e gr ea t en ough t o c o n t ain the r etin al im

a ges O i eleve n full m o o n s pl a ce d side by side The O ptic .
n e r ve le a ves the eyeb a ll th r o ugh a b o n y c an a l a n d p a sses
then ce t o the v isu al ce n ter o f the b r ain .
The m o bili ty O f the eye is pr o duced by six m uscles the ,
four r ecti an d the t wo o blique m uscles (Fig The r ecti

.
o r ig in ate in the p o ste r i o r p art o f the s o cket an d a r e a tt a ched
by their te n do n s t o the scler a so as t o m o ve the eye up o r

d o wn an d t o the r ight o r left The pr o cedur e o f the o blique
.
m uscles is m o r e c o m plic ated The super i o r Oblique whi ch

.
,
a ls o ar ises in the p o ste r i o r p ar t o f the s o cket p asses in t h e ,
fr on t Of the eye thr o ugh a l o o p o r kin d o f pulley lyi n g o n

the upper n as al side o f the s o cket an d the n tur n s d o wn war ds
t o att a ch itself t o the scle r a The in fe r i o r o blique m uscle h a s
.
its o r ig o the fr o t l o wer n as al side o f the eye s o cket

in n n -
,
a n d p a sses t o the p o ste r i o r su r fa ce o f the eye -b all bei n g at ,
t a c h e d t o the scle r a o n the te m p o r a l si de The super io r o h

.
lique tur n s the eye d o wn wa r ds an d o utwar ds an d the in fe r i o r ,
O blique tu r n s it upw ar ds a n d o utw ar ds .
The m o t o r m uscles o f the t wo eyes a c t t o gether so th at

b o th eyes tur n alwa ys in the s am e sen se t o the right o r t o ,
the left up o r d o wn It is i m p o ssible t o turn o n e eye up

, .
a n d the o the r d o wn a t s am e ti m e so a s t o l o o k up t o the

,
sky with o n e eye an d do wn at the e ar th with the o ther .
1 46 O pti c al C o n stan ts o f th e Eye

.
— The op ti ca l axi s o f the
.
eye m ay be defin ed as the n o r mal t o the an ter i o r sur fa ce o f

t
the cor n e a which g o es th r o ugh the ce n ter o f the pupil This .
li n e p asses a pp r oxim ately thr o ugh the ce n te r s o f cur vatu r e

O f the r efr a cti n g sur f a ces .The schema ti c eye (see 1 30) is
a ce n te r ed syste m o f sphe r ic a l r efra cti n g su r fa ces sy m m et r ic
with r espect t o the o ptical axis The po in t wher e the O ptic a l

.
a xi s m eets the an te r i o r su r f a ce O f the c o r n e a is c alled the
corn e a ver tex o r a n ter i or p ole o f the e y e an d is design ated

432 Mir r o r s ,
Pr ism s an d Le n se s 146 \
by A ; an d the p o in t wher e the o ptical axis m eets the r etin a

is c alled the p oster i or p ole o f the eye an d is design ated by B .
In GU LLS TR A N D s sche m atic eye the dist an ce fr o m A t o B

’
is equ al t o 24 m m ther efo r e s o m ewh at less th an an i n ch

.
, .
The m o t o r m uscles Of the eye a ctin g in p a i r s tu r n ,
the eye b all ar o un d ax es O f r o t ati o n whi ch all pa ss th r o ugh

-
a fi x ed p o i n t o r piv o t c a lled the c en ter of r ota ti on o f the eye
an d desig n a ted by Z This p o in t m ay be c o n si der ed as

.
lyin g al so o n the o ptica l axis in the m edium o f the vitr eo us

hum o r ab o ut 1 3 o r 14 mm fr o m the ver tex Of the c o r n e a o r
.
ab o ut mm beh in d the pup il Al l the ex c ur si o n s o f the

.
eye ar e per fo r m ed ar o un d this p o in t .
The Obj ect p o in t which is sh ar ply im aged o n the r etin a at

5
-
the f ovea cen tr a li s 14 ) is c alled the p oi n t of fixa ti on an d the ,
str aight lin e which j o in s the p o in t Of fix ati o n with the cen t r e

o f r o t ati o n is c alled the li n e of fixa ti on This lin e in dic ates .
the dir ecti o n in which the eye is l o o kin g The fi eld of fi xa .
ti on is m e a su r ed by the gr e atest a n gul ar dist an ce th r o ugh

which the lin e Of fixati o n c an be tur n ed ; which am o un ts t o
ab o ut a r ight an gle b o th ve r tic ally an d h o r i z o n t ally .
In GU LLS T R A ND S schem atic eye as was sh o wn In

’
, 1 30 ,
the pr im ar y fo c al p o in t F lies in fr on t o f the eye at a dis

t an ce o f m m fr o m the an ter i o r ve r te x O f the c o r n e a
.
,
whi le the sec o n d ar y fo c al po in t F lies o n the o ther side o f’
the c o r n e a at a dist an ce o f mm The p r i n cip al p o i n ts.
(H H ) lie in the a que o us hum or slightl y beyo n d the c o r

’
,
n e a syste m at dist a n ces AH = + 1 34
5
5
8 mm . .
,
mm . Thus the fo c al len gths ar e : f + 1 7 0 mm f . .

’
mm the r a ti o b e tfve e n the m bein g equ al t o

.
which is ther efo r e the value o f the in dex Of r efr a ctio n (n ) ’
O f the vit r e o us hu m o r Acc o r din gly the r efr a ctin g p o wer

.
,
O f GU LLs r R A N D s sche m atic e y e is F dp t r The

'
’
.
n o d a l p o i n ts (N N ) lie cl o se t o the p o ste r i or ve r te x O f the

’ '
cr yst allin e len s o n O pp o site sides o f it at the fo llo win g dis

, ,
t an ces fr o m the ver tex Of the c o r n e a :AN = + 7 O7S m m . .

,
AN + 7 3 3 2 mm The str aight lin e whi ch j o in s the p o in t

.
147] A c c o mm o da io n t of t h e E ye 433
Of fixatio n with the an ter i o r n o d al p o in t o f the eye is c alled

the vi sua l axi s It is p ar allel t o the str a ight li n e which j o in s
.
the po ste r i o r n o d al po in t with the f ovea ce n tr a li s Sin ce the .
n o d a l p o i n ts ar e so cl o se t o gethe r fo r m an y p r o ble m s c o n
,
n e c t e d with the eye they m ay be r eg ar ded a s c o i n ci de n t ; s o
th at then the visu al axis m ay be defin ed as the lin e dr awn

fr o m the po in t o f fixati o n t o the f ovea cen tr a li s The visu al .
ax is m eets the c o rn e a a little t o the n a s al side o f t h e an te r i o r
ver tex an d slightly ab o ve it fo r m in g with the O ptical axis an

5
,
a n gle betwee n 3 a n d
° °
The ab o ve values ar e all given fo r the p assive un a c c o m m o ,
d ated eye By the a c t o f a cc o mm o d ati on the p o siti o n s o f

.
the fo c al p o in ts p r in ci p al p o in ts an d n o d al p o in ts ar e all dis

,
pl a ce d an d a cc o r din gly the fo ca l len gths an d the r efr a cti n g

,
p o wer o f the eye c an be var ie d within cert ain lim its de p en d

in g o n the p o we r o f a cc o m m o dati o n as will be e xpl a in ed in ,
the fo ll o wi n g secti o n .
1 47 Acc o mm o dati o n o f th e Eye — Whe n the eye is at r es t

. .
,
as whe n o n e g a z es pe n sively i n t o Sp a ce it is a d a pted f o r f ar ,
A w ay/ u n o
1 93 — A c c o m m o da t io n h um a n
y
of the
FIG
h
. . eye
in dic a t in g h o w t h e c r st al lin e l e n s is d
v v
c an g e
f r o m f ar i sio n t o n e a r isio n .
visio n so th at in o r der t o see disti n ctly o bjects which ar e cl o se

,
at h an d a n e ff o r t h as t o be m a de whi c h will be g r e ate r in

,
34 Mir r or s ,
Pr ism s an d Len se s 148
pr o p o r tio n as the o bj ect fix ed is n ear er t o the eye This pr o c .
e ss whe r eby the n o r m al eye is e n abled t o f o cus o n the r eti n a
in successi o n sh ar p i m a ges o f o bj ects at d iff e r en t dist an ces

is c a lled accommoda ti on an d it is this m ar velo us a d apt
,
a bilit y o f the hu m an eye t o gethe r with its m o bility which

, ,
per h a ps m o r e th an a n y o ther qu ality e n titles it t o super ior

ity o ver the m o st per fectly c o n st r ucted artifici al o ptic al in
stru m e n t s . The p o wer o f a cc o mm o d atio n is a chieved b y
ch an ges in the for m o f the cr yst allin e len s c o n sistin g chi efly,
in a ch an ge in the c o n ve x ity o f t he an te r i o r sur fa ce p r o duced ,
th r o ugh the m ech an is m o f the ciliar y m uscle Acco r din g .
t o the ge n e r a lly a ccepted the o r y so l o n g as the eye is p a ssive

,
the el astic subst an ce o f the len s is held fl atten ed in fr o n t b y

,
the suspen s o r y ligam en t ; but in the a ct O f a cc o m m o d ati on

the cili ar y m uscle c o n t r a cts an d this is a cc o m p an ied b y a
,
r el ax ati o n o f the lig am e n t o f the le n s which is ther eb y

,
per m itted t o bulge fo r war d by vir tue o f its o wn el a sticit y

Fi
( g .
1 48 . Far Po in t N e ar Po in t Of
an d The f ar p oin t
th e Eye —
O f the eye (p un c tum r emotum) is th at p o in t (B ) o n the a xis

which is sh ar ply fo cused at the p o ster i o r p o le Of the eye
when the cr yst allin e len s h as its lea st r efr a ctin g p o we r ; it
is the p o in t which is seen distin ctly when the a cc o m m o d atio n
is en tir ely r el axed On the o ther h an d the n ear p oi n t (o r
.
,
p u n c tu m p r o xi m u m ) is th a t p o i n t (P ) o n the a x is which is
seen distin ctly when the c r yst allin e len s h as its gr e a test r e
fr a ct in g p o we r th a t is when the a cco m m o d atio n is e xer ted
, ,
t o the ut m o st . The r egio n o f distin ct visi o n withi n which an

O bj ect m ust lie in Or de r th at its i m a ge c an be sh ar ply fO
c u se d o n the r eti n a o f the n a ked eye is c o m p r ised betwee n
t wo c o n ce n t r ic S phe r ic a l su r fa ces the far p o in t S phe r e an d

,
the n ear p o in t sphe r e desc r ibed ar o un d the ce n ter o f r o

,
t at ion o f the eye (Z ) with r a dii equ al t o Z R an d Z P r e ,
sp e c t iv e ly. If the far po in t lies at in fin ity a s is the c a se in the

,
n o r m a l eye the f a r p o i n t sphe r e is ide n tic a l with the in fi n itely
a s r ep r esen t ed in Fig
,
dist an t pl an e o f sp a ce (cf . 1 94; .

149] Pr e sb y o p ia 43 5
whe r e a s the n e ar p o in t spher e will be r e al an d a t a fin ite
dist an ce in fr o n t o f the eye In such a c a se the eye c an be
.
dir ected t o war ds an y p o in t in the field o f fixati o n 1 46 )

lyi n g o n o r bey on d the n e ar p o in t spher e an d a cc o m m o d ate
FIG 1 9 4— R e g 1 0n
. . o f a c c o m m o da t ion o f e p
m m e t r o ic
‘
eye .
itself t o see this po in t distin ctly In a n e ar -sighted eye b o th

.
far p o in t an d n e ar p o i n t a r e r e al p o i n ts lyi n g at fi n ite dis

t an ces in fr o n t Of the eye ; but the far p o in t o f a far-Sighted
“
eye is a vir tu al po i n t lyin g at a fi n ite dist an ce behi n d the
eye an d he ce an u aide d fa sighted eye c an n o t see dis
,
n n r -
t in c tly a r e a l o b j ect with o ut e xe r ti n g its a cc o mm o d ati o n t o

a g r e ate r o r less deg r ee .
1 49 D e c r e as e o f th e Po w e r of Ac c o mm o dati o n wit h
.
In c r e a s i n g Age The fa culty O f a cco m m o datio n is gr e atest

.
—
in y o uth a n d di m i n ishes r a p idly with a dv an cin g ye ar s .
The n e ar po in t Of the eye gr a du ally r ecedes far ther an d f ar

ther a way which is c o mm o n ly supp o sed t o be due t o a p r o
,
g r e ssiv e di m in uti o n o f the el a sticity O f the c r yst a lli n e le n s .
Thus at the ages o f 1 0 2 0 a n d 40 ye ar s the p un ctum p r oxi

, , ,
mum O f a n o r m a l eye a cc o r din g t o D O N DE R S is in fr o n t O f

, ,
the eye at dist an ces fr o m the pr i m ar y p r in cip al p o in t equ al

to 1 0 an d cm r espectively
.
, Whe n the n e ar p o i n t
.
h as r et r e ated t o a dist an ce o f 2 2 c m so th at it is n o l o n ge r
“
.
,
p o ssible t o r e a d o r wr ite o r do n e ar wo r k c o n ve n ie n tly ”
with o ut the a id o f spect a cles the c o n diti o n o f p r esb yopia

,
o o ld a g e visi o n h a s begu n t o set in

r - Me an ti m e while the
.
,
36 Mir r or s ,
Pr ism s an d Le n se s 1 0 5
p o wer o f a cc om m o d ati o n of the eye thus c o n tin u ally dim in
ishes as the n ear p o in t r ecedes far ther an d farther a way ,
the po sitio n o f the far p o in t r em a in s pr a ctic ally fixed un til

well a fter m iddle life ; but between the a ges o f an d 60 5
5
year s it t o o begin s t o sep arate far ther fr o m the eye an d ,
ther e after b o th the n e ar p o in t an d the far po in t t r avel o ut

war ds al o n g the axis Of the eye the fo r m er ho wever c o n , , ,
st an t ly g a i n in g o n the l atte r ; u n til a t l a st in e x t r e m e Ol d a g e

.
the n ear p o in t a ctu ally o ver takes the far po in t an d fro m ,
th at tim e un til de ath they r em ain t o gether the p o wer o f ,
a cc o m m o d a ti o n h a vi n g bee n e n ti r ely l o st B o th p o in ts ar e .
displ a ced al o n g the axis always in the s am e dir ecti o n th at is , ,
O pp o site t o th at o f the i n cide n t light Fo r e xam ple the far

5
5
.
,
p o in t o f a n o rm al eye is in fin itely dist an t up t o ab o ut

year s o f ag e wher e as t e n year s later a ccor din g to D O ND E R S
, , ,
this po in t will be ab o ut 1 33 c m beh in d the ey e h avin g .

,
m o ved o ut th r o ugh in fi n ity so t o spe ak an d a pp r o a ched

the eye fr o m behin d At the s a .
g me
a
,
g e n am ely 6 ye ,
ar s
,
,
5 ,
the n e ar p o in t will also be behin d the eye at a dist an ce o f

5
400 c m At 7 ye ar s o f a g e the t wo p o in ts will be t o gether
.
a t a dist a n ce o f cm behi n d the eye Var i o us the o r ies

. .
h ave been a dvan ced t o a cc o un t fo r the sen ile r ecessi on o f

the far p o in t o f the eye It is pr o b ably due t o a c o m bin a
.
~
ti o n o f c auses p ar tly t o a ch an ge in the for m o f the len s pr o

,
du c e d by the i n c r e a sed r esist an ce o f the e n vel o pi n g c oat o f

the eye-b all an d the dec r e ased pr essur e Of the surr o un din g
tissue a d p ar tly als o t o se ile ch a ges the le s subst an ce
n n n in n —
“
,
itself wher eb y the t o t al in dex o f the len s is lo wer ed in

”
v alue
5
.
1 0 C h an g e of R e fr ac tin g Powe r in Ac c o mm o datio n

. .
It wa s r e m ar ked a b o ve 1 46 ) th at the p o siti o n s O f the c ar

di n al p o in ts o f the O ptic a l system o f the eye ar e all alter ed
in the a c t o f a cc o mm o d ati o n Thus fo r exam ple in G ULL
.
, ,
S T R A N D S sche m a tic eye which is c alcul a ted f or a n a do l e s

’
,
cen t yo uth the n e ar p o in t is at a dist an ce AP

,
cm .
from th e v er t ex of t h e co r n e a ; an d for t hi s st at e of maxi

5
1 1] Amp li tu d e of Ac c o m m o da ti on 437
mum cc o m m o d atio n the po sitio n s O f the fo c al po in ts

a an d
prin cip al po in ts ar e fo un d t o be as fo ll o ws :
AF mm .
,
AF mm .
,
AH : mm AH mm
’
.
:
,
an d, a cc or din gly the fo c al len gths

,
an d the r efr a ctin g po wer
:
5
ar e
mm F = + 7 0 7 dp t r
’
f = mm .
, f = .
,
.
It will be O bser ved th at whe r e as the fo cal po in ts h ave un

,
de r g o n e c o n side r able displ a ce m e n ts fr o m thei r p o siti o n s in

the passive eye the c o rr es p o n din g displ a cem en ts o f the
,
pr in cip al po i n ts ar e less th an h alf a m illim eter ; an d Sin ce in

mo st physio lo gical m easu r em en ts half a m illim eter is within
the lim it o f e r r o r we c an usu ally affo r d t o n eglect alto gether
,
the a cc o m m o d ative displ a cem en t o f th e p r in cipal po in ts o f

the eye th at is we m ay r egar d the p o siti o n s o f the p rin ci
, ,
p a l p o i n ts H H a
, s p r a ctic
’
ally fi x ed a n d i n depe n de n t o f
the st ate o f a cco mm o d ati o n This is o n e r e aso n am o n g .
,
o the r s why the pr in cip al p o in ts o f the eye h ave super

,
se de d the o the r c ar din al p o i n ts as p o in ts o f r efe r e n ce Their .
pr o xi m ity t o the c o rn e a is an o ther a dvan t age in as m uch as ,
m e asu r e m e n ts r efe rr ed t o the m a r e e a sily r el ated t o an e x

ter n al visible a n d t an gible p o in t O f the eye In the SO
“
.
,
c alled r educed eye which c o n sists o f a sin gle Spher ic al

,
”
r ef r a cti n g su r fa ce sep ar ati n g the o utside a ir fr o m the vit r e
o u s hu m o r a n d so pl a ced th a t its ve r te x lies at the p r i m ar y
pr i n cip al po i n t o f the sche m atic eye the t wo pr in cip al p o in ts ,
a r e in fa ct c o i n ci de n t with e a ch o the r o n the su r f a ce o f this

, ,
sim plified c o r n e a
5
.
1 1 Am pli tu de Of Acc o mm o dati o n

.
- The f o r p oi n t di s .
tan ce (a ) an d the n e a r p oi n t di sta n ce (b ) a r e the dist an ces o f

the far p o in t an d n e ar po in t r espectively m e a su r ed fr o m , ,
the pr im ar y p r in ci p al po i n t o f the eye ; thus a = H R b , ,
H P ; it bein g t a citly a ssu m ed he r e th a t the p o siti o n o f the

p o in t H r em ain s sen sibly st ati o n ar y du r i n g a cco mm o dati o n ,
a s wa s e xpl a i n ed a b o ve E a ch O f these dist an ces is t o be

.
r eck o n ed n eg ative o r p o sitive a cc o r di n g a s the p o i n t in q ues

438 Mir r o r s ,
Prism s an d Le n ses 1 1 5
tion lies in fr on t Of the eye o r behi n d it r espectively The ,
.
r ecip r o c als o f these m a gn itudes n am ely A = 1/a B = l / h

, , , ,
a r e te r m ed the sta ti c r ef r a cti on (A) o r the r efr a cti o n O f the

,
eye when the a cco mm o d ati o n is c o m pletel y r el axed an d the ,
dyn a mi c r ef r acti on (B ) o r the r efr a cti o n o f the e y e whe n

,
the a cc o m m o dati o n is exer ted t o the highest degr ee If the .
dist an ces a an d b ar e given in m ete r s the r ecipr o c al m agn i ,
tudes will be exp r essed in di o pt r ies as is gen er ally the c a se ,

.
The r an g e of a ccommodati on is defin ed t o be the dist an ce

o f the n e ar p o in t fr o m the f ar p o in t th a t is RP = b a ; , ,
-
wher e a s the a mp li tude of a ccommodati on is the value Obt ain ed

b y subt r a ctin g algebr a ic ally the m a gn itude o f the d yn ami c
r efr a cti o n fr o m th a t o f the st atic r efr a cti o n thus ,
Am plitude o f Ac c o mm o dat io n A B = — .
I m agin e a thin c o n vexlen s pla ced in the p r im ar y p r in cipal

plan e o f the eye with its axis in the s am e lin e as the o ptic al
axis o f the eye an d o f such st r en gth th at it p r o duces at the
,
far p o in t o f the eye an im a ge O f the n e ar p o in t ; a cc o r d in g t o

the a bo ve defin iti on the am plitude o f a cco mm o dation o f
,
the e ye is equ al t o the r efr a ctin g p o wer o f this len s Fo r e x .
am ple ,
in the n o r m a l eye at 3 0 ye ar s o f ag e a = cc b ,
cm .so th at the a m plitude o f a cc o mm o d ati o n in thi s

,
c a se am o u n ts t o 7 dpt r ; wher e as at 60 ye ar s o f ag e a =
.
+ 200 c m .
,
b = — 2 00 c m a n d he n ce the am plitude Of a o
.
,
co mm o d ati on will h ave been r educed t o 1 dpt r .
The dist an ce fr o m the sec o n d ary p r in cip al po in t (H ) t o ’
the p o steri o r p o le (B ) wher e the O ptical axis m eets the r etin a

m ay be r egar ded a s a m e a su r e o f the len g th o f the eye-axis ,
especi ally sin ce the p o sitio n o f H is sen sibly in depen den t ’
o f the st a te o f a cc o mm o d ati o n a s h as bee n e x pl a in ed ,
If thi s dist an ce is den o ted b y a th at is if we put a

,
’ ’
, ,
H B an d if als o we put whe r e n den o tes the

’ ’
,
in dex o f r efr a cti on o f the vit r eo us hum o r then we m ay wr ite : ,
A +F ,
’
A
wher e F den o tes her e the r e tr a ctin g po wer Of the pass1v e ,
un a cco mm o d ated eye Sim il ar ly if the symb o l F is e m

.
, a
5
1 3] E mm e t r op a ani d A m e tr o p i a 43 9
ployed den o te the r efra ctin g po wer o f the eye

to in its st ate
o f m axim um a cc o m m o d ati o n we sh a ll h ave ,
’
A B + Fa .
C o n seque n tly , we m ay also say th at the po wer Of a c c o m m o

d ati o n (A B ) is equ al t o the differ e n ce (F F ) between
— —
a
the gr e atest an d le ast values o f the r efr a ctin g po wer o f the

eye
5
.
1 2 Var i o u s Expre s s i o n s f o r t h e R e f r a cti on o f t h e Eye

. .
— The r e r a cti on o the e e in a give n st ate o f a cc o mm o da

f f y
ti o n is m e asur ed by the r ecip r o c al o f the dist an ce fr o m the
eye O f the a xi al o b j ect -p o in t M fo r which the e ye is a ec o m
m o da t e d Thus if u = H M x = FM de n o te the dist an ces O f
.
, ,
M fr o m the p r i m ar y p r in cip al p o i n t an d the p r i m ar y fo c a l

p o in t r espectively the m agn itudes U = l /u an d X = 1/x
, , ,
usu ally e xpr essed in di o pt r ies ar e the m e asur es o f the p rin ,
c ip al p o in t r efr a cti o n an d the fo c al p o i n t r efr a cti o n The

r el ati o n betwee n U an d X m ay be give n in te r m s o f the r e
.
fr a ctin g p o wer Of the eye (F ) when it is a cc omm o d ated for

the Obj ect -p o in t M as fo ll o ws,
F X
U
F X
—
.
X F U
F+U
.
If an ar bit r ar y p o in t O o n the axis o f the eye is selected

a s the p o in t o f r efe r e n ce a n d if we put OM = z the r e fr a c
, ,
ti o n o f the eye r eferr ed t o the p o in t O will be m ea su r ed b y

, ,
Z = 1 /z If the dist an ces O f the p o in ts H a n d F fr o m O a r e

.
den o ted by b an d g th at is if b = OH g = OF then Si n ce

, , , ,
we c an Obt ain a ls o the fo ll o win g useful r e

lat io n s betwee n U X a n d Z in te r m s o f b an d g
X
,
U
Z
1 — (b — g ) X
’
1—b Z .
Z U
’
1 —
g Z I+ ( b —
g) U
X
.
5
1+ b U . 1+ g . X
1 3 . E mm etr o pi a Am etr opi a Wh e n the st atic r e
an d
—
fr a cti o n of the eye is e qu al t o z er o th at is when ,

440 Mir r or s ,
Prism s an d Le n se s
the farp o i n t (R ) is in fin itel y dist an t the eye is s aid t o be ,
emme tr op i c If in the e qu atio n A A + F we put A = O

.
’
, ,
we O bt ai n A = F which the r efo r e m ay be s aid t o be the

'
,
c o n diti o n o f e mm etr o pi a Her e F de n o tes the r efr a ctin g

.
p o wer o f the eye when a cc o m m o d ati o n is en tir el y r el axed .
In e m m et r o pi a the r efo r e the sec o n d f o c al p o i n t (F ) o f

’
, ,
the p assive eye lies on t he r etin a at the po s teri or p o le (B ) ;
FIG 1 9
. 5
— D iag r am o f e mm e t r O p ic e y e .
so th at in a p assive e m m e tr Opic eye in ciden t p ar allel r ay s

ar e c o n ve r ged t o a f o cus o n the r etin a a s r ep r ese n ted in
Fig 1 9
. 5
a d the le gth O f the eye axis is a
n ,
n - —
f The
,
’ ’
.
n o r m a l p o siti o n o f the f ar p o i n t is t o be r eg ar ded a s a t in
fi n ity ; an d in thi s se n se an e mm e t r Opic e y e is a n o r m al e ye ,
a lth o ugh st r ictl y spe a ki n g an e mm e t r O pic eye m ay at the

, ,
sam e ti m e be ab n o r m a l in v ar i o us w ays .
On the o the r h a n d if the st atic r efr a cti o n o f the eye is

,
d iff er en t fr o m z er o (A 0) th at is when the far p o in t (R )

96 , ,
is n o t in fin itely dist an t the eye is s aid t o be am etr opi c

,
Thus the c on ditio n Of a metr opia m ay be s aid t o be ch ar a c

,
t e r iz e d b y the f a ct th at the r efr a ctin g p o we r (F ) O f the

un acc om m o d ated eye is n o t equ al t o A which is e q ui v a ’
,
len t t o s ayin g th at the len gth o f the eye-axis (a ) is n u m er ’
ic ally di ffe r e n t fr o m the v alue o f the sec o n d fo c al le n gth

(f In o the r w o r ds the sec ,
o n d f o c a l p o i n t (F ) O f a n
’
am et r o pic eye in a st at e O f r ep o se d o es n o t fall o n the r eti n a .
T wo gen e r a l divisi o n s o f a m et r o pi a a r e distin guished de

pen din g o u whether the f ar p o in t (R ) lies o n o n e side o r the
,
§ 5
1 3] My o p i a an y
d H p erm e t r op a i 441
other o f the p r im ary p r in cip a l po in t (H ) Thus if A < O .

, ,
th at is if the far p o in t lies at a fin ite dist an ce in fr o n t o f the

,
eye the am etr o pi a in this c a se is c alled myop i a (Fig

, .
In a m yo pic eye in a st ate o f r ep o se the sec o n d f o c al p o in t
F IG 1 9 6 — A m e t r o ic
. . p ey e :m y o p ia .
(F
’
) lies in f r o n t o f the r eti n a (in the vit r e o us hu m o r ) so ,
th a t p ar a llel i n ciden t r ays will be b r o ught t o a fo cus b e

fo r e r e a chi n g the r eti n a On the o ther h an d if A > O the
.
, ,
far p o i n t will lie at a fi n ite dist an ce bey o n d (o r behi n d ) the
FIG 1 9 7 — A m e t r o i c
. . p eye :hyp e r m e tr o p ia .
eye ,
this fo r m O f a m etr o pi a is kn o wn as hyp er metr op ia
an d
( g
F i . In a hype r m et r o pic eye i n a st a te o f r ep o se the
sec o n d fo c al po in t (F ) falls bey o n d the r etin a so th at in
’
,
e ide n t p ar allel r ays a rr ive a t the r eti n a bef o r e c o m i n g t o a
fo cus A m y o pic eye c an n o t fo cus fo r a dist an t o bject with

.
o u t the aid O f a gl a ss a n d it l a cks the r efo r e an i m p o r t an t

,
p ar t O f the c a p a city o f an e m m etr o pic eye On the o ther .
h an d a hyper m etro pic eye m ust m ake an e ffo r t Of a e c om

,
m o dat io n e a ch tim e in o r de r t o fo cus o n the r eti n a the i m age

442 Mir r o r s ,
Pr ism s an d Le n ses
Of a r a e l o bj ect ; which fr eque n tly pr o duces var i o us t r o ubles ,
s om etim es ver y an n o yin g Acc o r din gly b o th c o n diti o n s

.
,
in cluded u n der the gen er al n am e o f am etr o pia ar e disad

v a n t ag e o u s fo r p r a ctic a l visi o n .
The o r etic ally am et r o pia m ay be c o n side r ed as due t o

,
so m e a b n o r m alit y in the v alues o f o n e o r o f b o th o f the m ag
n it u de s de n o ted b y A an d F o n which the v a lue O f t h e

’ ’
st atic r efr a cti o n (A) depen ds ; SO th at the fo llo win g c ase s

a r e p o ssible
()1 The le n gth O f the e y e -b all

(a ) m ay be t o o gr e at
’
( a x i a l m yo pi a a
,
’
f or t oo s m all (axi a l hype r m etr o pia ,
a
’
wher ea s the r efr a ctin g p o wer (F ) is n o r m al This .
,
b y far the m o st c o mm o n type is kn o wn a s a xi a l a me tr opia

,
.
()2 O n the o the r h a n d while

,
the le n gth o f the eye b
— all
m ay be n o r m al the m a gn itude o f the r efr a ctin g p o wer (F )
,
m ay be ab n o r m all y gr e a t o r s m all In ge n er a l this f o r m o f

.
,
a m et r o pi a which is c o m p ar a tivel y r ar e is due t o ab n o r m a l

, ,
cur vatur es o f the r efr a ctin g sur fa ces (cur va tur e ametr opi a) .
Or the i n dices o f r efr a cti o n o f the e y e -m edi a m ay h a ve ah

n o r m al v alues (i n di ci a l a me trop i a ) Her e als o m ay be m e n
.
t io n e d the c o n diti o n kn o wn a s a p ha ki a p r o duced b y the

extr a cti on o f the cr yst allin e len s in the o per atio n fo r c at ara ct .
()3 F in a lly
,
it m a y h a ppe n th a t the r ef r a cti n g p o we r a nd
the len gth o f the eye b all ar e b o th a b n o rm al In fa ct these .

,
t wo a n o m a lies m ight e x ist t o gethe r in e xa ctl y the degr ee

n ecess ar y t o c o u n te r a ct e a ch o the r SO th at in S pite O f it s
, ,
ab n o r m alities the eye in such a c a se w o uld be e m m et r o ic

, p .
In the c a se O f axi a l a m et r o pi a the r el ati o n betwee n the

,
st atic r efr a ctio n (A) an d the len gth (l) o f the eye-b all is
given b y the fo llo win g fo r m ul a
!
n
l AB AH + ;
A+F
an d if the values fo r G ULLST R A ND S schem atic eye ’
146 )
ar e substituted in this fo r m ul a it m ay be wr itten as fo llo ws
,
5
1 3
l= — §i m illi m ete r s .
A + 8 64 .
5
]
1 4 C o rr e c ti on E y e -Glasse s 443
Acc o r di n g t o this fo rm ul a the len gth o f the eye var ies fr o m

,
a b o ut m m in e xt r e m e a xi a l hype r m et r o p i a (A
.
+ 1 0 dp t r ) t o a b o ut
. m m in c a se o f the highest degr ee
.
O f axi a l m yo pi a (A : — 20 The len gth O f a n axially

e mm etro pic eye (A = O) is mm The len gth o f G ULL .
F IG . 1 98 — C ur v h
e S o win g c o n n e c t io n b e t we e n t h e l e n g t h of
the e y e -a x is a n d th e s t a t i c r e f r a c t io n
.
STRA ND S sche m atic eye is

’
mm a n d he n ce this eye .
,
h a s 1 dp t r o f hype r m et r o pi a (A = + 1
. The a c c o m
p an yin g diagram (Fig 1 9 8) exhibits gr a phic ally the r el a ti o n
.
between the m agn itudes den o ted by l an d A The heights .
o f the o r d in ates i n dic a te the a x i a l le n gth o f the eye b all in -
mi lli m eter s fo r values O f the st atic r efr a cti o n o f the eye c o m

p r ised between 20 an d + 1 0 di o pt r ies
—
5
.
1 4 C o rr e ction Eye -Gl a sse s

. When a spher ic al spect a cle
.
-
len s is pl a ced in fr o n t o f the p assive un a cc o m m o d ated eye , ,
with the axis o f the len s in the s am e st r aight lin e a s the o pti
c al axis O f the eye the r e will be a ce r t ain a xi al p o i n t M wh o se
,
Im age in the le n s will f all a t the far p o i n t o f the eye ;

(R )
a n d he n ce the eye l oo ki n g th r o ugh the le n s will see disti n ctly
the im age Oi an Obj ect pl a ced at M If the p o siti on s o f the .

444 Mir r or s ,
p r in cip al p o i n ts of the len s ar e design ated b y H1 an d H1

’
a n d if we put
U1 U+ F 1 ,
’
=
whe r e F den o tes the r efr a ctin g p o we r Of the len s Le t the

1 .
dist an ce o f the pr im ar y pr i n cip al po in t (H ) O f the eye fr o m

the sec o n d ar y pr in cip al p o in t (H ) o f the len s be den o ted l
’
by c th at is c H H ; then sin ce a u1 c wher e a de

,
=
, 1
’
= — ’
,
n o tes the far p o i n t dist an ce o f the eye the fo llo win g e x ,
p r essi o n fo r the st atic r efr a cti o n m ay be de r ived

imm ediately °
U1 + F1
1
In c se the i l o bj ect p i t M is in fi n itely far aw ay the

a ax a - o n
,
len s is c alled a corr ecti on g lass bec ause it en ables the p as

-
,
sive am et r o pic eye t o see distin ctly a ve r y dist an t Obj ec t

o n the ax is o f the le n s S O th at t o this e x te n t the le n s in te r
,
p o sed in fr o n t o f the eye en do ws it with the ch ar a cter isti c

fa culty Of an un a cc o mm o d ated n aked e mm e tr O pic eye , ,
.
The c o n diti o n th at M sh a ll be i n fin itely dist an t is U1 = 0;

an d he n ce the r el a ti o n betwee n the st atic r efr a cti o n o f the
eye an d the r efr a ct in g p o wer o f a c o rr ectio n —gl as s is given as

fo ll o ws :
F1 A
1— c . F1 1+ c A.
If the dist an ce c between the c o r r ecti o n -gl as s an d the eye is

n eglected e n ti r ely then F 1 = A th at is the p o wer o f the
, , ,
c o rr ecti o n -gl a ss is appr o xim ately equa l t o the st atic r e fr a c

ti on o f the eye The dist an ce 0 which m ust be expr essed
.
,
in m ete r s in c as e the m a gn itudes den o ted by F 1 an d A ar e

given in dio pt r ies is a lways a c o m p ar atively s m all m agn i
,
tude which in a ctu al spect a cle gl a sses is c o m pr ised between

m so th at if with o ut n e g lectin g c en tir ely
,
an d .
, ,
§ 5 V t
1 4] er ex R e fr a c ti on of Sp e c t a c le Le n s 44 5
we n eglect o n ly the sec o n d an d highe r p o wer s ther e o f the ,
fo r m ul ae ab o ve m ay be wr itten in the fo llo wi n g c o n ven ien t

a pp r o xi m ate fo r m s :
which fo r n e ar ly all pr a ctical pur p o ses will be fo un d to be

suffi cien tly a ccur ate .
F IG 1 9 9 — C o rr e c t io n
. of m yp
o ia wit h c on ca v p
e s e c t ac l e -g l ass .
The c o n ditio n th at a specta cle-le n s Sh all be a c o rr ectio n

gl ass m ay be ex pr essed si m ply by s ayi n g th at the secon d f oca l
the g la ss m ust coi n ci de (R ) of
’
p oi n t ( 1
F f
o wi th the f a r p oi n t
the eye . Thus ,
in c sea of a m yO pic eye the c o rr ecti o n - glass
FIG 2 00 — C o r r e c t io n
. Of hy p e rm e tr o p ia wit h v p
con ex s e c t ac l e -g l ass .
will be c o n c a ve (Fig 1 99) an d in c ase o f a hy pe r m e tr O pic

.
eye it will be c o n vex (Fig .
I n ste a d o f desc r ibin g the p o wer o f a spect a cle gl ass by

m e an s o f its r efr a ctin g p o we r it is r e ally m o r e c o n ve n ie n t
,
a n d l o gic a l t o e xp r ess it in te r m s o f its v er tex r ef r ac ti on (V) ,
as defi n ed in 1 28 If the ver tex o f the le n s which lies n ext

.
the eye is design ated by L a n d if the dist an ce o f the eye fr o m

,
the gl ass is de n o ted by k th at is if we put k = LH the n , , ,
si n ce the p o i n ts design ated b y F 1 an d R m ust be c o i n cide n t

,
'
,
446 M ir r o r s Pr ism s
,
an d Le n se s
v =a +h, whe r e a
“
den o tes the b a ck fo cus of the len s that
,
is ,
v= an d he n ce :
V
1 —h . V
or a ppr o xim ately
V= A (1
It m ay be seen fr o m the ab o ve fo r m ul ae h o w the po wer o f a
c ecti o gl a ss depen ds essen tially o n the l o c atio n o f the
o r r n -
gl ass in fr o n t o f the eye The dist an ce k bei n g r efer r ed t o a

.
,
t an gible ex ter n al p o in t o f the gl a ss is m or e e asily m e asur ed

, ,
th an the i n ter va l den o ted b y c

5
5
.
1 . Visual An g l e The app ar en t siz e Of an o bj ect as

— .
,
was e x pl ai n ed in 1 0 is m e a sur ed b y the vi su al an gle 0)

,
which it subten ds at the eye ; thus if the ve r tex o f this an gle ,
is design ated by O an d if y = M Q den o tes a di am eter o f the

O bj ect at r ight a n gles t o the li n e O f visi o n the a pp ar en t Si z e ,
O f the O bj ect in the di r ecti o n O f this di m e n si o n is w A M OQ .
Acc o r din gly if the dist an ce o f the O bject fr o m the ey e is de

,
n o ted b y z th a t is if z = OM the n t an w = y/z

, ,
As the im
,
.
m o bile eye l o o kin g in a fi xed di r ecti o n c an see distin ctl y

o n ly th at c o m p ar atively s m all p o r ti o n o f the O bj ect wh o se
im age falls o n the sen sitive p ar t O f the r etin a in the im m e di

at e vici n ity O f the f ove a ce n tr a li s the r ays c on cer n ed
in the p r o ducti o n O f the r eti n al i m age in this so -c alled c ase
of
“ in dir ect visi o n m ay be r egar ded as p ar axia l r ays A c
”
.
c o r din g ly the v a lue o f the a n gle (0 in r a di an s m ay be sub

,
stituted he r e fo r the t an (0 so th at we m ay wr ite ,
0) y/Z yZ)
wher e Z = l /a On the assum pti o n th at y is r ecko n ed as
.
po sitive a n egative v alue o f the an gle w i n dicates th at the

,
O bj ect is r e a l an d the r efo r e in fr o n t o f the p o in t O whe r e the
eye is supp o sed t o be .
The exa ct m e an in g t o be att a ched t o the visual an gle (0

wil l depen d o f c o ur se o n the pr ecise lo c at ioh with r espect
, ,
t o the eye O f the ve r te x o f this an gle T ci be su r e so l o n g as .

,
the O bject is quite r em o te fr o m the eye as is Often the case , ,

1 5
5
] Vi su a l An g le 447
it will n o t gen er ally be n ecess ary t o defi n e p articul arly the

po siti o n O f the ver tex O o f the visu al an gle Fo r exam ple .
,
t o t ake a s o m e wh a t e xt r e m e i n st a n ce the a pp ar e n t Si z e o f
,
the m o o n will n o t be sen sibly alte r ed by r em o vin g the v e r

t e x o f the visu a l an gle a s m uch a s a m il e o r m o r e a w ay fr o m
the eye An d in gen eral pr o vided the O b j ect is n o t less
.
, ,
th an say 1 0 m eter s away it will be sufficien t t o kn o w th at

, , ,
the ver tex o f the visu a l an gle is in the eye with o ut Spec ifyi n g
its po siti o n m o r e exa ctly On the o ther h an d especi ally
.
,
when the eye h as t o exer t its po wer O f a cc o mm o d ati o n in

o r de r t o fo cus the O b j ect it is s o m eti m es a m atte r o f m uch
,
i m po rt an ce t o defin e the visu al an gle with the ut m o st p r e

c isio n In such a c a se seve r a l m e an in gs O f this te r m ar e t o
.
be speci ally distin guished Fo r e xam ple when the ver tex
.
,
Of the visu a l a n gle is at the p r i m ar y p r i n cip a l p o i n t O f the
eye it is c alled the p rin cipa l poi n t a n g le

, SO
th at we m ay wr ite
wH = v/u = v-U,
wher e u = 1 / U= H M den o tes the dist an ce o f the o bject fr o m
the p ri m ar y p r in cipal p o i n t Si m il ar ly the so -c alled f oca l
.
,
p oi n t a n g le ( F
w = A M F Q) is the a n gle subte n ded by the
O bj ect a t the p r i m ar y f o c a l p o i n t o f the eye ; an d he n ce :
wher e x = 1/X = FM den o tes the dist an ce o f the O bj ect fr o m

the pr i m ar y fo c al po i n t o f the eye .
Acc o r din g t o the defin iti o n s o f these an gles an d the r el a

ti o n s between the m agn itudes den o ted by X U an d Z as
5
given in 1 2 we m ay wr ite ther efo r e :
,
, ,
w s s Z :
U:X
1
— b Z) . :
1 —
X/ F )
( 1 —
g Z)
. :
1;
wher e F den o tes he r e the r efr a ctin g p o we r o f the eye when
it is a cc o m m o d ated fo r the p o in t M .
The a p p ar en t si z e o f an o b j ect m ay be m e asur ed als o a t ’
o the r p o i n ts o f the eye fo r e xa m ple at the ce n ter o f the

, ,
448 Mir r or s ,
e t ce pupil at the an ter i or n o d al po in t at the cen t er o f

n r an -
, ,
ro t ati o n ,etc The cen ter O f r o t ati o n o r eye-pivo t is the

.
po in t o f r efer e n ce in the estim ate o f the appar en t Si z e o f an

O b j ect in the c a se O f o r di n ar y SO -c a lled
“ dir ect visi o n with ”
the m o bile eye when the ga z e is dir ected in quick successio n

,
t o the di ffe r e n t p a r ts O f an e x ten ded o bj ect E speci ally in .

,
viewin g an im age th ro ugh an o ptic al in str um en t it is n ear ly ,
a lw a ys desi r a ble if p r a ctic able t o a djust the eye in such a

, ,
the ce te t ti c i cides with the ce te

‘
p o sit io n t h a t n r o f r o a o n o n n r
O f the e xit pupil O f the i n st r u m e n t

-
so a s t o c o m m an d a s
,
l ar ge an exten t o f the field o f View Of the im age-sp a ce as

p o ssible An yo n e who has ever t r ied t o lo o k th r o ugh a key
. .
h o le in a d o o r will r e ali z e h o w the field Of view w o uld h a ve

bee n widen ed if the eye c o uld h ave been pl a ced in the h o le
itself
5
.
1 6 S i z e o f R e tin al I m ag e
.
— If the e ye is a cc o m m o d ated
.
t o see a n o bject y S itu a ted at a dist an ce u U) fr o m its

pr im ar y pr in cip al po in t the si z e o f the im age (y ) form ed o n
,
’
the r etin a is given b y the r el atio n :
wher e A = n a den o tes the r ecipr o c al o f the r educed len gth

’ ’ ’
O f the eye —
ax is m e a su r ed fr o m the sec o n d ar y p r i n cip a l p o i n t
Of the eye Si n ce y U = wH
. . the ab o ve e qu ation
m ay be put in the fo llo wi n g fo r m :
I I
y a
"
(OH n
Sin ce the positi o n s Of the pr in cip al po in ts r emain sen sibly

st ati on ar y in the a c t o f a cc o m m o d atio n the r educed
le gth o f the eye axis
n — m ay be c o n side r ed a s c o n st an t
in the s am e i n dividu a l An d he n ce the peculi ar sign i fic an ce
.
o f the p r i n cip a l p o i n t an gle c o n sists in the f a ct th at ao ,
c o r din g t o thi s fo r m ula this an gle (wH ) m ay be t aken as

,
a m e a su r e o f the si z e o f the r et in a l i m a ge (y ) which is in

’
depen den t o f the st ate o f a cc o mm o d atio n o f the eye Thus

“
.
,
fo r a give n in dividu a l all O bj ects which h ave the s am e ap

,
§ 1 7]5 A pp ar e n t Si z e of I m ag e 449
pa r en t si z e as m e a sur ed at the pr i n cip al p o i n t o f the eye will

pr o duce r etin al i m ages o f equ al si z e .
On the o the r h an d Si n ce , it ap
pea r s th at fo r a given value O f the r efr a ctin g po wer (F )
, ,
the Si z e o f the i m age o n the r etin a o f the eye is p r o po r ti o n al

t o the fo c al p o i n t a n gle An d si n ce the v a r i ati o n s o f the r e
.
fr ac t in g p o we r ar e ge n e r ally s p e a ki n g i n de p e n de n t o f ax i al
‘
, ,
a m et r o p i a the fo c al po i n t a n gle will be p ar ticul a r ly

u seful in c o m p a r i n g the a p p a r e n t si z e o f an O b j ect a s see n
by differ en t i n div i du als u n de r the sa m e e xte rn a l c o n diti o n s

5
1 7 Appar e n t S i z e o f an O b j ect s e e n Th r o ug h a n O p
.
tic al In strum e n t Le t the p r i n ci p a l p o in ts o f the O ptic al

—
.
i n st r um en t be design ated by H H (Fig a n d fo r the ,

’
.
FIG . 2 01 — A
. pp ar e n t siz e of Ob j e ct se e n t h h roug an O p t ic al
in st r u m e n t .
s ake o f Sim plicity let us assum e th at the in st r u m en t is su r

H Q j o in i n g
,
r o u n ded by a ir S O th at the st r a ight li n es H Q

’ ’
,
the pr in cip al po in ts with c o rr es p o n din g po i n ts o f o bj ect an d

i m age will be p ar allel ; a n d let y = M Q y = M Q de n o te the ,
’ ’ ’
lin e ar m a gn itu des o f O b j ect a n d i m age r espectively Le t ,

.
the dist an ce O f the i m age fr o m the eye be de n o ted by z

O M whe r e O design a tes the p o siti o n o f the eye o n the
’ ’ ’
,
ax is . Then the app ar en t si z e o f the i m age will be
whe r e w=Q ( e
AM Ox p ’
r esse ’
d he r e in
’
r a di a n s ) a n d Z = l /z .
The an g le w m ay b e i n cr e a s e d b y r educi n g t h e dist an ce b e

5
40 Mir r or s ,
tween the im age an d the eye th at is by in c re asin g Z ; but , ,
this dist an ce c an n o t be dimin ished bel o w the n e ar p o in t

dist an ce o f the eye bec ause then distin ct visio n w o uld n o t
,
be po ssible fo r the n aked eye .
If the dist an ces o f o bj ect an d i m a ge fr om the pri n cip al

p o in ts ar e den o ted b y u an d u th at is if u = H M u $ ’
, , ,
’
then
y U U,
’ ’
=
.
y .
wher e U= 1 / u, U
’
l /n ;
’
an d hen ce
w= y Z . .
g
In gen er al (ex cept when the r ays un der go an O dd n u m be r
o f r eflecti o n s ) the Sign O f Z as her e defin ed will be n eg ative
'
, ,
a n d the r efo r e the Sign o f w wil l depen d o n the S ig n o f the
r a ti o U U Acc o r din gly if O bj ect an d i m age lie o n the

’
.
,
s am e side o f thei r c o r r esp on din g pr in cip al p o in ts the Sign ,
Of to w ill be n eg ative th at is the i m a ge will be e r ect

, , .
Le t the dist a n ce o f the eye fr o m the in str um en t be de

n o ted by c = H O then Sin ce u = c + z we m ay wr ite
’ ’ ’
,
Z
1+ c Z
Acc o r din gly if the r efr a ctin g p o wer O f the in strum en t
.
,
is
den o ted by F so th at U U F we m ay wr ite also :
,
= — ’
,
F -
Z( —
1 c . F)
1+ c Z .
I n tr o ducin g these expr essi o n s we o bt ain ther efo r e the fol ,
l o win g fo r m ul a fo r the a pp ar en t si z e o f the im a ge :

w = —
y { F Z (1
— c F)-
j .
Thus we see th at the a pp ar en t Si z e o f the im age m ay b e

,
v ar ied in o n e o f t wo ways either by c h an g in g the p o siti o n

O f the eye (th a t is b y v ar yin g c) o r else b y displ a cin g the
,
O bject so th at Z is v ar ied Ther e ar e t wo c ases Of speci al

.
p r a ctic a l i m p o r t an ce n am ely :(1 ) When the eye is a djusted

,
so th at 1 an d (2 ) Whe n the o bj ect is fo cused so
th a t Z = 0 In b o th c a ses the sec o n d ter m in side the l ar ge

.
b r a ckets va ishes a d he ce w
n n ,
n —
y F The c o n diti o n . .
§ 5
1 7] Ap p ar e n t Si ze of I m ag e 5
41
c
— 1 /F m e a n s
th at the eye is pl a ce d at the sec o n d fo c al
p o in t (F ) o f the i n st r u m en t (which m ight e asily be pr a c ti
’
ca ble if the Op tic al system wer e c o n ver gen t ) ; so th at un der

such cir cu m st an ces the a pp ar en t Si z e o f the im age wo ul d be
the s a m e fo r all p o siti o n s o f the O bject bec ause eviden tly ,
the highest p o in t (Q ) Of the 1m age will al ways li e o n the

’
st r a ight lin e which c r o sses the axis at the sec o n d fo c a l p o in t

a t the c o n st an t a n gle 0 = —
yF On the o the r h a n d the
.
c o n ditio n Z = 0 m e an s Sim ply th at the o b j ect lies in the

.
,
fi r st fo c al pl an e O f the in str um en t N o w this is the n atur a l

.
a d j ust m e n t fo r a n o r m al un a cc o m m o d ated em m et r o pic

, ,
eye bec ause then the r ays flo w in t o the eye in cylin d r ic al

,
bun dles This is the r e as o n why the i m a ge pr o duced by

.
the o b j ect -gl ass o f a telesc o pe o r m icr o sc o pe is usu ally fo

c use d in the p r i m ar y fo c a l pl an e o f the eye -piece o r o cul a r .
Acc o r din gly when Z = 0 the a pp ar en t Si z e Of the im age

, ,
will be in depen de n t o f the p o siti o n o f the eye .
An e xpe r ien ced O bse r ver wh o wishes t o o bt ai n the best

r esults with a n o ptic a l i n st r u m e n t will o r di n ar ily a d j ust it
t o his eye in such a way th at the i m age c an be see n disti n ctly

with o ut his h avin g t o m ake an effor t Of a cc o m m o d atio n .
This will be the c a se if the im age is for m ed at the far p o in t

( )
R o f the eye If the r ef o r,
e the st a tic
,
r efr a cti o n
o f the eye is de n o ted by A the n (a ssum in g th at the

p o in t O in Fig 201 is c o in cide n t with the an ter i o r p r in cip al
’
.
p o in t o f the eye ) we m ay put Z = A ; an d hen ce the a pp ar en t

S i z e o f a n O bj ect a s see n in a n o ptic a l i n st r u m e n t by a n eye
with r elaxed a cc o m m o d ati o n is given by the e xpr essio n

wH — l —
y , F A (I
Thus it is eviden t ho w the a pp ar en t si z e o f the im a ge de
,
pen ds n o t o n ly o n the r efr a ctin g p o wer o f the i n str u m en t ,
but essen ti ally also o n the a dj ustm en t an d i dio syn cr a sies

O f the eye o f the i n dividu a l wh o l o o ks th r o ugh it .
It m ay be r em ar ked th at these fo r m ul a h ave been de r ive d

o n the t a cit a ssu m pti o n th at the eye is at r est a n d c o n se
quen tl y o n ly a s m all p o r tio n o f the extern al field is sh ar ply

,
425 Mir r o r s ,
in fo cus at the sen sitive p ar t o f the r etin a Other wise we .

,
sh o uld h a ve h a d t o w r ite t an w i n ste a d O f w ; n o r sh o uld we
h ave been justified in a ssu min g th at the eff ective r a ys wer e

p ar axi al If the e ye tur n s in its s o cket to in spect the i m age
.
,
the a ppar en t si z e o f the i m age will depen d essen tially o n

the an gul ar m o vem en t o f the eye an d in thi s c ase the visu al ,
a n gle m ust be m e a su r ed at the ce n te r o f r o t ati o n o f the eye .
These ar e c o n sider ati o n s th at ar e t oo Often o ver l o o ked in

discussio n s o f this k in d
5
.
1 8 M ag nif yin g Powe r Of an O pti c a l I n str um e n t Us e d

.
in C o n j un c ti o n wit h th e Eye —
An O bj ect m ay be SO r e m o te
.
th at its det a ils ar e i n distin guish able o r o n the o ther h an d , , ,
it m ay be so cl o se t o the eye th at n o t even by the gr e atest

effo r t Of a cc o m m o d atio n c an a sh ar p i m a ge o f it be fo cused
o n the r et in a Un de r such ci r cu m st an ces o n e h a s r ec o ur se
.
t o the a id o f a suit a ble O ptic a l i n st r um e n t whe r eby the Oh
j e c t is m a g n ified t o such a n e x t en t th a t the p a r ts o f it w hi ch

wer e Obscu r e o r en ti r ely in visible t o the n aked eye will be
r eve aled t o view The m ag n ifyin g p ower is usu ally exp r essed
.
by an abst r a ct n um ber M which in the c ase Of an o ptic al

, ,
in st ru m e n t o n the o r de r o f a mi c r o sc o pe is defin ed t o be the

r a ti o o f the a p p ar en t si z e f
o the i m a g e as se e n i n the i n str umen t
to the a pp ar e n t size o f the ob e c t as
j i t wou ld a p p ea r a t the so
ca lle d
“ di stan ce of di sti n ct vi si on This l atter ter m is a .
”
so m ewh a t u n fo r tu n a te fo r m O f e x p r essi o n fo r seve r a l r e a
s o n s n o t o n ly bec ause the dist an ce at which an Obj ect is

,
O r di n ar ily pl a ced in o r de r t o be see n disti n ctly is diff e r e n t
f o r diffe r e n t pe r s o n s but bec ause the s am e pe r s o n a cc o r d ,
in g t o the e xt e n t o f hi s p o wer o f a cc o m m o d ati o n usu all y

,
p o ssesses the abilit y o f seein g distin ctly Obj ects at widely

differ en t dist an ces The expr essio n appe ar s t o h ave ar isen
.
fr o m a c on fusio n o f ide a s an d its o r igin m ay pr o b ably be

,
t r aced t o the fact th at even n o wa d ays m an y peo pl e h ave

difficult y in c o n ceivin g h o w the eye c an be fo cused for “
in fin ity ,
a lth o ugh i n deed as has been expl ain ed th at is
, , ,_
to b e r egar ded as t h e n atu r a l st ate o f t he n ormal e ye in re

1 8]5M a g n ifyin g Po wer of Op ti ca l I n st r um en t 5
43
p o se H o weve r the ph r ase h as bec o m e t o o deeply r o o ted

.
,
in o ptic a l lite r atu r e eve r t o be e r a dic a ted a n d n o h ar m wi ll ,
be do n e by c o n tin uin g t o use it p r o vide d it is n ot t aken

,
liter ally but is c o n si der ed m er ely a s the design ati o n o f a

m o r e o r less ar bit r a r y c o n ve n ti o n al p r o j ecti o n dist a n ce
,
“
.
Acc o r din gly if the so c alle d dist an ce o f distin ct v isi o n

- ”
is den o ted by l the a pp ar en t Si z e O f the o b j ect (y) as seen

,
at this dist a n ce fr o m the eye will be y/ l d he ce if the—

a n n
a pp ar e n t Si z e O f the i m a ge in the i n st r u m e nt is de n o ted b y

,
w the m agni fyin g po we r as ab o ve defin ed will be :

, , ,
to
y
The a ctu al value O f this c o n ven ti o n al dist an ce l is usu ally
5
t a ken as 1 0 in ches o r 2 c en tim ete r s which is l ar ge e n o ugh ,
fo r the c o n ve n ie n t a cc o mm o d ati o n O f m o st hu m an bein gs

wh o ar e n o t al r e a dy p a st the p r i m e o f life an d yet n o t so
l ar ge th at the si z e O f the i m a ge o n the r etin a differ s m uch
fr o m its gr e atest dim en si o n s If dist an ces ar e all m e asu r ed
.
in m ete r s the c o n ve n ti o n a l v alue o f the m a gn ifyi n g p o we r

,
will be given ther efo r e by the fo rm ul a :

, ,
0)
M —
Z§
The expl an ati o n o f the m in us sign in fr o n t o f the fr a cti on
is t o be fo u n d in the m o de o f r eck o n in g the visu al an gle w ,
which a s we h ave p o in te d o ut
,
is n egative in c ase
the im age o f the O b j ect y is er ect a s for exam ple with an
, , ,
o r di n ar y c o n ve x le n s used as a m a gn ifyi n g gl a ss Thus .

,
a cc o r d in g t o the a b o ve fo r m ul a a p osi ti ve v a lu e of the m ag
fi
,
nif yi n g p ower me an s mag n i c a ti on wi thou t i n ve rsi on . Or

din ar ily , wh at is m e an t by the m a gn ifyin g p o we r o f an O p
tic al in str um e n t is the value o f this abst r a ct n um ber M ;
which gives the r atio o f the si z es o f the r etin al i m a ges when
an e mm et r o pic eye views o n e an d the s am e O bj ect fi r st in the , ,
in str u m en t with o ut effo r t o f a cc o m m o d atio n an d the n with ,
o ut the i n st r u m e n t with an a cc o mm o dati o n o f f o u r di0pt r ie s .
If the expr essi o n fo r the visu al an gle w which was Oh

5
44 Mirr o r s ,
t ain e d in 5i t
1 7 is duced her e we sh all der ive t her efo r e
n ro , , ,
the fo ll o win g fo r m ul a fo r the m agn i fyi n g p o wer (M) in ter m s

o f the r ef r a ctin g p o we r (F ) O f the i n st r u m e n t the dist an ce ,
(0) o f the e y e fr o m the i n st r u m en t an d the dist an ce (2 ,
l / Z ) o f the im a ge (y ) fr o m the e y e :
’
M l { F Z (1 c F)
= — — .
This expr essio n is r e ally a m e a sur e o f the i n dividua l mag

n if yi n g p ower Si n ce it i n v olves n o t m e r ely the in st r u m e n t
,
itself but the ch ar a cter istic peculi ar ities o f the eye o f the
O bse r ve r In o r de r t o O bt ai n a m e a su r e O f the a b so lu te mag
.
n if yi n g p ower o f the i n st r u m e n t the sec o n d te r m in side the ,
lar ge b r a ckets m ust be m a de t o v an ish Thus if the o bject .

,
is pl a ced in the pr im ar y fo c al plan e so th at the im age is ,
in fin itel y dist an t then Z = 0 an d n o w M = l F den o tes the

5
’
.
, ,
a bs o lute m a g n ifyin g p o we r If l = 0 2 m ete r the n F = 4M ;

. .
,
an d usu all y ther efo r e when we say th at the m agn ifyin g

, ,
po wer o f a len s o r m ic r o sc o pe is M this m e an s Sim ply th at ,
its r efr a ctin g po wer is equ a l t o 4M di o pt r ie s .
If the wag e in the in stru m e rft is fo r m ed at the di st an ce

O f di stin ct visi o n (l) the n Z
” -
1 / l an d
,
.
M 1 (—
l c ) F .
The dist an ce (c) between the in str um en t an d the eye is usu

a lly s m all ih c o m p a r is o n with l so th a t it is O fte n e n tir el y,
n eglected Assu min g t hat (l c ) is p o sitive we m ay say

'
.
—
,
that in a c o n ver gen t O ptic al system (F the Obj ect will

a ppe ar m a gn ified (M > 1 ) wher ea s in a diver gen t O ptic al
system (F the Obj ect a ppe ar s t o be dim in ished in si z e
In der t o avo id the use o f an ar b it r ary pr o j ectio n

or
dist an ce (I) A BB E pr o p o sed t o defi n e the m ag n ifyin g po wer

, ,
as the r a ti o o
f the ( ) f
ap p ar en
to o the i m a g e i n h
t si ze
t e i n str u
m en t to the a ctua l si ze (y) of the obj e ct (c o m p ar e with A E S BB ’
defin itio n o f fo c al len g th 1 22) so th a if this r atio is de

,
t
no ted b y P, the n
1 9]5 M ag n i fyin g Po we r of T e l e sc o p e 4 5
5
This m e asur e o f the m agn ifyi n g po wer is n o t an a bst r a ct
n u m be r like M but a qu a n tity o f the s a m e physic a l dim e n
,
si on s a s the r efr a ctin g po wer o f the in str um en t The t wo .
defin iti o n s ar e c o n n ected by the Si m ple r el atio n

M = t P;
5
.
so tha t if we put l = 0 2 m the v alue Of P will be O bt ai n ed

. .
,
by m ultiplyin g M by the n u m ber fou r Thus f o r ,
e xam ple in the c a se o f a c o n vex len s o f r efr a ctin g p o wer F

use d as a m agn if yin g gl ass if the O b j ect is pl a ced in the fir st
,
fo c a l pl an e we h ave P = F
5
.
1 9 M ag n if yin g Po w e r Of a T e l e sc ope
,
In the c a se o f
‘
—
. .
a telesc o pe w hi ch is an in st r u m e n t fo r m ag n ifyi n g the a p
pa r en t si z e O f a dist an t O b j ect n either o f the defin itio n s o f

,
m a gn ifyin g p o we r give n in the fo r eg o i n g secti o n is appli .
c able An in fin itely dist an t O b j ect (like the m o o n fo r e x

.
,
a m p le ) c an be see n disti n ctly by a n e m m e t r O p ic eye with o ut
a n y e ffo r t O f a cc o m m o d ati o n but its a p p ar en t Si z e m ay be

,
so m in ute th at the dist in guishi n g fe a tu r es c a n n o t be m a de
o u t by the n a ked eye This s am e eye l o o kin g at the o b j ect

.
th r o ugh a telesc o pe will see an in fin itely dist an t im age o f

it but pr esen te d t o the eye un der a l ar ge r visu al an gle so
, ,
th at it a pp e ar s m a gn ified E ssen ti ally a telesc o p e m ay be

.
,
r eg ar de d as a c o m bi n a ti o n o f t wo o ptic a l syste m s o n e Of ,
which the p ar t po in ted t o war ds the o bject is a c o n

— —
ver gen t system gen er ally o f r el atively l o n g fo cus an d l ar ge

,
a pe r tu r e (SO a s t o i n te r cept a l a r ge qu a n tity o f light ) c alled ,
the Ob j ect gl ass ; while the o ther c o m p o sed o f the len ses
—
,
n e x t the eye a n d c alle d the r efo r e the o cul ar o r eye piece

,
-
,
m ay be a c o n ve r gen t o r dive r ge n t syste m depe n din g o n the

type o f telesc o pe The O b j ect —gl a ss which is at o n e e n d o f
.
a l ar ge tube f o r m s a r e a l i n ve r ted i m a ge o f the O b j ect in its
sec o n d fo c al pl an e o r n o t far fr o m it ; an d this i m age is in

spe c t e d th r o ugh the o cul a r which is usu ally fi x ed in a s m alle r
,
tube i n ser te d in the l ar ge r o n e so th at the fo cus c an be a d

j usted t o suit differ en t eyes an d differen t cir cum st an ces .
A Si m ple schem atic telesc o pe m ay be r egar ded as c o m p o sed

46 5 Mir r o rs ,
Of t wothin len ses o n e o f which Of fo c al len gt h f l (r efr a ctin g

, ,
p o wer F 1 ) a cts as the O bj ect-gla ss while the o ther o f fo c al ,
len gth f (r efr a ctin g po wer F ) pe r fo r m s the par t o f the o c

2 2
ul ar When the telesc o pe is a djusted fo r an emm etr o pic

.
,
un a cc o mm o d ated eye the secon d f ocal p oin t (Fl ) of the ob

,
’
f ee t-g lass coi n ci de s wi th the fi r st f oca l p o i n t ( 2)

F of the ocu la r ;
an dhen ce the fo c al len gth o f the e n ti r e syste m is in fin ite

(f 0 o r 0F = 0) th at is the s ystem is a fo c a l o r t e l e sc Opic
, ,
In this c a se the telesc o pe is s aid t o be in n o r m al

a djust m e n t
.
The fi r st telesc o pe appe ar s t o h ave been in ven ted b y on e

O f t wo D utch spect a cle -m a ke r s n am ed Z A C H A R IA S JA N S E N
an d FRA NZ LIPPE R S H E Y (ci rc a GA LILE O (1 64 5

h avin g he ar d Of this D utch t oy was led t o experim en t ,
J '
o t oo
FIG 2 02 — D iag ram

. o f sim p l e D ut c h or G alil e an t e le sco p e.
with c o m bin atio n O f t wo len ses an d he s oon succeeded

a
(1 6 09 ) in m a k i n g a telesc o pe with w hi ch he m a de a n u m be r
of r e n o w n ed a st r n
o o m ic a l disc o ve r ies The SO -c alled Dutch
.
o r Ga li lean te lescop e r ep r ese n ted sche m a tic all y in Fig

,
2 02 .
,
c on sists o f a l ar ge c on vex o bj ect gl ass (A1 ) c o m bin ed with

-
a s m a ll c o n c a ve eye -piece (A ) whi ch in ter cepts the c o n

2 ,
ver gin g r ays befo r e they c o m e t o a fo cus an d a d apts them t o

suit the eye o f the o bser ver The o ther type o f telesc o pe.
( g
F i 20. 3 ) is c o m p o sed o f t w o c o n ve x le n ses It is c a lled the .
astr on omi ca l te le scop e o r K ep ler te lescop e bec ause the ide a ,

5
]
1 9 Mag n i fyin g Po wer of T e le s c o p e 5
47
o ccur r ed fir st t o J O H N K E PLE R but the fir st in str u

m e n t o f this kin d was m a de by the celeb r a te d Jesuit fathe r
C H R IS T IA N SC H E IN E R
,
wh o a ls o c o n ceived the ide a

O f usin g a thi r d le n s t o e r ect the i m a ge a s is d o n e in the SO
c alled terr estr i a l telescop e .
If the telesc o p e is in n o r m al a dj ust m en t then fr o m e a ch

po in t J Of the in fin itely dist a n t O b j ect ther e will issue a bun dle
,
F IG 2 03 — D ia g
. r a m o f Si p
m le ast r o n o m i c al t e le sc o p e.
Of par allel r ays wh o se in clin ati o n t o the axis o f the telesc o pe

m ay be de n o ted by 0 Fa llin g o n the o b j ect -gl a ss t hese
.
,
r ays ar e c o n ve r ged t o a fo cus a t a p o i n t P lyi n g in the co m
m o n fo c a l pl an e o f O b j ect -gl ass a n d eye -piece ; a n d c o n se

que tly they will em er ge fr o m the eye piece a n d en ter the
n -
eye a s a bun dle o f p ar a llel r ays pr o ceedin g fr o m the in fi

n it e ly dist an t i m a ge p o i n t J in a di r ecti o n which m akes a n
’
-
a n gle 0 with the axis The Slo pe—an gles 0 an d 6 h ave

’ ’
.
a c o n st an t r el ati o n t o e a ch o the r a s m ay e a sily be Sh o wn ;

,
fo r fr o m the r ight t r i an gles F A l P a n d F2A P (Figs 202

l
’
2 .
an d wher e A 1 F = A F2 = f
1
'
1 a n d F2A2
1,
"
F 1 A2 = f 2 Z F2A2 P = 0 we o bt a in i m m e di atel y
'
,
t an 0
c o n st an t .
t an 0 f2
485 Mirr o r s ,
No w the an gles de n o ted he r e b y 0an d 0 ar e the m e asur e s

’
o f the a pp ar e n t S i z es o f c o r r esp o n di n g p o r ti o n s o f the in
fi n itel y dist an t o bj ect an d i m a ge an d the r a tio O f these

,
an gles (o r o f thei r t an ge n ts ) is defi n ed t o be the mag n if yi n g
p o w er of the te les c op e ; S O th a t if thi s r a ti o is de n o ted b y M ,
we Sh all h a ve
f1
f2
Acc or din gly the m agn ifyin g po wer o f a telesc o pe fo cused
,
o n an i n fi n itely dist an t O bj ect an d a djusted fo r distin ct
visi o n fo r an un a cc o mm o d ated em m et r o pic (o r c o r r ected

,
am et r o pic ) eye is m e a su r ed b y the r ati o o f the fo c a l le n gt hs
O f the o bjective a n d o cul a r .In the a st r o n o m ic al telesc o pe

f l a n d f z a r e b o th p o sitive
,
a n d c o n seque n tl y the r a ti o M is
n eg ative which m e an s th at the i m a ge is i n ve r ted ; whe r e a s in
,
the D utch telesc o pe f l is p o sitive an d f 2 is n egative an d ,
he n c e M is p o sitive th a t is the fin a l i m a ge is e r ect

, ,
.
An o ther c o n ve n ien t e xp r essi o n fo r the m agn ifyin g po we r

o f a telesc o pe ,
a s defi n ed ab o ve m ay e a sily be o bt a i n ed
,
.
All the eff ective r ays which fall o n the o bj ect-gl ass will after
tr an s m issi o n thr o ugh the in str um ent p ass thr o ugh a ce r t ain
ci r cul ar aper tur e c alled the eye-r in g (o r RA MSDE N cir cle) ,
which is the im age o f the Object-gl a ss in the o cul ar If the .
o bj ect -gl ass is b r ightly illu m i n ated (fo r e x am ple if the tele ,
sc o pe is p o i n ted t o war ds the b r ight Sk y) this i m age a ppe ar s

,
a s a lu m in o us disk fl o ati n g in the air n o t f ar fr o m the o cul ar
an d c an e a sil y be pe r ceived by pl a ci n g the eye at a suit a ble
dist an ce In the ast r o n o m ic al telesc o pe the eye r in g is a

.
-
r e a l i m a ge which c an be r eceived o n a sc r ee n a n d in this

,
i n str umen t it usuall y a cts as the exit-pupil I n the '
c se
a o f the utch telesc o pe the eye r in g is a vi rtu al i m a ge
D -
o n the o the r Side o f the o cul ar fr o m the eye ; an d ge n e r all y
it s e ff e c t is t o li m it the field Of View in the i m age-S p a ce th a t

'
is its Offi ce is th at o f the exit—po rt Of the syste m

,
137 ,
N o w if the telesc o pe is in n o r ma l a d j ust m e n t the n ,
the dist a ce Of the o cul ar fr o m the o bj ect gl ass is e q u al t o

n -
5
1 9] Mag n ifyin g Po we r of T e le sc o pe 5
49
the algeb r aic sum (f 1 +f ) o f the fo c al le n gt hs o f the two

2
c o m p o n en ts ; an d it m ay e a sily be Sh o wn th at
f di am ete r o f o b j ect gl a ss
-
M
1
_
f z di a m ete r o f eye -r i n g
The a dvan t age O f this l atter fo r m o f exp r essi on is t o be
fo u n d in the fa ct th at even if the telesc o pe is n o t in n o rm al
a d j ust m e n t it m ay still be c o n si de r ed in a ce r t a i n se n se a s
,
a m e a sur e o f the m a g n ifyi n g p o we r o f the in st r u m e n t Su p .
po se fo r e xam ple th at the O ptic al syste m is n o t t e le SCO pic

, , ,
S O th at the in te r v a l betwee n the sec o n d fo c al p o in t (F l ) o f

’
the O bject gl ass an d the fir st fo c al p o in t (F2) o f the o cul ar

-
is n o t n egligible as fr equen tly h a p pen s in fo cusin g the eye

,
piece t o suit the eye o f the in dividu al especi ally if the o bject
,
itself is n o t in fin itely dist an t C o n side r a r ay which is di

.
r e c t e d o r igi n ally f r o m the e xt r e m ity o f the o b j ect t o w ar ds
a p o in t 0 o n the a x is O f the telesc o pe a n d which e m e r ges
so as t o e n te r the eye a t the c o n jug ate p o i n t O If the an gles

’
.
which the r ay m akes with the axis a t O an d O a r e de n o ted ’
by 0 an d r espectively the n the r ati o t a n d

,
t an d will ’
be a m e a su r e o f the m ag n ifyin g p o wer o f the telesc o pe fo r

this a djustm en t an d p o sitio n o f the eye But a cc o r di n g t o .
the SM T H H E LMH O LT Z fo rm ul a
I - 86 a n d S i n ce the
telesc o pe is surr oun ded b y the s am e m edium o n b oth Sides ,
we sh all h ave he r e :
t an d :’
t an 0= y : y
’
,
wher e y an d y den o te the li n e ar m ag n itudes o f an o bj ect an d

’
its i m a ge in c o n juga te t r an sve r s a l plan es at O an d O (the ’
pl an es Of the pupils) No w if the p o in t O is at the cen ter

.
’
o f the eye -r i n g the p o i n t O will lie a t the ce n te r O f the o b j ect

,
gl ass a n d the r atio y :

, y
’
will be equ a l t o the r a ti o o f the
diam eter s O f o bj ect-gl ass an d eye-r in g He n ce p r ovi ded ,
the eye i s p la ced a t the eye-r i n g the m a g n ify in g p o we r o f the

.
telesc o pe wil l be
diam ete r o f o b j ect gl a ss
-
di am ete r o f eye r i n g -
In an a str o n o m ic al telesc o pe the best a d j ust m e n t fo r c o m

460 Mir r o r s ,
m an din g wide exten t o f the field o f view is t o pl a ce the eye

a
with its cen ter o f r o t atio n at the cen ter o f the eye-r in g but ,
in a Dutch telesc o pe t hi s is n o t pr a ctic a ble bec ause the eye ,
r m g Is n o t a ccessible .
In o r de r t o o bt a i n a ge n er a l fo r m ul a fo r the m agn ifyin g

p o wer o f a telesc o pe let us fi x o ur atten ti o n o n the i n ve r ted
,
i m age o f the Obj ect which is for m ed by the O bj ect -gl ass .
If u = 1 / U den o tes the dist an ce Of the Obj ect fr o m the o bject

gl ass an d if q den o tes the li n e ar si z e o f the i m age the a pp ar ,
e n t si z e O f the O bj ec t a s see n fr o m the ce n t e r O f the O bj ect
g l ass will be
wher e F 1 den o tes the r efr a cti n g p o wer Of the Obj ect-gl ass .
On the o ther h an d a cc o r di n g t o the fo r m ul a deduced in

5
,
1 7 the a pp ar e n t si z e o f the i m a ge see n in the telesc o pe

,
will be
0 = — —
{
’
t an q F2 Z (1
wher e F de n o tes the r efr a ctin g p o wer o f the O cul ar z = 1/Z

2 ,
den o tes the dist an ce o f the im a ge in the o cul ar fr o m the eye ,
an d c de n o tes the dist an ce o f the eye fr o m the o cul ar itself
(o r f r o m its sec o n d p r in cip a l p o in t ) Acc o

. r di n gly w e O bt a i,
n
the fo llo win g e xp r essi on fo r the m agn ifyin g po wer o f the

telesc o pe :
t an d ’
F — —
Z (1 c F2)
z .
t an 9 U+ F 1
whi ch is a pplic able t o all c ases If the Obj ect is in fin itely
.
dist an t then U = 0; an d if the telesc o pe is in n o r m al a d j ust

,
m e n t the n the 1 m age is als o in fi n itel y dist an t th a t is Z = 0

, , , ,
an d M — F2/F 1 .
Ch . XII I] Pr o b le m s 46 1
PROB LEMS
1 If the r efr a ctin g po wer o f a c o rr ecti o n spect a cle—gl ass

.
is + 1 0 dptr an d if the dist an ce o f the an ter i o r p r i n cip al

.
,
po in t o f the eye fr o m the sec o n d p r in cip al p o in t of the gl ass

is 1 2 mm fi n d the st a tic r efr a cti o n o f the eye
.
, .
An s .
+ 1 1 3 6 dpt r .
2. Take the r efr a ctin g p o wer o f the eye equ a l to dp t r , .
the dist an ces o f the p r in cip a l p o in ts fr o m the ver tex o f the

c o rn e a a s an d m m a n d the i n de x o f r efr a cti o n
.
,
o f the v i t r e o us hu m o r equ a l t o If the r efr a ctin g p o we r
Of a c o r r ecti o n spect a cle -gl a ss wh o se sec o n d p r i n cip a l p o i n t

,
is 1 4 mm fr o m the an ter i o r pr in cip a l p o in t o f the eye is

5
.
,
+ 3 7 d p t r Sh o w th a t the . t o
,
t a l le n gt h O f the e y e b a ll is
-
mm .
In GULLS T RA N D
schem atic eye with a cco mm o d ati o n
’
3 . S ,
r el axed the dist an ce fr o m the ver tex O f the c o r n e a t o the

,
po in t wher e the o ptic al axis m eets the r etin a is 24m m The .
o the r d at a a r e the s a m e a s th o se give n in N o 2 a b o ve Fi n d . .
the po siti o n o f the far p o in t an d determi n e the st atic r e fr ac

tio n .
An s The far p o i n t is
. cm fr o m the ver tex o f the .
c or n e a an d the st atic r efr a cti o n is

,
dpt r .
4 In GU LLST RA N D S sche m atic eye in its st ate o f m axi

.
’
m u m a cc o m m o dati o n the dist an ces o f the p r i n cip al p o i n ts

fr o m the vertex o f the c o r n e a are an d m m an d .
,
the r efra cti n g p o wer is dp t r The len gth o f the eye .
b all is 24m m as st ated in NO 3 Fin d the p o si ti o n o f the

.
,
. .
n e a r p o in t an d dete r m i n e the dy n am ic r efr a cti o n o f the
eye .
An s The n e ar p o i n t is
. c m f r o m the ve r te x o f the .
c o r n ea ; the dyn am ic r efr a cti o n is dp t r Acc o r di n gly .

,
with the aid o f t he r e sult Obt a in ed in No 3 we o bt ai n fo r

'
.
,
the a m plitude o f a cc o m m o d atio n

5
dp t r .
Taki n g the r efr a cti n g p o wer o f the eye as equal t o

5
.
9 dpt r sh o w th at the Si z e o f the r eti n al i m a ge o f an o b j ect

.
,
46 2 M ir r o rs ,
Pr ism s an d Le n se s Oh XIII
[ .
1 m ete r hi gh at a dist an ce of 1 0 m et er s fr om the eye will be

mm .
6 The app e t si e a dist t ar n is o n e m in ute o f

z Of an a ir -ship
Ta ki n g the r efr a ct in g po wer o f the e ye as e qu al t o
.
ar c.
[
dp t r Sh o w th at the si z e o f the im a ge o n t he r etin a

.
,
will be mm .
7 Wh at is the m agn ifyi n g p o we r o f a c o n vex len s o f fo c al

5 5
.
len gth c m ? . An s . .
8 A m y o pe o f 10 dp t r uses a c o n ve x le n s o f fo c a l len gth

5
. .
5
cm a s a m ag n ifyin g g l ass
. Fi n d the in divi du al m a gn ify
'
in g p o we r n eglectin g the dist an ce o f the eye fr o m the gl a ss

,
.
An s 7; .
9 In the p r ecedin g e x am ple wh at will be the in dividu a l

.
,
m a gn ifyi n g p o we r o f the s am e gl a ss in the c a se o f an hype r

m e t r Op e Of 1 0 dp t r ? . An s 2g
. .
10 A cer t a in pe r s o n c an n o t see distin ctly o bj ects which

.
a r e n e ar e r his eye th a n 2 0 c m o r f ar the r th an 6 0 c m Withi n

. .
wh at lim its O f dist an ce fr o m his eye m ust a c o n c ave m ir r or

O f fo c a l le n gth 1 5
c m be pl a ced in o r de r th a t he m ay be a ble
.
t o fo cus sh ar ply the i m a ge O f his ey e as see n in the mirr o r ? _
An s In o r de r t o see a r e a l i m age o f his eye the dist an ce

.
,
O f the m i r r o r m ust be betwee n c m an d c m ; in . . -
o r de r t o see a vi r tu a l i m a ge the dist an ce o f the mi r r o r m ust,
be between c m an d cm . .
1 1 The m a gn ifyin g p o wer o f a telesc o pe 1 2 i n ches l o n g

.
is equ al t o 8 : d eter m i e the fo c al len gths

n o f o bject gl a ss
-
a n d eye g l a ss (1 ) whe n it is an a st r o n o m ic a l telesc o pe an d

-
()2 whe n it is a G A LIL E O S telesc o pe ’

.
An s (1 ) f 1
= + 1 0 g f 2
= + 1 § i n ches ; (2 ) f 1 = + 1 3
5
.
,
= — i n ches
f2 1 7
.
1 2 The fo c a l len g ths o f the O bj ect -gl a ss an d eye -gl a ss o f

.
a n a st r o n o m ic a l telesc o pe a r e f an d f a n d thei r di am ete r s l 2,
ar e 2h an d 2 h r espectively Sh o w th at the r a dius O f the

“
1 2, .
st o p which will cut O ff the r a gged edge 1 38) is e qu al t o

”
h2 — h1
f 1 f 2
f1+ f z
Ch . XIII] Pr o b le m s
13 A telesc o pe is p o i n te d at an in fin itely dist an t o bject

.
,
a n d the eye - piece is fo cused so th at the i m a ge is fo rm ed at

the dist an ce l o f disti n ct visi on o f the eye If the dist an ce o f
.
the eye fr o m the eye piece is n eglected Sh o w th at the m ag

-
,
n ifyin g po wer is M = wher e f f den o te the 1, 2
fo c al len gths o f the O b j ect gl a ss an d eye gl ass

- - .
1 4 A RA MS D E N o cul ar c o n sists o f t wo thi n co n ve x le n ses

.
e a ch o f fo c al len g th a separ ate d by an in te r val equ a l t o 2 a/3 .
Sh o w th at the m a gn ifyin g po we r o f an a st r o n o m ic al tele

sc o pe fur n ished with a RA MSDE N o cul ar is 4f /3a wher e f 1 l
de tes the f c al le g th the o b j ect gl a ss

,
5
n o o n o f - .
T he O b j ect gl a ss o f an a st r o n o m ic al telesc o pe h as a
5
1 .
-
fo c al len gth o f 0 in ches an d the fo c a l len gt h o f e a ch len s

,
O f the RA MS D E N o cul ar is 2 in ches The dist an ce bet ween

.
the t wo len ses in the o cul ar is s in ch Sh o w th at the dis

.
t an ce between the o bj ect—gl ass an d the fi r st len s o f the o c

ul ar is in ches an d th at the m agn ifyin g p o wer is equ al
,
to
16 If a GA LILE O S telesc o pe is in n o r m al a djust m en t
.
’
,
Sh o w th at the an gul ar di am ete r o f the field o f the i m a ge a s
m e a su r ed at the ve r t e x o f the c o n c ave eye -gl a ss is 2 t an y ' ’
whe e h de o tes the adius o the bject gl ass

r n r f o -
an d f f21,de n o te the f o c a l le n gths o f O bj ect -gl a ss a n d eye
gl a ss .
1 7 The fo c al le n gth o f the o b j ect gl ass a d eye gl a ss o f

- n -
a n a st r o n o m ic a l telesc o pe ar e 36 an d 9 i n ches r espectively .
If the o b j ect is in fin itely dist an t an d if the eye is pl a ced in

,
the eye-r i n g at a dist an ce Of 9 in ches fr o m the irn ag e Sh o w ,
th at the m agn ifyin g po wer is equ al t o 3 .
1 8 The m a gn ifyi n g p o we r o f a si m ple a st r o n o m ic a l tele

‘
sc o pe in n o r m a l a djust m en t is M a n d the fo c al len g th o f the

,
O b j ect gl ass is f
-
l . Sh o w th at if the eye -gl a ss is pushed in a
dist ce x a d the eye pl a ced the eye r in g the m a gn ifyin g
a n n in -
,
p o wer will be di m in ished by x M/f .

1.
1 9 An a st r o n o m ic a l telesc o pe is p o in ted t o w ar ds t h e su n
.
,
a nd a r e al i m a ge O f the sun is Obt a in ed o n a sc r ee n pl a ced

Mirr or s ,
Pr isms an d Le n ses [
Oh . XIII
beyo n d the eye-len s at a dist an ce d fr o m it If the diam ete r .
o f this i m a ge is de n o ted by 2 b a n d if the a pp ar e n t di am ete r

,
o f the sun is de n o ted b y 2 0 Sh o w th a t the m ag n if yin g p o wer

,
o f the telesc o pe is M = b oo t fl/d . .
20 The e y e is pl a ced at a dist an ce 0 fr o m the eye -gl ass o f

a G A LILE O S telesc o pe in n o r m a l a djust m e n t
.
’
The len gth .
O f the telesc pe
o a s m e su ed f o m the bj ect gl ass t o the
a r r o -
e ye-gl a ss is den o ted b y d the r a dius o f the o bj ect -gl ass l s

,
den o ted b y h an d the r adius o f the pupil o f the eye is de

,
n o ted b y g (it bei n g a ssu m ed th a t g is less th an the r a dius o f
the eye-gl ass ) Sh o w th at the sem i-an gul ar diam eter s o f

.
the th r ee p o r ti o n s Of the field o f view o n the im age-side ar e

given b y the fo ll o win g expr essi o n s :
hl M
—
g h1 M
h1 + g
m
. .
t an ” ta t an ”
d+ c M d+ c M d+ c M
’
,
wher e M den o te s the m agn ify i n g p o wer

. . .
of the telesc o pe .
C HA PTE R XIV
DIS PE R S IO N AND A C H M
RO A TIS M
1 6 0 Di spe r s i o n b y
. i a Pr sm . —
Whe n
beam o f sun light is a
a d m itte d i n t o a d ar k ch a m be r
thr o ugh a s m all cir cul ar h o le A
(Fig 2 04) in the win d o w shutte r a r o u n d sp o t o f white light
.
,
will be fo r m e d o n a ver tic a l wall o r scr een O pp o site the win

do w which will be i n deed an i m age o f the sun o f the s am e
,
kin d as wo uld be pr o duced b y a pin h o le c am er a

, ,
its
FIG . 2 04— Pr ism d is

. p e r sio n :N E WT O N p
'
S ex e r im e n t .
an gul ar di am eter ther efo r e bein g equ a l t o th at o f the sun

, , ,
n am ely ab o ut h alf a deg r ee

, In the t ra ck o f such a be a m
.
N E W T O N i n se r ted a p r is m with its r efr a ctin g e dge h o r i z o n t a l

a n d at r ight an gles t o the di r ecti o n o f the i n ci de n t light ;
wher eup o n the white s p o t o n the sc r ee n van ishe d an d in its

stea d at a cer t ai n ver tic a l dist an ce a b o ve o r bel o w t h e p l a c e
th at was fir st illum in ated the r e was displ ayed an el o n gated
46 5
466 Mir r o rs ,
Pr ism s an d Len se s
ver tic al b an d o r sp ectr um exhi bitin g the c o l o r s o f the r a in ,
b o w in an e n dless v ar iety o f ti n ts sh adi n g in t o e a ch o the r b y

i m per ceptible gr a d ati o n s This spectr um was r o un ded at .
the en ds an d its ver tic al dim e n sion depen din g o n h o w the

p r ism was tilted was ab o ut 4o r ti m es a s gr e at as its h o r i
, 5 ,
z o n t al di m e n si o n the l atter bein g equ al t o the di am eter o f

,
the sp o t o f whi te light th a t was fo r m ed o n the sc r een befo r e

the in ter p o siti o n o f the p r ism Fo r c o n ven ien ce o f de scrip
“
.
tio n N E W T O N distin guished seven pr in cip al o r pr im ar y

,
”
c o l o r s arr an ged in the fo ll o win g o r der fr o m o n e e n d o f the

spectr um t o the o ther n am ely r e d o r an ge yello w gr een , , , , , ,
blue i n digo an d vi o let ; o f which the vi o let p o r ti o n Of the

, ,
!
spect r um is the lo n gest an d the o r an ge the sh o r test The .
r e d e n d o f the spect r u m wa s the p ar t o f the i m a ge o n the
scr een th at was le ast displ a ced by the in ter p o sitio n o f the
pr ism .
This phen o m en o n was expl ain ed by N E WTO N o n the a s

sum pti o n th at o r din ar y su n light is c o m p o site an d c o n sists
in r e ality O f an i n n u m e r a ble v a r iety o f c o l o r s all ble n ded
t o gether ; an d th at the in dex o f r efr a ctio n (n ) o f the pr ism ,
in ste a d o f h avin g a defin ite va lue h as in fa ct a diff er en t ,
value fo r light Of e a ch c o l o r bein g gr e atest f o r vi o let an d

le ast fo r r e d light an d var yin g between these lim its fo r light
,
Of o the r c o l or s .
The r es o lutio n o f white light i n t o its c o n stitue n t c o l o r s

by r efr a cti o n is c alled di sp er si on If a puff o f t o b a cc o -sm o ke .
is bl o wn a cr o ss the be am O f light wher e it issues fr o m the

p r ism o n ly the o uter p ar ts o f the be am will Sh o w an y ver y
,
p ro n o un ced c o l o r bec ause the cen tr al p ar ts at this pla ce will

,
Th h b
er e m u h di u i
as e en t wh t N W c Nu d t d sc ss o n as o a E TO n e r s oo
b y t he c o lo r w ic h hh e n am e d
“
in dig o ”
an d w ich h lies so m e w h ere be
tw een t h e b lu e an d the Vi o le t In di g o , as we un de r s t an d i i
t, s m o re
t h th vi th
.
n e ar l y a n i n k y b lu e ra er an a t b lu m lik go le e, or e e r ee n an lik e
vi l t d h i h b
o e ; an en ce t as een ug g st d th t N W N es e a E TO
’
S c o lo r vi i
s on
m ay h“v b li htl b
a e een S g y a n or m l I t hi
a . ti n s c on n e c on see ar ti c le en
titl d N wt d C l e o n an the o o u f t h Sp t um b y D
rs o e ec r
”
r R A H O US
UN S
e . . .
~
TO ,
P O ci en c e r og r e ss, ct . 1 9 17 .
§ 1 60] M o n o c hr o m a t i c Lig h t 46 7
n ot h ave been sufli c ie n tly disper sed t o exhibit their in divid

u al e ff ects At s o m e little dist an ce a way fr o m the pr ism the
.
en tir e secti o n o f the be am will be b r illi an tly c o l o r ed .
H avin g p ier ced a s m all h o le thr o ugh the sc r een at th at

p ar t o f it wher e the spect r um was fo r m ed (Fig NE W T O N .
was a ble by r o t at in g the p r is m a r o u n d a n axis p ar allel t o
5 — NE W T O N p h p h h h
p
FIG e r im e n t wit r i sm s ; o w in lig t Of
v h h p
20 t wo t
’
. . S ex s g at
a de fi n i t e c o lo r tra e r se s the se c o n d m wit

r is out f ur t er d is e r sio n
.
its edge t o t r an s m it r ays o f e a ch c o l o r in successi o n th r o ugh

the O pe n in g t o a sec o n d pr is m pl a ced with its edge p ar a llel
t o th at o f the fi r st p r is m ; an d a gr ee ably t o his e x pect ati o n s, ,
he fo un d th at whi le these r ays we r e ag ain devi ated in t r a

ver sin g the sec o n d pr ism ther e wa s n o fur the r dispe r si o n Of
,
the light Thi s exper im en t dem o n st rated th at the sin gle

.
c o l o r s o f the spectr u m we r e irr educible o r elem en t ar y an d

n o t a m i xtu r e o f still si m ple r c o l o r s a n d th a t the light which ,
h ad bee n sep a r a ted in this fa shi o n fr o m the be am o f sun

light was mon ochr oma ti c lig ht .
If all the var i o us c o m p o n e n ts o f the in cide n t light which

h as bee n r eso lved by the p r is m ar e r e -u n ite d a g a in the effect ,
will b e the s am e as th at o f the lig ht befor e its dispersi on .

46 8 M ir r o r s ,
§ 1 6O
The sim plest way t o a chieve t his r esult is t o c ause the r ays
t o t r ave r se a sec o n d p r is m p r ecisely e q u al t o the fi r st but ,
in ver ted so th at the di hed r al an gle between the pl an es o f

the a dj a cen t fa ces o f the t wo pr is m s is equ al t o the
edges O f the pr ism s bein g p ar allel I n deed if the t wo p r ism s .
,
wer e pl a ced in c o n t a ct in this way they wo uld fo r m a Sl ab ,
o f the s am e m ate r i a l th r o ugh o ut with a p a i r o f pl an e p ar a llel
fa ces fo r which the r esult an t dispe r si o n is z er o ; bec ause the

,
c o l o r ed r ays w o uld all em er ge in a dir ectio n p ar allel t o th at

o f the in cide n t ray which was the c o mm o n p ath O f all these
F IG h p
2 06 — Lig t is n o t dis e r se d in t r a e r sin g a v p
l at e wit h
p p h
.
lan e ar a ll e l f a c e s su r r o u n d e d b y sa m e m e diu m o n b o t
si de s .
ra ys befo r e they wer e sep ar ated by r efr a ctio n at the fir s t

fa ce o f the pl a te (Fig .
An o ther an d essen tially differ en t way Of r e -un itin g the

c o l o r ed r ays is t o c o n ver ge them t o a Sin gle p o in t b y m ean s
o f a so c a lled a ch r o m a tic le n s a s r ep r ese n ted di a gr am m ati
-
,
c ally in the a cc o m p an yin g dra win g (Fig 2 07 ) so th at th e .
effect at the fo cus C whe r e the c o l o r ed r ays m eet is the s am e

as th at o f light fr o m the s o u r ce Beyo n d C the r ays sep a
.
r ate a g ai n S O th at if they ar e r eceived o n a sc r ee n the s am e

,
successio n o f c o l o r s will be exhibited as befo r e o n ly in the ,
r eve r se o r de r If s o m e o f the r ays ar e in ter cepted befo r e

.
a r r ivin g at C the c o l o r at C will be the r esult an t effect o f

,
the r esidu a l r ays The p o i n t B wher e the r ays ar e sep ar ated

.
o n e n te r i n g the p r is m an d the p o i n t C whe r e they ar e r e

,
un ited by the len s ar e a p a ir o f c o n jugate po in ts with r e

spect t o the p r ism -le n s system .
1 60 ] Sp e c t ru m 46 9
The s o lar spect rum which NE W T O N Obt ain ed in his cele

b r at e d p r is m -e x pe r i m e n ts desc r ibed in 1 6 7 2 h a d o n e se r i o us
, ,
defect du e t o the fa ct th at the c o l o r s in it we r e n o t in r e a lity

,
pu r e but c o n siste d O f a blen din g O f t wo o r m o r e sim ple c o l o r s .
When the li ght p asses thr o ugh a r o u n d h o le befo r e fallin g

o n the p r is m the spect r u m o n the sc r ee n will be c o m p o se d
,
o f a se r ies o f c o l o r e d disks e a ch o n e o ve r l ap p i n g the o n e n e x t

,
t o it The c o l o r s ther efo r e ar e p a r tly supe r p o se d o n e a ch

.
, ,
o the r a n d the eye is so c o n stituted with r espect t o c o l o r

,
visio n th at it c an n o t distin guish the sep ar ate eff ects an d
E 2 07 — A c h r o m at ic l e n s u se d r e -u n it e t he c o lo r e d l ig h af t e r it h a s
p p
G. . to t
b e e n dis e r se d by r ism .
an a ly z e them but Obt a in s o n ly a gen er al r esult an t im pr essi on

o f the wh o le .
WO LLA ST O N S expe r i m e n ts in 1 802 di ffe r ed essen ti ally

’
fro m NE W T O N S o n ly in the fo r m an d dim en sio n s o f the beam

’
O f su n light th at was dispe r sed by the p r is m but this si m ple ,
m o dific a ti o n r ep r ese n ted a disti n ct a dv an ce in the m o de o f

in vestigati o n o f the spect ru m WO LLA S T O N a d m itted the .
sun light th r ough a n ar r o w Slit wh o se len gth was p ar allel t o

D H U r UN i th ti l l dy f d t ll t t ti
O ST O n e ar c e a rea r e erre o, ca s a en on
t o t h f t th t i N l m
.
,
e m
ac f hi p i m - p im t N W
a n so e o s r s ex er en s E TO a so e
p lo ye d o p e n in g in t h e f o r m o f a n arro w sli t , a n d w a s awa r e Of it s

W N
an
ad v an t g with
a es r e sp e c t t
t o t h e p ur i y o f t h e sp e c ru m ; f o r E t N TO
t
s a te s th t i t
“ a n s e ad of t he c ir c ul ar h ole ,
” “
i t is b e tt er to sub s titut e an
O b lo n g h o le s h ap e d lik e a lo n g Par alle lo g ra m wit hi ts l e n g t h Pa r alle l

t o th e Pr ism . Fo r if th i s h o le be an In c h or t wo lo n g , an d b ut a t th
en
470 Mir r o r s ,
Prisms an d Le n se s
t he prism —edge ; an d in o r der t o dimi n ish still m o r e the di

ver gen ce o f the in ciden t be am a sc r ee n with a sec o n d slit ,
p ar allel t o the fir st was i n ter po sed in fr on t o f the p r is m as ,
r ep r ese n ted in the a cc o m p an yi n g di a gr a m (Fig The .
spectr u m fo r m ed in this way is far pu r er th an th at o bt ain ed

with a r o un d o pe n in g in the Shutter But a difli culty th a t .
FIG 2 08 — Pur e p e c t r um O b t ain e d b y c a u sin g su n lig t t o h p t h h t wo

v p
. . s a ss r oug
n a r r o w slit s b e f o r e t r a e r sin g ri sm .
in her es in b o th m eth o ds ar ises fr o m the fa ct th at the im a ge

fo r m ed by a pr ism is always vir tu a l an d ther efo r e a h o m o ,
cen t r ic bu n dle Of m o n o chr o m a tic diver g en t r ays will n e c

e ssar ily be dive r ge n t a fte r t r a ve r si n g a p r is m S O th a t if ,
they ar e r eceived o n a scr een they will illum i n ate a cer t a i n

ar e a o n it whi ch is the c r o ss -secti o n o f the r ay-bu n dle an d
n o t in an y st r ict sen se an o ptic a l im a ge o f the o r igin a l s o ur ce .
or tw ti th p rt f I h b d
en e a o w ; th Lig ht f t h Im g
an nc ro a o r n ar r o er e o e a e,
or s p t um will b
ec r Sim p l b f im pl
e as d t h Im g will
e as e or e o r s e r , an e a e
m mu h b d th f m fi t t h v E p im t
,
be co e d c roa er , an e r e or e or e o e x er en s
T h f t t h t N W N did
a
t i d i it Lig ht th b f
r e n s an e or e
”
t di e ac a E TO no s
v th F UNHO li f th l p t um 1 6 1 ) i p b b ly
.
co er e RA FE R n es O e s o ar s ec r s ro a
t b
o pl i d
e ex th upp
a ne iti th t hi p i m w
on e s f os i f i on a s r s s ere o an n er or
q u lity f g l
a o d th t p ib ly l
ass a n th u f aw t
o ss hig hly a so e s r a c es er e n o as
p li h d
o s th y mig ht h v b
e as e a e een .
1 60] Sp e c t ru m 47 1
C o n seque n tly , if the s o ur ce sen ds o ut light o f d iffer e n t c o lo r s ,
the eff ect o n the scr een will c o r r espo n d t o the secti o n s o f all
the bun dles o f c o lo r ed r ays an d sin ce these sectio n s will ,
o ve r l a p e ach o the r t o a gr e ate r o r less e xte n t the spect r u m ,
will n o t be pur e The n arr o wer the aper tu r es o f the bu n dles

.
O f r ays a n d the far the r the sc r ee n is fr o m the p r is m the less ,
F IG . 2 09 .
—Pu r e s p e c tr u m ob t ain e d b y s lit , p r i sm an d ac h r o m a t ic le n s .
will be the o ve r l a pp in g o f the a dj a cen t c o l o r s a n d ther efo r e ,
the pur er the spect r um ; but o n the o ther h an d the less a ls o ,
will be the illum in atio n

A m uch m
.
o r e s a tisfa ct o r y m eth o d c o n sists in m a kin g these
diver gen t bu n dles o f r ays c o n ver gen t by m e an s o f an a chr o

m atic c o n vex le n s as r e p r esen te d in Fig 209 ; whe r eb y the
,
.
blue r ays pr o cee din g a p p ar en tly fr o m a vir tu a l fo cus at B

a r e b r o ught t o a r e al f o cus o n the sc r ee n at B a n d si m il ar ly
’
, , ,
the r e d r ays ar e u n ited at R The pl an e O f the diagr am ’

.
r ep r ese n ts a p r in cip a l secti o n o f the p r is m The light o rig .
in at e s in a lu m i n o us li n e o r n arr o w illu m in ated Slit at S p ar

a llel t o the p r is m -edge an d the Spect r um R B o n the sc r een
,
’ ’
c o n sists o f a ser ies o f c o l o r ed im ages o f this Slit an d is ap

pr o xim ately pu r e ex cept in so far as the Slit m ust n ecess ar ily
,
h ave a ce r t ain width Mo r eo ver in the c a se O f a ver y n ar

.
,
r o w Slit ther e ar e cer t ain SO-c alled diffr a ctio n -eff ects 7)
,
which ar e in deed o f ver y gr e at i m p o r t an ce in an y th o r o ugh

scien tific discussi o n o f the c o n diti on Of the pur it y Of the
spect r um .
472 Mirr o r s ,
161 . Dar k Lin e s

. Of th e S o l ar Spe c tr u m WO LLA ST O N .
—
him self O bser ved th at the spec tru m o f su n light was n o t ab

so lut e ly c o n tin u o us but th a t the r e we r e ce r t ai n n ar r o w g a ps
,
o r d a r k b an ds in it p ar a llel to the S lit FR A UN H O FE R (1 7 87 .
with his r ar e a cum en an d exper im en t al skill was able ,
t o O bt a in spect r a o f fa r higher pu r ity th an a n y o f his p r ede

‘
c e sso r s a n d he disc o ve r ed in depe n de n tl y th a t the s o l ar spec

, , ,
t rum was c r o ssed by a ver y g r e a t n u m ber o f d ar k lin es the ,
so c alled FR A UN H O F E R li n es fr o m which he a r gued th a t sun

-
,
light was deficien t in light O f cer t ain c o l o r s FRA UNH O F E R .
c o un ted m o r e th an 6 00 o f these lin es but ther e ar e n o w ,
kn o wn t o be sever al th o us an d On e gr e at a dvan t a ge o f this

.
r e m ar k able disc o ve r y which FRA UNH O FE R was quick t o

,
r e ali z e c o n si sts in the fa ct th a t these lin es ar e especi all y

,
suit able an d c o n ven ie n t fo r e n abli n g us t o specify p articul ar

r egi o n s o r c o l o r s O f the spect r um bec ause e a ch o f the m c o r
,
r esp o n ds t o a ce r t a i n deg r ee o f r efran gibility th a t is t o a , ,
per fectl y defin ite c o l o r o f light An expl an ati o n o f the o r igin

.
O f the d a r k li n es o f t h e s o lar spect r um m ay be fo un d in
t r eatises o n physics an d physic al o ptics .
The d ar k li n es ar e dist r ibuted ver y irr egul ar l y o ver the e u

tir e exten t O f the s o l ar spectr um In s o m e c a ses they ar e .
Sh a r p a n d fi n e a n d is o l a ted ; s o m e o f the m a r e e x ceedin gl y
cl o se t o gether so as t o be h ar dly distin guish able a p ar t ; o ther s

a g a i n a r e quite br o a d a n d distin ct In o r de r t o desc ribe .
their p o siti o n s with r espect t o e a ch o ther FR A UNH O FE R se ,
le c t e d eight p r o m i n e n t li n es dist r ibuted in the diffe r e n t

r egi o n s o f the spect r u m which he design ated by the c a pit al
,
lette r s A (d ar k r e d) B (b r ight r e d) C (o r an ge) D (yell o w)

E (gr ee n ) F (d ar k blue ) G (in dig o ) , an d H (Vi o let )
, , , ,
, ,
Thi s .
n o t ati o n is still in use a n d h as Si n ce bee n e xte n ded be y o n d

,
the lim its o f t h e visible spect r um .
1 6 2 Re l ati o n b e twe e n th e C o l or Of th e Li g ht an d t he
.
Fr e qu e n c y of Vib r at i o n of th e Li g ht W av e s
- —
Acc o r din g t o .
the u n dul at o ry the o r y o f light a lum in o us b o dy sets up

“
,
distur b an ces o r vib r ati o n s in the ether which are pr o p

”
]
1 62 Li g h tW
- a ves an d C o lo r 47 3
ag at e d waves in all di r ecti o n s with pr o dig i ous vel o cities

in .
The vel o city o f light in the fr ee ether is ab o ut 300 m illi o n

m ete r s p e r sec o n d Wh e n a t r ai n o f light w aves t r ave r ses
.
-
a r ectili n e ar r o w o f ethe r -p ar ticles all lyi n g in the s am e m e
diu m the dist an ce bet wee n o n e p ar ticle an d the n e ar est o n e

,
t o it th at is in p r ecisely the s am e ph a se o f vib r ati o n is c alled

the wave-len gth ; an d the n um ber o f waves which p ass a
given p o in t in o n e sec o n d o r the f r e quen cy o f the u n dul atio n
will be equ al t o the vel ocity o f p r o p a gatio n o f the wave
divided by the w ave-len gth The r eci p r o c al o f the fr equen cy
.
will be the tim e t aken by a sin gle wave in p a ssin g a given

p o in t w,
hich is c a lled the p e r i o d o f the vib r a ti o n If the .
w ave-len gth is de n o ted by A the vel o city o f pr o p agati o n

by v the fr equen cy by N an d the pe r i o d b y T = 1/ N the
,
, , ,
r el ati o n s betwee n these m agn itudes is ex pr essed as f ol

l o ws :
When ethe r-waves fall the r eti n a Of the eye they m ay

on ,
ex cite a sen s ati o n o f light pr o vided their fr eque n cies ar e

n eithe r t o o s m a ll n o r t o o g r e a t the li m its o f visibility bei n g
,
c o n fin ed t o waves wh o se fr equen cies lie between ab o ut 3 9 2

5
an d 7 7 billi o n s o f vib r ati o n s p e r sec o n d Just as the pitch
.
O f a m usic al n o te is dete r m in ed by its fr eque n cy so als o the ,
se n s atio n which we c all c o l o r a ppe ar s t o be m o r e o r less in

e xplic ably a sso ci ated with the fr eque n cy o f the vibr atio n s
o f the lum i n ife r o us ethe r ; so th a t t o e a ch fr eque n cy betwee n
the lim its n am ed the r e c o rr esp o n ds a pe r fectly defin ite kin d

o f light o r c o l o r . Abs o lutely m o n o ch r o m atic light due t o
ethe r-waves Of o n e Sin gle fr equen cy o f vib r ati o n is difficult
t o O bt a i n In ge n e r al the light which is e m itted by a l umi
.
,
n o us b o dy is m o r e o r less c o m ple x an d the se n s ati o n which

,
it pr o duces in the eye is due t o a vari ety o f i mpulses The .
yello w light which is char a cter istic Of the flam e o f a BUN SE N

burn e r when a t r a ce O f c o m m o n s alt is bur n ed in it is a se n
s atio n e x cited by the i m p a ct o f t wo k i n ds o f ethe r -Waves
c o rr espo n din g t o the d ouble D-lin e o f the s o l ar spect r um
474 Mir r ors ,
which h ave fr eque n cies o f ab o ut 09 an d 1 1 b illio n s o f vi 5 5

b r at io n s p e r sec o n d R e d light c o r r esp o n ds t o the l o west
.
a n d vi o let light t o the highest fr e q ue n cy .
It is kn o wn th at the vel o city O f light o f a given c o lo r de

pe n ds o n the m edium in which the light is pr o p ag ated ; an d
it h as a ls o been est ablished th at the vel o city o f li ght in a give n
m ediu m depe n ds o n the c o l o r o f the li ght H o wever a pp ar .
,
en tly light O f all c o l o r s is t r an smi tted with equ al vel o cities

i n vacuo; a n d a ls o in air o n a cc o un t o f its S light di spe r si o n , ,
ther e is pr a ctic ally n o differ en ce in the velo cit y Of pr o pag a

ti o n o f light o f diff er en t c o l o r s .
!
On e r e a s o n fo r i n fe rr in g th a t the f r e q ue n c y Of the ethe r

vib r ati o n s is the ph ysic al e xpl an atio n o f the phen om en on o f
“Wh whi t lig ht t en t p t m dium th l g d w v
e en ers a r an s ar e n e e on re a es
f g h d f th g whi h i t h i tu g t h d f t h b lu
,
or e a ea o e r e e n o n es , c n e r rn e a ea o e
fl h f whit lig ht t v i g
e.
If w im g i e i t t
a ne u an n s an an e o s as o e ra er s n a re
f ti g m di um w m u t
r ac n e iv it d w ut i t
e t f li
s c o n ce e as ra n o n o a sor o n ea r
h v
,
s p t u
ec rm i t h m di u m n t t i t he d w e l d t he t i th a s, e re a es ea ra n e
d vi l t f ll wi g i
, ,
o r an g y ll w g
e, e b lu o r ee n u i Th
e, an o e o o n n s c c e ss on e
l g t h f thi t i will i wi th t h l g t h f t h m dium t v

.
, ,
en o s ra n n cr e a se d e en o e e ra e r se
th t h t i wi ll m v with ut
.
O n m g i g g i i t th f
e er n a a n n o e ree e er e ra n o e on o
an y f u th lt
r ti f it l g th
er a era on o s en
f m m id f th tu l m g i tud i v lv d i th
.
W e c an or so e ea o e ac a a n es n o e n e
f ll wi g w y Supp w h v b l k f p f tly t p t g l
o o n a o se e a e a oc o er e c r an s ar e n ass
tw lv mil i thi k R d lig ht will t v

.
(f f i d
o re . n ex e e es n c n ess . e ra er se
it i 1 / 10000 f
n d d O m g i g W il l b
a se c on b ut m il ian on e er n e a o es n
dv f t h b lu lig ht whi h t d t t h m tim If whit

,
a an ce O e e c en ere a e sa e e e
lig ht w t t v thi m
.
er e o f gl
ra t h tim
e r se l p i g b tw t he s ass O ass, e e e a s n e ee n
ar r iv l f t h fi t
a o d d th fi t b lu lig ht t t h
e rs re y will b l
an th e rs e a e e e e an
N d t mi ti f th v l ity f lig ht
es s
1 6 000 f d M
’
o a se c o n IC H E LS O S e er na on o e e oc O
b i ulp hid h w d that th d y g i d th b lu i

.
in b
c ar on s e S o e e re ra s a ne on e e n
th i t it th u g h th tub f liquid T h b
e r ran s ro f y he g f e o e a se n c e O an c an e o
l i t h v i b l t Al g l fu i h d di t vid t h t t h b lu
.
c o or n e ar a e s ar o rn s e rec e e n ce a e e
an d d y t v
re ra p s with m V l ity
ra I t hi
e rs e s t h di
ace sa e e oc n s c a se e s
v t d th tim f t it l g th t th whit lig ht

.
t an ce i s so as ,
an e e o r an s so on ,
a e e
co mi g f m t hn t du i g
ro f it p i di i
e s ar i b illir n y on e o s er o c n c r e ase s n r an c
w uldo iv t th
arr th with it d m p
e a t f i dv
e e ar f s re co on en so ar n a an c e o
th b lu
e th t th f t uld ily b t b li h d b y t h p t
e a e ac co e as e es a s e e s e c ro
p h t m
o o t v
e er b y t h or y
—R W WO O D :
e en Physi l Op ti e e e.
”
. . ca cs,
Se c o n d E di tio n (Ne w Y o rk , p ag e 1 01 .
§ 1 62] Wav e - Le n g h s t of Li g h t 47 5
c o l o r is foun d in the fa ct th at the c o lo r o f m on o ch r o m atic
light r em ai n s un alter e d when the light p asses fr o m o n e m e
dium in t o a n o the r ; a n d si n ce the vib r ati o n s in the sec o n d
m ediu m a r e e x cited an d fo r ced by th o se in the fi r st m e diu m ,
it is n atur a l t o su p po se th at the vi b r atio n -fr e q uen cy is the

s am e in b o th m edi a .
Acc o r din gly it is the r ati o ,
A
th at r em ain s c o n s tan t in the t r an sm issio n o f m o n o ch r o m atic
light t h r o ugh diffe r e n t m e di a An d he n ce if the vel o cities o f .
li ght in t wo m edi a ar e den o ted by v v an d if the w a ve-len gths ,

’
,
in these t wo m edi a a r e de n o te d by h N the n , ,
or M X th t is
’
a the w a v e -len g th of li g ht of a g i ven co lor
,
v a r i es f ro m me di um to medi um, an d i s p r op or ti o n a l to the ve

loci ty of p r op ag a ti on f lig ht of
o tha t co lor i n the medi um i n
qu e sti on Thus the wave len gth o f yell o w light is sh o r ter

.
-
in gl a ss th an it is i n air bec ause light t r avels m o r e sl o wly in

,
gl ass th an in air .
G e n e r ally the r efo r e whe n we spe ak o f the w ave-len gth o f

, ,
a give n kin d o f light we m e an its w ave -le n gth m e a su r ed i n

,
v a c uo .The len g ths O f waves o f light a r e all r el atively ve r y

Sh o rt the l o n gest c o r r esp o n d in g t o the e xt r e m e r e d e n d o f
, ,
the spectru m bein g less th an o n e 1 3-th o us an dth O f a ce n ti

,
m ete r an d the sh o r test bel o n gi n g t o the e xt r e m e vi o let e n d

5
, ,
o f the visible spect r u m bei n g less th an o n e 2 -th o us an dth ,
o f a ce n ti m ete r These m agn itudes ar e usu ally exp r essed in

“
.
ter m s o f a speci al un it c alled a te n th -m eter which is o n e

1 0-billi o n th p a r t o f a m ete r m ete r ) o r in ter m s o f a
“m icr om ill i m eter which is equ al t o the m il li o n th p art o f
”
a m illi m eter an d fo r whi ch the sym b o l is e m pl o yed

up
Thus the w ave-le n gths o f light c o r ,
r esp o n di n g t o the r e d an d vi o let e n ds o f the visible spect ru m
a r e a b o ut 7 6 7
m } a n d 397
g ” r espectively
. The F R A UN .
H O F E R lin e A is a br o ad in distin ct lin e at the begi n n in g o f the

,
r e d p ar t o f the spect r um w ave -le n gth the B -lin e

up ; ,
47 6 Mir r ors
,
Pr isms an d Le n se s
in the r e d part c o rr esp o n ds t o light o f w ave-len gth up ;

the C li n e in the o r an ge c o rr esp o n ds t o light o f wave-len g th
—
the D lin e in the yello w is a d o uble lin e c or

5
-
,
r espo n din g t o light o f w a ve -le n gths 89 6 q an d
the li n e in the gr een c o r r esp o n ds t o light o f w ave

5
E -
le g th 7 p p ; the F lin e in the blue c o rr espo n ds t o light

n 2 O .
-
o f w a ve -le n gth the G -li e i the i dig c e

up ; n n n o o rr
sp o n ds t o light O f w a ve -le n gth 4 3 8M ; a d the H lin e

0 x n - .
,
c o n sistin g o f t wo b r o a d lin es In the vi o let c o r r esp o n ds t o ,
light o f wave-len gths 396 8juju an d .
1 6 3 I n de x of R e f r a c ti o n as a Fun c ti o n of t h e Wav e
.
Le n g th —
N o w a cc o r din g t o the w ave -the o r y O f light t he
.
,
a bs o lute i n de x o f r efr a cti o n (n ) O f a m ediu m fo r light o f a
defin ite c o l or is equ al t o the r atio o f the vel o city o f light

i n va cuo (V) t o its vel o cit y (v ) in the m e di um in q ue sti o n
th at is ,
St r ictl y spekin g ther efo r e the in dex o f r e fr a cti o n O f a m e

a , ,
dium with o ut fu r the r qu alific ati o n is a pe r fectly v a gue e x

, ,
pr essi o n bec ause e a ch m e dium h a s as m an y in dices Of r e

,
fr a ctio n as ther e ar e differ en t kin ds o f m o n o ch r o m atic light .
Whe n the ter m is used by itself it is ge n e r ally u n der st o o d

,
t o m e an the i n de x O f r efr a cti o n c o r r esp o n din g t o the D lin e

-
in the b r ight yell o w p ar t o f the s o l ar spect r u m which is ,
ch ar a cter istic o f the light o f i n can descen t s o dium v ap or .
Hen ce ,
vel o c ity o f yell o w light i n va cu o

vel o cit y o f y ello w light in the m edium in q uestio n
w ave —len g th o f yell o w light i n va cu o
w ave-len gth o f y ell o w l ight in t h e given m e dium
In the fo ll o win g t able the va lues o f the in dices o f r efr a ctio n
o f seve r a l t r a n sp ar e n t liqui ds ar e give n f o r light c o rr esp o n d
in g t o the FRA UN H O F E R lin es A B C D E F G a n d H

, , , , , , ,
.
§ 1 64] I r r a t io n a lity o f Disp e r sio n 47 7
Wav e-le n g t h
in Mt
h
Al co o l
Ben z en e
h
Sulp u r ic A c id
Wa t e r
It m ay he r e m ar ked th at in ge n er al the Sh o r te r the wave

, ,
len gth the gr ea ter will be the in dex o f r efr a cti o n o f a sub
,
st an ce But the ex a ct r el atio n betwee n the in dex o f r e fr a c

.
ti o n an d the w ave-le n gth o f the light h a s t o be determ in e d

em pir ic ally fo r e a ch subst an ce Ther e is in deed a cer t ain
.
, ,
gr o up o f subst an ces which fo r m an ex ceptio n t o the ge n er al

statem en t m a de a b o ve an d which yield r efr a ctio n spect r a
,
-
with the o r de r o f the c o l o r s p ar ti ally o r en tir ely r eve r sed .
This phen o m en o n is c alled a n oma lous di sp er si on .
1 64 Irr atio n al ity o f D i spe r s i o n

.
—
Othe r thi n gs bei n g
.
e qu al the len gth Of the spectr um o r the in ter va l between

,
F IG 2 1 0 — Ir r a t io n a lit
. y of dis p e r sio n .
a g ive n p a i r o f FR A UN H O FE R li n es depe n ds esse n ti all y o n the
n atu r e o f the r efr a cti n g m ediu m so th a t in ge n e r a l as S h o w n

, , ,
by the t a ble in the p r ece din g sectio n the dispe r si o n Of t wo ,
c o lo r s will be fo u n d to be diffe r e n t fo r di ffe r e n t subst an ces .

47 8 Mirror s ,
Prism s an d Le n ses
Fo r e xam ple the di sper sion Of gl ass is gr ea ter th an th at o f

,
water an d the dispe r sio n of so -c alled flin t gl a ss is higher t

,
th at o f so -c allg g cr o wn gl a ss In Fig 2 1 0 ar e e xhibited the

. .
r el ative le n gths o f the di ff e r e n t r egi o n s o f the s o l a r spect r a
c a st o n the s am e scr een un de r p r ecis ely the s am e c ir

c u m st a n c e s by p r is m s O f e q u a l r efr a cti n g an gles m a de O f
water c r o wn gl ass a n d flin t gl ass The len gth o f the spec

,
.
tr um m ay be in cr e ased b y shiftin g the scr een fart her fr om
FIG 2 1 1 —Irr at io n alit

. . y of dis p e r sio n .
the pr ism an d Fig 2 1 1 sh o ws the r el ative p o siti on s o f the

,
.
FRA UN H O FE R li n es B C D E F G a n d H whe n the le n gths

, , , , , ,
o f t h e sp e c t r a O f the c r o w n gl a ss p r is m an d the w a te r p r is m
'
h a ve been el o n g ated in this m an n er un til their len gths ar e

b o th equ al t o the len gth o f the spect r um o f the flin t gl a ss
pr ism fo r the i n te r val between the FR A UN H O FE R lin es B an d
H The o ther li n es in the th r ee Spectr a do n o t c o in cide at all
. .
Mo r e o ve r it a ppe ar s th at th e dispe r si on o f w ate r fo r the

,
c ol o r s t o war ds the r e d e n d O f the spect r um is r el atively high ,
wher e as the dispe r sio n O f the flin t gl a ss is r el ativel y high

t o war ds the blue e n d In the spectr um O f flin t glass t he in
.
t e r v al betwee n G an d H a n d in the spect r u m Of w ate r the in

,
t e r v al betwee n B an d F is gr e a te r th an it is in eithe r O f the

,
o the r spect r a . If the law o f the var i ati o n O f the i n dex o f r e

§ 16 5
] Di sp e r siv e Po wer 479
fr a ctio n with the c o l o r o f the light has been fo un d e m piric ally

fo r o n e subst an ce this will n o t a ffo r d a n y clue t o the c o rr e
,
sp o n din g la w in the c a se O f a n o the r subst an ce D i am o n d fo r.

,
exam ple is ver y highly r efr a ctin g but sho ws c o m p ar atively

,
little disper sio n whe r ea s fli n t gl a ss which h as a m uch lo wer

,
in dex o f r efr a ctio n gives a m uch higher disper sio n ; o n the

o the r h an d fl u o r ite h a s a l o w i n de x o f r efr a cti o n an d at the
,
s am e ti m e a lo w dispe r sio n This phen o m en o n which is

.
ch ar a cte r istic o f r efr a cti o n -spectra is k n o wn as the i rr a ti on
5i
a li ty o f di sp ersi on .
16 D spe r sive Po we r
. M e dium In the c a se o f a
Of a —
.
p r ism Of s m all r efr a ctin g an gle 6 the devi ati o n is give n by
the fo r m ul a e = (u as was e x pl ai n ed in § 6 0 Le t .
the letter s P an d Q be used t o design ate t wo c o l o r s an d let ,
n p an d n
Q d e n o te the i n dices o f r efr a cti o n o f the p r is m
subst an ce fo r these c o l o r s If the an gles o f devi ati o n ar e

.
den o ted b y 6 ? an d eQ the n eQ ep (n Q n p ) B an d c o n

= —
, ,
seque n tly fo r a thi n p r is m the a n gul ar m ag n itude o f the

,
in te r val in the Sp ectr u m between the c o l o r s P an d Q is p r o

p o r tio n al t o the differ en ce O f the values o f the i n dices O f r e
fr a cti o n This differ en ce (n Q n p ) is c alled the p ar ti a l dis
.
—
p er s i on O f the subst a n ce f o r the spect r u m -i n te r v a l P

Q ,
.
Thus in the b r ightest p ar t O f the s p ectr u m c o m p r ised b e

,
twee n the FR A UNH O FE R lin es C an d F the p ar tial disper sion ,
is (n F n c ) The devi atio n o f a pr ism o f sm all r efr a ctin g

— .
a n gle 6 f o r light c o r r esp o n di n g t o the D-li n e which lies
betwee C a d F is eD (n D 1 ) j6 an d sin ce eF ec
n n = -
,
(n F
— n c ) B we o
,b t a i n
GF 60 flp
i
— no
6D nD 1
This r atio o f the an gul ar disper si o n o f t wo c o l o r s t o thei r
m e an dispe r si o n is c alled the di sp er si v e p owe r o r the r e la ti ve
di sp er si on O f the subst an ce fo r the t wo c o l o r s which ar e usu ,
a lly r e d (C ) a n d blue (F) ; so th a t the dispe r sive p o we r o f
a n O p tic a l m ediu m with r es p ect t o the visible spect r u m m ay
b e defi n ed t o be the qu o tie n t o f the di ffe r e n ce (n F n c ) —

'
480 Mirr o rs ,
betwee n the in dices o f r efr a cti o n fo r r e d an d blue light b y

(n D whe r e n D de n o tes the i n de x o f r ef r a cti o n f o r yell o w
light The v alues o f the disper sive po wer s o f the var i o us
.
kin ds o f O ptic al gl a ss th at ar e o f chi ef pr a ctic al i m po rt an ce
5
in the c o n st r ucti o n o f o ptic a l i n st r u m e n ts v ar y fr o m a b o ut
£3 t o a b o ut ; 3
a lth o ugh the r e a r e c o m p o siti o n s O f gl a ss
with values o f the disper sive p o wer n o t c o m pr ised withi n
these lim its I n ste ad o f assign in g the value o f the dispe r sive
.
p o we r o f a subst an ce it is m o r e c o n v en ie n t t o a d o pt A BB E S
,
’
m eth o d an d e m pl o y the r ecip r o c al o f this fun cti o n which is ,
den o ted by the Gr eek lette r V an d which is kn o wn the r e , ,
fo e s the value Of the subst an ce ; thus

r ,
a v -
,
—
nD I
v =
—
nF nc
If the v -value o f o n e subst an ce is less th an th at of an other ,
the dispe r sive po wer o f the for m er will be c o rr espon din gl y

gr e ate r th an th at O f the latter .
It is this c o n st an t If th at is the essen ti al fa ct o r t o be c on

side r e d in the selecti o n o f diff e r e n t kin ds o f gl a ss suit able t o
be used in m a kin g a S O-c alled a ch r o m atic c o m bin ati o n o f

‘
len ses o r pr ism s C u r i o usly en ough N E W T O N per sisted in

.
,
m a in t a in in g th a t the dispe r si o n o f a subst an ce was p r o p o r

t io n al t o t h e r efr a cti o n which is equiva len t t o s ayi n g th a t
,
the disper sive p o wers o f all o ptic al m edi a ar e equ al ; an d ,
c o n sequen tly he desp a ir ed o f c o n st r uctin g an a chr o m ati c

,
c o m bin ati o n o f l en ses which w o uld r efr a ct the r ays with o ut

a t the s am e ti m e dispe r si n g the c o n stitue n t c o l o r s This .
c o n diti o n h o wever is an esse n ti a l r equir em en t in the O bj ect

, ,
gl ass o f a telesc o pe an d it was just bec ause N E WT O N an d his

,
fo llo wer s believed th at a len s O f this kin d was in the n atu r e

o f thi n gs u n att ai n able th at they e x pe n ded thei r e ff o r ts in
the dir ecti o n o f per fectin g the r eflectin g telesc o pe in which

the c o n vex len s was r epla ced by a c o n c ave m irr o r On the .
o the r h an d fr o m the a ssu m pti o n th a t the O ptic a l syste m o f

,
the hum an eye is fr ee fr m c o l o r faults (which is by n O m e an s

o -
‘
t r ue) it was ar gued n o t ably b y JA ME S GR E G O R Y in En gl and

, ,
1 6 6] Op ti ca l G l a ss
(ab o ut 1 67 0) an d lo n g fter war ds by EU LE R in G er m an y

a
th at N E WT O N S c o n clusio n s as t o the i m p o ssibility

’
o f an a ch r o m atic c o m b i n a ti o n o f r efr a cti n g m edi a we r e e r
r o n e o us . In fa ct an E n glish ge n tle m an n am ed HALL suc

,
c e e de d in 1 7 33 in c o n st r ucti n g telesc o pes which yielded

im ages fr ee fro m se r i o us c o l o r faults KLIN G E N S T IE R NA in
5
.
S we den in 1 7 4 de m o n st r a ted the fe a sibility o f c o m bi n i n g

a p a i r o f p r is m s o f di ffe r e n t ki n ds o f gl ass an d o f di ffe r e n t r e
fr a ctin g an gles so a s t o o bt ai n in o n e c a se deviati o n with o ut

, ,
dis p er sio n an d in an o the r c a se disper si o n with o ut devi atio n

, ,
.
But in its pr a ctic al r esults the m o st i m po r t an t a dvan ce

a l o n g this li n e was a chieve d by the p a i n st aki n g an d o r igi n al
w o r k o f the En glish o ptician J O H N D O LLO ND I m pr essed .
by the fo r ce o f KLIN G E N ST IE R NA S de m o n st r atio n he c a r e

’
,
fully r epe ated NE W T O N S c r ucial e xpe r i m e n t in which a gla ss

’
pr ism was i n cl o sed in a w ate r p r ism o f v ar i able r efr a ctin g

a n gle ; a n d h avi n g fo u n d th a t the r esults o f this e x pe r i m e n t
we r e exa ctly c o n tr ary t o th o se St ated by N E WT O N he was ,
led also t o the o ppo site c o n clusi o n Afte r m uch pe r seve r

5
.
a n ce D OLLO N D h a d succee ded by 1 7 7 in m aki n g a ch r o m a tic
c o m bin atio n s o f seve ra l differ e n t types which p r o duced a ,\
m o r e o r less c o l o r less i m age o f a p o in t s o u r ce o n the a xis o f

-
the system In its o rigin al fo r m the c o m bin ati o n c o n sisted

“
.
O f a d o uble c o n ve x c ro wn gl a ss len s cem en ted t o a d o uble

”
c o n c ave flin t gl a ss len s AS a r ule the fo cus o f the blue

”
.
,
r ays will be n e a r e r a c o n ve x le n s a n d fa r the r fr o m a c o n c a ve
len s th an the fo cus o f the r e d r ays ; an d he n ce by c o m bi n i n g

a c o n ve x c r o wn gl a ss le n s o f r el atively l o we r r efr a ctive i n de x
(Sh o r te r fo cus ) a n d less dispe r sive po we r with a c o n c a ve fli n t

gl ass le n s o f highe r r efra ctive in dex a n d highe r dispe r sive
po wer a r esult an t system m ay be o bt ai n e d which still has
,
a ce r t a i n fi n ite fo c a l le n gth an d in which a t the s am e ti m e
the O ppo se d c o lo r -dispe r si o n s fo r t wo c o lo r s say r e d an d , ,
blue ar e c o m p e n s ated
,
.
1 66 O pti c al G1a ss —N E W T O N S e r r o r in supp o si n g tha t fo r

’
. .
all subst an c es th e dis pe r si o n was p r o p o r ti o n al t o the i n de x

482 Mir r or s ,
Of r efr a ction r et ar ded the devel o pm e n t o f tech n ic al o ptics

fo r a l o n g ti m e t o c o m e Al th o ugh D O LLO N D S a chievem en t
’
.
,
m e n ti o n ed ab o ve was o n e o f far -r e a chin g i m p o rt an ce fo r the

,
p r a ctic al c o n st r ucti o n o f O ptic al in str u m en ts the gr e at diffi

,
cult y in the way Of utili z in g an d a pplyi n g the prin ciple was

t o be f o u n d in the fa ct th at the a ctu al v ar ieties o f o ptic al
gl ass at the disp o s al o f the O ptici an wer e ex ceedin gl y lim i ted
in n u m be r ; a lth o ugh fr o m ti m e t o ti m e system atic eff o r ts
wer e m a de n o t ably by FR A UN H O F E R (ab o ut 1 8 1 2) in Ge r
,
m an y an d b y FA R A DA Y HA R C O U R T (1 834) an d ST O K E S
( a b o ut 1 8 7 0) in E n gl a n d t
,
o r e m edy this deficie n c y b y di
,
s
c o ver in g an d m an ufa ctu r in g n e w c o m p o sitio n s o f gl ass sui t

a ble f o r O ptic a l pu r p o ses Fo r a l o n g ti m e a fter FRA U N
.
H OFE R S ep o ch the art o f m akin g o ptical glass was c on fin ed

’
al m o st e x clusivel y t o Fr an c e a n d E n gl a n d . It was a fo r
t un at e c o i n cide n ce th at just a b o ut the t im e whe n E A BB E .
h ad r e a ched t h e c o n clu sio n th a t n o fu r the r p r o gr ess in O p

tic al c o n str ucti on c o uld b e expected u n less t o t all y n e w v a
.
r ie t ie s O f o ptic a l gl a ss we r e fo r thc omi n g ,

O SC H O TT was
.
al r e a dy begi n n i n g t o e x pe r i m e n t with n e w che m ic a l c o m bi n a
ti on s an d p r o cesses Of m an ufa ctu r e in his gl ass w o r ks at Jen a .
Th an ks t o the system atic an d i n defatigable effo r ts o f these

t wo c o ll a b o r at o r s wh o we r e als o e n c o u r a ged by the Pr us
,
si an go ver n m en t the O bst a cle which had st o o d so l o n g in the

,
way o f the i m p r o ve m e n t an d devel o p m en t o f O ptic al in st r u

m e n ts was at le n gth t r iu m ph an tly o ve r c o m e b y the successful
pr o ducti o n o f an e n tir e n e w ser ies Of v ar ieties o f o ptical gl ass
with pr o per ties in s o m e in st an ces alm o st beyo n d the highest
expect atio n s The fi r st c at al o gue o f the Glastechn isches
5
.
Lab or ator i um at Je n a was issued in 1 88 ; which m ar ked

the begin n in g o f the m an ufa ctu r e O f the r en o wn ed Jen a gl ass ,
t o which m o r e th an t o an y o the r Si n gle f a ct o r the r e m ar k able

devel o pm en t o f m o der n o ptic al i n str u m en ts is due Fr o m .
th at tim e t o the pr esen t the gr eat pr o vi n ce o f applied O ptics

m ay al m o st be s aid t o h ave bec o m e a G er m an terr it o r y
“
.
The e arli e r so c alled o r din ar y var iet ie s o f o ptic al

"
-
1 66] J en a G l ass 483
gl ass we r e silicates in which the b a sic c on stituen ts we r e

lim e (cr o wn gl a ss ) o r lea d (fl i n t gl ass ) c o m bi n e d with s o d a
(N3 00 ) o r p o t ash (K C O ) o r b o th The n ewe r kin ds O f
2 3 Q 3 .
o ptic a l gl a ss h ave bee n pr o duce d by em pl o yi n g a m uch

gr e ater var iety O f chem ic al subst an ces i n cludin g in a d di , ,
ti o n t o th o se n am ed a b o ve hydr ated o xide o f alum in um ,
b arium n itr ate (B aN a ) z in c o xide (Z n O) , ,
etc an d b o r ic a ci d (H B O ) o r ph o sph o r ic a ci d which t o a

.
, 3 3
gr e ater o r less e xten t r epl a ce the silic a (SiO ) in the Ol der 2
types So m e o f the n e w c o m p o u n ds h ave bee n fo un d t o

.
h a ve slight dur ability an d fo r this an d o the r r e a s o n s c e r

,
t a in pr o ducts fo r m er ly listed in the Jen a gl a ss c at al o gue

h ave bee n disco n t in ued At p r esen t besides the o ld o r .
“
,
din ar y sil ic ate cr o wn an d fl in t the chief var ieties ar e b a

”
,
r ium a n d z i n c S ili c ate c r o w n b o r o silic ate c r o wn den se ,

-
,
b aryt a cr o wn b ar yt a fli n t an ti m o n y fli n t b orate gl ass an d

, , ,
ph o sph ate gl ass The t able o n the fo ll o win g p age c o n t ai n s

.
a list o f ce r t ain v ar ieties o f Je n a gl a ss a r r a n ged in the o r de r
o f thei r v -values In the Jen a gl ass c at al o gue the v alues o f

.
the disper si on ar e given a ls o fo r the spectr um —i n ter vals

— —
(wher e A an d G ar e the lin es
— ’ ’
nD nA nF r nD
,
ne nl ,
g
?
c o rr esp o d in g t o the w ave len gths 7 68 an d

n - re
sp e c t iv e ly ) t o gethe r with the v alues O f the so c alled r el ative

,
-
p ar ti al dispe r si o n s o bt ain ed by divid in g e a ch o f these n um

be r s by the value o f (n F n é) — .
It has r ecen tly been pr o po sed t o descr ibe an Optic a l

gl ass by m e an s of t wo n um ber s o f 3 digits e a ch sep ar ated ,
by a n o blique li n e The fi r st n um be r gives the fi r st th r ee

.
figur es after the decim a l p o i n t in the v alue o f n D while the , ,
sec o n d n u m be r is equal t o 1 0 tim es the v alue Of v .
Thus for exam ple the sec o n d gl ass in the t able w o uld be
, ,
desc r ibed as cr o wn gl a s s NO .
M ir r o r s ,
SE LE C T ED VAR I E TI ES OF J E NA GLASS
”
0
1
D e s c r ip t io n =V
n —n
h h h
Lig t p at e
M di m h ht
o sp cro
e u p o sp a e c ro wn
B o ro -silic a t e c r o wn
B o r O-sil ic at e c ro wn
Sili c a t e c r o wn
Sil ic at e c r o wn
Silic a t e c r o wn
D e n se st b ar y a c r o wnt
B ar ium c r o wn
D e n se b a r y t a c r o wn
’
D e n se b a r y t a cro wn
B ar y t a in t fl
B o r a t e in t fl
B a r y t a in t fl
t
B ar y a in t fl
tm
An i o n y in fl t
fl t
B o r O -silic a t e in
h fl
E x t r a l ig t in t
fl
B a r y t a in t
ht fl t
O r din ar y lig in
fl
Silica t e in t
fl t
B ar y t a in
v t fl t
H e a y b o r a e in
fl
S ilic a t e in t
fl
Silic a t e in t
t fl
D e n se S ilic a e in t
t fl
D e n se st S il ic a e in t
In recen t ye ar s in Fr an ce En gl an d an d the Un ited St at es

,
m uch atte n ti o n h a s bee n best o wed o n the stud y o f the c o m

p o siti o n an d m an ufa ctu r e o f o ptic al gl ass a n d a cc o r din g t o ,
the 1 9 1 6 1 7 r ep o r t o f the B r itish C o m m ittee o f the Pr ivy

—
C o u n cil for S cie n tific a n d I n dust r i a l R ese ar ch (su mm ar i z ed

in N a tur e Vo l 1 00 pp 17 Pr o fess o r J A C K S O N in E n gl an d
“has succeeded in defin in g the c o m p o siti o n o f the b ath
. .
, ,
m ixtu r es n ecess ar y fo r the p r o ductio n O f seve r al gl asse s

hither t o m an ufa ctur ed ex clusively in Jen a in cludi n g the
“
,
fam o us fluo r -c r o wn g l ass an d m o r eo ve r he h as also

,
”
, ,
disc o ver ed th r ee c o m pletely n e w gl a sses with pr o pe r ties

hit h ert o u n ob t ain ab l e Howeve r it seem s i m pr o b abl e
”
.
,
1 66 ] - Man u fa c t ur e of t
Op ic al G lass 5
48
th at an y esse n tia l ch an ges in the O ptic al p r o pe r ties o f gl ass

a r e t o be O bt a i n ed by the use o f m a te r i a ls th a t h ave n o t al
r e a dy bee n t r ied . The in dex O f r efr a cti o n o f all gl a sses at

pr ese n t avail able ar e co m p r ised betwee n an d The
m i n e r a l fl u o r ite (c alciu m fl u o r ide ) which is used in the best
m o de r n m ic r o sc o pe Ob j ectives has an i n de x o f r efr a cti o n o f
,
a n d a v v alue O f
- so th a t in b o th r espects it
lies beyo n d the lim its a tt ain able with gl a ss Other cr yst al .
lin e t r an sp ar en t m in er als n o t ably r o ck c ryst al o r qu ar t z

, ,
h ave alr ea dy bee em plo yed i le n s sy stem s an d an y e s

n n -
,
se n t ial i m p r o ve m e n t in the r an ge o f O ptic a l i n st r u m e n ts
in the futu r e is m o r e likely t o c o m e fr o m an a d a pt ati o n Of

these m in er a l subst an ces th an fr om the pr o ducti o n o f n e w
kin ds o f gl ass .
The di culties i v lved the m a ufa ctur e o f high gr ade

ffi n o in n -
o ptic a l gl a ss ar e ve r y g r e a t a n d the ut m o st c ar e h as t o be
,
exer cised thr o ugh o ut ever y st age o f the pr o cess N o t o n ly .
m ust the r aw m ate r i als the m selves be fr ee fr o m i m pu r ities as

far as p o ssible but the physic al a n d che m ic al n atu r e o f the
,
fi r e c l ay s used in the p o ts o r c r ucibles als o r equi r es the m o st

pain st akin g c a r e an d p r ep ar ati o n The e m pty c r ucible is
.
dr ied slo wly an d the n he ated gr a du ally fo r seve r al d ays u n til

it c o m es t o a b right r e d glo w Fr a gm en ts o f gl a ss left o ver
.
fr o m a pr evi o us m eltin g an d o f the s am e chem ic al c o m p o si

tio n a s the gl ass which is in pr o cess o f m akin g ar e i n t r o duced
i n t o the po t an d m elted The r aw m ate r i als pulver i z ed an d
.
,
m ixed in de fi n ite p r o p o r ti o n s a r e pl a ced in the p o t in l aye r s

,
little by little at a ti m e an d the p o t which is c o ver ed t o

, ,
pr o tect the c o n ten ts fr o m the fu rn a ce ga ses is m ain t ain ed

at a sufficie n tl y high te m pe ra tu r e (betwee n a b o ut 800 a n d
1000 C ) u n til the c o n te n ts ar e all m elt e d t o gethe r The

°
. .
m o lten m ass is usu ally full o f bubbles o f all si z es an d the ,
tem per atu r e m ust be r aised u n til these ar e all go tten r id

O f as far as p o ssible . This e n ti r e pr o cess t akes a l o n ger o r
sh o r te r ti m e depe n di n g o n ci r cu m st an ces sa y fro m 24 t o
, ,
36 ho ur s o r m o r e . After ski mm in g Off the i m purities o n the

486 M ir ro r s ,
sur fa ce the m ixtu r e is all o wed t o c o o l gr adually an d at the

, ,
sam e ti m e it is kept c o n st an tly sti rr ed in o r de r t o m ake the
gl ass as h o m o gen e o us as p o ssible This p ar t o f the pr o cess

.
r equi r es c o n st an t c ar e When the gl ass in c o olin g h as b e

.
c o m e quite visc o us so th at it is n o l on ger p o ssible t o c o n

,
t in u e the sti r r in g it is all o wed t o c o o l ve r y sl o wly o ve r a

,
per i o d o f d ay s o r even weeks Usu ally at the e n d o f the

.
c o o l in g pr o cess the s o lid c o n ten ts o f the po t will be fo un d

t o be b r o ke n in t o i rr egul ar fr a gm e n ts o f o ptic a l gl a ss in the
fi r st st a ge o f its m an ufa ctur e These fr agm en ts ar e c ar e
.
fully exam in ed t o see whether they ar e h o m o gen e o us an d

ab o ve all fr ee fr o m st r i ae ; but the b r o ke n su r fa ces a r e so
i r r egul ar th at this p r el im in ar y exam in ati o n is n ecess ar il y

ver y im per fect The pieces which p ass m uster in this way
.
ar e selec t ed fo r m o ldi n g an d an n e alin g The lum ps o f gl ass

.
a r e pl a ced in s u it able m o lds m a de o f i r o n o r fi r e cl ay a n d
heated u n til the gl ass bec o m es s o ft like wax so th at it t akes ,
the fo rm Of the m o ld usu ally with the aid o f exter n al pr ess

ur e. The m o lded pieces ar e then a n n ealed b y bein g c o o led
gr a du ally fo r a week o r l o n ger . They ar e in the fo r m o f
disks o r r ect an gu l ar bl o cks o f appr o xim atel y the r ight si z e
fo r bein g m a de i n t o le n ses an d p r is m s At this st age the
.
gla ss has t o be subj ected t o the m o st r igid testin g t o see if

it is r e all y suit able fo r O ptic al pur p o ses T wo O pp o site fa ces
.
o n the n arr o w sides a r e g r o u n d flat an d p ar allel an d p o lished
so th at the sl ab c an be in spected in the di r ecti o n o f its g r e atest
di am eter If an y st r iae o r o ther i m per fecti o n s ar e fo un d the

.
,
piece wil l h a ve t o be r ej ected an d m elted o ver a gain Even .
in c a se ther e a r e n o di r ectly visible defects the r e m ay be ih ,
ter n al str ain s which will be r eve aled by exam in atio n with
p o l ari z ed light Slight str ai n s ar e n o t always seri o us but even
.
,
these wil l im p a ir the i m age in a l ar ge pr ism o r le n s These .
st r a in s c an be go tte n rid o f by he atin g the gl ass t o a tem per a

tur e bet w 5
een 3 0 an d 480 C depen din g o n the c o m p o siti o n
°
.
, ,
an d the n c o o lin g ve r y sl o wly an d u n ifo r m ly o ve r a pe r i o d o f
ab o ut six weeks It is ver y diffi t t o Obt ain pieces o f O p

.
1 6 7] A c hr o m a ism t 487
tic a l gl ass which do n o t c o n t ain m in ute bubbles an d in deed ,
they a r e o fte n t o be fo u n d in the b est kin ds o f gl a ss .
Of c o u r se the p r o cess as ab o ve desc r ibed v ar ies in det ails

,
a cc o r di n g t o the s p eci a l n atu r e o f the gl a ss but e n o ugh h as ,
been s aid t o en able the r e ade r t o fo r m so m e ide a o f the p a

t ie n c e a n d s k ill which a r e r equi r ed in the m an ufa ctu r e O f
O ptic a l gl a ss A yield o f 20 pe r cen t o f the t o t al qu an tity o f
. .
gl ass m elte d is c o n si der e d go o d The gl ass t o be used fo r

.
ph o to gr a phic len ses has t o fulfill the m o st exact r equir em en ts

an d m ust be o f the highest qu alit y .
1 6 7 C hr o m ati c Ab e rr atio n an d Ac h r o mati sm

.
—
Si n ce the .
in de x Of r efr a cti o n var ies with the c o l o r o f the light an d Sin ce ,
this fun ctio n e n ter s in o n e fo r m o r a n o ther in all O ptic al c al

c ulat io n s it is o bvi o us
, ,
fo r e xa m ple th a t the p o siti o n s o f
,
the c a r din a l po i ts o f a le s system will in gen er al be differ

n n -
, ,
e n t fo r light o f di ffe r e n t c o l o r s ; a n d th a t the r e will be a Wh o le
seri es o f c o l o r ed i m a ges o f a gi v en Ob j ect depe n din g o n the

n atu r e o f the light which it r a di ates these i m a ges bein g all ,
m o r e o r less sep ar a te d fr o m e a ch o the r an d o f v ar yi n g si z es .
This phen o m en o n is c alle d chr omati c a berr ati on an d un less ,
it is a t le a st p ar tially c o r r ected the defin itio n o f the r esult an t

,
im age is ve r y ser i o usly im p air ed In an Optic al system which

.
was a bs o lutely fr ee fr o m ch r o m atic abe r r ati o n all these

c o lo r ed i m a ges w o uld c o alesce i n t o a sin gle c o m p o site i m age
which so far a s the qu alit y o f the light was c on cern ed w o uld
, ,
be a faithful r epr o ductio n o f the Object But n o thin g at all .
c om par able t o this idea l c o n dition O f a chr omati sm c an be

a chieve d in the c a se o f a n y a ctu a l le n s -sys te m In fa ct the .
,
term a ch r o m atism by itself an d with o ut an y fur ther expl an a

ti o n is e n tir ely va gue fo r an o ptic al system m ay be a chr o
,
m atic in o n e se n se with o ut bei n g at all so in o the r se n ses Fo r .
exam ple the i m ages c o r r esp o n din g t o diffe r en t c o l o r s m ay

,
all b e fo r m ed in the s am e pl an e an d yet be O f diffe r e n t si z es
Fo r tu n atel y h o weve r the fa ct th at it is im

,
o r v i ce v ersa .
, ,
p o ssible t o a chieve at best m o r e th a n a p ar ti a l a ch r o m a tism

is n o t such a ser i o us m atter a fter all The ki n d o f a ch ro m at
.
488 Mir r ors ,
ism which is ad apted fo r o n e type o f O ptic al i n st ru m en t m ay

be en tirely u n suited t o ano ther type Thus it is abs o lutel y .
,
essen ti al th at the c o l o r ed i m a ges fo r m ed by the O bj ect-gl as s

o f a telesc o pe o r m ic r o sc o pe sh all be p r o duced as n e ar ly a s
p o ssible at o n e an d the s am e pl a ce (a chr o m atism with r e

s pect t o the l o c a ti o n O f the i m a ge ) whe r e a s si n ce the i m a ge s
, ,
in this c a se do n o t e xte n d far fr o m the axis the u n e qu al ,
c o l o r m ag n ifi c at io n s ar e c o m p ar ativel y u n im po rt an t On
- .
the o ther h an d in the c a se o f the O cul ar s ystem s o f the s am e

,
in stru m en ts the m ain c o n sider ati o n will be a p ar ti al a chr o

,
m at ism with r espect t o the m a gn ific ati o n o r the a pp ar e n t

s i z es o f the c o l o r ed i m a ges The
. O bj ect -gl ass o f a telesc o pe
m ust be a ch r o m atic with r espect t o the p o siti o n o f its fo c a l
p o in t an d the o cul ar m ust be a chr o m atic with r espect t o its
,
fo c a l len gt h .
An O ptic a l syste m which p r o duces the s am e defin ite e ffec t

fo r light O f t wo diffe r en t w a ve — len gths n o m atter wh at th at
,
speci a l e ffect m ay be is t o th a t e xte n t a n a c hr oma ti c system

,
.
A c o m bin a tio n which is a ch r o m atic even in its lim ited sen se

, ,
fo r a ce r t a in p r esc r ibe d dist an ce o f the O bj ect will in ge n e r al , ,
n o t be a ch r o m atic whe n the O bj ect is pl a ced at a diff e r e n t
dist an ce N O len s c o m p o sed o f t wo kin ds o f gl ass o n ly c an

.
be a ch r o m atic fo r light o f all diffe r en t c o l o r s It c an be c o n .
st r ucted fo r exam ple so th at it will b r in g the r e d an d Vi o let

, ,
r a ys a ccu r ately t o the s a m e f o cus at a p r esc r ibed p o i n t o n
the axis ; but then the yell o w gr een an d blue r ays will in
, ,
gen er al all h ave diff er e n t fo ci s o m e o f which will be n ear er

, ,
the len s th an the p o i n t o f r eun io n o f the r e d an d vi o let light

while ot her s will lie far ther a way Acc o r din gly when a ch r o
.
,
m at ism h as bee n att a i n ed in the c a se o f t wo ch o se n c o l o r s ,
ther e will usu ally r e m a in a n un c o r re cted r esidual disper sio n

o r so c alled se con da r y sp e c tr um whi ch u n de r c er t a i n ci r cu m
-
,
st an ces m ay im p a ir the defin ition O f the im age t o such a

degr ee as t o be ver y in ju r i o us an d an n o yi n g It is n e c e s .
s ar y t o ab o lish the sec o n d ar y s p ectr u m in the O b j ect -gl ass o f

a mi c r o sc o pe . This m ay be d o n e b y usin g m o r e than t wo
16 8 ] t
Op ic a l an t
d Ac in ic Ac hr o m a ism t 489
ki n ds o f gl a ss .The r e is also the po ssibility o f dim in ishi n g the

sec on d ary spect r u m by e m pl o yi n g t wo ki n ds O f gl a ss wh o se
r el a tive p a r ti a l dispe r si o n s 1 6 6 ) a r e ve r y n e ar ly the s am e
fo r all the spect r u m -i n te r v als ; a n d in fa ct o n e o f the p r in
, ,
c ip a l ite m s in the A BB E -SC H O TT p r o g r a mm e f o r the m a n u
fa ctu r e o f O ptic al gl ass was the p r o ductio n o f var i o us p a ir s

o f fli n t a n d c r o w n gl a ss suit able fo r such c o m bin a ti o n s so ,
th at the dispe r sio n s in the diffe r e n t r egi o n s o f the spe ctr um

sh o uld be fo r ea ch p a ir a s n e ar ly as po ssible pr o po r ti o n al
, , .
This pur po se was s atisfa ct o r ily a cco m plished an d we h ave ,
n o w a ch r o m atic le n ses o f a f ar m o r e pe r fect ki n d th a n c o uld
be m a de o ut o f the Olde r ki n ds O f gl a ss This higher degr ee

.
o f a ch r o m atis m is c alled a p ochr o m a ti sm An a p o ch r o m atic

.
ph to g p hic le s is abs o lutely esse ti al

o r a n n in the th ee c o l or
r -
pr o cess o f ph o t o g ra phy in which the th r ee iin ag e s t ake n

th r o ugh light-fi lte r s o n a pl a te o f m ediu m o r l ar ge si z e m ust
be super po sed as exa ctly as p o ssible In m o st o r din ar y o p
.
tic al system s h o weve r the sec o n d ar y spect ru m is r el atively

, ,
u n im po r t an t an d a ch ro m atis m with r espect t o t wo p r i n

,
c ip al c o l o r s will usu a lly be f o u n d t o be su ffi cie n t

“
.
1 68 . O ptic al Ac h r o m ati sm an d Actini c Ach r o mat

is m.
” -T he ch ar a cte r a n d e xte n t o f the sec o n dar y spect r u m
1 6 7 ) O f an a ch r o m atic c o m bi n a ti o n o f le n ses will evide n tly
depe n d essen tially o n the choi ce of the two p r i n cip a l c olor s fo r
which the a ch r o m atis m is to be a chieved This ch o ice will .
be deter m in ed by the pur p o se fo r which the i n st rum e n t is -
in ten ded an d the m o de o f usin g it Thus if the syste m is

.
,
t o be an op ti ca l i n st r um e n t in the st r ict lite r al se n se O f the

wo r d th at is if it is c o n st ructed t o be used sub j ectively in
, ,
c o n jun ctio n with the eye we sh all be c o n ce r n ed p ri m ar ily

,
with the physio l o gic al a ctio n o f the r ays o n the r eti n a o f the
hum an eye ; whe r e as in the c ase o f a ph o t o gr a phic le n s which
isused t o fo cus an i m age o n a p r ep ar ed se n siti z e d pl a te it ,
is i m po rt an t t o h ave a ch r o m atis m with r espect t o the SO

c alled a ctin ic r ays c o r r esp o n di n g t o the vi o let an d u lt r a
vio let r egio n s of the spectr um bec ause these ar e the rays
,
490 M irr o r s ,
which ar e m o st a ctive o n the o r din ary b r o m o sil v e r gelatin e a
pl ate .
The r etin a o f the hu m an eye is m o st sen sitive t o the k i n d

o f light which i s c o m p r ised withi n the i n te r v a l betwee n the .
li n es C an d F with a distin ct m axim um o f visu al e ffect c o r

,
r esp o n di n g t o w a ve — len gths lyin g s o m ewhe r e between the

li n es D an d E Acc o r din gl y in a n o ptic al in st r u m e n t which
.
,
is t o be a pplied t o the eye it is usu ally desir able t o un ite the

,
r e d a n d blue r a ys as n e ar l y as p o ssible at the fo cus o f the
yello w r ays If for exam ple the system is assum ed to be

.
, ,
a c o n ve r ge n t c o m bi n a ti o n o f t wo thi n le n ses in c o n t a ct (as
in the c a se o f the O bject gl a ss o f a telesc o pe ) it will be fo u n d

-
,
th at the fo c a l p o in ts c o r r esp o n din g t o the c o l o r s (say gr een ,
an d yell o w) betwee n C an d F will lie n e ar e r the le n s a n d the
fo c al p o in ts c o r r esp o n din g t o the o ther c o l or s (d ar k r e d ,
d ar k blue an d vi o let ) will lie far ther fr o m it th an the c o m

m o n fo c al p o i n t Of the t wo p r i n cip a l c o l o r s C an d F M o r e .
o ve r the r esidu a l c o l o r —
,
e r r o r o r sec on d ar y spectr u m in thi s
c ase will be le a st fo r s o m e c o l o r ver y n e ar ly c o r r espo n din g t o
the D-lin e which is a fa vo r a ble ci r cu m st an ce sin ce as a b o ve
, , ,
st ated this is the r egio n o f the b r ightest p ar t O f the visible

,
spect r um Ach r o m atis m with r espect t o the c o l o r s C an d F

.
1
—
is s o m etim es c alled op ti ca l a chr oma ti sm .
nF nc
On the o ther h an d in the c o n str ucti o n o f a ph o t o gr aphi c

,
len s a kin d o f c o m pr o m ise m ust be effecte d betwee n the c o n

ver gen ce o f the visu a l r ays an d the SO c alled a cti n ic r ays -
,
bec ause the i m age h as t o be fo cused fi r st o n the gr o u n d gl a s s

pl ate by the eye an d a fter war ds it h as t o be r eceived o n the
sen siti z ed pl ate o r film which is in ser ted fo r expo su r e l n the
c am er a in the pl a ce o f the tr an slucen t fo cusin g scr een A o .
c o r din g ly fo r o r din ar y ph o t o gr a phic p r a ctice an e xa ct c o

“ “
,
in ciden ce O f the O ptic al an d a ctin ic im ages is de ” ”
m an de d He r e it is fo u n d th at the best r esults ar e o bt ai n ed

.
by un iti g the c o lo r s c o r r espo n di g t the lin e an d the

n n o D -
vio let b an d in the spectr um o f h y dro gen which sin ce it is , ,

1 69 ] A c hr o m a t i c Pr ism 49 1
n o t far fr om the G lin e m ay be design ated by G (434jup )

-
,
'
.
This is so m etim es c alled a ctin i c o r p hotog r ap hi c a chroma t

i sm fo r which the fun cti o n v h as a speci a l value n am ely : ,
—
nD l
ng — n
D
r
If the ph o t o gr a phic len s is a c o m binatio n o f t wo thin '
le n ses in c o n t a ct which is a ch ro m atic fo r the c o l o r s D an d

,
G the fo cus o f the r ays c o rr espo n din g t o the blue gr ee n

'
’
-
,
r egi o n O f the s pect r u m will be n e ar e r the le n s th an the c o m
m o n fo cus O f the t wo p r i n cip a l c o l o r s an d the fo cus o f the

b r ight r e d r ays will be far ther fr o m the len s In an a chr o .
m at o f this ki n d the r esidu al dispe r si o n will usu ally be qui te

“ ” “
l ar ge fo r b o th the o ptic al an d the a ctin ic i m age but ”
,
fo r m o st p r a ctic a l pu r p o ses the defi n iti on o f the i m a ge in

either c ase is g o o d en o ugh In a st r Opho t o g r aphy the fo cus
.
o f the c a me r a is dete r m i n ed o n ce fo r all an d a le n s f o r stell ar

,
ph o t o gr aphy is usu ally design ed t o h ave an en tirely a ctin i c

a chr oma ti sm the t wo p r i n cip a l c o l o r s in this c ase c o r r esp o n d
,
in g t o the F-li n e (486 m ) an d the vi o let lin e in the m e r cu ry

l
s pect r u m The r ays bel o n gin g in these t wo c o l o r s

ar e m a de t o u n ite as n e ar l y as p o ssible a t the fo c u s o f the
r a y s c o rr esp o n di n g t o the G — lin e which is a ppr o xi m atel y
’
,
the pl a ce Of m axim u m a ctin ic a ctio n In a ph o t o gr a phic .
a ch r o m a t o f this ki n d the f o ci o f the g r ee n yello w an d r e d

'
r ays will lie bey o n d the a cti n ic f o cus in the o r de r n am ed .
1 6 9 Ac h ro mati c C o m b in ati o n o f Two T hi n Pr i sm s

. .
T wo p r is m s O f diff e r e n t subst a n ces m ay be c o m bi n ed so as

t o O bt ai n a ch r o m atis m in the se n se th at r ays O f light c o r
r esp o n di n g t o a defi n ite p a i r o f c o l o r s will issue fr o m the
syste m in p ar allel dir ectio n s as r epr esen ted in Fig 2 12

,
. .
When an o bj ect is viewed th ro ugh the c o m bi n ati o n the r e d ,
a n d blue r ays fo r e x am ple will be fu sed o r supe r p o sed an d

, ,
the r esidu al c o l o r -effect will be c o m p ara tively Slight By .
e m pl o yi n g a g r e a te r n u m be r O f p r ism s a m o r e pe r fect u n i o n
o f c o l o r s c o uld be O b t ain ed bu t usu all y t wo p r is m s ar e suf

,
fi cie n t .
492 Mirr or s ,
The p r o blem is sim pli fied by a ssum in g th at the r efra ctin g

an gles O f the p r is m s den o ted her e b y B an d y ar e b o th
,
“
,
s m all ; so th at the devi a ti o n p r o duced by e a ch p r is m m ay be

c o n side r ed a s p r o p o rti o n al t o its r efr a ctin g an gle a cco r d ,
in g t o the app r o xi m ate f or m ul a deduced in § 60 Usu all y .

,
F IG 2 1 2 — A c
. h r o m a t ic c o m b in a t io n of t w o t hi n p ms
r is .
the t wo p r is m s ar e cem en ted t o gether with their edges p ar

a llel but o pp o sitely tu rn ed a s sh o wn in the di a g r am so th a t
, ,
the thicker po r tio n s O f o n e pr ism ar e adj a cen t t o the thi n n er

p o r tio n s o f the o ther ; a cc o r din gly the t o t al devi atio n ( 6 ) ,
will be equ al t o the ar ith m etic al diff er en ce Of the devi ation s

p r o duced b y e a ch p r is m sep ar a tely .
Le t P Q an d R design a te th r ee ele m en t ar y c o l o r s the

, ,
c o lor Q bein g suppo sed t o lie between P an d R in the spec

t r um ; an d let the in dices o f r efr a cti o n fo r these thr ee c o lo r s
be den o ted b y n p n Q an d n R fo r the fi r st p r ism an d b y
’
,
’ '
o r the sec o n d p r is m The t o t a l devi a

” ”
np n an d n R f
Q .
tio n s fo r the thr ee c o l o r s wil l be :

— 1 ” —
B ( < 1>B —
<
’ '
ep = n p ( ) —
np es = n
a n
Q
( B
'
6n = n a 1) (”R 1) 7
No w if the system is t o be a ch r o m atic with r espect t o the
c ol o r s P an d R the c o n diti on is th at ep = eR which ther e
5
, , ,
fo r e is e quivalen t t o the fo ll o wi n g :
,
n
”R
”R
’
—n P ’ 7
Y
,
th at is the ,
r e tr a c t in g an gles of the pr ism s m ust be i n ver sely
1 70] Dir e c t Vi i s on Pr ism 49 3
p r o p o rt i on al t o the parti al dispe rsio n s Of the t wo m edi a fo r

the t wo given c o l o r s .
Mo r eo ver the devi ati o n o f the r ays o f the i n ter m edi ate
,
c o l or Q will be :
’
n
Q I TL
Q I)
_
6Q =
(n R n P ) ”R — ”P
I ,
”R
N
- ”P
6
Actu ally the c ol o r s P Q an d R a r e usu ally ch o sen t o c o r
r esp o n d t o the FR A UN H O FE R li n es C D a n d F r espectively
,
, , ,
in which c a se the c o m bi n ati o n wil l be a chr o m atic with r e

spect t o C (r e d) an d F (blue) Thus the fr a cti o n s in side the
.
,
l a ge b a ckets ar e the values o f the t wo kin ds o f glass

r r v -
Acc o r din gly fo r an a chr o m atic c o m bin ati o n Of t wo thi n

.
p r ism s fo r whi ch the devi atio n 6 D h as a fin ite v alue whe r e as ,
the disper si on ( 6 0 GP ) is ab o lished we h ave the fo ll o win g
5
,
fo rm ul ae
”F “
no
'
Y n F — nc
‘
C o n side r , fo rexam ple ,

a c o m bin at i on Of t wo kin ds Of Jen a
gl ass as fo ll o ws :
nD nF — no V
Light Ph o sph ate C r o wn 37

B_
o r a te Fli n t 96
Assu m in g th at the an gle o f the c r o wn gl a ss p r is m is [ i
we fi n d : G e n e r a lly s p e aki n g th o se ,
p air s O f gl asses in which the p arti al dispe r si o n s ar e m o r e

n e ar ly equ a l wil l be f o u n d t o be best a d a pted fo r a ch r o m atic
c o m bin atio n s
1 7 0 D ir ect Vi si o n C o mb in ati o n o f Two Th in Pr i sm s
.
. .
In the c a se o f an o r din a r y p r ism -spect r o sc o pe the r ays ar e

deflected in p assin g th r ough the syste m so th at in o r der t o ,
view the spect ru m the eye h as t o be p o in ted n o t di r ectly

t o war ds the lum in o us s o ur ce but in s o m e o bli que dir ecti on ;
,
which is s o m etim es i n c on ven ien t especially in a st r Ophy si,
c al o bse r v a ti o n s Acc o r din gly var i o us p r is m syste m s h ave

.
,
-
been p r o po sed which ar e design ed so th at r ays c o rr espon din g

t o s o m e defi n ite st an d ar d c o l o r a re fi n ally be n t b a ck in t o
494 Mirr o r s ,
thei r o rigin al dir ectio n with the r esult th at ther e is disp e r

,
sio n with o ut devi ati o n which is an effect pr ecisely Opp o site

,
t o th a t which is o bt a in ed with a n a ch r o m a tic p r ism In .
these s o -c alled di rect vi si on p r i sms (p r i smes d vi si on directe )
FIG 2 1 3 — D ir e c t
. . v isio n p ri s m c o m b in a t io n (disp e r sio n wit h ou t v
d e i a t io n ) .
the Spect rum o f an illum in ated slit will be seen in the s am e

di r ecti o n as the Slit itself The c o n diti on th at the light c o r
.
r esp o n d in g ,say t o the FR A UN H O FE R D -lin e sh a ll e m e r ge

,
fr o m the system in the s am e dir ecti o n as it e n ter ed is 6 1) = 0 .
Assu mi n g th at the c o m bin atio n is c o m p o sed as befo r e Of , ,
t wo th in p r isms j ux t a p o sed in the s am e way (Fig an d .
e m pl o yin g the s am e sym b o ls we der ive imm e di

atel y the f o ll o win g f o r m ul a :
B_ 7l n — 1
7
— 1
Y
,
60 GF (”If 1)
C on side r , fo r exam ple the fo ll o win g c om bin ati o n

,
nD V
Light Ph o sph ate C r o wn

Heavy Silic ate Flin t
the di fe e ce o f the v alues her e bein g very gr e at If
f r n v — .
we put B= 20 we fi n d :
°
,
ec
It wil l be p ro fit able fo r the studen t t o s atisfy hi m self b y

sever al exam ples th at t wo kin ds o f gla ss which ar e best
a d a pted f o r a di r ect visi o n p r is m c o m bin ati o n ar e o n the
§ 1 7 1] Dir e c t Vi i s on Pr ism 49 5
c o n t r ar y very sui table fo r an a ch r o m atic p r ism an d vi ce
n ot ,
v er sa ; as m ight n a tur ally be e x pected sin ce the effects ar e ,
O pp o site in the t wo c a ses G e n e r ally spe a ki n g the t wo kin ds

.
O f gl a ss used fo r a di r ect v isi o n p r is m sh o uld h ave ve ry dif

,
fe r e n t V-v alues a s in the illust ra ti o n give n a b o ve

, .
In the c ase o f p r is m s o f l ar ge r efr a ct in g an gles the fo r m ul a ,
her e an d in § 1 6 9 are h ar dly t o b e c o n sider ed as eve n ap

pr o xi m ate .
1 7 1 C a l c ul ati on Of Am i c i Pr i sm with F in i t e An gle s

. .
Accur ate fo r m ula fo r the c alculati o n o f an a ch r o m atic o r

di ect v ision p r ism system m ay e a sily be der ived when the
r -
F IG 2 1 4— D ir e c t v isio n p r i sm c o m b in a t io n D i ag r a m p h
r e s e n t s o n e - a lf
v p
. . . re
o f so -c a ll e d A M IC I dir e c t i sio n ri sm .
system c on sists o f o n ly t wo p r is m s As an illustr ati on o f .
the m eth o d in the c ase o f a dir ect visi on p r is m let us e m ,
plo y he r e the sym b ols n 1 an d n 2 t o den o te the in dices O f r e

fr a ctio n O f the cr o wn gl ass p r ism an d the fl in t gl ass p r ism ,
r espectively fo r light o f s o m e st a d a d w ve le n gth ; an d

,
n r a -
let B an d 7 den o te their r efr a ct in g an gles We sh all sup .
p o se als o th at the t wo pr ism s ar e cem en ted al o n g a c o m m o n

fa ce as r ep r esen ted in Fig 2 14 A r ay o f the given wave
,
. .
len gth is in ciden t O u the c r o wn gla ss pr ism at an an gle 0

an d is r efr a cted in t o this m edium at the an gle so th at
0 = sin 0 ()
’
n 1 sin
. . 1
If the an gles of in ciden ce an d r efr action at the sur fa ce of

496 Mirror s ,
sep ar ation of t wo ki n ds of glass ar e den o ted by [

r an d P \ «
’
,
then
n 1 si . m[r
(2)
0 B
’
(3)
the an gles her e bein g all r eck o n ed as p o sitive If fin ally it .
, ,
is a ssum ed th at the ray m eets the sec o n d fa ce o f the sec on d

p r ism n o rm ally an d issues a gai n In t o the air in the sam e di
r ecti o n as it h a d o r igi n a lly the n a ls o :
v r =
’
4
( ) a n.d 043 7 —
()
,
. 5
The p ro blem c o n sists in determ in in g the an gle O f o n e o f the
p r ism s when the an gle o f the o ther is given Supp o se fo r .
,
exam ple th a t an ar bit r ar y value is assign ed t o the a cute

,
a n gle 7 ,
a n d it is r equi r ed t o fi n d the m a gn itude O f the
a n gle 6 Substituti n g in (1 ) the v alues o f 0 0 as given

’
.
,
in (3 ) we O bt a i n :
m sin wW — = sin (B
when ce we der ive :
n 1 s n \ri ] y sin
'
6
.
t an
OO S P c o s y
\ — '
n 1 .
E li m in atin g I
«rf r
’
o m ()
2 an d we fi n d :
n 1 sin
.
an d c on se quen tly als o :

i x/ fi é
f — n s in z '
n 1 co s
. n y .
Acc o r din gly the v alue o f B in ter m s

, of n 1, n g
“
an d y is given
by the fo rm ul a :
— SI
(722 1 ) I1
’
Y
t an 6
g c o s
x/ n i
y n sin
z
v
'
If o n the o ther h an d the v alue the an gle 3 has been

, ,
of
ch o sen ar bitr ar ily the c alcul ati o n o f 7 will be fo un d t o be

,
t r ig o n o m et r ic ally a little m o r e difficult It is left as an e x .
e r c ise f o r the stude n t t o Sh o w th a t :
1 ) + (n i 1 ) (n g n i) t an 6 2 2
ng 1
t an y
'
(n g
If it is desir ed th at t he e m er gen t r ay sh all n o t o n l y be par
allel t o the i n cide n t r ay but th at its p ath sh a ll be al o n g the
1 72 ] Dir e c t Vi i s on Pr ism 97
s am e st ra ight li n e i t is n ecess ar y t o a dd t o the ab o ve an o the r

,
c om bin ati o n iden tic al with it an d pl a ced so th at the t wo

flin t gl ass p rism s c o n stitute in r e ality o n e sin gle p r ism Of r e
fr a ctin g an gle 2 7 in se r ted between t wo equ al c r o wn gl ass
p r ism s e a ch o f r efr a ctin g an gle as sh o wn in Fig 2 1 ; an d 5, . 5 ,
F IG 2 1
. 5
.
— A MIC I dir e c t visio n p r i sm .
in fa ct this is the a ctu al c o n st r ucti o n o f the co m m on fo r m

,
o f the A MIC I p r is m Supp o se fo r e x am ple th a t the an gle

.
, ,
an d th a t the t wo ki n ds o f gl a ss a r e th o se desc r ibe d
in the Je n a c at al o gue as
“ light ph o sph ate c r o wn an d
5
5
”
“he avy silic ate fl in t with in dices n 1 = 1 1 9 an d n = 1 9 6 2 6

”
. 2 .
c o r r esp o n din g t o the D lin e ; then we fi n d th at the an g le B

-
°
98
1 72 . Ke ssl e r Dir e c t Vi i
s on Q ua dr ilat e r al Pr i sm .
— On e
of the p r in cip al o b j ecti o n s t o a t r ai n o f p r is m s is the l o ss o f

light by r eflecti o n at the v ar i o us sur fa ces a n d als o by ab
s o r ptio n in t r aver sin g the successive m e di a Par tly with a .
view t o dim in ishin g these l o sses an d p ar tly a ls o o n a cc oun t

o f o the r a dv a n t a ges m an y f o r m s O f di r ect visi o n p r is m h ave
,
been p r o p o sed which ar e m ade O f o n e piece o f gl a ss with fo u r

o r m o r e pl an e f a ces ; in all o f which h o weve r the p r i n ciple , ,
is the s am e n am ely by m e an s o f a ser ies o f t o t al in te rn al

, , ,
r eflecti o n s t o be n d the r ays c o r r esp o n di n g t o s o m e st an d ar d
in ter m edi ate c o l o r b a ck fi n ally in t o thei r o r igin al dir ecti o n .
The sim p lest o f all these devices is the fou r —fa ced p rism
AB C D (Fig 2 1 6 ) p r o p o sed by K E S SLE R a p r i n cip al secti on
.
,
o f which h a s the fo r m o f a qu a dr il ate r a l with pe r pe n dicul ar
diag o n al s The r ay o f st an d ar d wav e -len gth en ter s the p r is m

.
49 8 Mir r o r s ,
an d le aves it in a di r ecti o n p ar allel t o the di ag on al B D ; it is

t o t ally r eflected twice fi r st at the fa ce BA an d a gain at the
,
fa ce AD the p ath o f the r ay between these r eflectio n s bein g

,
p arallel t o its di r ectio n at en t r an c e an d em er gen ce Mor e .
F IG 2 1 6 — K E S S LE R dir e c t
. . v i sio n p m
r is .
o ve r in vi r tue o f the symm et r y o f the p r is m the p ath Of the

, ,
e m er gen t r ay will be a c o n tin u atio n o f the r ectilin e ar p ath o f

the in ciden t r ay If the an gles at A B an d C ar e den o ted b y
.
,
a 6
,
a n d 7 r espectively
,
the n ,
(1 )
an d if the an gles Of i n ciden ce an d r efr a cti on at the f ac e BC
ar e den ot ed b y 0 then ,
Y
‘
a
6 “ _
B ()
2
Q 2
y
a n d, fin ally ,
if the in dex o f r efr a ctio n is den o ted by n ,
fl 0 (3 )
’
n sin .
= sin .
C o n seque n tly , elim i n atin g the an gles 0, 0

’
by m e an s of
(2) an d we O bt ai n
a.
— — 7
n sm.
( Q B) —
,
4
()
2
so th at if the value o f o n e o f the an gles a B an d y is ch o sen ,

'
a r bit r ar ily the o the r t wo an gles c an be dete r mi n ed by m e an s

,
o f equ ati o n s (1 ) an d
If the p r in cip al secti o n o f a KE S SLE R p r ism h as the form

o f a r h o m bus (Fig p ar allel in ciden t r ay s m ay be r e
.
§ 1 73] A c hr o m a t i c Sys t em o f Le n se s 49 9
FIG 2 17
. .
—R h o m b o ida l f o rm of K E S S LE R p ri s m .
c e iv e d On b oth fa ces BA an d B C In this c a se the an gles
5
.
a an d 7 a r e e q u al a n d he n ce
, a n d the r ef o r e
7 3
0 0
'
1
2 2
so that
(
3 r_
'
.
a
2
when ce we Obt ain
6 r
_
2 2 4n
Fo r exam ple if n =
,
we fi n d 8 = 36 ,
°
1 7 3 Ach r o m ati c C o m b in ati on of Two Th in Le n se s

. .
The p o siti o n s o f the pr in cip al an d fo c al p o in ts o f a len s

system var y fo r light o f differ en t c o l o r s an d if the system is ,
t o be used as a m a gn ifyin g gl a ss o r a s the so c alled o cul ar -
o f a m ic r o sc o pe o r telesc o pe a chief c o n side r a ti o n will be

,
th at the app ar en t si z es o f the c ol o r ed virtu al i m ages which

a r e p r ese n ted t o the eye sh all all be the s am e th at is th a t , ,
the r e d an d blue i m ages fo r exam p le sh all subte n d the

, ,
s am e a n gle at the eye n o m atter whethe r thei r a ctu al si z es

,
a n d p o siti o n s ar e di ffe r e n t o r n o t But the a p p ar e n t si z e

.
o f the i n fi n itely dist a n t i m a ge o f an O bj ect lyi n g in the
p r i m ar y fo c al pl an e Of the len s -system is m e asur ed b y the

5 00 Mir r or s ,
refr a ct in g p o wer Of the syst em an d he n ce the c o n di
tio n o f a chr o m atis m in this c ase is th at the r efr a ctin g p o wers

(or f o c a l le n gths ) o f the s y ste m sh a ll be e q u a l f o r the t wo
c o l o r s in q uestio n (Achr omatism wit h r espec t t o the fo c al
.
le n gth ; se e
Le t us a ssu m e th at t he sy st e m is c om p o sed o f t wo thin
len ses wh o se r efra ctin g p o wer s for light o f a cer t ain defin i te
w ve len gth A ar e den o ted by F 1 an d F2 ; then the r efr a ct
a -
in g p o we r o f the c o m bi n a ti on will be F = F 1 + F 2
wher e c den o tes the air -in terval between the t wo len ses / .
Fo r a sec o n d c o l o r o f w ave -len gth A+ A )\ (whe r e A A de

n o tes a s m a ll v ar i at i o n in the v alue o f A) the r efr a ctin g ,
p o wer s o f the len ses will be slightly differ en t an d the r e ,
fr a ctin g p o we r o f the c o m bi n ati on fo r this c o l o r will be :

-
F l
- AF :
q
Subt r a ctin g these t wo e u ati o n s , a t the s am e tim e n eglect
t
in g the er m which in v o lves the p r o duct o f the s m all v ar i a
ti on s AF 1 an d AFg , we o bt ain
AF = AF 1 + AF2 C .
Ev iden tl y
the c o n diti o n th at the syste m sh all be a chr o m atic
,
with r espect t o its r efr a ctin g p o wer is AF = 0; whi ch ther e ,
fo r e is e quiva len t t o the fo ll o wi n g :

,
F2 AF 1 + F 1 AF2
. .
AF 1 + AF 2
Now if m den o te s the in dex of r efr a cti on Of the fir st len s for
light Of w a ve -le n gth A then ,
F 1 = (n 1 I) K 1 ,
wher e K1 den o tes a c o n st an t wh o se value depen ds sim ply o n
the fo rm o f the infin itely thin len s th at is o n the cur va tur es , ,
Of its sur f a ces Si m il ar l y for light o f w ave len gth

.
-
,
A ,
we h ave :
F1 + AF 1 ( n 1 + An 1 I) K 1 ;
an d hen ce
An l
AF 1 = K 1 A n 1 = F 1.
n1 1
1 7 3] Ac hr o m t
a ic Le n s S
- yt
s e m 5
01
But An l / (n 1 is the exp r essi o n fo r the dispe rsive

po we r O f the m ate r i al o f the fi r st len s an d a cc o r din gly
we m ay wr ite :
l
an d, an a o g o usly ,
fo r the sec o n d len s
F2
I n t ro ducin g these e xp r essio n s fo r AF 1 an d AFz in the e qua

ti o n abo ve we fi n d ther efo r e as the co n diti on th at a pair o f
, , ,
thin len ses sh all be a ch r o m atic with r espect t o the r efra cti n g
FIG . 2 18 — HU
. YG E N ’
S S o cu l a r.
p o we r o f the system the r e quir em en t th at the dist an ce b e

,
tween the t wo thin len ses sh all s atisfy the foll o win g e q ua
ti o n :
V2 . F 1 + V1 F2 .
7 17
” 9 1 2
1
f
VI- 1 + V2 f2
.
V1 + V2
wher e f 1 = 1/F 1 an d =
f 2 1/F2 den ote the fo c al len gths
‘
Of the
le n ses .
502 Mirr or s ,
If b oth len ses ar e ma de of the same g lass then v 1 = v 2 , , so
th at in thi s c a se the c o n diti o n o f a chro m atism bec o m es

0:
f I l fz
--
2
Thus ,
exam ple HUY GE N S S o cul ar (Fig 218) is c o m p o sed
for ,
’
.
o f t wo p a o c o n ve x le n ses m a de o f the s am e kin d o f gl a ss

i n -
,
the cu r ved fa ce O f e a ch len s bein g tur n ed away fr o m the

eye an d t o wa r ds the i n ciden t light The fi r st len s is c alled
“ “
.
the fi e ld-len s an d the sec o n d len s is c alled the eye-len s

”
.
In this c o m bin a ti on f 1 = 2f 2 (alth o ugh in a ctu al syst e ms thi s
FIG 2 1 9
. .
-
RA M S DE N ’
S o cu l ar .
c on diti on is usually
ly a ppr o xim ately sat isfied ) an d c
on
3f 2/ 2 o r f 2 : c :f1 2 : 3 : 4 RA MS DE N S o cul ar (Fig 2 1 9) ’

= . .
,
c o sists likewise o f t wo p a O c on vex len ses o f the s am e kin d

n l n -
o f gl a ss but with thei r cur ved fa ces tur n ed t o war ds e a ch

,
o the r a n d in this c o m bin ati o n f =f =f 0 B o th o f these

1 2 .
types s atisfy ther efo r e the ab o ve c o n ditio n o f a ch r o m atism

, ,
an d y ield im a ges th a t ar e fr ee fr o m c o l o r -faul ts n o t o nl y in
the cen ter but at the b o r der Of the field .
1 7 4 Ach ro m ati c C o mb i n at i o n of Two Th in Le n se s in

.
C o n ta c t — If the t wo le n ses a r e in c o n t a ct the c o n

ditio n o f a ch r o m atism as fo un d in the pr eced in g secti on
, ,
bec o m es
V1 f
.
1 V2
f2
. 0,
F1 F2
+
VI V2
The qu ot ien t of the r efr a ctin g p o wer of a len s b y the dis

1 74] A c h r o m at i c L
en s- S yt s e m 5
03
pe r siv epo wer Of the gl a ss o f whi ch it is m ade n am ely the , ,
m a gn itude F/ v is s o m eti m es c alled the di sp ersi ve str en g th

,
O f the le n s ; SO th a t a cc o r din g t o the a b o ve equ ati o n we m ay
say th at the c o n diti o n o f a ch r o m atis m o f a c o m bin ati o n o f
t wo thin le n ses in c o n t a ct is th a t the a lg eb r a ic su m O f thei r

disper sive st r en gths sh all van i sh Acc o r din gly it a ppe ar s .
,
th at such a syste m c an be a ch r o m atic o n ly in c a se the sub

stan ces o f which the t wo le n ses ar e m ade ar e d iffer en t M o r e .
o ve r while o n e o f the le n ses m ust be c o n ve x a n d the o the r

,
c on ca ve their a ctu al fo r m s ar e o f n o c o n sequen ce so far as

,
the m er e c o rr ecti o n o f the ch r o m atic aber r ati o n is c o n ce r n ed .
It is t o be r em a r ke d a ls o th at in an a ch r o m atic len s o f n e g
ligible thickn ess a ch r o m a tis m with r espect t o the fo c al len gths
im plies als o a ch r o m atism with r espect t o the po sitio n s o f
the fo c al p o in ts an d pr in cipa l po in ts so th at such a len s will ,
be a chr o m atic fo r all dist an ces o f the o b j ect .
If F den o tes the p r escr ibed r efr a ct in g po wer o f the c o m

bin ati on then sin ce , ,
F F 1 + F2 y
we fi n d :
V1 ”2
F, F2 F .
v1 V2 V1 V2
The t o t al r efr a ctin g po we r F will h ave the s am e sign as

th at o the le s which as the g eater V v alue ; fo r exam ple
f n h r -
,
the c o m bin ati on will a c t like a c on vex len s p r o vided the

v -v alue o f the p o sitive ele m en t e x ceeds th a t o f the n eg a
tive elem en t .
Thus bein g given the values o f F v 1 an d 2 we c an e m

, ,
v
,
pl o y the ab o ve r elati o n s t o determi n e the r equir ed va lue s

O f PI a n d F 2 Mor e o ver if K 1 den o tes the algeb ra ic differ
.
,
en ce o f the cur va tur es Of the t wo fa ces o f the fi r st len s an d , ,
sim ilar ly if K 2 den o tes the c o rr esp o n din g m agn itude f o r

,
the sec on d len s then ,
F1 F2
K1 7
K2 :
n 1 1 n 2 1
whe r e n 1, n 2 den o te the in dices of r efr a ctio n of the t wo kin ds
5
4 0 Mir r o r s ,
of gl a ss f or s o m e st a n d a r d w a ve -len gth as al r eady st ated , ,
which is usu ally light c o rr espo n d in g t o the FRA UN H OFE R

D lin e Thus whil e the m a gn itudes den o ted by K 1 an d K2
- .
,
m ay be c o m puted the a ctu al cu r vatu r es o r r a dii o f the len s

,
su r fa ces r e m ain in dete r mi n at e ; so th at the r e ar e still t wo
FIG 22 1 FRA UN F IG 2 22 PR AO N
p p
. . . .
FIG 2 2 0 — D o LLO N D j
H O F E R S t e le sc o
‘ ’
t e l e sc o
p v v
s H O FE R S e e
j j
. .
t e le sc o e O b e c t i e . O b e c ti e , N O 1 . . o b j e c tl v e N o 2 , . .
—H E R S C H E L ’ S 22 4— B 5 —
j v p j v p j v
’
FIG 2 2 3 F IG GA US S
p
’
. . . . A R LO W S F IG 22
. . S
t e l e sc o e ob e c ti e. t e l e sc o e Ob e c ti e. t e l e sc o e o b e c ti e .
o ther c o n diti o n s which m ay be im p o sed o n an a ch r o m atic

c om b in ati o n o f this kin d Fo r exam ple in s o m e c a ses it
.
,
m ay be c on v e n tie n t t o ce m en t the t wo c o m p o n en ts t o gethe r ,
an d the n o n e O f the c o n diti o n s will be th a t the cu r v a tu r es O f
the t wo sur fa ces in c o n t a ct sh a ll be equ al Usu all y h o w .

,
ever a m o r e im p o r t an t r equir em en t will be the ab o litio n o f

,
t wo o the so c alled sphe r ic a l e r r o r s due t o the fa ct th a t the

f -
Ch XIV]
. Pr o b l e m s 5
5 0
ra ys a r e n o t p ar axial so th at the i m age will be sh ar p an d

,
distin ct especi ally a t the cen ter

,
.
So m e hist o r ic types o f a ch r o m a tic Obj ect gl a sses O f a tel -
e s c o p e a r e illust ra ted in the a cc o m p an yi n g di a g r am s D OL .
Lo N D s a ch r o m a tic do ublet (Fig 220) c o n siste d O f a d o uble

’
.
c o n ve x cr o wn gl a ss len s c o m bin ed with a d ouble c o n c ave flin t

gl a ss len s ; wher e a s FRA UNH O F E R S c o n str u cti o n s sh o w a c o m
’
bin ati o O f a d o uble c o ve a d a pl a o c o n c ave len s (Fig

n n x n n - .
2 2 1 ) a n d Of a d o uble c o n ve x an d a m e n iscus le n s (Fig .
J H E R S C H E L S fo r m (1 82 1 ) is sh o wn in Fig 223 BA R LO W S
.
’
.
,
’
d fin ally the GA US S type m ade by

5
( 1 8 2 7 ) in F ig 2 2 4;.a n
STE INH E IL in 1 86 0 is e xhibite d in Fig 22

, ,
The n ewer v a
. .
r ie t ie s o f Je n a gl a ss m a ke it p o ssible t o c o n st r uct an a ch r o
m atic O bj ective O f t wo le n ses which is far supe r i o r in a ch r o

m at ism t o an y Of the o lde r t y pes ab o ve m e n ti o n ed .
PR OB LE MS
1 . Fi n d
the v alues o f the r ecip r o c als Of the dispe r sive
p o we r s o f a lc o h o l an d w a te r usi n g d at a given in
,
t able in 1 63 . An s Alc o h o l w ater

.
, ,
2 The i n dices o f r efr a cti o n O f r o ck s a lt fo r the FRA UN

H O FE R lin es C D an d F ar e
.
,
an d re
sp e c t iv ely C a lcul ate the v alue o f the r ecip r o c al o f the dis

.
p e r siv e p o we r . A n s .
3 White light is e m itted fr o m a lu m i n o us p o i n t o n the

.
a xis o f a thi n len s If the yell o w r ays ar e b r o ught t o a fo cus

.
a t a p o in t wh o se dist a n ce fr o m the le n s is de n o ted by u

’
Sh o w th at the dist an ce betwee n the f o ci o f the r e d an d blue
r a ys is a pp r o xi m ately equ a l t o 2 wher e F den otes the

r efr a cti n g p o w e r O f the le n s f o r yell o w light an d v d e n o tes
the r ecip r o c al o f the dispe r sive p o wer o f the len s m edium

5
5
- .
4 A le n s is m a de o f b o r ate flin t gl a ss fo r which v =

. 2 . .
The fo c al len gth o f the len s fo r s o dium light is 30 in ches .
Fi n d the dist an ce between the r e d an d blue i m a ges o f the

sun f o r m ed b y the le n s . An s in . .
506 Mir r or s ,
Pr ism s an d Le n se s [ XIV
C h .
5A c
. wn gl a ss pr is m Of r efr a ctin g an gle 2 0 is t o be
ro
°
c o m bin ed with a flin t gl a ss p r ism so th at the c o m bin ati on

will be a ch r o m a tic fo r the FRA UNH O FE R lin es C an d F The .
in dices Of r efr a cti on ar e as fo llo ws :
5 5
no TLD nF
C r o wn 849 87 02
Flin t 68 1 03 6 26 0
Usin g the a ppr o xi m ate fo r m ul a fo r thin p r 1sm s sh o w th at
the r efr a ctin g an gle o f the flin t p r ism will be 9 4 an d
°
5 ,
’
th at the devi ati o n o f the r ay s c o r r esp on din g t o the D-lin e

will be 4 1 8 ° ’
6 A di r ect visi o n p r ism c o m b in ati on is t o be m a de with

.
the s am e kin ds O f gl a ss a s in the pr ecedin g pr o blem ; so that

r ays c o rr esp o n din g t o the D -lin e ar e t o e m e r ge with o ut de
v iat io n If the r efr a ctin g a n gle o f the c r o wn gl a ss pr ism is

.
sh o w th at the r efr a ctin g an gle Of the flin t gl ass pr ism

will be 1 6 40 °
an d th at the an gul ar dispe r si o n betwee n
’
C an d F will be 9
’
7 An AM IC I di r ect visi o n p r is m
. 1 7 1 ) is t o b e m ade o f
c r o wn gl a ss an d flin t gl a ss wh o se in dices Of r efr a cti on fo r
the D-li n e ar e an d r espectively If the r e .
fr a ctin g an gles O f the t wo equ al c r o wn gl ass p r ism s ar e e a ch

equ al t o Sh o w th a t the r efr a ctin g an gle O f the m iddle
flin t gl a ss p r ism will be 9 8 7 4 °

.
’
8 A K E S S LE R p r is m
. 1 7 2) in the fo r m o f a r h o m bus is
m a de o f gl a ss O f in dex n D = 1 6 1 38 Fi n d the an gles o f the
55
. .
p r is m . An s 3 an d 14 4 .
° ’ °
9 A th in len s is m a de o f c ro wn gl a ss fo r w hi ch v 1 = 60 2
. . .
An o ther thi n len s is m ade O f flin t gl a ss fo r whi ch v = 36 2 2 . .
When the t wo len ses a r e pl a ced in c o n t a ct they fo r m an

a ch r o m atic c o m bin a ti o n o f f o c al le n gth 1 0 c m F in d the .
fo c al len g th O f e a ch len s An s f 1 = 3 9 9 cm ; f 2 =
. . cm
. . .
1 0 An a ch r o m a tic d o ublet is t o be m a de o f t wo thi n

.
len ses cem en ted t o g ether an d the fo c al len gth o f the c om

,
bin ati o n fo r the D -lin e is t o be 2 cm The fi r st len s is a 5 .
symm et r ic c o n ve x le n s o f b ar iu m silic ate gl a ss an d the o t he r

C h XIV]
. Pr o b le m s 5
07
len s is a c o n cave len s Of so diu m lead glass . The in dices Of
r efr a cti o n ar e
”D nF — nC
B ar ium silic ate

So diu m le a d
Fin d the r a dii o f the su r fa ces o n the supp o siti o n th at the ray s
c o rr esp on din g t o the lin es C an d F ar e un ited .
An s The r a dii o f the fi r st an d l ast s ur fa ces ar e

.
an d cm r espectively
.
,
.
1 1 A sym m et r ic d o uble c o n ve x len s is m a de o f r o ck s a lt

5 5
5
.
fo r whi ch n C = 1 404 an d n F = 1
. 31 Fin d the thick n ess
. .
o f the le n sif the fo c al le n gths f o r the c o l o r s C a n d F a r e equ al .
An s . wher e r den o tes the r a dius o f the fi r st

su r fa ce O f the len s .
1 2 T wo thin len ses o f the s a m e ki n d o f gl a ss o n e c o n ve x

.
,
o f f o c a l le n gth 9 in ches the o the r c o n c ave o f f o c a l le n gth

,
4 i n ches a r e sep ar ated by an in te r v a l o f 2 0 i n ches A sm all

,
.
white o b j ect is pl a ced 3 6 in ches in fr on t o f the c o n vex len s .
Sh o w th at the v ar i o us c o l o r ed i m ages ar e all fo r m ed a t the

sam e pl a ce .
1 3 T wo thin le n ses o f the s am e ki n d O f gl a ss o n e c o n ve x

.
,
a n d the o the r c o n c a ve a n d b o th o f f o c a l le n gth 4 i n ches a r e
a dj usted o n the s a m e a x is u n til the c o l o r ed i m a ges o f a white

, ,
O bj ect pl a ced 1 2 in ches in f r o n t o f the c o n ve x le n s ar e f o r m ed
a t the s a m e pl a ce Sh o w th at the i n te r v a l between the le n ses

.
m ust be twelve i n ches

1 4 A le n s -syste m su r r o u n ded b y a ir is c o m p o sed o f m
.
Sphe r ic a l r efr a cti n g su r fa ces Assum i n g th a t the t o t a l thick

.
n ess o f the syste m is n egligible Sh o w th at the c o n diti o n o f

,
a ch r o m a tism is
k =m
E (Rk — l Bk ) 8721: 0,
k =2
whe r e Rk den o tes the cur vatu r e o f the hth sur fa ce an d On k
den o tes the dispe r si o n o f the m e diu m i n clu ded bet ween the
(h 1 ) th a n d hth su r fa ces fo r light o f the two c o l o r s t o be
‘
c o m pe n s ated .
C HA PT E R XV
RA Y N
S O F F I IT E S LO PE . H
SP E R ICA L A B E R RA TIO N ,
A S TIGMA T ISM O F O B LIQ U E B UND LE S ,

E TC .
17 5I t
. n r o du c tionThe the o ry o f the sym m et r ic al Op
.
—
tic a l in st r um en t a s it h as been develo ped in the p r ecedin g

,
ch apter s is b ased o n the assum pti on th at the r ays c o n cern ed

,
in the f o r m ati o n O f the i m a ge ar e e n ti r ely c o n fin ed t o the

so -c a lled p ar axi a l r a ys 6 3 ) wh o se p aths th r o ugh o ut the
system ar e c o n t a in ed withi n an ex ceedin gly n arr o w cylin dri
c al r egi o n O f sp a ce i mm edi ately su rr o u n di n g the a xis With .
this fun d am en t al r est r icti o n it wa s fo un d th at ther e was

pe r fect c o llin e ar c o rr esp o n den ce between O bj ect-sp a ce an d
im age sp a ce ; so th at a t r ain o f spher ic al waves e m an atin g
-
fr o m an Ob j ect po in t was t r an sfo r m ed by the Optic al system

-
in t o an o the r t r a in O f sphe r ic al w aves a ccu r ately c o n ve r gin g

t o o r dive r gi n g fr o m a c o r r es p o n din g ce n te r c alle d the i m a ge
p o in t ; an d so th at in ge n e r al a pl an e Obj ect at r ight an gles
, ,
t o the a x is wa s r ep r o duced p o in t by p o i n t by a si m il ar pl an e
im a ge As a m a tter o f fa ct these ide a l c o n diti o n s a r e n ever
.
,
r e a li z ed in an y a ctu a l o ptic a l syste m e x cept in the c a se o f a
plan e mi rr o r o r c o m b in ati on Of pl an e m i r r o r s Mo r eove r .

,
a cc o di g t o the w a ve the o r y o f light

r n - a m e r e h o m o ce n t r ic
,
c o n ver gen ce o f the r ays is n ot sufficien t fo r Obt ain in g a p o in t

i m age Of a p o in t s o u r ce ; fo r this the o r y l ays p ar ticul ar st r es s
-
o n the fu r the r esse n ti a l r equi r e m en t th a t the e ffective p o r
ti o n o f the w a ve -su r fa ce which c o n t r ibutes t o the pr o duc

ti o n o f the i m a ge sh a ll be r el atively l ar ge in c om p ar is on with
the r a dius o f the su r fa ce if the light -effect is t o be c o n c e n
,
t r at e d a s n e a r ly as p o ssible at a si n gle p o in t an d n o t spr e a d

o ve r s o m e c o n side r able a r e a in the vici n ity o f the p o i n t This .
c o n diti o n im plies ther efo r e th at the a pertur e of the bu n dle

5
, ,
08
1 7 6] YO U N G
’
S C on s t r u c tion 5 09
Of effective r ays m ust n o t be belo w a ce rt ain fin ite limi t in ,
o the r w o r ds we a r e c o m pelled by a p r a ctic a l n ecessity wh o lly ,
a side fro m the p r i n ci p les at the b a sis O f ge o m et r ic a l o ptics t o ,
e m pl oy m o r e o r less wi de an gle bun dles o f r ays Mo r eo ve r

-
.
,
if a wide-an gle bun dle o f rays is a r equir em en t o f a distin ct ,
cle ar cut im age it is als o equ ally essen ti al f o r a b right im a ge

-
, .
Thus o n b o th the o r etical an d p r a ctic al gr o un ds it is fo un d

, ,
n ecess a r y t o e xte n d the li mi ts O f the e ffective r ays bey o n d
the p a r axi al r egi on .
I n ste ad ther efo r e o f the ide a l c a se o f c o llin ear c o r r espo n d

, ,
en ce Of o b j ect-Sp a ce an d i m age-sp a ce the theo r y O f o ptic al ,
in st rum en ts is c o m plic a ted by n um er o us p r a ctic al an d fo r ,
the m o st p art ir r ec o n cil able difficulties due chi efly t o the

so -c a lled a b e r r a ti on s o r f ail u r e o f the r ays t o a r r iv e a t the
pl a ces whe r e they m ight be e xpected a cc o r di n g t o the

si m ple the o y Of c o ll e ati on o r po in t t o po in t c o rr e
r i n - -
sp o n de n c e (pun ctu a l i m a ge r y ) In the p r ecedin g ch apte r

.
b r ief r efer en ce was m ade t o t h e chr omati c a b er r a ti on s ar isin g

fr o m the diff er en ces in the c o l o r O f the light ; but n o w we
h ave t o de a l with the m on ochr oma ti c a b err a ti on s o f r ays O f
li ght O f o n e defin ite wa ve-len gth which a r e c aused by the pe
c uli a r it ie s o f the cu r ved su r fa ces a t which the r ays a r e r e
fle c t e d a n d r efr a cted These sur fa ces ar e n e ar ly always

.
spher ic al in fo r m an d hen ce the a be r r atio n s O f this l atte r

,
kin d ar e usu ally c alled sp her i ca l a b er r a ti on s A c o m plete .
t r eat m en t O f this i n t r ic ate sub j ect lies wh o lly o utsi de the

s c op e o f t hi s v o lu m e In the p r esen t ch a pte r it m ust su ffice
.
t o p o in t o u t the ge n e r al n atu r e o f s o m e o f the m o r e i m p o r t an t

O f the so -c a lle d s p he r ic a l e r r o r s F i r st h o w eve r we m ust
.
, ,
se e h o w t o t r a ce the p a th O f a si n gle r ay th r o ugh a ce n te r ed
syste m O f s p he r ic a l su r f a ces bef o r e we a r e in a p o siti o n t o
stu dy a bu n dle o f r a ys .
1 7 6 C o n stru c ti o n o f a R ay R efr a cte d at a S phe r ic al

.
S ur fac e — In
.
§ 3 4 a m eth o d w as e x p l a i n e d f o r c o n st r ucti n g
the p ath o f a r ay r efr a cted fr o m o n e m ediu m in t o an o the r ,
whi ch is alw ay s a pplic able t o a r efra ctin g su r fa ce o f an y fo r m .

5 10 Mirr o r s ,
The fo llo win g elegan t an d useful c o n st ructi on Of the p ath o f

a r ay r efr a cted a t a sphe r ic a l su r fa ce wa s published in 1 807
b y TH OMA S YO UN G (1 773
FIG . 22 6 — C o n st r u c t io n o f r a y r e fr ac t e d a t c o n v ph
ex s e r i c al su rf ac e
’
(n > n ) .
In cc o m p an yin g di agram s (Figs 2 26 t o 229) the

the a .
cen ter Of the spher ic al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce Z Z is design ated

by C The p o in t R is an y p o i n t o n the p a th Of the in ciden t
.
r ay lyin g in the fi r st m edium O f r efr a ctive in de x n The p o in t .
' > u
n
FIG 2 2 7
. .
—
C o n st r uc t io n o f r ay r e f r ac t e d a t c o n c a v ph
e s e r ic al su rf ace (n
’
n ) .
wher e the r ay m eets the spher ic al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce is m ar ked

B The pl an e Of the p aper which c o n t a in s the in ciden t r ay
.
R a d the i cide ce n o r m al B C is the pl an e Of in cid en ce

B n n n - .
176 ] YO U N G ’
S C o n stru c io n t 5
11
The in de x
efr a ctio n o f the sec o n d m ediu m is den o ted by
Of r
a n d the r a dius o f the s p he r ic a l r efra ctin g su r f a ce by r

’
n .
Ar o un d C a s cen ter an d with r a dii equ al t o n r / n an d u r /n ’

. .
’
u '< h
FIG . 2 2 8 — C o n st r uc t io n o f r ay r e fr ac t e d a t c o n v phex s e ri c al s ur f a c e
’
(n < n ) .
desc r ibe in the p l an e o f in ciden ce the cir cul ar ar cs k an d k

, ,
’
,
r espectively ; an d let S design ate the p o in t whe r e the st r a ight
lin e R B pr o duced if n ecess ar y m eets the ar c k D r a w the

, ,
.
st raight lin e C S n t e rse c t in g the ar c k in the p o in t S Then ’ ’

.
11 ' 1»
FIG 2 2 9
. .
—C o n st r u c t io n o f r ay r e fra c t e d a t c o n c a v ph
e s e r i c a l su r f a c e (n
’
n )
the st r aight lin e B T d r awn fr o m B th r o ugh S will r ep r esen t ’
the p ath O f the r efr a cted r ay In m akin g this c o n st ructi o n

.
,
c ar e m ust be t a ke n t o select fo r the p o i n t S th at o n e o f the

512 Mir r o rs ,
t wo p o in ts in which the st r aight lin e RB cuts the cir cle k

which will m ake the segm en ts B S an d B S b o th fall o n the ’
s am e side O f the in ciden ce-n o r m al si n ce the an gles Of in ,
c ide n c e a n d r efr a cti o n ar e desc r ibed a lw ays in the s am e
sen se b o th cl o ckwise o r b o th c o un ter -clo ckwise

,
.
The pr o o f o f the c o n str ucti o n is sim ple Sin ce the r a dius .
r = B C is a m e an p r o p o r ti o n a l betwee n the r a di i
an d th at is sin ce ,
CS :
C B = CB : n ,
the t r i an gles C BS an d CBS

’
ar e simi lar ,
an d hen ce '
4C B S
Z ES C
’
. In the t r i an gle C BS :
sin Z C BS :i
s n Z B SC CS :
CB = n
’
: n .
By the efr a cti o n :

law of r a wher e a ’
, .
C o n seque n tly Z B SC = Z C B S = a so th a t the

’ ’
Z C BS .
, ,
st r a ight lin e B S is the p ath o f the r efr a cted r ay

’
.
This c o n st r ucti on c an be em pl o yed t o t r a ce the p ath o f

a r ay g r a phic all y fr o m o n e su r fa ce t o the n e xt th r o ugh a
cen te r ed system o f spheric al r efr a ctin g sur fa ces .
1 7 7 Th e Apl an ati c Po in t s Of a Sph e r i c a l R e fr a c tin g Sur

.
f ac e .
—In ciden t ally in c o n n ecti o n with the p r ecedin g co n
,
st ructi o n a tte n ti o n is di r ected t o the si n gul a r ch ar a cte r O f

,
all p a i r s o f p o in ts such as S S dete r m i n ed by the in t e r se c ;

’
,
ti o n s o f the t wo c o n cen t r ic auxili ary Sphe r ical sur fa ces with

an y st r aight li n e d r aw n fr o m thei r c o m m o n ce n te r C To .
eve r y in ciden t r ay dir ected t o w ar ds the po in t S ther e will

c o rr esp o n d a r efr a cted r ay which will p a ss r e ally o r ”
“vir tu ally th r o ugh the o ther po in t S so th at in this

‘
” ’
) ;
speci al c a se we Obt ain a h omoc en t r ic bun dle Of r efr a cted
r ays fr o m a h o m o ce n t r ic bun dle o f i n cide n t r ays f o r a ll ,
v alues Of the a per tu r e -an gle O f the bun dle Thus S is a .

,
’
p o i t im age O f the Obj ect po in t S The dist an ces o f S an d

n - - .
S f m the ce te r C ar e c o
’
r o n n n ected b y the i v i t r el ati on :
n a r an -
CS CS
’ ’
n .
=n . .
Th at p ai r Of these p o i n ts which lies o n the O ptic al axis is

especially distin guished an d c alled the p air of ap lan atic
1 78 ] Sp h e r i c a l A b e rr a t ion 5 13
p o i n the sphe r ica l r efr a cti n g su r fa ce ; they ar e design ated

ts o f
by J J (Fig,
’
Thus we h ave
.
,
CJ :
AC AC : n ,
n . CJ
The apl an atic p o in ts ther efo r e , ,
li e a lways on the s am e side
. p
F IG 2 30 — A l an a t ic p o in ts of s ph e ri c al r e f r ac t in g su r f a c e .
of the cen ter C so th at wher e a s the r ays m ust p a s s r e ally

,
“
th r ough on e Of the m they will p a ss v i r tu ally th r ough "
the o ther In ge o m et r ic al l an gu a ge the p oin ts J J ar e s ai d

.
,
’
t o be h ar m o n ic ally se p a r ated 6 7 ) by the e xt r e m ities O f

the axi al di am eter o f the r efr a cti n g spher e .
1 7 8 Sphe r ic al Ab e rr ati o n Al o n g th e Ax i s
.
— H o wever in ,
gen e r al a h o m o cen t r ic bun dle o f r ays in ci den t o n a sp he ri

,
c al r efr a cti n g su r f a ce will n o t be h o m o ce n t r ic a fte r r e fr a c
ti o n The di agr am (Fig 23 1 ) r ep r esen ts the c a se o f a m e r i d

. .
ian secti o n O f a b un dle O f i n ci de n t r ays which a r e a ll p a r allel

t o the axis o f a c o n ve x Sp he r ic a l r efr a cti n g su r fa ce f o r which
’
n >n .It will be see n th at whe r e as the p a r a xi a l r ays afte r
,
r efr a cti o n m eet o n the a x is a t the sec o n d f o c a l p o in t F the ’

,
o ute r m o st o r edge r a ys c r o ss the a xis a t a p o i n t L betwee n

’
the vertex A an d the fo c al p o in t F ; a n d the i n te r m ediate ’
r ays c r o ss the ax is a t p o i n ts lyin g bet w ee n F a n d L The ’ ’

.
seg m e n t F L is the m e a su r e o f the spher i c a l a b e r r a ti on a lon g

’ ’
5
4 1 Mir r o r s ,
the axi s o r the axi al abe r r ati o n o f the edge r ay Of a dir ect
“
cylin d r ic al bun dle o f in ciden t r ays (By a dir ect bun dle
.
”
Of r ays is m e an t a b un dle o f r ay s e m an atin g fr o m a po i n t on
the axis ) In the figu r e this segm en t is n eg ative th at is m e a s

.
,
u r e d in the se n se o pp o site t o t h a t o f the in cide n t light ; a n d

,
F IG 2 3 1
.
—S
. ph e ri c al a b e rra t io n .
this effect is usu ally desc r ibed b y s ayin g th at a c o n vex sphe ri

c al r efr a cti n g su r fa ce a t which light is r efr a cte d fr o m a ir t o
gl ass is sp her i ca lly un der-cor r ected; wher e a s un der the sam e ,
cir cum st an ces a c on c ave spher ic al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce will be

,
fo un d t o be spher ic ally over -corr ecte d th at is the segm en t , ,
F L in this c a se wi ll be p o sitive In fa ct the p o i n ts o f in

’ ’
.
,
t e r se c t io n Of p a i r s o f c o n secutive r a ys lyin g in the pl an e o f

a m e r idi an secti o n O f a sphe r ic a l r efr a ctin g su r fa ce f o rm a
cur ved lin e lyin g sym m et r ic a lly a b o ve an d bel o w the axis . ,
if the bun dle o f in ciden t r ays is sym m et r ic with r espect t o

the axis ; an d this pl an e cur ve is the so -c alled ca usti c cur ve
o f the m e r idi an r ays . The t wo b r an ches o n Oppo site sides
o f the a xi s un ite in a d o uble p o in t o r cusp a t the p o i n t on
the axis wher e the p ar axi al r ays in ter sect so th at the axi s ,
i s t an gen t t o bo th b r an ches a t this po in t which in the figu r e ,

179 ] Sp h e r ic al Z o n e s 5
5
1
is the po in t F The system is s a id t o be sphe r ic ally o ver

’
.
c o r r ected o r un der c o r r ected a cc o r din g as the cusp is turn ed

-
t o war ds the in ciden t light o r a w a y fr o m it r e sp e c
t iv e ly ; o n the supp o siti o n th a t the in cide n t r ays a r e p a r a llel

t o the axis E a ch r efr a cted r ay in the m e r idi an pl an e t o uches
.
the c austic cur ve an d hen ce thi s cur ve is s a id t o be the g e o

,
m et r ic a l e n vel o pe O f the m er i di an secti o n o f the b un dl e o f

r efr a cted r ays .
If the en tir e figur e is r evo lved a r o un d the o ptic al axis the

a r c ZZ will gen e r ate a z o n e o f the s p he r ic a l r efr a ct in g su r
fa ce c o n t ain in g the vertex A ; an d e a ch in ciden t r ay pr o

c e e din g p ar allel t o the axis will ge n e r a te a c ylin d r ic a l sur
fa ce an d all the r efr a cted r ays c o rr espo n din g t o the in ciden t

,
r ays w h ich lie o n the su r fa ce o f o n e o f these cyli n de r s will
in ter sect in o n e po in t lyin g o n the axis between F an d L ’ ’

.
The r evo luti on o f the c austic curve will gen er ate a ca usti c
surf a ce which will be the e n vel o pin g su r f a ce o f the bu n dle O f
,
r efr a cted ra ys (see
The c austic curve te r m in ates at the p o in t H wher e the ’
edge r ay in ter sects the n e xt c o n secutive r ay in the m e r idi an

secti o n If a p l an e sc r een e r ected a t r ight an gles t o the axis
.
so a s t o c a tch the light t r a n s m itte d by the bu n dle O f r efr a cted
r a ys is pl a ced i n iti a lly in the t r a n sve r s a l pl a n e th a t p a sses
thr ough the e xt r em e p o in t H a n d the n gr a du a lly shifted

’
p arallel t o the axis t o w a r ds the sec o n d fo c a l pl an e ther e will ,
a ppe ar o n the sc r ee n a t fi r st a ci r cul a r p atch o f light su r
r o un ded o n its o ute r e dge by a b r ighte r r i n g which will g r a d

,
u ally c o n t r a ct as the sc r ee n a p p r o a ches L Between L ’ ’

.
an d F the r e will be see n at the ce n te r o f the ci r cul a r p atch

’
O f li ght a n in c r e a si n gl y b r ight sp o t F o r a ce r t a in p o siti o n

i
G whe r e the dist an ce o f the sc r ee n fr o m F is a b o ut th r ee

’ ’
fo ur ths O f the len gth o f F L the c r o ss -secti o n o f the bun dle

’ ’
Of r efr a cte d r ays will h ave its n a r r o west c o n t r a cti o n This .
se ctio n is s o m etim es c alle d the lea st ci r cle of a ber r ation .
1 7 9 S phe r ic a l Z on e s
.
— S i n ce in ge n e r al it is n o t p o ssible
.
, ,
t o ab o lish the sphe r ic al abe rr ati o n o f a sin gle sphe r ic al r e

5 16 Mir r or s ,
§ 1 8O
fr a ctin g su r fa ce the o n ly m e an s ava il able is t o t ry t o a o

c o m plish t hi s r esult b y dist r ibutin g the duty O f r efr a ctin g
,
the rays o ver a ser ies o f sur fa ces wh o se cu r vatur es an d dis

t an ces ap ar t a r e so n icely a djusted with r espect t o e a ch o ther
th at when the r ays fin ally em er ge they will all un ite in o n e
fo cus o n the a xis Thus fo r exam ple if the in ciden t r ays
.
, ,
a r e supp o sed t o be p ar a llel t o the a xis o f the syste m a n d if ,
the syst em h as been design ed so as t o be spher ic ally c o rr ected
F IG . 2 3 2 — Gr a ph ic al re p r e se n t a t io n Of the s ph e ri c al z o n e s o f a le n s .
fo r the edge r ay which m eets the fi r st sur fa ce at the dist an ce

h fr o m the ax is it is c o n ceiv able th a t all the in te r m edi ate
,
ra ys of in ci d e n ce -heights z (wher e h z 0) m ight pe r chan ce

em er ge fr o m the system al o n g p aths which all lik ewise p assed
th r o ugh the fo c a l p o in t F ; but p r a ctic ally this n ever h ap
’
pen s If the edge r ay in ter sects the axis at F an in term edi

.
’
,
a t e ay
r o f in cide n ce -height z will cr o ss the axis at s o m e o ther
p o in t L an d the segm en t F L is c alled the sp her i ca l aberra
’
,
’ ’
ti on of the zon e of r a di us z o r S im ply the sp he r i c a l z on e z The .
spher ic al z on es o f a len s m ay be exhibited gr aphi c ally b y

pl o ttin g a cur ve wh o se a bsciss a ar e the v alues o f F L an d ’ ’
wh o se o r din ates a r e the c o r r esp o n din g values o f z as r e pr e ,
s e n ted in Fig 2 3 2 . .
j
1 80 T r i g o n o m e tr i c al C al c ul ati o n Of a Ray R e fr a c te d at
.
a Sph e r i c al S ur f ac e The di a gr am (Fig 2 33) r ep r esen ts a .
m e r idi an secti o n Z Z O f a Sphe r ic al r efr a ctin g sur f a ce o f r a diu s

r ( : AO) sep ar a tin g t wo m edi a o f in dices O f r efr a cti o n n n
’
.
,
A r ay RB in ciden t o n the surfa ce at B at an an gle a

Z NB R Z C BL c r o sses the a is a t
= x L at a sl pe an gle 9
o -
Z A L E If
. the ce n t r al an gle is de n o ted b y ¢ = A B O A ,
1 80] C alc ula io n t of R e fr ac e d t Ray 5 17
an if the absciss a Of the p o in t L with r espect t o t h e cen te r C

d
is den o ted by c th at is if c = C L then in the t r i an gle C BL
, , , ,
we h ave the r el ati o n s :

sin 0= r sin a
—
c . . .
The p ath o f the c o r r espo n din g r efr a cted r ay is Sh o wn by the

str aight lin e B T which c r o sses the a xis at the p o i n t L ; an d ’
FIG 2 3 3 — D ia g
. ram f o r t r ig o n o m e t r i c al c a l c u l a t io n O f r e f r ac t e d r a y .
if we put Z AL B a n d we o h ’
t ain a sim il ar p air o f fo r m ul a fr o m the t r i an gle C B L n am ely ’

,
fl
’
a
’
c . sin
’
— r sin a ’
. .
Acc o r din gly bei n g given the c o n st an ts den o ted b y n n an d

, ,
’
r an d the p a r a m ete r s (0 9) o f the i n cide n t r a y we c an fi n d

, , ,
the p a r am eter s (c o f the r efr a cted r ay b y m e an s o f the

’
,
fo ll o win g sy stem of eq u ati on s :
—
,
sin a, 0+ a
,
’
—
sin '
a
’
T ’
sin 0
It is e asy t o see th at if we h ave given t wo i n ciden t r ays
which b o th c r o ss the a xis at the s a m e p o in t L so th at the ,
absciss a c h as the s a m e v a lue f o r b o th r ays while the sl o pe
an gles 0 a r e di ff e r e n t d iffe r e n t v alues o f c will in ge n e r a l

’
, , ,
be obt ain ed fo r the absciss a o f the p o in ts wher e the t wo c o r

5 18 Mirr o rs ,
r esp o n d in g r efr a cted r ays c r o ss the axis Thi s is the an alyt i .
c al st a te m e n t O f the f a ct o f sphe r ic a l abe r r a ti o n
The fo rm ul a fo r c alculat in g the p ath O f a r ay r eflected at

a sp he r i ca l m i rr or m ay be d e r ive d imm edi a tely by puttin g
n
I
n -
5
7 ) in the p r ecedin g sy stem O f e q u at i on s Thus .
we fin d :
I n ciden t ally a n u m ber Of o ther useful r el ati on s m ay be

,
O bt a in ed fr o m Fig 233 Fo r e xam ple if the dist an ces o f the

. .
,
p o in ts L an d L wher e the r ay c r o sses the axis befo r e an d

’
a fte r r efr a cti o n m e a su r ed fr o m the i cide n ce p o in t B ar e

n -
den o ted by l an d l r espectively th a t is if l = BL l = BL

’
, , , ,
’ ’
,
wher e l an d l ar e t o be r eck o n ed p o sitive o r n egative ao

’
c o r din g as these len gths ar e m e asur ed in the s am e dir ecti on

a s the light t r aver ses the r ay o r in the o pp o site dir ec t i on ,
r espectivel y ; t he n
l sin fl t sin 9 ;
’ ’ ’
. .
an d sm ce b y t he l aw o f r efr a cti o n
, ,
n c sin 0 = n e sin 0
’ ’ ’
. . . .
,
we Obt a in the useful in v ar i an t r ela ti on

’ ’
n . c n o .
’
l l
Mo r e o ver b y p r o j ectin g the
,
sides 0 an d l Of the t r i an gle
t wo
C BL on the thir d side r , the fo ll o win g fo rm ul a is Obt ain ed :
r l . cos a
which m ay be wr itten :
I
( )
0 r co s a
l c o s qS r l
Sim il ar l y ,
in the ti
r an gle CBL
I
co s a ’
1
( )
c -
r
’ ’
l b
c o sq r l
Multiplyin g the fi r st these equ ati o n s by n an d the sec on d
of
by n ’
a n d e q u a tin g the r esultin g e xp r essi o n s we fin d : ,
’
1 1
( ) ( )
c o s a. cos a
n =n
’
r l r l
1 81 ] Pa h t Of t
R ay hr o u g h C e n t ered S yt s e m 5 19
which m ay als o be wr itten

n oo s a — n cos a
’ ’ ’
n n
D (saw
. .
l
,
l ,
7
);
or fin ally
wher e L = n / l ,
If the r ay is a put c o s a = c o s a = 1
p ar axi a l r a y, we m ay
’
a n d n o w if we w r ite u u in pl a ce o f l l r espectively
’ ’
, , , ,
the f or m ul a b o ve will educe t o the absciss a equ ati o n for

a r -
the r efr a cti on of a p ar axi al r ay at a sphe r ical sur fa ce

M or e o ver if in the l ast fo r m ul a we put n = n
,
we ’
fin d the c o r r esp o n d in g r el ati o n fo r the r efle cti on of a r ay a t

a sp heri ca l mi r r or n am ely ,
1 1 2 co s a
r
1 81 . Path Ofth r o ugh a C e n te r e d Syste m of Sph e r

Ray
i c al R e fr ac tin g Surf a c e s Nu m e r i c al C al c ulati on Usin g
.
—
.
the s am e system o f n o t ati o n as in 1 1 8 we m ay w r ite the ,
fo r m ul a fo r the r efr a cti o n o f a p ar axi a l r ay at the k th sur

fa ce O f a cen ter ed system o f spher ical r e tr actin g sur fa ces ,
as fo ll o ws
17 k = Uk + Fk )
,
wher e
Uk = n k /uk y an d Fk = (n k + 1
k Mk Ak Mk -f
'
uk =A uk '
l 7k
’
Ak
; ;
An d If dk then als o
1/ U - 1
k l — l/Uk
' —d
k / nk +1
Acc o r d in g t o the r el ati on s given in § 1 80 we h ave the ,
fo ll o win g system O f fo rm ula for the r efr a cti on at the k t h

su f ce
r a o f a r ay wh os e mp e an gles befo r e a n d a fte r r efr a cti o n
-
h ave the fin ite values 0k Z Ak Lk B k an d dk + l Z Ak Lk + Bk 1 ,
r espectively
71 k
72 k +1
’
sin a k
0k + 1 = 6k + 0k — ’
ak ,
s1 n 0k + 1
5 20 Mir r o r s ,
Pr is m s an d Le n ses 18 1
wher e ck C k Lk an d c k
’
C k Lk + 1 . Mo r e o ve r if , we put
ak (3k +1 dk + Tk + 1 Tk ,
’
ck + 1 ck ak .
In der t o exhibit the m eth o ds o f c alculati on s b y m e an s of

or
thes e fo r m ul a a c o m p ar a tively sim ple n u m er ical illustr a

,
ti o n is a ppen ded The a ctu al exam ple her e ch o sen is o n e

.
given b y Dr MA X LA N GE in his p a per en titled V e r ein fa chte

.
Fo r m eln f iir die t r ig o n o m et r ische Dur c h r e c hn u n g o pti scher

Sy stem e (L eip z ig p a ges 2 4 fo ll The O ptic al sys
, ,
.
t e m is a t w le s o bj ect gl a ss o f a telesc o pe fo r which t he

o - n -
d at a wer e published b y Dr R STE INH E IL in the Z ei tschr if t . .
f a r I n str u m en ten h u n de xvii p 389 as fo ll ows :

,
.
,
I n dices Of r efr a cti on (fo r D-lin e)

n 1 = n =n 5 3
= 1 air
( ); 2 n = 1 6 1 4 400 (fli n t ); n 4
= 1 1 8 64
. . 55
(cr o wn ) .
Thi ckn esses

dl = 2 ; d2 = 0 01 ; dg = . 5 .
R a dii
r1 = + 42 0
; r2 = r3 = r 4= 40
-
The in ciden t rays ar e p ar allel t o the axis , so th at

u1 =61 = 00
The c alcul ation is divided in t o t wo p arts n am ely :(1 ) the ,
c alcul atio n o f the p ar axi al r ay an d (2) the t r igo n o m et r ic ,
c alcul ati o n o f the edge r ay which m eets the fir st su r fa ce o f

the Ob j ect gl a ss at the height h = 33 ab o ve the axis When
- .
C1 : 0 0 we fi n d sin a 1 = h /r 1 whi ch a cc o r d in g t o the ab o ve

1 , ,
d at a , gives lg sin a 1 = This is the st artin g po in t

O f the c a lcul ati o n o f the edge r ay .
E a ch ve r tic a l c o lu m n c o n t ai n s the c alcul a ti o n fo r o n e

Sphe r ic a l r efr a ctin g su r f a ce The Sign wr itten a fter a lo g
.
a r it h m i n dic ates the S ign O f the n u m be r t o which the l o g a
r it h m bel o n gs G en e r ally the c alcul ati o n s do n o t h ave t o be

.
per fo r me d t o th e degr ee o f a ccur a cy t o which they ar e c arr ied

her e .
1 81 ] Sc he m e of Num e r ica l C alc u la io n t 5
21
1 . PARAXIAL RAY
k= 1 k= 2
5
9 7 884 1 2
00033 7 92 5
000000000
1 88 7 5
5
1 1 62
’ ’
c lg U4
’
u4 A 4F
U U U4)
’
U
’ ’ ’
Clg ( l z .3 . .
lg f =
f = + 997 . 5
5s
2 . E D GE R AY
522 Mirr or s ,
Prism s an d Le n ses
dl 4 30° ’
c4
’
=
d l
’
= 2 47
° ’
r .i
91 0, 02 1 43
° '
A 4L 5
8 41
° ,
— 1 0° 2 4’ F Ls
’
,
7
03 : 42
° ’
3
(1 3 — 1 4° 19
,
— 1 0° 3 6 ’
° ’
9 22
94
o ’
l 13
a 4=
° ’
1 16
5
° ’
0 2
° ’
1 6
1
°
5
3
’
Thus we see th at this bj ect gl a ss h as a slight Sphe r ic al

,
O -
abe r r ati o n Of th a t is it is a littl e un der -c o rr ected ,
1 82 . Th e Sin e -C on diti o n or C on diti o n

Aplan ati sm of .
Suppo se th a t f o r a ce r t ain O bj ect -p o in t M (Fig 2 34) o n the .
a xis o f a s ym m et r ic a l Optic al in st r um e n t the sphe r i c a l a be r
r a ti o n h as been a b o lished fo r al l the z o n es O f the syste m so ,
th at r ays p r o ceedin g fr o m this p o in t will all be a ccur ately

fo cused at the c on jugate im ag e p o in t M On a str aight -
’
.
lin e per pen dicul ar t o the axis at M t ake a p o in t Q very cl o se

t o M ; an d let y = M Q de n o te the si z e O f the im a ge O f t h e
’ ’ ’
o bject y = M Q whi ch is p r o duced by the cen t r a l z on e th a t is , ,
by the p araxi al r ays N o w even th o ugh the system is spher

. .
ic ally c o rr ected with r espect t o the p air o f axi al p o in ts M M

’
, ,
it b y n o m e an s fo llo ws th at r ays em an atin g fr o m Q will all

m eet a ga i n in Q In o r de r th a t t his sh all be the c a se t he
'
.
,
m ag r ati o m ust be equ a l t o y / y f o r all the z o n e s

’
n ifi c t
a io n -
O f the syste m . D r a w the O bj ect -r ay M E 1 an d the c o rr e

'
spo n din g im age—ray B g M ; if the sl o pes o f these r ays ar e
’
1 82 ] Sin e—C o n di io n t 5 23
den o ted by 0 an d it m ay be sh o wn th at fo r the z on e

c o rr esp on din g t o the in ciden ce p o in t B the m ag n ifi cat io n -
1
r a ti o is equ a l t o n sin fl/n s n an d if this is equ a l t o y / y

’ ’
'
.
,
then the im age fo r m e d by r ays bel o n gin g t o t hi s z o n e will

be o f the s am e si z e as the im age y m ade by the p ar axial r ays ’
.
F IG 2 34 —Sin e—
. c o n dit io n
. .
Thus in o r der th at with the em pl o ym en t o f wide —an gle

b un dles O f r ays a sym m etr ic al o ptic al in str um en t m ay p r o
,
duce a sh ar p im age o f a little pl an e elem en t per pen dicul ar

t o the a xis o f the i n st r um en t n o t o n ly m ust the syste m be
Sphe r ic a ll y c o rr ected f o r the p ai r o f c o n j ug a te axi a l p o in ts
,
M M but it m ust als o s atisfy the so -c alled S i n e-Con di ti on

,
’
, ,
n am el y ,
’
n sin . 9 y
y .
0
’ ’
n sin y
This celeb r ated pr in ciple was clear ly fo rm ul ated by A BB E
.
in 1 87 3 but it h a d a lr e a dy been r ec o gn i z ed by SE ID E L an d
, ,
it m ay be deduced fr om a gen er al law o f r a di an t en er gy which

was fi r st give n by C LA U S IU S The p r o o f o f it m ust be
O m itted he r e It m ay be st ated in w o r ds as fo llo ws :The
.
n ecess ary an d su fficie n t c o n diti o n th a t all the z o n es O f a
spher ic ally c o r r ected syste m Sh all p r o duce im ages o f equ al

si z e at the p o in t M c on j ugate t o the axi al p o in t M is th a t
’
,
f o r all r ays p r o ceedi n g fr o m M the r ati o o f the sin es o f the ,
sl o pe an gles 0 0 Of e a ch p ai r o f c o rr esp on din g in ciden t

-
,
’
an d e m e r ge n t r ays sh all be c on st an t ; th at is ,
sin 0
’
n
y c on st an t .
SH] 6 n
Mirr or s ,
The sin e-c on diti on

0 0
’
n .
y sin
.
is essen ti ally d iffer en t the SMIT H -H E LMH OLT Z law for

fr o m
p a r axi al r ays (see 88 an d n a m ely n y t an 0 ,
. .
a lth o ugh whe n the a n gles 0 0 ar e s m all b o th ’

, ,
c o n diti o n s m ay be exp r essed b y the equatio n n y 0 . .
If the O ptic al system is sphe r ic ally c o r r ected fo r the p air

of a x i a l p o i n ts M M a n d if a t,
the s ’
a m e
,
ti m e the si n e —c on di
ti o n is s atisfied the p o in ts M M ar e c alled the ap lan ati c
, ,
’
p a i r o f p o i n ts o f the syste m It m a y be de m o n st r a ted . th a t

n o O ptic a l syste m c an h ave m o r e th an o n e p a ir o f such a pl a
n a ti e p o in ts In the c a se O f a sin gle spher ic al r efr a ctin g sur

.
fa ce the t wo p o in ts J J 1 77 ) wh o se dist an ces fr om the

,
’
cen ter C ar e such th at

n . CJ
ar e a p ai r pl an atic p o in ts a s ab o ve defin ed ; fo r they ar e
-
Of a
fr ee fr om spher ic al aber r ati on an d if they ar e j o in ed by

st r a ight lin es B J B J with an y p o in t B o n the spher ic al r e
,
’
fr a ctin g sur fa ce an d if we put 0= Z C JB we ,
h ave sin fl/ sin 0 = n /n c on st an t This pr o pe rt y Of the

,
’ ’
.
po in ts J J o f a r efr a ctin g spher e h as been in gen io usly util

,
’
iz e d in the c o n st r ucti on O f t he Obj ective Of the c o m p oun d

m ic r o sc o pe .
If in Fig 234 we put l B 1M the sin 0 h/l wher e h

.
= n = —
, ,
den o tes the height o f the p o in t B 1 ab o ve the axi s Hen ce .

,
the sin e-c o n diti o n m ay be wr itten :

’
h n
’
l sin 0
. n
or sin ce 1 24)
_f n f
y ’
x n x
wher e f f den o te the fo c al len gths o f the system an d

,
’
n o tes the a bsciss a O f M with r espect t o the p r im a r y
po in t F we Obt ain als o :

’
h _
lf .
0
’
Sin x
§ 183] C au s ti c Su rfac es 5
5 2
Supp o se th at the O bj ect p i t M is in fin itely dist an t SO

n ow - o n
th at x = l = co then fo r a r ay p ar allel t o the axis m eetin g the

fir st sur fa ce a t the height h we sh all h ave ,
h
f
sin 0
’
Thus if the apl an atic po in ts ar e the in fin itely dist an t po i n t

,
o f the a x is an d the sec o n d f o c a l p o i n t F a n d if a r o u n d F a s

’ ’
,
cen ter we desc r ibe a spher e o f r a dius equ al t o f the p ar a llel

O b j ect -r a ys will m eet thei r c o r r esp o n di n g i m a ge -r a ys o n the
sur fa ce o f this spher e ; wher e a s in the c a se o f c o llin e ar im agery

with p ar axia l r ays the po in ts o f in ter secti o n o f the in ciden t
a n d e m e r ge n t r ays u n de r the s a m e ci r cu m st an ces will a ll lie
in the sec o n d ar y p r i n cip a l pl an e which t o uches the

sphe r e a b o ve m e n ti o n ed a t the p o i n t whe r e the a xis c r o sses it .
If the ef e we put / si 0 e the si e c o n ditio n fo r an

r o r h n = n - ’
,
in fi n itel y dist an t O b j ect is e +f = 0 Fo r exam ple in th e .

,
c ase o f the telesc o pe O bj ective c alcul ated in § 1 8 1 z

lg h1 = 1 1 8 1 3 9 . 55
ol g sin 95
=
lg e e
=
f
e +f =
Acc or din gly the sin e -c on dition is very n e ar ly s atisfied in the

,
c ase o f this Ob j ect gla ss - .
1 83 C au sti c S u r fa c e s
.
— The ch ar a cter istic ge o m et r ic al
pr o per t y o f a bu dle O f light rays em an atin g o r igin ally fr o m
n -
a p o in t -s o u r ce is e xp r essed in a l aw an n o u n ced by MA LU S in
1 808 which m ay be st ated in ter m s o f the un dulat o r y

the o ry Of light as foll o ws : The r ays o f light a r e always n o rm al
t o the w a ve - sur fa ces In fa ct wh at is m e an t by a w ave sur
.
,
-
fa ce is an y sur fa ce which cuts the r ays o r th o go n ally In .
gen er al the cu r vatu r es O f the n o rm al secti o n s at an y p o in t o f

,
a cu r ve d su r fa ce will v ar y f r o m o n e a z i m uth t o a n o the r ; but ,
a cc o r din g t o E U LE R S the o r e m the n o rm a l secti o n s Of

’
g r e at est a n d le ast cu r v a tu re c a lled the p r i n,

c i p a l se c ti on s O f
526 Mir r or s ,
the sur fa ce at the po in t in questi o n ar e always at r igh t ,
an gles t o e a ch o the r It is well kn o wn th at the n o rm al d r awn

.
t o an y p o in t o f a cur ved su r fa ce wi ll n o t m eet the n o r m al at

a c o n secu tive p o i n t t a ke n a r bit r ar il y But if the c on secutive
.
p o in t is t aken in the dir ecti on o f either Of the p r in cip al sec

tio n s the t wo c on secutive n o rm als will in ter sect Thus
, .
,
a l o n g e a ch n o r m a l t o a cu r ved su r fa ce the r e a r e t wo p o in t s
c alled the p r in cip a l cen ter s o f cur vatur e wher e c o n

se c ut iv e n o r m als lyi n g in the t wo p r in cip a l secti o n s in te r sect .
Acc o r din gly if we r eg ar d a bun dle o f r ay s O f light as a sys

,
te m o f n o r m a ls t o the w ve su r fa ce we m ay say th at e a ch
a -
,
r ay dete r m in es t wo p r in cip a l secti o n s o f the bun dle a n d th a t , ,
in gen e r a l the r e will be t wo p o in ts o n the r ay the so -c alled

‘
, ,
i mag e—p oi n ts (cf . wher e c o n tigu o us r ays in e a ch o f the

t wo p r in cip al secti o n s in ter sect the r ay in questi o n The as .
se m b l ag e O f these p a ir s o f im a ge -p o in ts o n all the r a ys Of a
wide an gle bun dle Of r ays em an atin g o r igin ally fr om a

-
p o in t s o ur ce form a sur fa ce Of t wo sheet s c alled the ca usti c

-
surf a ce (cf . E a ch r ay o f the bu n dle is t an gen t t o b o th

sheets Of the c austic sur fa ce In the speci al c a se when the
.
bun dle o f r ays is sym m etr ic al ab o ut an axis o n e sheet o f ,
the c austic sur fa ce will be a sur fa ce O f r evo lutio n wher ea s ,
the o ther sheet will be a p o r ti on o f the axi s o f symm etry (see
1 84 . M e r i di an an d S ag ittal S e c ti on s of a Narr ow Bun dl e

of Ra y s b e f or e
t R e fr a c ti on at a Sph e ri c al Surf ac e
an d af e r
— The a pe r tu r es o f the bun dles O f e ffective r ays w hi ch a r e
t r an sm itted thr ough a symm et r ic a l O ptical in st rum en t ar e

all li m ited b y the p o sitio n an d dim en si o n s o f the a pe r tu r e
st o p Fo r the p r esen t it will be a ssum ed th at the

diam eter o f the st o p is very sm all E a ch po in t Of the Obj ect
.
lyin g in the field o f view is the s o ur ce o f a n arr o w bun dle o f

r ay s which c o n t a in s o n e r ay c alled the chi ef r ay
,
which in t r aver sin g the m edium wher e the st o p is pl a ced ,
p asses th r o ugh the cen ter o f the st o p Acc o r din gly the chi ef
.
,
ray will li e in the m e r idi an pl an e dete r m in ed by the Obj ect

§ 1 84] t
As ig m a ism t of Ob l iq u e Bu n dle 5 27
p o in t wher e the bun dle o f r ays o r igin ates The p ath o f this .
chief ray m ay be t r a ced ge o m et r ic ally by Y O UN G S c o n str u o ’
ti on o r it m ay be c a lcul ated t r ig o n o m et r ic ally by
m e an s O f the syste m Of fo r m u l a give n in 18 1 We h ave .
n o w t o in vestig ate the po siti o n s o n this chief r ay O f the t wo
iin ag e -p o in ts p r o duced by the in te r secti o n s o f this r ay with

the r ays im m edi ately a dj a cen t t o it lyin g in the t wo p r in
c ip al secti o n s o f the bu n dle a s dete r m in ed by its chief r ay
When eve r a n ar r o w bun dle O f r ays h as t wo su ch

im age p o in ts it is s aid t o be a tig mati c Pr a ctic ally this is
-
,
.
,
alw ays the c a se if the chi ef r ay is in cide n t o n a r efr a cti n g
su r fa ce at an an gle a which is n o t v an ish in gly s m all Un der .
such c on diti on s the bun dle o f r efr a cted r ays will be a stig
m atic an d we h ave the c a se which s o m e w r ite r s c all a stig
“
,
m atism by in ci de n ce but which is bette r desc r ibed as the

a stig ma ti sm of a n ob li que b un dle of r a ys a s disti n guished fr o m ,
F IG 2 3
. 5M .
— e r i di a n s e c t io n o f n arr o w b u n dl e of ra y s r e fr a c t e d a t s ph e r ic al
su r f a c e .
the a stigm atism p r o duced by di r ect (n o r m al ) in ciden ce o n

an a stigm atic r efr a ctin g su r f a ce o r su r fa ce o f d o uble cu r v a
tur e (C h apter I X)
5
.
In the di agr am s (Figs 2 3 which Sh o w the m e r idi an

.
,
secti on Z Z Of a spher ic al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce wh o se cen te r is a t

C an d ve r te x at A (Fig the p o i n t design ated by P (o r Q)
.
r ep ese ts a
r n n O bj ect p o i n t which is the s o u r ce o f a n arr o w
-
5 28 Mirr or s ,
Pr isms an d Len ses
h om o cen t r i c bun dle o f r ays wh o se chief r ay PB (o r QB ) is

in cide n t o n the su r fa ce a t the p o in t B at the an gle Of i n ci
d en c e a Thi s ray c r o sses the axis at the p o in t m ar ked L
5
.
in Fig 2 3 an d the c o rr e sp o n din g r efr a cted r ay c r o s ses t he

.
FIG 2 3 6 — S ag itt al
. se c tio n o f n arr o w b u n dl e of ra y s r e fr ac t e d at s ph e ric al
su r f ac e .
ax is at L On e o f the p r in cip al secti o n s o f the bun dle o f in

’
.
e ide n t r ay s will be the mer i dian se cti on 1 1 2 1 1 3) m a de b y ,
the pl an e c on t ain in g the o ptic al axis an d the vertex P (o r Q)

Of the bu n dle th at is the pl an e o f the p a pe r ; whe r e a s the
,
o the r p r in cip a l secti o n c alled the sa g i tta l secti on (Fig

, .
is m ade b y a pl an e which in ter sects the m er idi an plan e

at r ight an gles al o n g the chief r ay O f the b un dle The p o in t
5
.
G (Fig 23 ) is a p o i n t o n the spher ic a l r efra ctin g su r fa ce in

.
the m er idian secti o n t aken ex ceedin gly cl o se t o the p o in t B

, .
Likewise the p o in t D (Fig 2 3 6 ) lies o n the spher ic a l r efr a ct

, .
in g su r fa ce ver y n e a r t o B ; but it is c o n t ai n ed in the s a gitt al

secti o n an d is r epr esen ted in the diagr am as lyin g slightly
a b o ve the pl an e o f the p a pe r The r ay PG (Fig 23 ) a fter
. . 5
r efra cti o n m eets the chief r efr a cted r ay a t the im a ge -p o i n t
P O f the n ar r o w pe n cil o f r efr a cted m e r idi an r ays Si m il ar ly

’
.
,
the r ay QD (Fig 2 36) after r efr a cti on will m eet the chi ef
.
r efr a cted r ay at the im a ge -p o i n t Q whe r e the st r aigh t l in e

’
Q C in te r sects this r a y a s wi l l be i
, mm e d i atel y o bvi o us b y
§ 5
]
18 Sa g i tt al Se c ti on of Narr o w B un dle 5
29
suppo s in g th at the t r i an gle QB Q is r evo lved ar o un d the ’
cen t r al lin e QQ as axis th r o ugh a sm all an gle o ut fr o m the

’
pl an e o f the pa pe r Thus wher e a s the m eri di an secti on o f

.
,
the b un dle o f r efr a cted r ays is c o n t a in ed in the s am e pl an e as

the m er idi an secti o n o f the bun dle o f in ciden t r ays the s a git ,
t a l secti o n s a r e in t wo diffe r en t pl an es B D Q an d B D Q (Fig

’
.
236 ) which in te r sect e a ch o the r in a st r aight lin e pe r p e n dic

ul a r t o the m er i dian pl an e at the po in t B th a t is in the lin e , ,
B D whi ch sin ce the p o in t D is in fin itely n e ar t o B m ay be

‘
, , ,
r egar de d a s a st r aight li n e
5
.
18 Fo r mul a f o r Lo c atin g th e Po siti on of th e I m ag e

.
Po in t Q o f a Pe n c il o f S ag itt al Rays R efr ac t e d a t a Sph e r

’
i c a l Surfac e As was expl a in ed

—
the im age-po in t Q ’
(Fig 236 ) in the s a gitt al secti o n c o r r espo n din g t o the o bj ect

.
po in t Q is at the po in t Of in ter secti on o f the str aight lin e Q C

with the chi ef r ay Of the bu n dle o f r efr a cted r ays This con .
st ruction suggests at o n ce a m eth o d o f Obt ain in g an an alyt

ical r el ati on c o n n ectin g the p o in ts Q an d Q ; fo r if the st r a ight ’
lin e Q Q is r eg ar ded fo r the tim e bein g a s the axi s o f the sphe r

’
ical r e tr ac tin g sur fa ce an d if we put q = B Q q = B Q (wher e

, ,
’ ’
the dist an ces den o ted by q q ar e t o be r eck o n ed po sitive o r,

’
n eg a tive a cc o r di n g as they ar e m e a su r ed fr o m the i n cide n ce
po in t B in the s a m e dir ecti o n a s the light t akes al o n g the

chief r ay o r in the O ppo site di r ecti o n r espectively ) we h ave , ,
m e r ely t o wr ite q q in pl a ce o f the sy m b o ls l l in the fo r m ul a

’ ’
, ,
der ived in 1 80 in or der t o Obt ain the desi r ed r el ati on ,
n am ely ,
’
n n
I
Q q
wher e the fun cti o n den o ted he r e by D is a c o n st an t fo r a
given chief r ay an d is defin ed by the fo ll o win g exp r essi o n :
n eos a n sin ( a
’
a )
— ’ ’
n cos a . . .
’
r sin a
.
Thus h avi n g a scer t a in ed the p ath o f the chief r ay an d kn o w ,
i g the p o siti o Of th e O bj ect p o i n t Q th at is be i n g g i ve n

n n -
, ,
530 Mir r o rs ,
the value o f q we m ay c alcul ate the value Of q b y m ean s of

,
’
the ab o ve fo rm ul a a n d thus l o cate the p o siti on Of the im age

p o i n t Q o f the sa gitt al secti o n o f the bun dle Of r efr a cted r ays
’
.
1 86 Po s iti o n o
. f t h e I ag e Po in t P Of a Pe n cil Of M e
m - ’
r i dian Ray s R e fr a c t e d a t a S ph e r i c al S urf a c e — The an gle s
Of in cide n ce a n d r efr a cti o n o f the chief r ay a r e de n o ted b y
a,
a
’
r espectively
,
Mo r e o ve r let 9 9 (Fig 23 ) de
.
, ,
’
. 5
n o te the a n gles which the chief r ay m akes with t he ax is o f
the Sphe r ic a l r efra ctin g sur fa ce befo r e an d a fter r efr a cti on ,
r espectively ; an d als o let the cen t r a l an gle B C A be den o ted
by qb Then fo r a c o n tigu o us r ay in the m er idian section

which is in ciden t at the p o in t G very cl o se t o the po in t B
.
these an gles m ay be den o ted b y a + d a a + d a ; 0+ d 0 ,

’ ’
,
0+d
’
an d qb + d ¢ whe r e d a d a e t c den o te the
, ,
’
, .
,
little in c r em en ts in the m agn itudes Of the an gles a a etc ’

.
in p a ssin g fr o m the chief r ay t o an a d j a cen t r ay in t he m e r id

, , ,
ian secti o n N o w sin ce fo r the r ays PB an d PG these an gle s

.
ar e c o n n ected b y the fo r m ul a
a = 0+ <
b, a + d a = 0+ d
we O bt ain b y subt r a cti on
d a = d 0+ q .
Ar o un d P as cen te r an d with r a dius e qu al t o PB descr ibe the

sm all ar c B U whi ch subten ds Z B PG = d 0; so th at we m ay
wr ite
ar c BU
p
whe e p
r de tes the dist ce the o bj ect p t P fr o m
= BP no an Of - o in
the in ciden ce p o in t B bein g r eck o n ed p o sitive o r n e gative

5
-
,
exa ctly in the s am e way as q in 1 8 No w the Sides o f the .
little cur vilin e ar t r i an gle E GU m ay be c o n sider ed as st r aight

t o the degr ee o f a pp r o xi m ati o n with which w e ar e c o n ce rn ed
at p r ese n t an d si n ce the sides o f the an gle G E U ar e p e r
c e a so that
,
p e n di c u l a r t o the sides o f the a n gle O f in cide n ,
Z GB U = a we o bt ain ,
ar c BU ar c GB . cos a .
186] M e r idi an Se c ti on of Narr o w B un dle 5 31
C o m bi n in g this r el ati o n with the on e a b o ve we h ave ther e

,
fo r e :
d a=
Mo r e o ve r sin ce ,
A GCB q ,
ar c GB
d qb
T
an d, ther efo r e by a ddin g this equ ati o n t o the la st an d t akin g

,
a cc o un t o f the r el ati o n a b o ve we fin d : ,
1
( )
COS a
da ar c GB (1 ) . .
"
7 P
Si m il ar ly , fo r
the c o rr espo n din g r efr a cted rays B P an d ’
GP which i te sect at the i ge po in t P fo r which B P ’

m
’ ’
n r a -
,
p we’
c an
,
de r ive the a n al o g o us r el a ti o n
c os a
ar c G B
<
I
da 1 _ '
,
.
r 19
No w a cco r din g t o the la w o f r efr a cti o n
=n
(a +d a) n
’ ’
n sin a sin a n sin (a
’ ’
. .
,
. . sin +d
an if in d the expan si o n s o f sin ( a + d a ) an d sin (a
’
+d a
’
)
we wr ite d a pl a ce o f sin d a an d Sin d a an d put
an d d a in
’ ’
1 as is pe r m issible o n a cc ou n t o f the s m all

’
c o sd a co sd a ,
ness Of these an gles we m ay derive the fo ll o win g r el ati on

,
between da an d da
’
’ ’ ’
n cos a
. . da . n . cos a . da (3 )
Hen ce m ultiplyin g equ ati o n (1 ) by n c o s a an d equ ati o n (2) .
b y n co s a an d equ ati n g the t wo exp r essi o n s thus Obt ain ed

,
’ ’
.
, ,
a cc o r di n g t o equ ati o n we fi n d a fter r em o vin g the c om ,
m o n fa ct o r ar e GB the f o ll o win g fo r m ul a c o n n ecti n g the

, ,
ray- in te r cepts p a n d p :
’
1 c os a 1
’
( ) ( )
cos a
n = . c os a n co s a.
“
p
‘
p 7 7
which m ay als o be w ritten thus :

’ 2 ’ 2
n . cos a n c os
. a
5
I
P P
whe r e the sym b o l D h as the s am e m ean in g as befo r e in 1 8 .
I f we in t r o duce A BB E S diff e r en ti al n ot ati on an d use the ’

5 32 Mirr or s ,
ope r at o r A pl a ced in fr on t o f a s ym b o l t o den o te the diff er

en ce in the v alue o f the m a gni tude den o ted by the sym bo l
befor e an d a fter r efr a cti o th at is fo r exam ple if z z z;
n ,
A = —
, ,
’
then we m ay wr ite the t wo fo rm ula for p an d q in the

follo win g abb r evi ated fo rm :
n co s a
2
n
A D
.
q p
The p o siti o n o f the im age-po in t P o f the m er idi an secti on ’
Of a n a r r o w bu n dle o f r a ys r efr a cted at a sphe r ic a l s ur f a ce
m ay als o be q uickl y a scer t ain ed b y a sim ple ge o m e tr ic al
FIG 2 3 7 — C o n st ru c tio n o f c e n t e r of p p v e c ti (K) wi t h p gi ve

ph
. . e rs e res ect to a n
r a y r e fr ac t e d a t a s e ri c al su r f ac e .
c o n str ucti on whi ch depen ds o n fi n di n g a p oin t K c alled the

cen ter of p er sp e c ti ve which be ar s p r ecisely the s am e r el a ti o n
,
t o the p a ir o f p o in ts P P as the cen te r C o f the sphe r ic a l

’
,
sur fa ce be ar s t o the p air o f p oin ts Q Q th at is just ,

’
,
a s the st r a ight lin e QQ m ust p a ss th r o ugh C S O als o the

’
,
.
st r aight lin e PP m ust p ass thr o ugh K The existen ce o f

’
.
this p o in t K was fi r st r ec o gn i z ed by TH OMA S Y O UN G

In the di a g r am (Fig 2 3 7 ) the chief in cide n t r ay is r ep r esen ted
.
by the str aight lin e RB an d the chief r efr a cted r ay c o n

5
,
str ucted b y the m eth o d given in 1 7 is r epr esen ted b y the ,
str aight lin e B T Fr o m the cen ter C dr a w C Y an d C Y

.
’
per pen di cul ar t o R B an d B T at Y an d Y r espectively The ’

,
.
1 87 ] t
As ig m a ic Diffe r e n c e t 5 33
po in t K will be foun d t o lie at the p o in t o f in tersecti o n o f the

st r aight lin es YY an d SS ; an d hen ce if P design ates the
’ ’
po siti on o f a o bj ect po in t lyin g an ywher e o n the chief ih

n -
i
c de t ay
n r the c o rr es p
,
o n di n g im a ge -po in t P in the m er idi an ’
secti o n will lie at the p o i n t wher e the st r aight li n e PK m eets

the chief r efr a cte d r ay Thi s be aut iful c on st r ucti on is e x
.
ce e din g ly useful in g r a phic a l m eth o ds o f in vestig a tin g the
irn ag e r y in the m e r idi an secti o n a l o n g a p ar ticul ar r ay The .
pr o o f Of the c on st r ucti on is n o t at all difficul t but it c an n o t ,
be c o n ven ien tly given her e .
1 87 M e a sur e o f th e A sti g mati sm of a Narr o w B un dl e o f

.
Rays —
We have seen th at in gen er al a n ar r o w h o m o cen t r ic
.
,
bun dle Of r ays fallin g o bli quely on a spher ic al r efr a ct in g

,
sur fa ce is t r an sfo r m e d in t o an a stigm atic bun dle o f r efr a cted

r ays so th a t c o r r es po n di n g t o a give n o b j ect -p o in t P (o r Q )
,
the e w ll be t wo so c alled im age po in ts P an d Q lyin g on

r i — - ’ ’
the r efr a cted chief r ay at the po in ts o f in ter secti on Of the

r ays o f the m e r idi an an d s a gitt a l secti o n s r espectivel y The ,
.
in terval between these im age-po in ts th at is the segm en t , ,
PQ =q p is c a lled the a sti g ma ti c diff er en ce H o wever it

’ ’ ’ - ’
.
,
is m o r e c o n ven ien t t o m e asur e the astigm atis m by the dif

fer en ce between the r ecipr o c als o f the lin e ar m a gn itudes p ’
an d q
’
If f o r exam ple a cc o r din g t o the system o f n o t ation
.
, ,
in t r o duced in 1 06 we put ,
5
= Q,
n /p =P
,
n /q
the fo rm ul a der ived in 18 ,
1 86 m ay be wr itten as foll o ws
’ — =P ’ 2 ’
— P c o s2 = D;
Q Q . cos a . a
wher e o n the a ssum pti on th at the m eter is t aken as the un it

,
O f len gth the m a gn itudes de n o ted by the c a pit a l lette r s will

,
.
all be e x p r essed in te r m s O f the di o pt r y The astigm atism .
O f the bu n dle O f r efr a cted r ays is m e a su r ed by (P If ’
the bun dle o f in ciden t r ays is h o m o cen t r ic the as

t ig m at ism o f the bun dle o f r efr a cted r ays will be
P Q F si n a F si ’
n a
’ ’
.
2 ’ -
.
2
.
Acc o r d in gly we see th a t the a stigm a tis m Of a bu n dle Of

,
r ay s r ef r a cted at a S phe r ic al su r fa ce will v an ish p r o vided

5
43 Mir r ors ,
Q =P an d P
’
. sin
2
a.
’
which m ay h appen in
t wo w ays as fo ll o ws ,
( )
1 If a a = 0 th a t is if the chief r ay O f the n arro w
’
, ,
bun dle m eets the r efr a ctin g su r fa ce n or mally a s fo r e x , ,
am ple whe n it is di r ected a l o n g the axis then n o m atte r

, ,
wher e the Obj ect-p o in t m ay lie the t wo im a ge-p o in ts will ,
c o in cide In fa ct in c a se o f the axial r ay we m ay put Q

.
,
P= U Q =P U D = F so th at the fo r m ul a fo r the m e
’ ’ ’
, , ,
r idian an d s agitt a l secti o n s b o th r educe In thi s c a se t o the
fun d am en t al equ ati on f o r the r efr a cti on O f p ar axi al r ays at

a sphe r ic a l su r f a ce n am el y U U+ F
’
.
, ,
( )
2 But f o r a n y v a lue o f a w e sh a ll h a ve P —
Q = 0 ,
’ ’
,
that is P sin ,
= ’
P sin a2
. p r ovi ded
2
. or
In this c a se the p oin ts design ated b y P P

,
n p =n p
’ ’ ’
. . .
,
( Q Q)
o r , a r e
’
ide n tic a l with the p o in t s S S in Figs 226 t o ,
’
.
2 29 If the vertex o f the h om o cen t r ic bun dle o f in ciden t r ays

.
lies at an y p o in t S o n the sur fa ce O f the spher e described

'
ar o un d C a s cen te r with r a dius e qu al t o n r /n the bun dle ’

.
,
Of r efr a cted r ay s will likewise be h om o cen t r ic w ith its v e r
t e x at the c o rr esp o n din g p o in t S o n the sur fa ce o f the c on

’
cen tr ic spher e of r a dius n r/n (see 1 7 .

'
1 88 I mag e -Lin e s (or Fo c al Lin e s ) of a Narr o w Astig

.
mati c Bun dl e o f R ays — In all the p r ecedin g discussi o n o f

the p r o per ties o f an a stigm atic bun dle Of r ays it c an n o t h ave ,
escaped n o tice th at o n ly such r ays h ave been c on sider ed as

a r e c o n t a in ed in the t wo p r in cip a l secti o n s O f the bun dle If .
ther e wer e n o o ther r ay s t o be t aken in t o a cc o un t besides

these we m ight say th at t o e a ch p o in t o f the O bj ect P (o r Q)
,
ther e c orr esp o n ded t wo im a ge-p o in ts P an d Q But thi s is ’ ’

.
by n o m ean s a c o m plete o r even appr o xim ately c om plete

st atem en t o f the im age-phen o m en on in this c ase ; fo r in deed , ,
the r ays whi ch lie in n either Of the t wo p r in cip al secti o n s do ,
a s a m atte r O f f a ct c o n stitute by far the g r e ate r p o rti o n Of

,
the t o t al n um ber o f r ays Of the bun dle Acc o r din g t o the .
theo r em Of ST URM (1 803 the c o n stituti o n o f a n ar r o w

bun dle O f r ays is exhi bited in the a cc om pan yin g diag r am
§ 1 88] ST UR M
’
S C o n o id 5
5
3
(Fig . c alled STU RM S c o n o id

238) All the rays o f the
’
bun dle p a ss th r ough t wo ver y sh o r t fo ca l li es o r i ma g e lin es

n -
XX an d YY which ar e b oth per pen dicular t o the chief r ay .
The im age lin e XX which go es thr o ugh the p o in t O f in t e r se c

-
ti o n P o f the m er idi an r ays lies in the pl an e o f the s a gitt al

’
sectio ; a d simi la ly the i m age lin e YY whi ch g o es th r o ugh

n n r ,
-
,
the p o in t Of in ter secti on Q o f the s agitt al r ays lies in the ’
FIG . 2 3 8 — ST
. U RM S c o n o id.
’
pl an e the m er i dian secti o n Str ictly spe ak in g this the o

of .
,
r e m c an be r eg ar ded a s r ep r ese n tin g the a ctu al f a cts o n ly o n
the a ssum pti o n th a t the b un dle o f r ays is in fin itely thin ; an d

o n this a ssu m pti o n the e n ti r e b un dle m ay be c o n ceived a s
gen er ated by a slight r o t atio n either o f the m er idi an secti on

a r o un d the i m a ge l in e YY as a xis whe r eby the p o i n t P will
’
-
t ce the i ge lin e XX o r o f the s agitt a l secti o n ar oun d

,
r a m a -
,
the im age-lin e XX as axis wher eby the p o in t Q will t r a ce ,

’
the im age lin e YY Thus a cco r din g t o ST URM S the o r em

-
.
’
with an Ob j ect p o in t P (o r Q) lyin g o n the chief r ay o f a n

, ,
in fin itely n arr o w bun dle o f in ciden t r ays ther e a r e a sso ci ated

t wo ex ceedin gly tin y i m a ge lin es lyi n g in the p r in cip a l sec
-
ti o n s o f the bun dle o f r efr a cted r ays at r ight an gles t o the

chief r ay No t o n ly as t o the o r ien t ati on o f the im a ge lin es
.
-
O f ST U R M but a s t o thei r p r a ctic al

,
n ay even as t o thei r , ,
m athem atic al e xi sten ce the r e has been m uch c o n t r o ve r sy

, ,
but we c an n o t en ter in t o this discussi on her e In spite Of .
its lim it ati o n s an d a d m ittedly im per fect r ep r esen t ati o n ,
ST UR M S c o n o id r e m ai n s a ve r y useful p r eli m in ar y m o de o f
’
c on ceptio n o f the ch ar a cter of a n arr o w a stigm atic b un dle

536 Mirr or s ,
of ra ys The o n ly p ro per way o f arr ivin g at a m or e a ccu r ate

.
kn o wledge o f the c o n stituti o n o f a bun dle o f light-r ays is b y

the aid o f the p o wer ful m eth o ds o f the in fin itesim al ge o m
e t ry. M athe m atic a l in vestig ati o n s o f thi s kin d h ave been
pu r sued with gr e at skill by G U LLS TRA ND wh o se wr itin gs c on
t ain e d in a se r ie s O f published p a pe r s an d t r e a tises d at in g
fr om a b o ut 1 89 0 h ave exten ded the d o m ain o f the o r etic al
o ptics f ar be y o n d the n ar r o w li m its i m p o sed up o n it b y
GA USS an d the earlier wr iter s on this subj ect .
1 89 Th e A sti g m ati c I m ag e S urf a c e s

.
- — Thus the effec t .
,
O f a stig m a tis m is th at the r ay s o f a n a r r o w O blique bu n dle ,
in ste ad Of bein g b r o ught t o a fo cus at a sin gle p o in t p as s ,
th r ough t wo sm all fo c a l lin es at r ight an gles t o the p ath o f
F IG 2 3 9
. .
—
A st ig m a t ic im a g e -su r f a c e s .
the chief the im age sp a ce If the chief r ays p r o ceedi n g

r ay in - .
fr o m the v ar i o us Obj ect p o in ts lyin g in a m er idian p lan e Of a

-
sym m et r ic al o ptic al in st r um en t ar e c on st r ucted an d if alo n g ,
e a ch o f these r ays the p o siti on s o f the im a ge-p o in ts P Q of ’

,
’
the pen cils o f m e r idi an an d sagitt al r ay s ar e deter m in ed the ,
l o ci o f these p o in ts will be two cu r ved lin es b o th sym m e tri ,
cal with r espect t o the axis which t o uch e a ch o the r at their

,
c o mm o n ver tex o n the axis In the dia gr am (Fig 23 9) the

. .
O bj ect is supp o sed t o be in fin itel y dist an t as f o r e x am ple , , ,
in th e c ase Of a l an dsc ape ph o t o g r aphi c l en s Th e con tin .

1 89 ] t
As i g m a ti c m
I ag e Sur fa c e s
- 7
no us cu rved lin e r ep r esen ts the l o cus o f the po in ts o f in te r

secti o n o f the s a gitt al r ays wher e as the do tted curve r e p r e
,
sen ts the l o cus o f the po i n ts o f in te r secti o n o f the m e r idi an

r ays . These cur ved lin es ar e the t r a ces in the m eridi an pl an e
O f the t wo a sti g mati c i mag e surf a c es which a r e gen e r a ted b y
r ev o lvi n g the figu r e a r o un d the axis Of symm et r y The t wo .
im age su r fa ces which c o rr esp o n d t o a defi n ite t r an sve r s al

-
pla e the bj ect sp a ce an d whi ch a r e the lo ci o f the m o st

n in O -
sh ar ply defin ed im ages o f o b j ect po in ts lyin g in thi s plan e ar e

,
-
,
n o t t o be c o n fused with the t wo sheets o f the c austic su r f a ce
o f a wide -an gle b un dle o f r ays e m an ati n g fr o m a si n gle p o i n t
o f an O b j ect The fo c al lin es o f the n ar r o w pen cils o f

m e r idi an r ays lie o n o n e o f these su r fa ces an d t he fo c a l lin es
O f the n arr o w pe n cils o f s a gitt a l r ays lie o n the o the r su r fa ce .
The p o siti o n s an d fo rm s Of the im age su r fa ces will depen d

-
essen ti ally o n the pl a ce o f the st o p ; fo r it is eviden t th a t if

the st o p is Shifted t o a differ en t pl a ce the chief r ay Of e a ch
,
bun dle 1 84) will be a di ffe r en t r ay an d the p o in ts ,
P an d Q will a ll o ccupy e n ti r ely di ffe r e n t p o siti o n s If a

’ ’
.
curved scr een c oul d be exa ctly a djusted t o fit o n e Of the

im age-sur fa ces a fa ir ly sh ar p im age o f the Ob j ect m ight be
fo cused o n it but n o t o n ly w o uld the im age be curved in
,
ste ad Of flat but ther e w ould a ls o be a cer t ain a sti g ma ti c

,
def or ma ti on due t o the fa ct th at e a ch p o in t Of the O bj ect

wo uld be r epr o duced n ot by a p o in t but by a little fo c al lin e ,
a s h as been e x pl ai n ed Between the t wo im age-po in ts P an d ’

.
Q
’
o n e a ch chief r ay the r e lies a ce r t a in a pp r o xi m a tely c ir cu
lar c r o ss -secti o n o f the n a rr o w a stigm atic bu n dle kn o wn

1 1 3) as the
“ ci r cle Of le ast c o n fusi o n an d the l o cus O f
”
,
the cen ter s Of these cir cles will lie o n a thi r d sur fa ce in t e rm e
di ate between the o ther t wo which is s om etim es t aken as a
,
ki d ave age o c o m p o ise im age su r fa ce

n o f r r r m - .
The r e can be n o d o ubt th at a stigm atism o f Oblique bun dles

is r espo n sible fo r ser i o us defects in the i m age p ro duced by
an Op tic al i n st r u m e n t an d m uch p a i n s h as bee n best o w ed o n
try in g to r em edy this fault as far as po ssible Fo rtun ately
,
.
,
5 38 Mirr or s ,
the p o ssibility o f ab olishi n g astigm atism o f this kin d th at ,
is Of m ak in g the t wo im a ge-su r fa ces c o in cide in a sin gle

,
su r fa ce is aff o r ded by the fa ct th at the astigm atic differ en ce

,
1 87 ) is o pp o site in Sig n a cc o r di n g as the r efr a cti n g su r fa ce

is c o n ver gen t o r diver gen t Fo r exam ple Fig 240 sh o ws
’
. .
,
gr a phic ally the O pp o site

effects o f a c o n ver gen t
an d a dive r ge n t sp h e ri
c al r efr a ctin g sur fa ce

un de r o the r wise e qu al
c on diti on s The t w o .
cur ves o n the left -ha n d

side r el ate t o the c on
ver gen t system an d the
v g t two curv e s on the r ight
,
M O — A t ig m t i m
ph i l f ti g f (pl tt d han d Sl de r elat e to the
FIG . . f s a s o con er en
s er ca r e r ac n su r a c e o e
th l ft) d t ig m t i m f di
t ph i l (p l t t d dive r gen t s y stem ; an d
on e e an gas a s o v er
f ti g f
th “
en s e r c a r e r ac n su r ac e o e
we see th a t n o t o n l y ar e
on g ht e
the cur vatur es Opp o site in the two c ases but the r el ative ,
~
p o siti on s o f the cur ves ar e diff er en t It will n o t be difficul t .
t o u n de r st an d th a t it m ay be p o ssible b y suit a ble ch o ice o f ,
the r a dii o f the r efr a ctin g sur fa ces an d o f their distan ces
ap ar t an d a ls o O f the p o siti o n o f the st o p t o design a system ,
which wi ll be fr ee fr om a stigm atism at an y r ate fo r a cer t ain

z o n e o f the len s ; so th a t a lth o ugh we m ay n o t be a ble t o
,
m ake the t wo a stigm atic im age-cu r ves c o in cide abs o lutely

thr o ugh out thei r en ti r e exten t we m ay c on tr ive so th at the ,
t wo cur ves ar e n o wher e ver y far a p ar t while a t o n e p o in t , ,
c o rr esp on din g t o the c o rr ected z on e they a ctu ally in ter sect ,
ea ch o ther .
19 0 C ur vatur e Of th e I m ag e
.
—N o w let us supp o se th at
the a stigm atism Of Oblique bun dles h as been c o m pletely
ab o lished f o r a ce r t ai n an gul ar e x te n t o f the field o f vie w so ,
th at at l ast the r e is str ict po in t t o p o in t c o rr esp o n den c e b y - -
m e an s o f n arr o w bun dles O f r ays between O b j ect an d im age .
The t wo im age sur fa ces h ave thus been m er ged in t o o n e an d

-
,
1 90 ] C ur v a t ur e o f I m ag e 39
o ver this su r fa ce withi n the a ssig n ed lim its the defin iti on
, ,
o f the im age is cle a r cut an d disti n ct

- Ther e still r em ain s
.
,
h owever an o ther t r o uble due t o the fa ct th at the i m age is

,
curved an d n ot flat ; c o n sequen tly if the i m a ge is r eceived ,
o n a p l an e fo cusin g sc r een o n ly th o se p ar ts o f the stigma tic

,
im age whi ch lie in the plan e o f the scr een will be in fo cus
( g
F i . whe r e a s t h e r est o f the i m a ge o n the scr een will
be blur r ed .
N o w this e rr o r o f the cu r vatu r e O f the i m age c an n o t be
FIG 2 41 — C ur
. . v a t u r e o f s t ig m a t i c im ag e.
o ver c o m e by em pl o yin g m eth o ds si m il ar t o th o se ab o ve de

scr ibed fo r the ab o liti o n o f a stigm atis m Fo r the c o r r ecti on .
o f the l atte r e rr o r the p ar ticul ar kin ds o f gl a ss o f which the
len ses wer e m ade wer e n o t essen tial ; wher e as with un suit able
kin ds o f gl ass ther e is n o ch o ice Of the r a dii thickn esses etc , ,
.
which will yi eld an im age whi ch is a t the s am e ti m e stig

m atic an d flat .Thi s fa ct was well kn o wn t o PE TZ VA L (1 807
PE T Z VA L S fo r m ul a (published in 1 843) f o r the ab o
’
lit io n o f the cu r v atu r e o f a stigm atic i m age p r o duced b y a

syste m O f in fin itely thin len ses in c o n t a c t with e a ch o the r is
F,
7
5
4 0 Mir r o rs ,
wher e F, den o tes the r efr ac t in g p o wer an d n i den o t es the

in dex Of r efr a ction o f the ith len s o f the system Thi s .
fo r m ul a is e quiv ale n t als o t o the fo ll o win g st ate m en t :

The
cur vatu r e o f the stigm atic im age o f an in fin itely dist an t
O bject in a s y ste m o f le n ses wh o se t o t al thick n ess is n egl i
g ib le is e q u al t o
1 l
2 (r efr a ct i n g p o wer s o f all l e n ses o f In dex n )
I
The gen er al pr in cip al Of this e qu ati on was disc o ver ed b y A IRY
an d wa s give n b y C O DD IN G T O N in hi s t r e a tise published in
1 829 . SE IDE L p o in ted o ut th a t t h e t wo faults o f astigm atis m

an d cu r v a tu r e c o uld n o t b o th be c o rr ected a t the s am e tim e
un less som e o f the c on vex len ses o f the system wer e m a de o f

m o r e highly r efr a ctin g gl a s s th an the c on
c ave len s es No w with the v ariétie s o f
.
gla ss which wer e available befo r e the

p r o duction Of the m o dern Jen a gl ass ,
this r e quir em en t was dir ectly Opp o sed t o

the c on dition o f a chr om atism an d as the ,
l at t er err or was c on sider ed m o r e seri o us

th an the cur vatu r e-err o r the e ar lier len s ,
design ers m ade n o attem pt t o Obt ain a

F “
IG 242 'St ig m fi
“
flat stigm atic im age
a c
But with the n ew .
v l f l pl k m ds o f gl ass n ow at o ur di spo sal It Is

m g
. .
I a e t In r an s
e rs a oca an e ,
v p o ssible t o design the O ptic al s y stem SO

l y t m
f gi
f pt
or a ” en on e
th at n o t o n l y Is the asti gm ati s m c o r r ected

.
o O i ca s s e .
fo r a ce r t ain z on e as e x pl a in ed in ,
1 89 but the p o in t Of in ,
t e r se c t io n o f the t wo im age -lin es lies in the s am e t r an sver s al

plan e as t he axial po in t wher e the t wo im age-lin es t o uch
e a ch o ther (Fig Acc o r din gly we m ay say th at fo r
.
,
this z on e the im age is b o th flat an d stigm atic The c o n stru c .
tion Of m o der n ph o t o gr aphic len ses which ar e pr a ctic ally

fr ee fr o m these spher ic al er r or s is an alm o st un su r p a ssed
t r ium ph Of hum an in gen uity .
Astigm atism im plies th at the bun dles Of

.
1 9 1 C o ma
.
—
.
r ays c o n ce r n e d in p r o ducin g the i m a ge a r e ve r n ar r o w an d

y ,
§ 1 9 1] t
Symm e ry in Sag i tt al t
Se c io n 5
4 1
thi s m ean s that the di am eter Of the st o p is ve ry s m a ll But .
the validity o f the assu m pti on s which ar e at the fo un d ati o n

O f ge o m et r ic al o ptics begi n s t o be c a led in q uesti o n in the
5
l
c ase o f n ar r o w bun dles o f r ays as was p o in ted o ut in 1 7 ;

,
so th at we m ust be c a r eful he r e n o t t o p ush o u r c o n clusi o n s
t o o fa r As a m atter o f fa ct in v ar i o us O ptic al in st ru m en ts
.
,
an d p a r ticul a r ly in s o m e m o dern types O f ph o t o gr aphic

len ses the diam eter o f the st o p is by n o m e an s s m all an d the
,
. . y
FIG 2 43 — S m m e t ri c al c h a r a c t e r O f sag it t a l se c t io n .
field o f view is exten sive The spher ic al abe rr atio n s which

.
a r e e n c o un te r ed in an o ptic al syste m o f this kin d a r e o f an
ex cee din gly c om plic ated n atur e whi ch c an n o t be desc r ibed

her e in det a il .
A bun dle o f r ays o f fin ite aper tur e em an atin g fr o m a p o in t

o utside the O ptic al ax is wi ll sh o w a be rr ati o n s o f a ge n e r al
ch ar a cter sim il ar t o the a ber r ati on s al o n g the axis o f a dir ect

bun dle o f r ays But the eff ects in the t wo p r in cip a l
secti o n s o f the bun dle will be very differ en t fr o m ea ch o ther ;
bec ause wher e as the r ays in the s agit tal secti o n bei n g sym
, ,
m et r ic ally situ ated o n O p p o site side s o f the m e r idi a n pl an e ,
a r e the r efo r e sy m m et r ic al with r espect t o the chief r ay as ,
r e p r ese n ted in Fig 243 the r e will in gen e r a l be a c o m plete

.
, , ,
absen ce o f symm et r y in the m e r idi an secti on (Fig The .
im a ge (if in deed we m ay c o n t in ue t o use this te r m ) o f a n

ext r a axi a l o b j ect-p o in t u n der such ci r cum st an ces will be
-
at best an ele m e n t o f o n e o r o the r O f the t wo sheets o f the
c austic su r fa ce Usually h o weve r wh at is c alled the im age

.
, ,
5 42 Mir r or s ,
is the light eff ect as Obt ain ed o n a fo cusin g sc r een pl a ced at

-
r ight a n gles t o the axis at the pl a ce whe r e the ce n t r al p ar ts o f
the Object ar e best delin e ated The appe ar an ce o n the sc r een

.
m ay be desc ibedr as a k d b ll o sh aped fl ar e o f light

in o f a o n -
,
FIG . 244—
. y
Un s mm e t ric al c h ar a c t e r of m e ridian se c tio n , g iv in g r i se to
com a.
with a b r ight n ucleus gr o win g fain ter as it exp an ds in so m e

c ases t o w ar ds in o ther c a ses aw ay fr om the axis Thi s de
, , .
fe e t o f the im age is kn o wn t o pr a ctic al o ptician s as side-flar e

o r coma (fr o m the G r eek w o r d m e an in g h air fr o m which ”
“
the w o r d c om et is likewise in dir ectly der ive d) The def
”
.
i iti o
n n in the o ute p ts o the field o the Obj ect g l ass o f a
r ar f f -
telesc o pe depen ds o n the r em o val Of this e rr or ; an d this ap

plies als o t o the c ase o f a wide-an gle ph o t o gr aphi c len s The .
o n ly way t o O bt a in a r e a lly cle a r a n d a ccu r ate c o n cept io n O f
this im p o rt an t Spher ic al a ber r ati on is t o study the fo rm s Of

the t wo sheets o f the c austic su r fa ce G en er ally speakin g; .
we m ay say th at the c o n ver gen ce o f wide-an gle bun dles of

r ays will be bette r in the c a se o f a n O ptic a l system w hi ch h as
bee n c o r r ected fo r a stigm atism b ut even then ther e will be

,
la ck o f sym m et ry in all the sectio n s Of a bun dle o f r ays e x

cept in the s agitt al secti o n If the slo pe o f the chief r ay is
.
c o m p ar atively slight alth o ugh n o t n egligible the c o n dition

,
O f a sh ar p fo cus is equiv ale n t t o A BB E S si n e -c o n diti o n

,
’
But fo r g r e ater in clin ati on s o f the chief r ays it will gen e r ally ,
be n ecessary t o r es or t t o the exa ct m eth o ds Of tri g on omet ri

1 92] Dis t ti
or on 5 43
cal c alculati o n o f the r ay-p aths in o r der t o de t er min e the

n atu r e a n d deg r ee o f the c o n ve r ge n ce .
1 9 2 Di sto r ti on ; C o n diti o n Of O rth o s c opy

. Le t us a ssu m e .
-
th at the system h as been c o r r ected fo r b o th a stigm atis m an d

curv atu r e Of the im age in the sen se expl ain ed in 19 0; so
,
th at by m ean s o f n arr o w bun dles o f r ays a flat stigm atic

im age is Obt a in ed o f a pl an e Ob j ect pla ced at r ight an gles t o
the axis The n ext questi on will be t o in qui r e whether the
.
im a ge is a faithful r ep ro ducti on o f the O bj ect or whether it is

.
“
dist o r ted If the im age in the scr een -plan e is ”
ge et ic lly sim ila t o the o b j ect r elief p r oj ected fr om the

o m r a r -
“
cen ter Of the en t r an ce-pupil o n the fo cus pl an e -
then we m ay say th at the o ptic al system is or thoscopi c o r

fr ee fr o m dist o r tio n .
The dissi milar ity which m ay exist between an Obj e ct an d

its im a ge is a fault o f an essen ti ally diffe r en t kin d fr o m th o se
whi ch h ave been p r evi o usly c on sider ed an d ther e is n o in ,
F oc u s Pl a n o. S c r e en Pl a n e.
. 5
F IG 24 — C o n dit io n
. o f o rt h py (
o sc o fr e e do m f r o m dist o r t io n ) .
tim ate c on n ection between this defect an d the o ther s He r e .
we ar e n ot c on cern ed so m uch with the qu ality an d de fi n i

ti on Of the im age o n the scr een a s with the p o siti o n s o f the
p o ts wher e the chief ys c o ss the sc ee plan e The p o
in ra r r n - .
sitio n s o f these r ep r ese n t ative p o i n ts will n o t be a lte r ed by
r educin g the st o p -O pe n i n g 1 41 a n d a cc o r di n gl y the

,
im age in the scr een —pl an e is t o be r egar ded m e r ely a s a c e n

'
t r al p r oj ectio n o n this p lan e al o n g the chief r ays p r o ceedin g

fro m the ce n te r O f the e x it -pupil .
5 44 Mirr or s ,
Prisms an d Le n ses
the di agr am (Fig 24 ) the cen ter s of the en t r an ce-pupil

In . 5
an d e xit -pup il O f the o ptic a l sy ste m ar e design ated by O an d
O
’
The st r aight lin es PO P O r ep r esen t the p ath o f a chi ef
.
,
’ ’
r ay whi ch c r o sses the fo cus -pl an e in the O bj ect -sp a ce at t h e
po in t P an d the sc r een pl an e the im age sp a ce at the p o in t

- in -
P
’
If y = MP y = M P den o te the dist an ces o f P P fr om
.
,
’ ’ ’
,
’
the axis then the c o n diti o n th at the i m age in the scr een
,
pl an e sh all be Si mi lar t o t he p r o j ected Obj ect in the fo cus
h 2 40— O b j ( ) p r o du c e d b y im a g e (b ) b arr e l-s hp ed dist o rt io n

h hp
G. e ct a re a
or b y im a g e (0) cus i o n -s a e d dist o r t io n .
pl an e th at is the c on diti on o f o r th o sc o py (fr eed o m fr om

, ,
dist o rtio n ) is th at the r ati o y /y shall h av e a c o n st an t va lue ’
f o r all v a lues O f y within the li mi ts O f the field o f view If .

,
o n the c o n t r a r y this is n o t the c a se an d if the r a ti o y /y is

’
, ,
var iable fo r differ en t values Of y then the im age wil l be dis ,
t o rt e d ; an d thi s dist o rti o n will be o n e o f t wo kin ds a cc o r din g

as the r ati o y / y in c r e a ses o r dec r e a ses with in c r e ase Of y
’
.
Fo r e xa m ple if the Obj ect is in the fo rm o f a squ ar e as sh o wn

, ,
in Fig 2 46 a the n o n the supp o siti o n th at y /y decr e a ses

’
.
, , ,
as y in c r e a ses the i m age o f the di ag o n al will be sh o r te n ed
r el ativel y m o r e th an the im a ge o f a side o f the squ a r e an d ,
the squ ar e will be r ep r o duced b y a cu rvilin ear figur e with

c on vex sides as Sh o wn in Fig 246 b ; thi s is the c ase o f barr el .
,
sha p e d di stor ti on as it is c alled , On the o the r h an d if the .

,
r a ti o y /y in c r e a ses in p r o p o r ti o n as the O bj ect -p o in t is t ake n

’
far ther an d farther fr o m the axis we h ave the o ppo site type ,
k o wn as cushi on shap ed di stor ti on (Fig 246 c)

5
n - . .
,
If in F ig 2 4 we put OM z
.
= Z M O P = w , ,
193] A IRY ’
S T an g e n tC
- on di ti
on 5
5
4
Z MOP’ ’ ’ ’
w, the c o n diti on o f or th o sc o py m ay be expr essed
as fo ll o ws
’ ’
y z t an w
c on st an t
.
y z . t an w
an d if we assum e as has been t a citly a ssumed in the pr e
,
cedin g discussio n th at the chi ef r ays all p a ss thr o ugh the

pupil cen ter s O O so th at the absciss a den o ted by z 2 h ave
,
’ ’
-
, , ,
the s am e values fo r all dist an ces o f the o bj ect-p o in t P fr o m

the axis then we der ive a t o n ce A IR Y S ta n g en t-con diti on Of
,
’
o r th o sc o py n a m ely t an w t an ce = c o n st an t But alth ough

’
.
, ,
a chief r ay m ust p a ss th r o ugh the ce n te r o f the a pe r tu r e
st o p it will n o t p a ss thr o ugh the cen te r s O f the pupils

un less the l atter ar e fr ee fr om spher ic al abe rr ati on The .
c st cy o f the t a ge t r atio b y itself is n o t a sufficien t

o n a n n n -
c o n diti o n fo r o r th o sc o py ; in additi on the s p her ic al aber ra ,
tion m ust be ab o lished with r espect t o the cen ter s o f the

pupils .
If the o ptic al system is symm et r ic al with r espect t o an in

t e r io r a p e rtu r e st o p the t a n ge n t -c o n diti o n will be im m e di
-
a tely s atisfied bec ause o n a cc o u n t o f the symm et r y o f the

,
t wo h alves o f the syste m eve ry chief r ay will issue in e x a ctly

,
the s am e dir ecti o n a s it ha d o n e n te r in g an d ther efo r e

“
,
t an 0: Acc o r din gly if a sym m et r ic doublet ”

t an
o f t hi s kin d is s p he r ic all y c o r r ected with r espect t o the ce n te r
,
o the a pe r tu e st o p it wil l give an im a ge whi ch will be fr ee

f r -
,
fr o m dist o r ti on .
1 93 S e i d e l s Th e o ry o f th e Fi v e Ab e rr ati on s
.
’ —
In the
theo ry o f o ptic al im age ry whi ch was devel o ped a cc o r din g t o
gen er al l aws fir st by GA U SS 1 1 9 ) in his fam ous Diop tr i sche
Un tersuchun g en published in 1 841 the fu n d am en t al assum p ,
ti o n is th at the eff ective r ays ar e all c o m p r ised within a n ar

r o w cylin d r ic a l r egi o n o f sp a ce i m m edi a tel y su rr o u n d in g the
O ptic al axis ; this r egi o n bei n g m o r e e x plicitly defi n ed by the
c on diti o n th at a p ar axi al r ay is o n e fo r which the an gle o f

i ci e ce ( a ) a d the sl o pe an gle ( 0 in the c ase o f ea ch
n d n n -
r efr a cti on o r r eflecti o n a r e b o th r el ativel y so mi n ute th at the

,
5 46 Mirr or s ,
po we r s of these an gles hi ghe r th an the fi r st c an be n eglec t ed

E viden tl y the r efo r e GA U SS S the o r y is a pplic able
’
, ,
o n ly t o O ptic al syste m s o f e x ceedin gl y s m all a pe rtu r e an d
li mi ted exten t o f field o f view But with the devel o pm en t .
Of m o de r n o ptic al in st r um e n ts a n d especi a ll y with the in
c r ease o f b o th aper tu r e an d field dem an ded fo r cer t ain types

o f ph o t o g r a phic le n ses it bec am e n ecess a r y t o t a ke a cc o un t
,
o f r ays which lie f ar bey o n d the n arr o w c o n fi n es o f the cen t r al
o r p ar axi a l r ays . Lo n g p ri o r t o the ti m e o f GA U SS i m po r t an t

c o n t r ibuti on s t o the theo r y o f spher ic al aberr ati on s had been
m ade in c o n n ecti o n with ce r t ai n m o r e o r less S peci al p r o blem s
but the fir st successful att em pt t o exten d GA U SS S the o r y in ’
a ge n e r a l w ay b y t aki n g a cc o u n t o f the te r m s o f highe r o r de r s
o f s m all n ess was m a de b y SE IDE L (1 82 1 1 89 6 ) in
5
—
a re
m ar k able ser ies o f p a pe r s published between the y e ar s 1 8 2

an d 5
1 8 6 in the A str on omi sche N a chr i chten SE ID E L S .
’
m eth o d c o n sisted in t r a ci n g the p a th o f the r ay t hr o ugh the

c en te r ed syste m o f sphe r ic a l r efr a ctin g su r f a ces a n d in de
v e l o pin g the t r ig o n o m e t r ic a l e x p r essi o n s in se r ies o f a sce n d
in g p o we r s which we r e fin ally si m plified b y n eglectin g all

term s ab o ve the thir d o r der If the r ay-p ar am eter s ar e r e
.
g ar ded as m agn itudes O f the fir st o r der o f s m alln ess it is ,
e a sy t o Sh o w th at on a cc o un t o f the symm etry aro un d the

o ptic al axis these se r ies devel o p m e n ts c an c on t a in o n ly te r m s
-
Of the O dd o r de r s O f s m a lln ess ; so th a t in SE ID E L S the o r y

’
the term s n eglected ar e o f the fifth an d higher o r der s It is .
im p o ssible t o descr ibe her e in det ail the elegan t m ath e m ati
c al t r e at m en t b y whi ch SE ID E L was e n abled t o a r r ive at
his fin al r esults ; suffice it t o say th at he o bt ain ed a sys ,
t e m O f fo rm ul a fr o m which it was p o ssible t o a sce rt ai n th e

in fluen ce b o th o f the ape r tur e an d the field O f view on the
perfecti o n of the im age In SE IDE L S fo rm ul a the aber
.
’
r a ti o n s O f the r ay th at is its d e v i ati o n s fr o m the p at h p r e

'
, ,
scr ibed b y GA U SS S the o r y ar e expr essed b y five diff er en t

’
,
sum s den o ted b y S 1 8 S S 4 an d S 5

, , 2, 3, w hich depen d o n ly o n
, ,
the c o n st an t s o f the o ptic al syst em an d the p o siti on o f t he

§ 1 93] SE IDE L
’
S Fiv e Sum s 5 47
O bject -po in t an d which ar e in fa ct the c o efficien ts o f the

, , ,
var i o us ter m s in the equ ati o n s The c o n diti o n th at ther e .
sh all be n o aber r ati o n dem an ds th at all o f these five sum s

sh all van i sh sim ul t an e o usly th at is , ,
If o n the o ther h an d these co n diti on s ar e n o t s atisfied the

, , ,
im age yielded by the len s system will n o t be faultless ; an d -
ther efor e it will n o t be With o ut i n ter est t o in quire m o r e p ar

t ic ula r ly i n t o the sep a r a te in fluen ce o f e a ch o f these five e x
pr essi o n s which o ccu r in SE IDE L S fo r m ul a ’
.
Thus fo r ex am ple if the o ptic al system is d esign ed so th at

, ,
S 1 0 then the r e will be n o spher ic al a be rr ati o n a t the ce n te r

1 7 8) fo r the give n p o siti o n o f the axi al O b j ect
,
o f the field
po in t An d if n o t o n ly S = 0 but als o S = 0 then ther e

.
.
l z ,
will be n o c o m a The co n diti o n S = 0 m e an s als o z
th at A E h si e c o n diti on
B B n - ’
will also be s atisfied so ,
th at the im a ge o f the p a rts o f the Obj ect in the imm edi ate
vicin ity o f the axis is Sh ar ply defin ed .
But even when we h ave the Optic al system

will in gen er al still be affected by a stigm atism o f Oblique
, ,
r ays so th at an o b j ect p o in t lyi n g a t s o m e little dis

'
t an ce fr om the axis will n o t be r epr o duced by an im age—po in t

but a t best b y t wo sh o r t fo c al lin es at differ en t dist an ces
fr o m the len s system an d di r ected a pp r o xim ately at r ight
-
an gles t o e a ch o the r Mo r e o ve r if the dist an ce o f the O bj ect

.
p o in t fr o m the axis is v ar ied the p o siti on s O f these t wo fo c al

,
lin es will vary also b o th with r espect t o thei r dist an ce fr om

the len s system an d with r esp ect t o thei r m utu al dist an ce
-
a p a rt In o the r w o r ds when b o th 8 1 an d 3 v an ish the n in

.
, 2 , ,
gen er al ther e is n o un ique im age o f a t r an sve r s al o bj ect

,
pl an e but this l atter m ay be s aid t o be r epr o duced by t wo

,
so —c alled i m a ge -su r f a ces 1 89 ) which a r e su r fa ces o f r e v o lu

tion ar oun d the Op tic al axis an d which un ite an d t o uch e a ch
o the r a t the p o i n t whe r e the axis c r o sses the m The e x .
p r ession s fo r the cu rv atur es Of these su r fa ces at this co mm o n

po in t Of t an gen cy ar e given b y SE IDE L S sum s 8 an d ’
3
5 48 M irr or s ,
S 4; so th at if also S S 4= 0 the t wo i m age sur f a ces will

a
—
,
c o alesce an d n o w the im a ge o f the plan e o bj ect will be Sh ar ply

defin ed th at is stigm atic alth o ugh it wi ll usu a lly still b e
, , ,
cu r ved But if als o S = S 4= O the im age will be bo th plan e

.
3 ,
an d stigm atic H o wever it m ay still Sh o w un e qu al m agn it

.
,
icatio n s t o w ar d the m ar gi n which m e an s th at ther e is dis,
t o r tio n This l ast err o r will be ab o lished pr o vided

S 5 0; an d n o w the i m a ge m ay be s aid t o be ide al in asm uch
as it is flat an d sh a r ply defin ed n o t o n ly in the ce n te r but
o u t t o w ar d the edges an d is at the s am e ti m e a fa ithful r e

.
p r o ductio n o f the pl an e Ob j ect .
T o atte m pt t o de r ive SE ID E L S a ctu al fo rm ul a o r even

’
t o discuss the e q u ati o n s w o uld be e n t ir el y be yo n d the sc o pe
Mi -1 Oi
.
2 47 — Diag r am p — 1 t h a n d i t h l e n se s y m
yh
FIG . . re r e se n t in g t h e (i ) Of a s st e of
in fi n it e l t i n l e n se s .
of this v o lum e But it m ay be c o n ven ien t t o in ser t her e

.
with o ut p r o o f the expr ession s O f SE IDE L S five sum s fo r ’
the c o m p ar atively sim ple c a se o f an O ptic al system c on sider ed

a s c o m p o sed o f a se r ies Of m in fi n itely thi n le n ses e a ch sur
r o un ded b y air .
Le t A, (Fig 247) design ate the po in t whe r e the o ptical axis

.
c r o sses the i th len s o f the system the s ym b o l i bein g em plo yed ,
t o den o te a n y in teger fr o m 1 t o m; a n d let us c o n sider t wo

p ar axi al r ays which t r aver se the o ptic al system o n e Of whi ch ,
em an atin g fr o m the axial Object-p o in t M 1 (A 1M 1 = u 1) an d

m eeti n g the fi r st le n s at a p o in t B 1 such th at A 1 B 1 = h1 ,
c r o sses the axis a fte r p assin g th r ough the (i 1) th len s at a

p o in t Mi (AiMi = ui) an d m eets the i th len s at a poin t Bi
19 3] S yt
s em of T hin Le n se s 5
49
such th at wher ea s the o ther r ay which em an ates

fr o m an ext r a-axial O b j ect -po in t an d which in the O b j ect
,
sp ce p sses th ough the ce te 0 o the e t a ce pu p il

a a r n r f n r n -
1
1 39) o f the syste m (A O l = s ) an d m eets the fi r st len s at

l l
a po in t G such th a t g = A 1 G 1 c r o sses the axis a fte r p a ssi n g

1 1 ,
th r o ugh the (i 1 ) th len s a t a p o in t 0,

— a n d m eets
the i th len s at a po in t G, such th at A,G, = g , Then if we put .
U, 1 / u,,
it m ay easily be sh o wn th at
hi (U1 + Fi) z
hi + l UI+ 1 ;
o
g i (Si + Fi) Si + 1 ;
g H -l -
whe r e F, den o tes the r efr a ctin g po wer o f the i t h le n s N o w .
if n , den o tes the in dex o f r efr a ctio n o f the i th len s an d if R,

den o tes the curv atur e o f the fir st sur fa ce o f this len s ; an d if ,
fu rther fo r the s ake o f b r e v ity the sym b o ls A , B C, D,

, , , , ,
an d E , a r e in t r o duce d t o de n o te the f o ll o win g fu n cti o n s o f
n F, R, U, an d S, n am el y :
, , ,
n ,+ 2
F; FiRi
”i
(3 Ui + si)
2 2n i + 1
F U + F as
U
( H 0+
-3 F1 FiRi
5
5 0 Mir r o r s ,
é
F i Ui
i
U
( H 0+
-3 Fi FiRi l ' '
i
+ 2Fi Ui Si + 1 i F iU ’
ni
FI
SH
i m
(Ui + 3si) +
2n i + 1
— l
Fi FiRi -‘r
l ni
37
l
+ Fi UiS i +
h 2
F 13 1 +
ni ni— l
then SE IDE L
’
for m ul a fo r the spher ic al e rr o r s o f a sys
S
tem Of m in fin itely thin len ses m ay be expr essed as fo ll o ws

1 =m 4 I =m 3
I
t :
h g
l 2
i =l hi i =1 hl 91
I =m 2 1 =m 2
I
)
2 g_ 1
. Ci ;
I =I hl 91 hl 91
i =m 3
h .
g
SE E
1 =1 h1 9 1
The gr e atest p r a ctic al v alue o f these for m ula is t o guid e

the Optici an t o a c o rr ect b a sis fo r the design Of his in st rum en t
an d t o s upply h im so t o spe ak with a st ar tin g p o i n t f o r a
, ,
t r igo n o m etr ical c alculati on o f the O ptic a l system whi ch he

a im s t o a chieve But the r e a der wh o wishes t o pur sue thi s
.
subj ect further will fi n d it n ecess ar y t o c on sult the m or e ad

v an ce d t r e atises o n a pplied Optics .
Ch . XV] Pr ob l e m s 5
5 1
PR OB LE MS
1 . If
design ate the p o in ts wher e a r ay c r o sses the
L, L
’
axis O f a Sphe r ic al r efr a ct in g su r f a ce bef o r e an d a fte r r e fr a c
ti on r espectively an d if C design ates the cen ter o f the sur

, ,
fa ce sh o w th at
,
6+ 0
’
’ — ’
n n n n 2
I I
c a + a.
2
wher e c = C L, den ote the an gles o f in ciden ce
c
’
= CL ’
, a, a.
’
a d
n r ef cti o 0 0
ra n de n o te the sl o,
pe -an gles o f the r ay
,
’
befo r e an d a fter r efr a cti on r den otes the r adius O f the sur ,
fa ce an d n n den ot e the in dices o f r efr a cti on Al s o sh o w

, ,
’
.
,
th at
0
’ ’
a
sin flc o s
2
(1 + 0
d eo s
’
sin
2
A r ay p ar allel t o the axis m eets the fir st su rfa ce o f a
5
2 .
gl ass len s (in dex a t a height o f c m ab o ve the a xis a n d .

,
a fte r e m e r gi n g fr o m the le n s c r o sses the a x is at a p o in t L

’
.
The thick n ess o f the len s is 1 c m D eter min e the abe r r ati o n .
F L whe r e F design ates the p o siti o n o f the sec o n d fo c a l

’ ’ ’
,
p o in t fo r ea ch o f the fo ll o win g c a ses :(a ) Fir st sur fa ce o f

5
,
len s is pl an e an d r adius O f curved sur fa ce is 0 c m ; (b ) .
S ec o n d su r f a ce o f len s is pl an e an d r a dius o f cu rved su r fa ce

5
is 0 c m ; an d (c) Len s is sym m etr ic r a dius o f e a ch sur fa ce
.
,
bein g 1 00 cm .
( )f =i 1 00c m FL = =
r=1 1 3 c m ; (b ) f = i
’ '
An s . a .
, . . 1 00c m .
,
FL = cm , F L =
’ ’ ’
cm () f cm
’
.
; c . .
;
wher e in e a ch c ase the upper sign s a pply t o p o sitive len s an d
the lo wer sign s ap ply t o n egative len s .
3 An in ci de n t r ay cr o sses the ax is o f a len s a t a n an gle 91

.
a n d m eets the fi r st su r fa ce at a p o in t B the an g le o f in ci 1,
den ce bein g d l ; the slo pe o f the r efra cted ray B 1B 2 which ,

5
5 2 Mir r or s ,
Pr ism s an d Le n ses [
Oh . XV
m eets the sec o n d surfa ce at the p o in t B , is 02 an d the an gle ,
o f in cide n ce a t this su r f a ce is If the r a dii o f the sur fa ces

a r e den o ted b y r 1 an d T2 sh o w th at ,
02) — 01)
13l
r 2 sin
.
(az r 1 sin .
(al
S1 11 02
4 . The chief r ay o f a n arr o w bun dle o f p ar allel r ays is in
c ide n t o n a sphe r ic a l m i r r o r o f ra diu s 3 2 c m a t an an gle O f .
Fin d the dist an ce between the t wo im age-p o in ts P ’
a n d Q o f the b un dle O f r eflected ray s
5
An s 24c m
’
. . .
. The chief r ay o f a n arr o w bun dle o f p ar allel r ays is in

c ide n t o n a sphe r ic a l m i rr o r o f r a dius r at a p o in t B the an gle ,
Of in cide n ce bei n g D eter m in e the p o siti o n s o f the im ag e

p o in ts P an d Q
’ ’
An s B P = r /4 B Q = r .
’ ’
6 A n arr o w bun dle o f p ar allel r ays in air is r efr a cted at

, .
a sphe r ic a l su r f a ce O f r a dius r in t o a m ediu m wh o se in de x o f
r efr a cti o n is V3 If the an gle o f in ciden ce is

. fi n d the
po siti on s o f the im age-po in ts P an d Q ’ ’
=r V3
’
An s .
q .
7 .A n arr o w bu n dle o f p ar allel r ays is in ciden t o n a sph e ri

c al r efr a ctin g su r fa ce a t a n a n gle o f If the m eridian r ays
a r e c o n ve r ged t o a f o cus at a p o in t P lyi n g o n the su r fa ce Of
’
the spher e Sh o w th at the an gle Of r efr a cti o n o f the chi ef ray

,
is equ al t o the c om plem en t Of the c r itic al an gle Of the two

m edi a .
8 The r a dius o f e a ch o f the t wo su r fa ces o f an in fi n itel y

.
thin d o uble c on vex len s is 8 in ches an d the in dex o f r e fr ac

,
tion is equ al t o V 3 The chief r ay Of a n arr o w bun dle O f

.
p ar allel r ays in clin ed t o the axis at an an gle Of 60 p a sses °
thr o ugh the O ptic al cen ter Of the len s Fin d the p o siti on s Of .
the fo ci o f the m er idi an an d s a gitt al rays .
An s The fo c al p o in t o f the m e r idi an r ays is 1 i n ch an d

.
th at o f the s agitt al r ays is 4 in ches fr om the o ptic al cen ter .
9 If in YO UN G S c o n st r ucti o n o f a r ay r efr a cted at a spher

’
.
ic al su fa ce 1 7 6 ) a sem i cir cle is descr ibed on the in ciden ce

r -
r a dius B C as di am ete r in te r secti n g the in cide n t an d r efr a cted
r ay s in the p o in ts Y Y r espectivel y Sh o w th a t the st r a ight

’
, , ,
Ch . XV] Pr o b le m s 5
5 3
lin e YY is per pen d icul ar t o the str aight lin e C S The po i n t

’
.
K wher e the st r aight lin es YY an d C S m eet is the cen ter of ’
per spective o f the r an ge o f o b j ect -p o i n ts lyin g o n the in ci

den t r ay an d the c o r r esp o n din g r an ge o f m er idi an im age
po in ts lyin g o n the r efr a cted r ay (see Sh o w th at
2
n r s1 n a
CK
. .
an d th at
t an Z B KC + t an
’
t an a a .
10 If the chi ef r ay O f a n a rr o w h o m o cen tr ic bun dle Of

.
r ays is i n cide n t o n a pl an e r efr a cti n g su r f a ce a t a p o i n t B ,
a n d if a den o te the an gles o f in ciden ce an d r efr a cti on

’
a , ,
Sh o w th a t
I 2 I
n co s
_ 0.
B P, BQ
’
1
7
.
2
n cos a n
wher e P (o r Q) design ates the p o sitio n Of the vertex O f the

in ciden t r ays an d P an d Q design ate the p o siti o n s o f the
’ ’
im age-po in ts o f the m eridian an d s a gitt a l r ays r espectively , .
1 1 In the p r ecedin g p r o ble m Sh o w th at the st r a ight lin e

.
QQ
’
is pe r pe n dicul ar t o the pl a n e r efr a ctin g su r fa ce .
1 2 The p o siti o n o f the i m a ge p o in t P o f a pe n cil o f m e

’
.
-
r idia n r ays r efr a cted a t a pl a n e su r fa ce m ay be c o n st r ucted
a s fo ll o ws : Th r ough the o b j ect-p o in t P (o r Q) d r aw PQ p e r ’
p e n di c u l a r t o the r efr a cti n g pl a n e a n d m eetin g the chief r e
fr a cted r ay in Q ; an d fr o m P an d Q d r aw PX an d Q Y p e r
’ ’ ’
n di u l t the i cide ce -n o r m a l a t X an d Y r espectively

p e c ar o n n , .
Dr aw XC pe r pe n dicul ar t o the chief in cide n t r ay at G an d

YG pe r pen dicul ar t o the c o rr esp o n di n g r efr a cted r ay a t G
’ ’
.
Then the st r aight lin e PP d r a wn p ar allel t o G G will in ter

’ ’
sect the chief r efr a cted r ay in the r equir ed p o in t P Usin g ’

.
the r esult o f NO 1 0 ab o ve sh o w th at this c on st r ucti o n is

.
c o rr ec t
,
1 3 The chi ef r ay RB o f a n ar r o w pe n cil o f s a gitt al r ays

.
m eets a Sphe r ic a l r efr a ctin g su r f a ce a t the p o i n t B a n d is r e

fra cted in the dir ection B T Thr o ugh the cen ter C d r aw C V
.
5
5 4 Mirr ors ,
Pr isms an d Le n se s [ XV
C h .
p arall el t o B T m eetin g B R in V an d C V p ar allel t o B R m eet ’
in g B T in V If Q Q design ate the po sitio n s o f the p o in ts

’ ’
.
,
o f in te r secti o n o f the s a gitt al r ays bef o r e an d afte r r efr a cti o n ,
r espectivel y a n d if B Q Q q sh o w th a t
= ’ ’
, q B , ,
BV B V
’
q Q
an d th at
(C o m p ar e this l a st r esult with the N ewt on i a n form ul a fo r

r efr a cti o n of p a r ax i a l ra ys at a spheri c al sur fa ce ,
v iz .
,
x x .
’
f-
f
14 The chi ef r ay R B o f a n arr o w pen cil o f m er idi an r ay s
.
m eets a Sphe r ic al r efr a ctin g su r fa ce a t the p o in t B an d is r e ,
fr a cted in the di r ecti o n B T Th r o ugh the cen te r o f p e r sp e c .
tive K (see 1 86 see a ls o p r o blem NO 9 ab o ve) d r a w KU p ar .
a llel t o B T m eeti n g B R in U a n d KU p a r a llel t o B R m e etin g

’
E T 111 U If the p o siti o n s Of the p o in ts o f in ter secti o n Of the

’
.
m e r idi an r ays befo r e an d a fte r r efr a cti o n ar e design a ted b y P

an d P r espectivel y an d if B P = p B P = p Sh ow that
’ ’ '
, , ,
BU BU
I
P p
an d th t a
UP U P UB U B
’ ’ ’
. . .
(C om p ar e thi s r esult with th at the p r ecedin g p r o ble m )

5
Of .
1 If J J design ate the p o siti o n s o f the a plan atic p o in ts

.
,
’
Of a sphe r ic al r efr a cti n g su r f a ce an d if 0 9 de n o te the

’
, ,
sl o pe s o f the in ciden t an d r efr a cted ray s B J B J r e spe c ,

'
,
t iv e ly Sh o w th at
,
0
’
Si n n
0
’
sin n
wher e de n o tes the m a n ifi cat io n -r ati o f o r p ar axi al r a y s

y g
“
.
1 6 A STE IN H E IL S so -c a lled per isc o pe ph o t o gr a phic

’ ”
. .
len s is c o m p o sed Of t wo equ al si m ple m en iscus len ses b o th ,
o f c r o wn gl a ss sep a r a ted fr o m e a ch o the r with a s m a ll st o p

,
mi dway between The d at a o f the sy stem as given in VON

.
,
Ch . XV] Pr o b l e m s 5
5
5
RO H R S
’
The or i e un d Geschi chte des p hotog r a phische n Obj e hti vs
(Ber lin fo ll o ws
5
, p 2 88
.
,
a r e as
I n dices : n = n 4= 1 2 33 2
Ra dii : r, r4 = mm ; r z
- — r = + 20 8 mm .
3 .
Thi ck n esses : d =d = mm ; d = 1 3 mm .
2 .
D ist an ce o f cen te r o f st o p fr o m sec o n d ve r te x o f fi r st le n s

mm ; di am ete r o f st o p
. mm ; di am ete r o f e a ch .
len s mm .
E m pl o yin g the ab o ve d at a dete r min e (1 ) the p o siti o n an d ,
Si e o the e t a ce p upil (2) the an gul ar e x te n t o f the field

z f n r n -
, ,
(3) the po siti o n o f the sec o n d fo c al p o i n t F ; an d (4) the

’
po in t wher e an edge-r ay di r ected t o war ds a po in t in the

ci cum fe e ce o f the e t a ce pupil an d p ar allel t o the axis
r r n n r n -
c r o sses the axis after em er gin g fr o m the system .
An s (1 ) D ist an ce o f cen te r o f e n t r a n ce-pupil fr o m sec o n d

5
.
ve rtex Of fir st len s is + 04 m m ; diam eter o f en t r an ce .
pupil is mm (2) The a n gul ar exten t O f the field is

.
n e ar ly (3) Dist an ce o f F fr o m l a st su r fa ce is A 4F
’ ’
+ 9 0946 mm (4) The edge r ay c r o sses the axis at a dis

.
-
t an ce A 4L4= + 9 0432 mm .
1 7 The absciss a o f the p o in ts Mk Mk + 1 whe r e a p ar

.
,
a xi al r ay c r o sses the axis o f a ce n te r ed syste m o f m sphe r ic al
r ef r a ctin g su r fa ces befo r e an d a fte r r efr a cti o n at the k t h su r
fa ce a r e den o ted by uk = Ak Mk u k = Ak Mk + If the r ay ,

’
1 .
p r o ceeds in the fi r st m edium o f in dex n in a dir ecti on par ,
a llel t o the a xis it m ay be sh o wn (cf p r o ble m s N o s 1 6 an d

,
. .
1 7 e n d o f C h a pte r X) th at the p r im ar y fo c a l le n gth o f the

system is given b y the fo r m ula
,
f
U2 U3. Um
Um
“ fl — O”
wher e Uk = n k /uk H avin g c alcul ated the

,
p ath o f the p ar axi al r ay in the p r ecedin g p r oble m e m ,
pl o y the ab o ve fo r m ul a t o dete rm in e the fo c al le n gth o f

“
STE INH E IL S pe r isc o pe
’
An s f .
”
mm . .
1 8 The p ath o f a chief r ay which in t r ave r si n g the a ir

“
.
spa ce between the two len ses Of STE INH E IL S pe r isco pe ’ ”

5
5 6 Mir r o r s ,
[ XV
Oh
.
(see N O 1 6
.
) g o es thr o ugh the ce n ter o f the st o p will be sym
m et r ic a l with r espect t o the t wo p ar ts o f the o ptic a l syste m ,
so th a t f o r such a r ay we m ust h ave

I “ — I I
04 Cl , 04 CI 03
a 4= a i =
’ ’
, a4 a 1, as (1 2 ,
05
= 0 04= 02 .
Sh o w th at if 0 30 fo r a r ay which g o es th r o ugh the

— °
3
st o p-cen ter the r ay m ust h ave been dir ected in iti a lly at a
,
sl o pe an gle 0
- = — 28 2 1 t o w ar ds a p o in t L, o n the
° ’
.
a xis wh o se dist an ce fr o m the sec o n d ve r te x o f the fi r st le n s is
19 . The aSt ig m at ism Of a n arr o w bun dle o f r ays r efr a cted

thr o ugh a cen ter ed system o f spher ic al sur fa ces m ay be c o m
p u t e d l o g a r ith m ic a ll y b y m e a n s o f the f o ll o win g r ecur r e n t
fo rm ul a :
n k sin (ak
’
. ak )
’
rk s1 n a k
.
_
hk + 1 hk
Il k Tk SI
Il .
(ak 9k ) tk
n k + 1 SlIl . 0k + 1
S a g i tta l S ecti on
Qk + Dk
’
Qk 1
Mer idi an S ec ti on
+ Dk
2 ’
Pk . cos ak Pk
’
Pk + 1 _
008
2
ak 1 tk Pk
.
wher e the sym b o ls a a 0 n an d r h ave their usu al m ean

,
’
, ,
in gs an d wher e P P an d Q Q an d D ar e the m agni tudes de

,
’
,
’
fin ed in 1 86 an d 184 The c alcul ati o n s a cc o r d in g t o these

.
fo r m ul a will be c o n sider ably sim plified in the c a se Of a chief

r ay whi ch t r ave r ses a s y ste m like STE IN H E IL S
“ per isc op e ’ ”
(see N O 1 6 ) which is sy mm et r ic with r espect t o the st o p

.
cen ter Fo r exam ple fo r this par ticul ar syst em we c an writ e

.
,
f or a chief ray :
Ch . XV] Pr o b l e m s 5
5 7
D 4= D1, D 3 = D2 , I
l4 —
h1 , h —
h2 ,
’
“
(1 1 al (1 4 (1 2 (1 2 as
01 : 05
: 0 02 : 6 4: 03
, ’
“
al G4 a3 a3 .
Apply the ab o ve fo r m ula t o the o ptical system o f p r o blem

N O 1 6 t o c alcul ate t he a stigm atic diffe r e n ce
. 1 86 ) Of a n ar
ro w bu n dle o f e m e r ge n t r ays wh o se chief r a y is the r ay wh o se
p ath was determ in ed in pr o ble m N O 1 8 ; a ssum in g th at the .
bun dle o f in ciden t r ays was cylin d r ic al th at is P = Q 1 = 0 , , ,
An s p 4
’ — ’
= mm
.
q4 .
2 0 Usin g SE IDE L for m ul a as given in 1 93 sh o w th at

’
. S
the c o n diti on th at an in fin itely thi n len s su r r o un ded by air

,
sh all yiel d a pun ctu al o r

,
a n d p r o v ided with a r e a r st o p ,
stigm atic im a ge o f a pl an e o bj ect pl a ced in the p rirn ary fo c al

pl an e Of the len s is as fo ll o ws : ,
2
2h+ 1
>(
+2 2 (n + 1 )
(
n n
_ F — S F F S F2 0’
+ 2 2 + °
n — 1 n n (n 1) n (n 1)
wher e F den o tes the r efr a ctin g p o wer o f the len s F den o tes , 2
the r efr a ctin g p o wer o f the sec on d sur fa ce l /S den o tes the ,
dist an ce O f the st o p a n d n de n o tes the in dex o f r efr a cti on

,
O f the le n s If the st op is a r e ar st o p at a dist an ce Of 30 mm

. .
fr om the len s an d if n ,
S h o w th at the m ax im u m v alue
o f the r ef r a ctin g p o we r o f a c o n ve x le n s which will give a
pun ctual i m a ge o f a pl an e o bj ect pl a ced in the p r i m ary fo c al

pl an e is F dpt r .
2 1 Usi n g SE ID E L S f o r m ul a a s give n in sh o w
’
. 1 93 ,
th at the c on diti o n th at an in fin itely thi n len s surr o un ded b y

a ir a n d p r o vided with a r e a r st o p sh all give a pu n ctu al o r ,
stigm atic im age o f an in fi n itely dist an t Ob j ect i s

,
.
,
2n + 1
n 1 n n 1 n
wher e n de n o tes the i n dex o f r efr a cti on o f the len s F den o te s ,
its r efr a ctin g p o we r R 1 den o tes the cu rv a tu r e o f the fi r st

,
sur fa ce o f the len s an d C S F the m agn itude S bein g

= —
, ,
e qu l t o the ecip o c al o f the st p dist an ce

a r r o — .
IND E X
T he n um b e r s r e f er t o t h e p a g es
:P t 5 t
p r ism sys e m , 0; r e fr a c t o m e t e r , 12 8 ; de fi n i io n o f
5v
AB B E , E OR R O
h
.
f 4; p up ils, 401 ; m a g n ifyin g p o w e r , 4 4; v — a lue O f

5
o c al l e n g t , 3 4
t
5
80; O p t ic al g l ass, 482 , 48 9 ; sin e-c o n di tio n , 2 3 ,
55
o p ic al m e di um , 4
42 , 47 ; diff e r e n t ial n o t a t io n , 3 1 .
:
5
5
Ab e r r at io n , C hr o m at ic se e C hr o m a ti c A b er r a ti o n , A chr oma ti sm, etc .
Ab e rr at io n , Le a s t c ir c l e o f, 1
h
.
:
5
Ab e r r at io n , Sp e r i ca l se e S p heri ca l A b er r a tion
Ch h
.
5
5555
5
Ab err at io n s, ro m a t ic an d m on oc r o m a t ic , 09 ; SE IDE L
’
S fiv e sum s,
5
4— 0, 7
N h
.
AR E Y f
’
S o r m ul a f o r diam e t p in o le c am e r a , , 2 6
er o f ap e r t ur e o f
h
.
f
55
5 5h
Ab scissa o r m ul a for p lan e r e f r a ct in g sur fa c e , 9 7 , 1 9 1 , 2 6 9 ; sp e r ic al
5 5t
mir r o r , 1 4, 1 , 1 9 1 , 2 7 6 , 2 8 ; Sp e r ic a l r e f r a c t in g sur fa c e , 1 9 1 ,
5
1 9 3 , 2 00, 2 7 4, 2 8 ; infi n i t e ly t hi n l e n s , 22 8, 2 2 9 , 2 7 9 , 2 8 ; c en er e d
t
sy s e m , 3 32 , 19 See also Ima g e E qua ti on s
ht
.
Ab so r p ti on of lig ,
2 .
t
5
Ac c o mm d o a t io n of e ye , 433—439 ; am p li ude , 43 7-43 9 ; r an g e , 438 ;
di mi i h wi h
n s es t ag e , 43 , 436 ; e ffe c t e d by h
g es in c r yst allin e
c an
l e n s, 434; f
r e ra c t in g p owe r o f e ye in a c c o mm o da t io n , 43 6 , 43 7
h m ti m b i t :P i m 48 4 4 —4 l
.
4 5 5
Ac ro a c co 4 4 na ion s r s s, 0, 81 , 91 93 ; e nses , 80, 8 1,
99— 0
A h m t
.
tm 4
5
05
c ro a ic sy s e ,
88 .
A h m t
c ro t a4 4 ic e le sc o p e , 80, 81,
h m t m 4 4 4 d f ll ti l d ti i ht
.
Ac ro a is 80, 8 1 , 87 an o ; op ca an ac n c or p o o
hi 4 4
.
,
89 — 9 1
5t t diti f th
g r ap c, .
Y Si G :
545 v 5
AIR , C d i l l
r . B .
yli n r ca e n s, 31 ; an g e n -c o n on o or o sc o p y ,
f im
; 4
c ur at ur e o ag e , 0
vt
.
m t d f ll m t
445
A i 4
e r op a, i d i di i
39 ani 44 o .
; a x a l , c ur a ur e a n n c al a e r op a , 2 .
ti
m 45 5
Am i 44 d
e t r O p c e ye , f 44 0 an f o ll ; dist an c e o c o rr e c o n -g lass, 6
t vi
. .
,
A G
MICI, :D . i m
B . 4 ir e c s io n pr s sy st e , 9 , 97 , 06 .
Am pl it ude of a c c o mm o da t io n 43 7 —439 .
,
t tig m l
55
An astig m a ic (o r s a t ic ) e n ses, 3 1 4 .
An g l e , C e n t r al , 1 2, 16 .
5 60 I n de x
t l:
5 5
An g le , C r i ic a se e C ri ti ca l A n g le, To ta l Refle ctio n .
An g l e , Slo p e , 1 1 , 33 4, 16 .
An g l e , Vi u l : s a se e Vi su a l A n g le , A p p ar en t S i ze
f d vi ti
.
f ti
55 5
An g le o e a o n , in c a se o f in c lin e d m irr o r s, 43 ; in c ase o f r e r ac on ,
7 8 in p r ism , 0, 1 , 1 2 ; in l e n s, 2 9 3 Se e also Pri sm, Thi n pr i sm, .
5
Pri sm-di op tr y, Pri sma ti c p o we r of len s
fl t
.
f t
5
An g les o f in c ide n ce , r e e c io n an d r e r a c io n , 3 0, 3 1 , 6 .
An g l e s, M e a sur e m t f b mi en o y rr o r an d sc a le , 6
N it f w v l h
.
,
A
5
GS TR O M un o a e- e n gt 1 0; se e al so Ten th- m e ter
v
.
,
ifi ti ti
5
A n g ul a r m ag n c a ( on or con erg e n c e -
ra o ) 3 1
h
.
,
t
An e r io r c am b e r o f e ye , 42 .
An t e r io r a n d p o s e r io r p o t l e s o f e ye , 43 1 , 432 .
Ap e r t u r e-a n g le , 404
h ki
.
5
Ap a a, 2 1 3 , 442
h
.
ti t ti t f ti f
5555
A l
p an a c p o in s o f op cal sys e m , 2 4; o f sp e ric al r e r a c ng sur ace
(J
5
,
12 , 1 3, 4 .
Ap lan a ism , t 4 2 . Se e S i n e-C on di ti on .
t
5
Ap o c hr o m a ism , 48 9 .
t pl t t- 1 —1 8
5
App ar e n a c e an d dir e c io n of p o in so ur ce ,
vi w d th h
.
App ar e n t pl a ce o f Ob j e ct e e r o ug p la t e of g la ss, 1 02 , 1 03 , 1 0 ,
1 06 .
t f ll ti l i t um t f
5
App ar e n siz e , 20—22 , 446 an d o ; in op ca ns r en 449 an d o ll
hm
. .
,
5 55 5
5
A q ueo us u or , 2 1 3, 3 7 1 , 42 .
t t —
55 5 t 3 55
As ig m a ic b un dle o f r a y s, 2 —
3 10 3 14 26 38, 2 an d f o ll ; im a g e
.
, ,
3 4— 36 ,
55 5
lin e s, 1 00, 3 1 2 , 3 1 3 , 47 ; im a g e-p o in s, 12, 26, 2 7,
—
2 9 3 4; p r in cip al se c t ion s,M 3 1 1, 28 Se e also e ridi an r a ys,
U
.
Ima g e-p oi n ts, Imag e li n es, ST R M S

- A sti g
’
S a g i tta l r a ys, co n oid,
5
muti sm .
t t
55 5
As ig m a ic diffe r e n c e , 33 .
t t
As ig m a ic im a g e sur ace s,
- —
36 38, 47 f
h
.
t t f
As ig m a ic le n se s, C ap IX , 3 00 a n d o ll ; 3 1 4
5
. . .
t t
5
As ig m a ism b y in c ide n c e , 27 .
t t
As ig m a ism , M e asur e o f ,
55
33 .
t t
As ig m a ism o f o b liqu e b un dl e s o f r ays, 2 7 , 47
U th 5
.
t t
5
As ig m a ism , ST R M S 34
’
e o r y, 3 1 3 ,
v
.
t f
5
Astr o n o mi c al e le sc o p e , 41 1 , 4 6 ; fi e ld o f ie w, 41 1 , 412 ; m ag n i yin g
p o w er 4 4— 460
th
.
,
t tt t O f e ya b all , 442 , 443

5
Axial am e r o p ia , 442 ; s a ic r e fr a c io n a n d le n g
th )
.
Axi al (o r de p m a g n i fi c at io n 3 1 .
Aim
s of c o l in e al ti on 2 43
h
.
,
Axis of l en s, 2 17 ; sp er ic a l f a ti
re r c ng sur ace , f 1 49 . Se e also Op ti cal
axi s .
Axis , Vi u s al, 433 .

I n dex 5 61
Back f o cus Of l e n s, 36 5
.
t
5
4 5
5
BADA L
’
optom e e r , 422 , 42 3
W
S
h
.
j e c t-g lass
5
B AR LO r o m a t ic Ob
’
S ac 0 0
l h
.
, ,
B ar r e -s a e d
p di st o r tio n , 4 4 .
B e n din g of l e n s, 2 8 4 .
Blin d sp o t43 0, 43 1
of e ye , .
Blur -c ir c le s, 41 4—41 7 , 41 9
W :K
.
55 5 55
a l e ido sc o p e , 4
5
B R E S TE R , Sir D 7
h “
. .
t
5
B un dl e o f r ay s, C ar a c e r o f, 2 4, 2 , 08, 09 , 2 ; di r e c t 1 4;
h
,
o m o c e n t r ic (o r m o n o c e n r ic ) , 2 lim it a t io n b y m e an s o f t , t
s o p s,
39 7—399 Se e a lso A sti g matic b un dle of r a ys

U N
. .
5
B N SE b u r n e r , 66 , 47 3
U :
.
B R NE T T , S M Pr ism -di o p ry, 13

. . t .
l ti th :f t h f 551 6— 1 9 ;
5
Ca c ul a on of of r e r ac e d at sp e r ic a l su r a ce ,
fl
pa r ay
h i lmt th h
5 t d th h 5 5 p r ism , 1 2 4,
re e c e d at sp er ca irr o r , 18 ; r e f ra c t e d r o ug
t t
55
12 ; r e fr a c e r o ug c en e r e d sy s e m , 33 2 , 19 —
22 ; nu m e r i c al
e x am p l e —
in c a se o f p ar axi al an d e dg e r ay s, 20 22 .
C am e ra : se e Pi n hole c a mer a .
C ar din al p o in s o f Op t ic al t sy s e m , t 334—3 3 9 .
t t:
v 5
C a ara c se e A p ha k i a
‘
.
5
C au st ic c ur e , 1 4 .
t f t f
55
C a us i c su r f ac e , 2 6 ; b y r e r a c io n at p lan e su r a c e , 9 8, 99 ;
in g e n e r al ,
h
5
b y r e fr a c t io n a t sp e r ic al sur fa c e , 1
v tv K
.
t : t
5
55 5
C en e r Of c o lli n e a io n , 2 43 ; O f c ur a t ur e , 2 6 0, 2 6 ; o f p e r sp e c i e ( ) ,
32, 4; o f r o t a t io n o f e y e , 432 , 4 4,
3 4 48 , 4 2
h
.
C en t ered sys t e m of sp e r ic al r e f r a c t in g su r f a c e s :O p ti l ca a xi s, 32 9
p ar axial r a y , 3 30, 3 3 1 ; ca l c ul a t io n o f p a t o f p ara x
c o n st r u c t io n o f h
ial r ay , 33 2 ; c o n ug a t e a xi a l p o in s (M , j 3 46 , 3 47 ; e x r a-a xial t t
j t t t
5f
c o n u g a e p o in s (Q ,
—
3 3 9 3 42 ; l a e r al m a g n ifi c a t io n , 3 33 , 3 49 ;
f 333—33 ;
5 55
SMIT H -H E LMH O LT Z f o r m ula , 3 3 4; o c al p l a n e s, o c al
— l —
p o in t s, 332 33 ; r ay o f fi n i t e s o e
p , 1 9 22
tv
.
C en t er s of p e r sp e c j
i e O f o b e c t-sp ace an d im ag e -sp a c e , 41 6 , 41 7 .
55
C e n t r a d, 1 34, 2 9 4 .
C e n t r al an g le (QO) ,
1 2, 16 .
C en t r al c o llin e a ti on ,
—
2 42 2 47 .
t
5
C en r al r a y , 2 43
h
.
5
C i ef r ay s , 2 4, 41 3 , 4
2 0, 26
Ch
.
o r o id, 42 .
5 62 I n de x
C hr o m a ic t ab e r ra ti on
—
487 489 5 09
h
.
, ,
t
5
5
C ili ar y b o dy , 42 7 ; m e c a n i sm o f a c c o mm o da io n , 434 .
C ir c le of a b e rr a ti on , Le as t 1
v
.
,
tu
5
C ir c le of c ur a re, 26 0 .
C ir c l e of l e as t con fu i s on 3 1 4, 37 .
:
,
5
C ir c le s of di ff usio n se e B lur -ci r c les
U U R :Si
.
5
C LA SI S, di i n a co n t on 23
N N H :C v t
. .
,
C O DDI GT O ur a ur e Of im a g e , 40
v
. .
,
C o lli n e a io nt :C t en r al , 2 42 2 47
—
; c en t er o f, 2 43 a xi s o f , 2 43 in arian t
5
oh 24 6 .
h 47 5
C o lli n e a r c o rr e sp o n de n c e , 2 42 , 08 Se e a ls o Pu n c tua l i m a g er y
v v
. .
C olo r a n d fr e q u e n c y Of ib r a io n ,
47 t
2 —47 6 ; an d wa e-le n gt , .
C o lo r Of a b o dy , 2 .
t
4 5
5
C o lo r s of Sp e c r u m , 466 .
C om a , 4 2, 7
th
.
C o m b in a io n t of ree op ti l ca s y t s e m s, 4—
3 7 3 76
h
.
ti t
5 h 5
C o m b in a on of m a i c , 499 a n d f o ll
t wo l e n se s, —
366 3 7 0; a c ro .
ti t t f l
5
C o m b in a o n o f t wo o p ic al sy s e m s, 3 6—36 2 ; o c a l l e n g t s , 3 9 ; f o c a
t
an d p r in c ip a l p o in s, 3 8 , 3 6 1 ; r e f r a c t in g p o w e r , 3 6 1 .
t t
5f l
C o m p le e q u a dr ila e r al , 1 6 2
Ch
.
ti t :
5
C o m p o un d op c a l sy s e m s ap . X I, 3 6 , o l
v
.
C on ca e :L e n s, 22 1 ; sur f a c e , 1 0 .
C on cen ti
r c l e n s, 2 2 1 , 2 32 , 3 87 , 3 88 .
C o n es an d r o ds o f r e ti n a, 42 8, 42 9 .
C o n j ug a te p l an e s,
C o n j ug a te p o in t s on a x is (M M ) C en t e r e d sy st e m O f sp h er ic al r e
t ly t h i l
.
,
ti f
1 05
fr a c n g sur a ce s, 3 46 , 3 47 ; in fin i
22 7 22 9 2 32 ; e n e n s, —
9 7 ; p l t wit h p ; ph i l
,
g u f f ti
15
p la n e r e ra c n ll l f
s r a ce , a e ar a e a c e s, S er ca
m irr o r , 4 1 6 4; p h i l f ti g u f 1 8 1 1 83
s er c a r e rac n s r ace ,
d y t m f ph i l
.
, ,
C o n j ug a t p i t ff i (Q
e o n C t
s o ax s f t en er e s s e o s er ca r e rac
ph i l
,
u f fi it y t —
17 1 175
in g s
—
33 9 3 42 ;
r a c e s, l hi l 2 3 4 23 6 ; in n e n e n s, s e r ca
; ph i l f ti g u f —
55
mi r r o r , — 1 9 3 1 96
S er ca r e r ac n s r ace ,
U
.
C o n o id, ST R M S , 3 1 3 , 3 1 4, 3 ’
v
.
C o n e r g e n c e-r a io se e A n g u la r t : M ag n ifi ca ti o n
v v
.
C on erg en t an d di erg en t op ti l ca sys e m s, t 1 8 6 , 3 39 , 3 40

v
.
t
5
C on er g en l e n s, 2 2 1
v
.
: f
5t l
C on ex L e n s, 22 1 ; sur a c e , 1 0
hm v
.
C orn e a of u an e ye , 42 ; op ic a c o n s an t t s, 37 1 , 3 72 , 401 ; ert e x,
43 1
v
.
C o r r e c tio n -g l a ss :R f ti e r ac ng p owe r an d t
er e x -r e fr a c ti on ,
4 43— 446 ;
t t t
5
di s an c e fr o m e ye m e a sur e d b y k e r a o m e er, 42 1 , 42 2 ; se c o n d
f o c al p o in t of g lass a t f ar p o in o f ey e , 44 t
W “
.
C RE ,
H . : diopt i r c,
”
2 87 .
I n de x 563
t l l
5 5
C ri ic a an g e o f r e fra c t io n , 80 .
5
C r o ss-c ylin dr ic al l e n s, 3 1 , 3 1 7 , 3 1 9 , 3 2 0, 3 2
h
.
t
5 h
C r y s a lli n e l e n s o f um a n e y e , 2 1 3 , 3 7 1 , 3 72 , 3 7 3 , 3 78, 3 8 1 39 , 42 8 ;
t
5
o p ic a l c o n s t a n t s, 37 1 37 3 , 3 9 , 4 3 4; c a n g e s in a c c o mm o dat io n ,
—
3 9 , 43 4;
“ t
t o a l in de x , 43 6 Se e a lso A p ha k i a . .
:
C ULMAN N , P SM IT H -H E LMH O LT Z f o r m ula , 202
v 5 5
. .
: t
C ur a t ur e o f a r c o t al , 2 8 ; m e a n , 2 9 ; c e n t e r o f , 2 60; c irc l e o f , 2 6 0;
55 5 5
r a dius o f , 2 60; S ig n o , 2 60; m e a su r e , 2 6 0 2 6 4
f —
vt
.
C ur a ur e o f im a g e , 38 40, 47 , 48
—
v
.
ti 300—3 03 ; p r in cip a l ti
55
C ur m
a t ur e f f
of n or al se c on s o sur a c e , se c o n s,
3 02 , 3 03 , 2
v
.
C ur U
at ur e , t n it o f, dio p r y, 2 86 2 8 8 —
v
.
C ur m
a t ur e44 a e t r o p ia , 2
v —m h d
.
ti
5
C ur a t ur e m i l et o in g eo e tr c a Op c s, 2 82
h h d di t
.
5
C us i o n -S 44 ap e s o r t io n , .
C yli n dr ic a l l e n se s, 2 1 7 , 3 1 0, 3 14 3 17
—
; typ es, —
3 1 3 17 ; c o m b in a t io n s,
t
55
r a n sp o sit io n
— —
3 1 8 32 6 ; ,
3 1 8 32 0 .
C ylin dr ic al s u f r ac e , 26 ,
3 0 —308 , 3 10-3 13 ; f ti
re r ac n g p o we r , 307 , 3 08 .
N
D E N E TT : C e n r a d, 1 34t
th 5
.
D e p -m a g n ifi c a t io n , 3 1 .
D E S C A R TE S , R : Law o f r e f r a c tio n , 6 7
v
.
D e i a t io n o f r a y : Se e A n g le of de vi a tion , Mi n i mu m devi a ti on
v h
.
D e ia t io n wit o ut disp e r sio n , 48 1 , 49 1 —49 3 .
Dia m o n d, 7 0, 47 9
h
.
Dia p ra g s o r st o p s f o r c u t i g o ut r ays, 3 9 7 3 99
m n — t .
Diff r a c t io n -e ff e c t s, 1 4
“ “ “
.
t —
Dio p r y , 2 8 6 2 88 ; di o p r ie ,
”
dio p t re , ”
t
dio p t e r , e t c , 2 86 ; 2 87 ; .
5
millido p t r y , H e c t o di o p t r y, a n d Kil o dio p tr y, 2 8 7 .
Dir e c t
"
b un dl e o f r a y s, 1 4
v
.
Dire c t isio n , 448

”
v
.
Dir e c t is io n p r is m - sy s t e m s 493 —499

h
.
,
Dir e c t io n o f r ay o r st r a ig t lin e : Se e Posi ti ve di r e ction

v
.
t
5
Dir e c io n O f so ur c e f r o m O b se r e r s e y e , ’
Disp e r sio n , C r o m a t ic : h C a p X IV, 46 an d h o ll ; a n o m alo u s, 4 77 ; f

v
. .
t
ir ra t io n ali y o f , 477—47 9 ; p ar t ial , 47 9 , 483 ; r e la t i e , 47 9 , 483
h v
.
t
Disp e r sio n wit o u de ia t io n , 48 1 , 49 3—49 9
v th v h
.
Disp e rsi e p o w e r (o r str e n g ) , 479—48 1 ; disp e r si e s tr e n g t o f l e n s,

5
55
03
vi
.
5
55
Distin c t sio n , Dist an c e o f, 4 2, 4 3 .
t
Dis o r tio ,
n 4 3 4
— .
5
4 6 I n de x
Di v e rg e n tl e n s, 2 2 1 ; di v er g en t an d c on v erg en t op tic la sys e m s, t 3 39,
55
5
3 40
N J h
.
D O LLO D Ac ro m a ti
48 1 , 482 , 04, 0
c ob j e ct-g lass
N
.
,
DO DE R S 8 r e du c e d e y e ,
”
2 1 4; as ig m a ism Of e y e c o r re c e d b y c ylin t t t
t th
5
dr ic al g la sse s, 3 1 6 ; l o ss o f a c c omm o da io n wi in cr easin g ag e ,
43 , 436
v
.
D o ub le c o n c a e e n s, 2 1 9 l
v
.
l
5
D o ub e c o n e x l e n s, 2 1 7 .
t
D o ub le r a io (o r c r o ss r a io ) , 1 6 —16 4 t .
Y
5 5
DR S DALE , C V , 2 87
ht v
. . .
t
5
i e w, 41 2 , 41 3 ; e y e-
5
Du c e l e sco p e , 4 6 ; fi e l d o f r in g ,
41 3 , 4 8 ;
f
m a g n i yin g p o w e r , 4 —460 .
Dyn amic r e ra c io n o f e y e , 438 f t .
E ff e c i tv e r a ys , 23 .
Em e r g en t r a ys, 24 .
E mm e t
r o p ia an d t
am e r o p ia , 43 9—443 .
E mm e t
r op ic 440 e ye , .
t — t
5
En r a n c e-p o r ,
40 6 409 , 410, 41 3 .
t r an c e- p up il , 43 , 1 7 9 , 400 an d o ll , 4 f t il
5
En 3 two o r m or e . e n r an c e -p up s,
t
40 , 406 ; e n r an c e -p u p il o f e y e , 401 , 448
th ht t th h
.
— tt
47 6
55h
E e r , Lig r an sm i ed r oug 1 0 47 2
U L :h
.
, ,
E LE R , . T e o r y o f c urv e d sur ace s, f 3 03 , 3 06 , 2 ; ac r om a ti m 48 1

s ,
.
t t
5 44 5
E xi -p o r , 409 , 41 0, 41 3 .
t 41 1—41 3 , 41 41 7 , 41 9 , 42 0, 4
5“
E xi -p up il, 8, 3
h
.
,
Ey : ti 433—439 ; t
5
A e c c o mm o da on ,
42 ; a que o us hu an e r io r c am b e r ,
5
m o r , 37 1 , 4 2 ; b a c ill ar y l ay e r o f r o ds an d c o n e s, 42 8 ; b la c k o f t h e
ey e,
”
t
401 ; b lin d sp o , 430; c e n e r o f r o a io n , 432 , 434, 448, 4 2 ; t tt
h f t t h
5 5 v t
c an g e o f r e r a c in g p o we r in a c c o mm o da io n , 4 3 6 , 43 7 ; c o ro id,
42 c ili a r y b o dy , 4 2 7 c o r n e a, 3 7 1 , 3 7 2 , 401 4 2 ; c o r n e a- e r e x, 43 1 ;
t t
5 5 t
—
c r y s allin e l e n s, 3 7 1 3 7 3 , 4 2 8 ; de c r e ase o f p o we r O f a c c o mmo da io n
th
wi ag e , 3 , 4 6 d sc p
4 3 e r i io n o f h um an e y , 4e — t
2 43 1 ; e n r an ce-p up il ,
f t t
5 5f
448 ; e xp r e ssio n s f o r r e r ac io n o f e y e , 43 9 ; f ar p o in an d n e ar
t
p o in , 434, 43 ; fi e l d o f fi x a io n , 432 , 43 ; o cal l e n g t
s, 3 43 , 3 74, th
f h
3 89 , 432 ; o cal l e n g t s in c ase o f m axi m um a c c o mm o da io n , 43 7 ; t
f t
5
o c al p o in s, 3 7 4 ,
389 , 42 3 , 432 ; f o ve a c en tr a li s, 429 , 432 , 43 3 , 446 ;
t
ir is, 401 , 42 ; lin e o f fi x a io n , 432 ; m o o r m us c le s , 43 1 , 432 ; n o da t l
t t
p o in s, 422 , 432 ; O p ic al a xis, 43 1 ; O p ic n e r e , 43 0; p o in o f fi xa t v t
t t
io n , 432 ; p o si io n s o f c ar din al p o in s in s a e O f m axim um a e c o m t tt
t t
5f
m o dat io n , 437 ; p o s e r io r p o l e , 432 , 43 8 ; p r in c ip al p o in s, 3 7 4, 432 ;
u
p p , i 2 3 ,
l4 0 1 ,
40 9 —41 3 42 1 42 ; r e r a c in
, , g p o we r , 3 7 4, 432 ; t
I n de x 5
56
ti 428 ; t ti
s a c an d dyn am ic f ti
r e rac on , 438 an d f llo ; susp en
NN)
re n a,
v
.
so r y lig am e n t (42 8 , 43 4; ar ia io n o f p rin c ip al

z o n ule of ZI t
v
,
t
5
p o in t s in a c c o mm o da io n , 43 7 ; Visual a x is, 433 ; isual p ur p le , 430;
ht
w i e o f t h e e y e , 42 , ye llo w sp o (m acu la lu te a ) , 42 8 t .
:
Eye se e also S chema ti c eye , A metr o pi a e ye , E mmetro pi c e ye , H yper
mt e r opi e e ye , M yo pi c e ye , R educed e ye
th
.
55
Ey e -axi s ,
438,
Le n g 443 , 448
o f, 440— .
t
E y e-r in g o f e le s c o p e , 41 3 , 4 8, 4 9 .
E ye g lasse s
- :S ee C o rr e c ti on -
g la ss, A sti g ma ti c len ses, C yli n dri ca l len se s,
Op htha lmi c p ri sms, e t c .
FAR A DA Y M :Opti c al g lass, 482

h
. .
,
t sp e r e , 4 t
5
Far p o in 434, 43 8, 440, 442 ; f ar p o in 34 se n ile r e c essio n ,
th
,
436 ; c o in c ides wi se c o n d f o c al p o in Of c o rre c io n -g las s, 44; t t

in case o f sc e m a ic e y e , 46 1 h t .
t t
5
Far p o in dis an c e , 43 7 , 444
ht
.
Fa r -sig e d e ye , 4 3 Se e H yp er metr o pi a
. .
: t
5
FE R MAT , P Pr in c ipl e o f l e as t im e , 8 6
. .
Fie l d o f fi xat io n O f e ye , 43 2 , 43
h
.
Fie ld o f v ie w, 1 8 , 1 9 , 406 —409 , 448 ; o f p lan e mi rr o r , 40—43 ; o f sp e r ical

t
m ir r o r , 1 7 6 —1 7 9 ; o f in fi n i e ly hi n l e n s , 2 47— 2 49 , 409 —41 1 ; o f t
Du c t ht
e l es c o p e , 41 2 , 4
“r ag g e d e dg e , ” 41 2
1 3 ; o f as r o n o mi cal e l esc o p e , 41 1 , 41 2 ; t t
.
t
Fie l d-s o p , 1 9 , 1 7 8, 2 49 , 406 , 41 0
h
.
5
-
Fis e y e c am e r a , 8 1
”
.
t : t
555
Fixa io n fi e ld o f , 432 , 43 ; lin e o f, 432 ; p o in o f, 432 .
t
5
Fla im ag e , 39 , 40, 48 .
t
Fluo r i e , 47 9 , 48
th h
.
Fo cal le n g s o f sc e m a ic e y e , 34 t
3, 3 7 4, 389 , 432 ; in c ase O f m axim um
a c c o mm o dat io n , 4 37
h h h
.
Fo cal le n g t s o f sp e r ic al mi r r o r , 1 6 7 ; o f sp e r ic al r e r a c in g sur a c e , f t f
5
1 9 1 , 1 92 , 1 93 , 1 9 9 , 2 8 1 ; O f in fi n it e ly t hi n l e n s, 22 9 , 2 40—2 42 ; o f
t
c o m p o u n d sy s e m , 3 9 ; o f c o m b in a t io n O f t w o l e n se s, 36 7 ; o f ic k th
t
le n s, 3 63 ; o f o p ic al syst e m in g e n e r al , 3 42—3 44
h th
.
t
5
Fo cal p lan e s o f sp e r ic al r e tr a c t in g sur fac e , 1 9 7—1 9 9 ; o f in fi n i e ly in
t l
le n s, 232 ; o f o p ica syst e m , 33 4, 3 3 , 341 ; o f c e n e r e d sys e m o f t t
h f t
sp e r ic a l r e r a c in g su r f a c e s, 333 .
Fo c al p o in t an g le , 447 ; as m easur e o f siz e o f r e in al im a g e , 449 t

h h
.
t
Fo cal p o in s o f sp e r ic al m i r r o r , 1 66 , 1 89 ; o f sp e r ic al r e f r ac i n g sur t
f
ac e , 1 8 6—1 89 ; o f in fi n i e ly — t th
in le s, 2 9 2 32 ; Of c e n e r e d sys e m
n 2 t t
h f
Of sp erical r e tr a c tin g sur ac e s, 3 32 , 33 3 ; o f o p ical sys e m , 33 4 ,
t t
5 66 I n de x
5
3 3 ; O f c o m p o un d sy s e m , 3 8, 3 6 1 ; t 5 of th i k l
c e n s, 363 ; Of co m
t
b in a io n o f t wo l e n ses, 36 7
h
.
t t
5
Fo c al p o in s o f s c e m a ic e y e , 3 7 4, 3 89 , 42 3, 432 .
Fo c u s p l a n e ,
400,
402 —404,
4 0 6 —4 08 ,
41 4—41 7 , 43 .
5 5
Fovea 429 , 432 , 433 , 446
c e n tr a li s,
UN J
.
HO FE R , l t
5
FR A 1 4 , 47 9 , 49 3, 49 4, 06 ; dar k lin es o f so ar sp e c ru m ,
470, 47 2 , 47 , 47 6 , 477 ; m e a su re m e n o f in de x o f r e r a c io n , 12 9 ; t f t
tt t t h
55
n o a io n o f dar k lin es, 4
5
7 2 ; p r o duc io n o f o p i cal g lass, 482 ; a c r o
t
m a ic O b j e c -g l a ss, 04, 0 t
v th v
.
ib ra io n an d c o lo r , 472—47 6 c o n n e c io n wit t
5
Fr e q u e n cy O f wa e
th
5
Ie n g , 47
N J
.
FR E S E L, A l
Pr in cip e of in e r er e n ce , 1 4; use Of c y in dr ica e n s, 3 1
. t f l ll .
G A LILE o :
T l e e sc o p e an d t 4 6 , 46 2 , 463 , 464
as r o n o m ic a l disco v e r ie s, 5
U K : th
.
d di t t
5 555 5h
GA S S, . F . R e du c e s a n c e , 2 7 9 , 2 8 0; e o r y o f o p ic al im ag e r y ,
4 , 46 ; p r in c ip al p o in s, 33 ; a c r o m a i c Ob j e c t-g lass, t t
5 55
3 3 4, 36 ,
04, 0 .
t l:
5
G lass, O p ic a se e Op ti c a l Gla ss
N :
.
GLE IC H E , A Lehr b u ch der g eo me tri schen Op ti k , 3 2

: ht h 5
. .
GOE Rz , P Do ub le an as ig m a ”
p o o g r a p i c l e n s, 3 2 t t
l m th d : th
. .
55
Gr ap hi c a P e o s ar a xial r ay d ia g r a m s, 1 6 8—1 7 1 ; p a of p araxi al
y t h ug h t ro cend sy s e re t em, 33 1 ; Y UNO
’
G S co n s r t u ti c on , 09— 1 1
J
ra .
GR E GO R Y ,
a c hr o m a ism , 480 t .
GR IMS E H L, E Le hr b u c h de r P hysi lc, 36 3
U N h m ti
. .
,
: t
5
G LL S T R A D, A R e du c e d di s an c e , 2 80;
. sc e a c e ye , 3 43 , 3 7 0, 3 7 1 ,
3 7 4, 3 8 1 , 382 , 3 89 , 3 9 432 , 43 6 , 442 , 443 , 46 1 ; f o r m ula fo r com
h
,
t t tat
5 5
p o un d sy s e m s, 260, 3 6 1 ; s c e m a ic e ye in s e Of m axim um
a c c o mm o da ti on ,
3 9 , 436 , 46 1 ; wr i in g s, 36 t .
H ADLE Y ’
S se x an t t 5 8—60
A h
.
,
H A LL, C M c : ti t l p 48 1
ro m a c e e sc o e,
U
. . .
H AR C O RT W V ,
. . :Opti l g l 482 ca a ss, .
f p i t
5
55
H ar m on i c r an g e O 1 6 1—1 6 4
o n s, .
H e lio s tt a 4,
h h lm
.
,
H E LMH O LT Z , VO N :Op t t SMIT H-H E LMH O LT z

5 55
H . a om e er, 1 03 ;
e q ua ti on ,
2 01 , 2 02 , 2 1 4, 2 1 ,
33 4, 3 3 8, 3 42, 4 9, 2 4; H an dt der
p hysi o log i schen Op ti k , 3 7 1 .
45
5 5
HE RO o f Ale xan dria, 8 7
J A h
:
.
H E R SC HE L, Sir . F . W . c r om a ti c o b e c -g l ass o f
j t t e l e sc o p e , 0 ,
0 .
I n de x 567
t
H o m o cen r ic b u n dl e o f r ays, 2 5
U UN W N
.
H O ST O R A :
N
an d c o lo r s o f sp e c r um , 4 66 , 46 9 t
UY N
E TO
v
. . .
,
H :
G E S , C C o n st r u c t io n o f wa e- ro n in g e n e r al, 1 0-1 3 , 1 2 3 ; in f t
fl
.
f t
55
c a se o f r e e c t io n a t p la n e m ir r o r , 3 3— 3 7 , 6 1 ; in c ase o f r e r ac io n
f
5
a t p la n e sur ac e , 7 0—7 2 ; H u Y GE N s s o c ul ar , 396 ,
’
01 , 02 .
t
5
H yp e r m e r o p ia, 441 , 443 , 44 .
t
H yp e r m e r o p ic e y e , 441 ; c o r re c io n g lass, 44 t .
5 5 55 5 v t
55
Im ag e , 1 7 1 8 2 ; id l 2 0 6 48 ; r e a l a n d i r u a l 17 18
v fl
, , ,
e a , , , , .
Im a g e , t t
R e c ifi c a io n o f , b y su cc e ssi e r e e c io n s, 0, 1 t .
ti
5
Im a g e , Siz e of 448, 449
re n al, .
5
Im a g e s in in c li n e d mi r r o rs 43— 1 .
Im ag e-e q u at io n s o f o p t ic al sy s e m :
,
t f f t
5
R e e rr e d t o o c a l p o in s, 3 4 ;
r e f e r r e d t o p r in c ip a l p o in s, 3 4 3 4
— t
7 ; r e f e r r e d t o p a ir o f c o n j ug a e t
t
p o in s in g e n e r al, 3 47 , 3 48 ; r e f er r e d t o n o dal p o in t s, 3 48 ; in e r m s t
t
Of r ef r a c in g p o we r a n d r e du c e d
“ e r g e n c e s, 3 48 v
h
.
f ti
5
Im a g e-e q u a tio n s o f sp e r ic a l r e r a c n g sur f a ce , 2 00, 2 01 .
tig m
55
Im a g e-lin e s o f n ar r o w as a t ic b un dl e o f r ay s , 1 00, 3 12 , 3 1 3 , 34
36 , 47 .
Im ag e-lin e s of n arr o w as tig m ti a c b un dl e of r ays f t

r e r ac e d at p la n e
5
sur f a c e , 1 00 .
55 5
Im a g a p o in t , 2 .
tig m ti
5
Im ag e-p o in t s o f n ar r o w as a c b un dle o f r ays, 3 12 , 26 , 2 7, 29
4 3 .
Im a g e-r ays, 2 4 .
j t
55 5
Im a g e-sp a c e an d o b e c -sp a c e , 2 42 , 2 43 .
h h 5
Im a g e-su r f a c e s, Ast ig m a t ic , 36 38 , 47 .
:
In c ide n c e An g le o f , 30; e ig t , 1 1 ; n o r m al , 3 0 p l a n e o f, 30 .
t
5
In c ide n r ay s, 2 4, 30 .
In c lin e d m ir r o rs, 43— 1

v v
.
In de x o f r e f r ac t io n :
Ab so lu e , t 7 4; lim itin g a lu e o f, 7 0; r e la t i e, 66 ;
m e asur e m e n t o f, 1 06 , 1 07 , 12 8, 1 2 9 ; f un c i o n t of wa v e-l e n g t h ,
47 6 , 47 7 .
In di cial t
am e r o p ia , 442
“I dire c t vi i
.
n s on ,
”
446 .
t t pl 1 9 7 , 434
5
In fi n it e ly dis an an e o f sp a ce ,
ht l
.
di t t p i t
5 5
In fi n it e ly s an o n o f st r a ig in e , 1 8
thi l
.
In fi n it e ly :2 1 7 —
5h
n P e n s, a r a x ial R ay s —2 7, 2 7 6 2 79 2 8 ; ab sc issa
,
f o r m ula , 226 —2 2 9 , 2 8 ; c ar a c t e r o f im a g e r y , j 23 7 2 40; c o n ug a te

—
a xial p o in t s , 22 7—22 9 , 2 3 2 — 23 4; c o n st r u c t io n o f im a g e , 2 36 ; e x t r a
a x i al c o j ug a t e p o in s, 2 3 4 2 36 ; fi eld o f
n — t ie w, 2 47 2 49 , 409—41 1 ;
— v
5 68 I n de x
fo c al l g th
en s, 2 2 9 , 2 40—2 42 ;
p lan e s, 2 32 ; o c al p o in s, 22 9 f o cal f t
lt l t
5f
232 ; a e ra m a g nifi ca ion , 236 , 2 3 7 ; p r in c ip al p lan e s, 2 3 9 ; p r is
t —
m a ic p o we , 2 9 1 2 9 ; r e ra c in g p o we r , 283 , 2 84
r t
th
.
In fi n i te ly i n le n s, C e n r al C o lli n ea io n , 2 46 t t
v
.
t
In fi n i t e ly hin l e n s , C o n e n io n a l r e p r ese n a io n , 22 6 t tt
f ti f p h v th h
.
In fi n it e ly thi n le n s, R e rac on o s e r ical wa e r o ug —

276 2 7 9
ly t h i h i l
.
,
t 8 29 1 ; f ti
48 5
—
5 5
In fi n it e l -
y m 2 9 n en s s s e ,
o r m u la f or sp e r ca ab e r r a o ns ,
0 -
S l A h m ti ee a so c ro a c co mbi n a ti o n s
v
. .
In i t:
ar a n Of f ti 7 6 ; f t r e r ac on o cen r al c o llin e a ti on , 2 46 ; in c ase of
f ti f p i l ys at p h
,
l f
5
r e ra c on o ar a x a ra s e r ica sur ac e , 191 .
Ir is Of e ye , 401 , 42 .
Iso t ro p ic m e dium , 3 , 4 .
J
J N P f :N w ti l g l s 484
5
A C KS O r o e sso r e op ca as
J N N Z :R t d i v t
.
, ,
f t l c p
J l 82 4855
A SE ,
. e pu e n en or o 46
e es o e, .
en a 4 — 40
ass,
g , .
K l id
45 545
a e 47 o sc o p e ,
K J t mi l t l
.
E PLE R , 6 i As
0 ron o ca e esco p e , s ag tta , 2 2
K tmt 4 4
.
, ,
5
era o e er , 2 1, 22
K
.
:Di
E SS LE R ,t ii i m 47 4 F 4 . re c v s on pr s , 9 , 98, 99, 06 .
K S :A h m ti
LIN GE N ST IE R N A , m b i ti f i m 48 c ro a c co na on o pr s s, 1
K H U H F :M m t f i d f f ti 8
. .
O LR A SC , . e a sur e en o n ex o r e ra c on , 12 .
LA GR A GE , N L SM IT H J
-H E LMH O LTZ :
o r m ul a , 2 02 f
N
. . .
:
5
LA DO LT , E Physi o log i ca l Op ti cs, 2 87
N
. .
LA GE , M C al c ula io n —
. :
sy s e m , 20 t t .
t t : t
La e r al m a g n ifi c a io n C e n e r e d sys e m , 333 , 349 ; in fin i t t ly thi n l e e n s,
p h i l mi 1 76 ; ph i l f ti g u f
f lig ht 1 5
2 36 , 2 3 7 s er ca r ro r , s 1 96
e r ca r e rac n s r a ce , .
: tili p p g ti
5
5
Law Of in de p e n de n ce o f r ays o ; f o rec n e ar ro a a on ,
fl US 89 9 1 2
,
t f ti 66 f M —
5
5
3 , 4; o f r e e c io n , 3 1 ; of r e r a c AL
on , o , , .
t
Le as c ir cle o f ab e r r a io n , 1 t .
t
Le as c o nf u sio n , C ir c e o f , 3 1 4 l
v
.
Le ast de ia io n see Pri sm t : .
Leas t tim e, Pr in cip l e Of , 8 6—89 .

I n de x 5 69
Le n s : se e A sti g ma ti c len s, Cyli n dri c a l len s, In fi n i te ly thi n len s, Thi c k

le n s , Tor i c len s , e t c
v
.
:
Le n s Axi s, 2 1 7 ; b e n din g o f, 2 8 4; con ce n ti r c, 22 1 , 232 , 38 7 , 3 88 ; con ca e
v v itiv v t iv
h 5
an d c o n e x, 222 ; co n erg en t or po s e an d di erg en o r n e g at e,
t v t v
5
223 ; de fin i io n , 2 1 7 ; disp e r si e s r e n g t , 03 ; do ub le c o n e x an d
v
do ub l e c o n ca e , 2 1 7 , 2 1 9 ; m e n isc us, 2 1 9 , 22 6 , 3 8 , 3 8 6 , 3 8 7 ; o f
vt
z e ro c u r a ur e , 2 2 , 3 8 6 ; O p ica l c e
1 n e r 2 2 3 —
2 26 ; p l a n O -c o n e x t t v
v
,
f t mme ti
5 th
an d p lan o -c o n ca e , 2 1 9 ; r e r a c in g p o we r , 283 , 36 3 ; sy r c,
2 1 7 , 3 8 , 3 88 ; ic k n ess, 2 1 9 .
t :
5
Le n s , C ry s alli n e se e C r ysta lli n e len s .
Le n s-g au g e , 2 63— 2 6 , 2 88 , 289 .
Le n se s , Fo r m s f —
O , 2 7 22 3
1 .
t m : C mbi ti f two len ses

55
5
Le n s-sys e se e o na on o
y t m T hi : h
.
L e n s-s 2 89 2 9 1 ;
s e n — ac ro m a ic t c o m b in a ti on 02— 0
Lig ht : h v -th
.
, ,
R tili p p g ti
5 5
ec n e ar ro a a on , se e C ap I; wa e eo r y , 9 , 1 0, 472
v
.
an d f o ll ; e lo c ity , 1 0, 7 2 , 7
.
,
47 4, 47 .
t
5
Lin e o f fi xa io n , 4 32
v
.
LIP PE RS H E Y F :R e p ut e d in en t or o f t e l e sc o p e , 46
N J
. .
,
LIST I G , . B . :R e du c e d e y e ,
”
2 1 4; n o da lp o in ts, 33 7 .
5
Lumi n o us b o di es, 1 .
Lum in o us p o in t ,
Dir e c ion t an d t
lo c a ion , 1 —1 8 .
Macu la lutea o r y e llo w sp ot 428 .
Mag n ifi c at io n :
,
se e A n g u la r ma g n ifi ca ti on A xi a l ma g n ifi c a ti on La tera l , ,
ma g n ifi c a ti o n M a g n ifi c a ti o n — M ag n if yi n g p ower
5
r a ti os
, ,
.
Ma g n ifi c atio n -ra t io s 3 49—3 1

5 5
.
,
Mag n ifyin g p o we r 1 99 3 44 4 2 a n d foll ; AB B E S de fi n itio n 4 4;

5 v 5
’
.
, , , ,
t
5 45
ab so lu e , 4 4 in di idual , 4 4 .
Mag n ifyin g p o we r o f m ag n i yin g g lass, 4 3 ; f

5
4
5
of mic r o sco p e , ; of
t
55
e le sc o p e , 4 -4 60
U
.
MA L S E L : ,
Law 89—9 1
. . 2 .
Me dium :
, ,
5
se e Op ti ca l m edi u m .
Me n isc us le n s 2 1 9 22 6 3 8 3 86 , , , , ,
38 7 .
Mer idian r ays 3 1 1 Se e M eri di a n

5555
555
f
,
. sec ti on o f n arr o w b un dle o r a ys .
Me r idian se ctio n o f n ar r o w b un dl e —
5
5555
5 5
o f r ays, 31 1, 2 8, 30 33 , 3 ,
2,
t
5
3, 4, 6 ; lac k o f sym m e r y in , 41
v
.
Me ridian se c tio n o f sur fa ce o f r e o lutio n 30

N h
.
,
MIC H E LS O A A : Ve lo c ity o f lig t 474

v
. . .
, ,
Min im um de iatio n o f p r ism : se e Pr i sm

“Thi ck
.
Mirro r : se e Plan e mi r r o r S p he ri c a l mi rr or , ,
mi rror , ”
mi r r or , ”
In c li n cd mi r r or s, e tc .
5 70 I n de x
Mir r o r an d scal e fo r an g ular m e asur e m e n t 6— 8 55

U 5
.
,
MO E B I S A F : Pr in c ip al p o in ts 33
5
. . .
, ,
Mo n o c e n tr ic b u n dle o f r ays 2
5
.
,
Mo n o c hr o m atic ab e r r atio n s 09 Se e S p her i ca l a b erra ti on

h
. .
,
Mo n o c hr o m atic lig t 6 6 46 7 473—47 7

“
.
, , ,
M O N O YE R F : dio ptr ie 2 86 . .
MO S E R C :
, ,
,
N o dal p oin ts 337
.
, .
M us cle s Mo to r o f e ye 43 1 432
5
.
, , , ,
Myo p ia 441 443 44

5
.
, , ,
Myo pic e ye 441 ; c o rr e ction -g lass 44

, , .
N t 434, 43 54 t h 5
434, 43 ; n e ar p o in r e t
p o in
5
e ar 38 ; n e ar p o in sp ere,
th i h
, ,
c e de s fr o m eye wi n c r e a se o f a g e , 43 ,
436 ; in c ase Of sc e m a ic t
e ye , 436 , 46 1 .
N p i t di t
N ig ht d y 43 5S My pi y
e ar 43 7
o n s an ce , .
e ar -s e e e, ee o e e e.
N g tiv l
.
e a 22 3 e e n s,
N g tiv p i ip l p i t 338
.
e a e r nc a o n s, .
N t li ti f l
54
eu ra 29 1
za on o e n ses,
N W N Si I :1 1 ; p i m p im t
.
E TO ,
r . r s ex er en s an d disp e r sio n , 6 6 , 46 ,
66 ,
55
5
46 7 , 46 9 , 47 0, 480, 48 1 .
N wt i f
e o n an o r m ula 1 6 8, 201 , 2 37 , 3 4 , 4 .
N d l pl
o a a n e s, 33 7 .
Ndl pit
o a o n s, 337 , 3 3 8 ; c o n s ru c t io n t ,
3 40; ti
r e la on t
b e we e n n o da l
t t t
.
p oin d p r in c ip al p o in s, 3 41 , 343 ; im ag e -e q u a io n s
s an r eferr e d to
3 48 ; o f l e n s, 226 , 36 3 .
N t
55
55
o dal p o in s o f e y e , 4 2 2 , 432
vd
.
N o r m al se c ti on s of c ur e sur ac e , f 300—3 0 ,
2 ,
26 ;
f
sur ac e , 306 .
t t 2
Ob j e c -p o in ,
5 .
Ob j t- y
ec 24 ra s, .
Ob j t- p
ec d s ac e an im a g e-sp ac e , 2 42 , 2 43 .
cy
—
N5
Ob l iqu e ly c r o sse d li n d 3 2 0 3 26
UY N
e r s, .
O c ul ar s of H GE S an d R A M S DE ,
02 .
Op a q u e b o di e s, 2
hth lmi
.
Op a c :
l e n se s Se e A sti g ma ti c len ses, Cyli n dri ca l
g la ss , Tori c len ses, e t c .
I n de x 71
Op hth lmi i m : —
a c pr s B ase ap e x 5
lin e , 1 3 ; c o m b in a io n o f two o p h th al t
m i m
ic pr 4 d vi ti
s s, 1 —
38 1 2 ; e a o n , 1 33 ; p o w e r , 1 34; r o ar y p r ism , 1 4l ir t
Op hth m m tal o e e r , 1 03
v 4
.
Opt i c n er e, 30
h m ti m 4 490
.
Op t i c al ac ro a s , 89 , .
O p tical axis, axis o f sym m e ry , 2 3 ; Oft t

c e n er e d sys e m , t 32 9 ; Of l e n s, 2 17 .
Op t ic al axi s O f e ye , 43 1 .
O p tic al t e r Of le n s, 22 3—22 6
fl
c en
v
.
Op t ic al disk f o r e ri fyi g law of re ec ti on 32 ; re f r a c tion 6 7, 68 ; ttl

fl
n , ,
o a
ti
5
re ec on , 83 , 84 .
f tu 48 —487
5 5
O pt ic al g l ass, 48 1 an d o ll ; p r o c ess o f m an uf a c . re , .
Op t ic al im ag e , , 1 7 , 1 8, 2 Se e also Ima g e . .
Op tic al in s r um e n , 2 3t t
v t
.
t t
O p ic al in ar ian o f r e fr ac io n , 7 6
th
.
t
Op ic al le n g , 89—9 1 , 2 7 8 , 2 7 9
t f tiviti
.
O p ti l m dium 3 ; m dia o f diff

ca e ,
e er en r e rac es, 70 .
Opti l y t m 2 3
ca s s e ,
.
Op t m t
o f B D
e er 422 423o A A L, ,
.
t 1 49 S l Im g - qu ti
5 3 545
O ig i
r f n o di
o co r n a e s, e e a so a e e a on s .
O th
.
p y C o diti
r osc o f 4 — n on s o .
, ,
Par axial De fi n i io n , 1 2
r ay , t 5
h
.
55
Par axial r a ys, Dia g r am s S o wi g i ag e r y b y
n m m n
ea s o , f 1 68 1 7 1
h
.
Par axial r a ys : t t
C e n er e d sy s e m , 3 2 9 33 4, 1 9— 2 1 ; in fi ni t e ly t i n le n s,
55 5
—
2 1 7—2 7 , 2 7 6—27 9 , 2 8 ; p la n e r e fr ac tin g sur fa c e , 96 —98 , 1 9 1 , 2 6

t th 5 h 5
5h
26 9 ; p la e wi ll l f 10 —1 0 7 i l m i 1 3 —1 79,
p ar a e a c e s , ; p
s e r c a r r o r ,
— f — —
55 54 h
1 89 , 2 7 4 2 7 6 , 2 8 ; sp e r ic al r e r c t g sur ace , 1 79 2 0 , 2 6 9 2 7 4,
a in f 2
t
55
- —
28 ,
19, 3 ; t i n l e n s sys e m , 2 8 9 2 9 1 .
Par axial tr ay , C al c ula io n o f, 1 9— 2 1 .
Pe n c il of r ays, 24
N U
.
PE D LE B R Y, C . :
L en s es an d systems o f len ses ,
2 80 .
Pe n umb r a , 7
vib
.
Pe r io d of ra ti on , 47 3
tv
.
5 (K) 5
Pe r sp e c i e in ar t , 22
tiv
.
Pe r sp e c e, C en ter O f , 1 9; so -c alle d c e n t er l
32 ; p up i -c e n t
e rs as
tv
,
t
c en e r s of p e r sp e c i 41 6 , 41 7
e,
tiv
.
t io n o f im a g e , 41 9 , 42 0
5
Pe r sp e c e e lo n g a
tiv
.
Per sp e c e r an g e s of p o in s, t 1 9—16 1
tiv
.
5
Pe r sp e c e r e p r o du c t io n in scre e n -p lan e , 41 7
J vt
.
PE TZ VA L, C ur a ur e o f im a g e , 39
ht v
.
P o o g r ap h, C o rre c t dis tan ce of ie win g ,

41 7—41 9 .
5 72 I n de x
h 5 l “Fi sh-eye
55 5
Pin o le c a m e ra , . Se e a so ca mer a .
Plan e im a g e , C o n di io n s t Of , 438— 40, 8

fl h
.
:C j ug t l
5
Plane m ir r o r on a e p o in t s, 3 8 ; re e c t io n of p l a n e an d sp e ri c a
v t j t in , 3 7—40; u se s o f, 2 ;
5
—
; im a g e o f e x e n de d O b e c
5
‘
wa es a t , 33 3 7
ro tt a io n o f , 3 2 , 6 ; fi e l d o f ie w, 40—43 ; p un c u al im a g e ry , 08 ; v t
re fl ti“e c n g p o w e r , 3 80, 3 8 1 Se e a lso In c li n ed M i rr or s, Mi rr or a nd
.
5
sca le , Thi ck mi r r o r , S exta n t, H e li osta t, e tc .
Mir r o r s t l ti tifyi
55
Plan e ,
In c lin e d, 43— 1 r e c an g u ar c o m b in a on s f or rec ng
im ag e , 0, 1 .
ti f :C au ti f t t
5
5 5
Plan e r e fr a c n g sur a c e 9 8, 9 9 ; n arr o w a s ig m a ic
s c sur ac e ,
b u n dl e o f r —
ay s, 9 8 1 00, 3 ; p ar a xi al r a ys, 9 6 - 98 , 1 9 1 , 26 —269 ;
—7 2 v t
5
l w 7 0 i i l f l t im 8 7 —8 9
p a n e a e ; p r n c p e o e a s e
v fl
.
, ,
Plan e wa e, 13 ; re ec t io n at p l an e mi r
r o r , 3
—
3 3 ; r e fr a c io n a t p lan e t
sur ace , f 7 0—7 2 ; f t
re rac ion hr o ug t h
p r ism , 12 3 , 1 2 4; m e c ani c al h
t ti
5
ill us ra on 72 , 7 3
v v
.
,
l
5
Plan o -c o n d p l an o -c o n c a e
e x an e n se s, 2 1 9 , 22 .
Pla n o-c ylin dr ic al le n se s, 3 1 —3 1 7

th p l : th h
.
lt th 1 01—1 03 ;
5
Pa e (o r sl ab ) wi an e p ar all e l f ac e s Pa O f r ay r o ug ,
f ti
r e rac on of p ar a xia l r a ys , 10 —1 07
; ap p ar e n t t
p o si io n o f o b ec j t
vi th h t ht ht
ht 5
ewe d r o ug p la e at r ig g l e s t o lin e
an o f sig 1 02 , 103 , an d
fl
,
in c lin e d t o lin e o f sig ,

1 0 —1 07 ; m ul tip l e im a g e s b y re ec ti on an d
f ti
r e rac on ,
1 —
07 1 1 0; p ar alle l p l a t e micr o m e t er, 1 03 .
t t
5
Po in of fi xa io n , 432
ht
.
t t pl t
d dir e c io n , 1 —1 8
55
Po in -so u r c e o f lig 1; app ar e n ac e an .
,
:
P i m- y t tifi ti
5
PO R R O I r s s s em fo r rec ca on o f im ag e , 0, 1
hl
. .
5
PO R T A s p in o e c am e r a , .
Por te lu mier e , 3 .
Po r t :S
s ee E n tr a n ce -p or t, E xi t-p or t
itiv v ht li tv
.
Po s e an d n e g ati e dir e c t io n s al o n g a t
s r aig n e, 1 04; p o si i e
dir e c tio n al o n g t he a xi s, 1 49 , 2 1 9
tv
.
Po si i e l e n s, 22 3 .
Po s t i
e r or p o le Of e ye , 43 2 , 43 8 .
Po we r of len s or :
p r ism Se e Pr i sm, Pri sma ti c p owe r of len s, Reflectin g
p ower , Ref r a c ti n g p o wer .
Po we r of a c c o m m o dat io n :S ee A ccommo da ti o n
N
.
:
5
PR E T IC E , C F C r o sse d c yl in de r s 3 2 1 ; diag r am s, 308, 3 09 , 3 1 0; p o we r
hth lm i
. .
5 p r ism ,
of Op a c 13 .
5 th
Pr e sb y o p ia , 43
h
.
l l f ti
5
Pr in c ip al p l an e s, 3 3 ; of a in en s , 2 39 ; of a Sp e r ic a r e r ac ng sur
f
ac e , 1 9 6 , 3 3 .
Pr in c ip al p o in t an g le ; 447 ; as m e asur e of siz e o f r e t in al Im a g e ,
5
448 .
Pr in c ip al p o in ts, 3 34, _
33 ; r e la tio n t o n o dal p o in t s, _3 41 , 3 43 ; im ag e
I n de x 5 73
e qua t io n s
f
r e err d t ,
e o 3 4 — 5
347 ; o f c o m b in a io n o f t wo l e n ses, 36 7 , t
t t
5
3 6 9 , 3 7 0; o f c o m p o u n d sy st e m , 3 6 1 ; o f c o m p o un d sys e m o f hr ee
m e m b e r s, 3 7 ; o f in fi n i e ly hi n le n s, 23 9 O f t “ t
i c k mir r o r , 3 7 7 th
3 7 9 , 383 ; Of thi ck le n s, 3 63 .
Pr in cip al p o in t s o f e ye , 3 7 4, 432 ; o f ey e in tt
s a e of maxim um ac co m
m o dat io n , 437 ; as p o in t f
s o f r e er en ce , 437 .
ti p r ism , 1 1 3
55
Pr in c ip al se c on Of
v v l ti
.
ti :
5
Pr in cip al se c on s Of c ur e d sur f aces, 302 ,
2 ; o f surf a c e o f re o u on ,
t t
55 5
30 ; o f c ylin dr ic al sur f ac e , 3 06 ; o f o r ic surf a c e , 3 09 ; o f o r ic le n ses ,
5
3 1 0; Of a b un dl e o f r ay s, 304, 3 1 1 —3 1 4, 2 8 , 3 .
f f t
5
Pr ism , 8 , 86 , 1 1 3 an d o ll ; b ase-a p e x lin e , 1 34; e dg e , 1 1 3 ; r e r a c in g
5
.
a n g l e , 1 1 3 , an d it s m e as ur e m e n t , ; p r in cip al se c io n , 1 1 3 See t .
5
also Thi n pr i sm, Op htha lmi c pr i sm .
f ll
5
Pr ism , Dis p e r sio n b y , 46 an d o
th th h :C l ul ti
.
Pr ism, Pa o f r ay r oug a a c a on , 1 2 4, 12 an d c o n s ru c t tion
v 1 1 6 ; d vi ti
“g r a z
,
o f, 1 13 -11
6 ; de ia io n , t e a o n aw ay fr o m e dg e , 1 22 ;
in g in c ide n c e an d e m e r g e n c e , 1 1 7 , 1 1 8 ; limi t in g in c ide n t r ay , 1 18;
v t
min im um de ia io n , 1 1 9—1 22 , 1 2 8—1 3 3 , n o rm a e m e r g e n c e , 12 9 ; l
symm e r t
ical r ay , 1 1 9— 122 1 —
2 9 1 33
v th h
.
,
5
Pr ism , R e fr ac tio n o f p la n e wa e r o ug , 12 3 , 1 2 4 .
t
Pr ism -di o p r y , 1 3 , 2 9 4
h th
.
t :
Pr ism -sys e m A c ro m a ic c o m b in a io n o f t wo t 4 —
i p r s s, 9 49 3 ;
n i m 1 t
t v t t v
5
di r e c isio n p r ism c o m b in a io n s, 493 an d f o ll ; di r e c ision
K
.
—49 7 an d o f —
5
p r i sm O f A M IC I 49 E S S LE R 49 7 49 9
th l
.
, , ,
t t
5 5
Pr ism a ic p o we r O f in fi n i e ly in e n s, 2 9 1 —2 9 .
Pr o b l e m s, 2 —2 7 , 6 0—6 3 , 9 2 —9 4, 1 1 0—1 12 , 1 42 —1 48, 2 03—2 1 6 , 2 49—2 7 ,

5 55 5— — — — 5
55
5
55
—
5
2 9 2 99 , 3 2 6 3 2 8, 3 1 3 , 384 39 6 , 42 3 42 4, 46 1 46 4, 0
- - 07 ,
j t 45
1 — 7 .
Pr o j e c t ed im ag e an d 4Ob ec ,
1 ,
16 .
: f t t
55 5
PUL FR IC H , C . Re ra c o m e e r , 12 8 .
Pun c tu al im ag e r y , 3 1 3 , 3 1 4, 3 9 7 , 08, 09 ; in p lan e mirr o r , 08 .
t) 4
t) 4 4 4 5
Pu n c tum c aecu m ( b lin d sp o ,
30
Pun ctum p r oxi mu m n e a r p o in , 3 , ( 3 .
45
Pun c tu m r e mo tu m fa r p o in t , 3 ( ) 44 .
Pu p il O f e ye , 2 3 , 01 , 09— 1 3 , 42 1 , 2
4 4 4 .
Pup ils Of Op ti c al sy s e m t :
S ee E n tran c e-p u pi l, E xi t-p upi l .
t
Pu ri y o f sp e c r u t m , 46 9—47 1
U N fl v
.
P RK I im ag e s b y r e e c ion in t h e
JE t e ye , 378 ; c al c ul a ti on O f e q ui
ale n t o p ica t l
sy s e m , 3 8 1 , 3 82 t .
Q uartz 48 ,
5 .
5 74 I n de x
: vt h l fl ti f tin g f
5
Radi us Of c ur a ur e , 2 60; o f sp e r ic a re ec ng o r r e rac sur a c e ,
5
1 0
N
.
5
R AM S DE 48c ir c le ,
N
.
R AM S DE o c ul ar , 463 , 02 .
R an g e o f a c c o mm o da io n , 43 8 t .
f : Chi f
5f l
R ays, C hi e se e e r a ys
Ch
.
f fi it
5
R a ys o n l p e s o e, ap XV, 08, o l
f lig ht 9 ; m utu v
. .
R a ys o ,
al in de p e n de n c e , 1 ; m e e wa e-sur ace n o r t f
m ally , 1 3 , 1 4 89—9 1 . Se e also B un dle of r a ys, Effecti ve r a ys, E mer
,
55
g en t r a ys, Ima g e r a ys, In ciden t r a ys, Ob ie ct-r a ys, Pen ci l of r a ys, e t c .
R ay-c o or di n a t es ( or r a y-p ar am e e r s t ) 9 , 17
“R e al “virtual
,
55
1 7 ; im a g e s, 1 7 , 1 8
”
an d ,
.
t g ul ti p l an e mi rr o r s,
5—
Re c an ar c o m b in a on s of 0, 1
ht
.
Rec tili n e ar p r o p ag a io n t o f lig 3 —

“v e r g e n ce
.
,
R edu c e d ab sc issa , a n d ,
2 84 2 86 , 3 48 .
R e du c e d di s an c e , t —
2 79 281 ; r e du c e d dis t an c e (0) b etwee n t wo op ti c al
t
sy s e m s, 360 .
R e du ce d e ye , 2 1 4, 43 7
th v
.
R e du ce d f o c al le n g s, 281 ; fo ca lp o in t e r g e n c es, 284—2 8 6

fl ti “
.
Re ec ng p o we r of mi r r o r , 2 83 ; p lan e mi rr o r , 3 80, 38 1 ; thi ck mirro r

3 79
R fl ti
.
e ec ng f
sur ace , Q uality o f 29, 30
R fl ti
.
,
e ec on An g l e o f, 3 1, an d l aws o f, 31
R fl ti
.
,
e ec on R eg ul ar d ir r e g ul ar (diff use ) , 2 8—3 0

an
R fl ti
.
,
e ec on as sp e c ial c ase o f r e r a c io n , 1 82 , 1 83 , 1 89 f t
R fl ti
.
e ec on an d r e fr a c ti on G e n e r ali z a io n t of l aws o f , 6—
8 89
v
.
,
f t
R e r a c e d r ay , C on s tur c tio n of ,
; de ia io n , 7 8
—
76 7 8 Se e t . a sol Plan e
5
5
f
r e r a c ti n g f
su r a c e , S p heri ca l r ef r a c ti n g surf ac e , e t c .
Re f ti
ra c n g an g le of p r ism , 1 1 3 ; m e asur e m e n t o f, .
Re f ti
r ac n g p o we r , 2 8 1 - 2 84; in n o r m al se c io n t f ti
o f r e ra c n g sur ace ,f 303 ;
h f ti f t
5t
O f sp e r ic al r e r ac n g su r a c e , 2 82 , 300; of c o m p o un d sy s e m of
t wo m e m b er s, 36 1 , an d o f th m e m b e r s, 3 7 ; o f hi c k le n s, 3 6 3 ; o f
r ee
thi n l e n s, 2 83 , 2 84; of thi n t

le n s-sys e m , 2 9 0; o f c o m b in a ion o f t wo t
l en ses , 36 7 .
Re f t
rac i n g p o we r of c o rr e c ti o n -g l a ss, 444
h
.
Re f ti
ra c n g p o we r Of sc e m ti a c e ye , 3 7 4, 432 ; in tt
s a e of m axim um
ac c o mm o da ti
43 7 , 438 , 43 9
on , .
f ti tt f t
5 5
Re r ac on o f e ye , 4 38 , 43 9 ; dyn ami c , 43 8 , a n d s a ic r e rac io n , 43 8
ht
.
Re f ti
ra c on o f lig 6 4, 6 ; an g le o f , 6 laws o f , 6 6 , an d e xp e r im e n al t
h
,
b asis, 6 7—6 9 ; m e c an ical illu s r a io n o f , 7 2 , 7 3 Se e also In dex of t t .
Ref r a c ti on , To ta l Reflec ti on , e tc .
I n de x 5
5 7
R eso lvi ng p owe r of e ye , 2 1 , 22

vl thi
.
R e sul t an tp r s i m e q ui a en tt o two n p r ism s, 1 38—1 42 .
t
R e in a , 4
28 .
Re ti n al im ag e , Siz e o f, 448, 449

v ht t h
.
Re ersib ili ty of lig - a

p ,
69 .
Ro t ar y p r ism , 1 41 .
S ag i tta o f ar c , 26 2 .
55
Sag it t al r ays, 3 1 1 Se e S ag i ttal sec ti on of n a r r o w b un dle of r a ys
. .
t
5
Sa g i t al se c t io n o f n arr o w b un dle o f r ays, 3 1 1 3 1 4, 2 8 30; sym m e try
— —
45
in , 41
N
.
:
SC H E I E R , C A st ro n o m ic al an d e r res r ia e lesco p es, 6 t t lt
h h
. .
:
Sc e m atic e ye Far p o in t , 46 1 ; f o c al l e n g t s, 3 43 , 3 7 4, 3 89 , 432 ; f o cal
p o in s ,
3 7 4t,
3 8 9 , 42 3 ,
432 ; l e n g t o f e y e -a xis 432 44
, ,
2 , 443 ; n e ar h
p o in ,
43 6 ,
t4 6 1 ; p
o t i c a l c o n st an s ,
3 7 0—3 7 4 3 8 9 432 4
, , ,
36 , 437 , 443 , t
46 1 ; in tt s a e of m a xim u m acco mm o da io n , t 437 , 46 1 .
:
Op ti
5
SC H o rT , O
'
c al g la ss, 4
. 82 , 489 .
t
5
Sc le r o tic c o a o r sc ler a , 42 .
Sc ee p
r n - l an e 4 4
00, 0 ,2 4 1 4—41 7 , 41 9 , 43
“ h
.
,
SE AR LE , G F C . .
”
. :
T ic k mi rr o r , 3 7 6 , 3 7 7 .
t
5
Se c o n dar y sp e c r um , 488
h
.
t t
5
55 5
Se g m e n s o f s r aig t lin e , 1 04, 1 0
:h h
.
ti
5
4 5
555 vt 5 5
SE IDE L, L VO N T e o r y o f t h e fi v e sp er ic al
. ab e r r a o n s, 4, 46 , 47 ,
8, 0, 7; c ur a ur e o f im ag e , 4 0; sin e -c o n ditio n , 23 .
f
Se l -c o n j ug a e p o in , 2 43t t .
Se lf-c o n j u g a e r a y, 2 43 t
5
.
t
Se xt an , 8 6 0 —
h
.
5555
S ado ws, 6 —9 .
t
Sin e-c o n di io n , 22- 2 , 47
th
.
f :
5 5
Slab wi p lan e p ar all e l a ce s See Pla te .
5
Slo p e o f r a y, 1 1 , 3 3 4, 1 6 .
: f
SMIT H , R SMIT H-H E LMH O LT Z o r m u a , 2 01 , 2 02 , 2 1 4, 2 1 , 3 3 4, 3 83 , l
55
.
3 42 , 4 9 , 2 4
N
.
S E LL (o r SN E LLIU s) , W Law o f r e r a c io n , 6 7 7 2 . : f t .
t
Sp e c r um , 466 an d o ll ; p ur i y o f, 469—47 1 f t
5
. .
t
Sp e c r um , So lar , 466 an d o ll ; NE W T O N S e xp e r im e n s, 46 a n d oll
’
f t f
N
. .
WO LLA ST O S e xp e r im e n s, 469 , 47 0; FR A U NH O F E R S e xp e r im e n ts,

’ ’
t
55
472 ; da r k lin e s, 472
h h
.
t f
55 5 5 5
Sp e r ic al ab e rra io n , C ap XV, 09 , 1 3 an d oll ; a lo n g t h e axis, . .
13 — 16, 1 8, 22 , 47
h
.
Sp e r ic a le n s, 2 1 7l .
5 76 I n dex
h Mirr o r fl t 55
:5 5
Sp e r ic al R ay re e c e d at, 1 8, 19
h
.
,
l
55
Sp e r ic a mi r r o r , Par a xi al R ays 1 3—1 7 9 , 1 89 , 2 7 4—2 7 6 , 2 8 ; ab sc issa
f orm u a, 1 4 l 2 8 ; c o n s r u c io n o f c o n j u g a e a xi a p o in s t1 6 4-1 66
; t t l t
h
, ,
f o c al p o in t s, 1 66 , 1 89 ; f o c al l e n g t ,
1 67 ; N wte o ni an f o r m ul a, 1 6 8 ;
j t p t t ti
175
e xt r a-a xial c o n u g a e o in s, 1 7 1 —1 7 3 ; c o n s r uc on o f im ag e , 1 7 3 ;
im a g e r y, 1 7 4, lt a e r al m ag n ifi c a io n , 1 7 6 ; fi e ld t of vi we 1 76
fl ti h v fl h
,
1 79 ; re ec n g p o we r , 2 83 ; sp i
e r c al wa e re t
e c e d at sp eric al
“ Mi rr or
5 55
mir r o r , 2 74 —2 7 6 S e e a l so Thi ck ”
h v
. .
Sp e r ic al o er an d un de r -c o rr e c io n , t 1 4, 1
S h fl v
.
l f ti f :A i
v 5
p e ric a r e rac ng (or re e c t in g ) sur a c e x s, 1 49 ; c on ex an d
v t v t 1 86 ;
5v
c o n ca ;
e, 1 0 c on erg en an d di er g e n ,
m a g n if yi n g p o we r ,
t
555
1 99 ; ra di u s, 1 0; e r e x, 1 49
h
.
l f ti g u f : ti p i t
ti f f t d y 5 1 6—5 5
Sp e r ic a Ap l
r e r ac n s r ac e an a c o n s, 12 , 1 3, 2 4; c al c ul ap
t u ti t
5 y 5 7 5
on o 19 ;r e r ac e ra ,
c on s r c on o f r e f r a c e d r ay , 09
2
1 ; f m ul f f t dor 1 — 19 ae or r e r ac e ra
Sp h i l
.
,
ti g u f A tig m ti m f
55 55555 5
f
er ca r e r ac n s r ac e , s a s o o b liqu e b un dl e of r ay s,
55
2 6 — 3 4, 3, 4, 6
h
.
f t f :
1 7 9 —2 02
5
2 69—2 74, 2 8
5
Sp e r i c al r e r a c in g sur a c e , Pa r a xia l r ay s , ,
1 9,
3 4; a b sc issa f o r m ul a, 1 9 1 , 1 9 3 , 2 8 ; c o n u g a e axia l p o in s , j t t
— j
1 7 9 1 86 , 1 9 1 , 1 9 2 ; c o n u g a e p l an e s, 1 93 , 1 9 4; c o n s ru c io n o f t t t
t t f t
im ag e , 1 9 4—1 9 6 ; c o n s r u c io n o f r e r a c e d r ay , 1 99 , 2 00; e xt r a
i l
ax a j u g t con
p i t 1 93 —1 96 ; fa el l gt h 19 1
o n — 1 93 1 99 ;
s, o ca en s, ,
f l pl o ca 1 97 1 9 9 ; f
— a n e s, l p i t 1 86—1 89 ; im g - qu ti 2 00o ca o n s, a e e a o n s, ,
20 ;1 l t l m ifi
a e ra
g ti 1 96 ; f t i g p w
a n —
1 79 2 02 ;
ca on r e rac n o er,
°
re
f ph i l w v
_
, _
ti
5
f rac on o —
26 9 2 76
s er c a a e,
h v fl 3 7 ; t p h i l mi
.
Sp i l
er caw t d
a t pel m i
re 3 -
ec e a an e rror , a s er c a rr or ,
5
2 7 4 2 76
—
h v h
.
Sp e r ic al wa e r e r ac e d at f t p l an e sur f a c e , 26 —2 69 ; at sp er ic a l sur f a c e ,
th hi fi t thi
555
269 2 7 4
—
; r oug n n i e ly n e n -
l s, 2 7 6 2 7 9
S h
.
5
p e r ic al z o n e s, 1 16
S h
.
,
p —
e r o c ylin dr ic al l e n s, 2 1 7 , 3 1 3 17
S h
.
,
p er om e er , t 2 63
th l h
.
St ti
a c r e r acf ti 438 , 440, 441 , 442 , 443 ; c on n e c io n wi
o n o f e ye , en g t t
o f e y e-b all in c a se o f a xi al am e r o p ia , 4 42 , 443 ; r e l a io n wi re t t th
f t v t t t
55
44—447
5 5
555
r ac in g p o we r o r e r e x r e f r a c io n o f c o r r e c io n -g lass, 4
N “ ht h
.
: t
5
4,
5
ST E I H E IL, A D a a o f p e r is00p e p o o g r ap i c l e n s,
.
”
,
6;
t
a c hr o m a ic o b j e c -g l ass, t
5
0 .
STE IN HE IL , R ti f b j t—g l .f t:
C al c u l a on o o ec a ss o e l e sc o p e , 20 .
Stig m ti ( a tig m ti ) l
c or3 14 an a s a c e n se s, .
S K TO Si G G :
E S, Op ti l g lr 482 . . ca a ss, .
St p Eff t f 3 9 8 39 9 ; f
o ,
ec t oi t i , ,
r on ,
r e ar or n er or t
s op , 39 8 . See also
55
5
A p e r tur e-ste p , Fi e ld-ste p , etc.
ST U R M, J . C F . . :
C o n o id, 3 1 0, 3 1 3 , 34, 3 .
I n de x 5
77
v l ti 5 ti 5 l
5
Sur fac e of r e o u on , 30 ; m e r idian se c on , 30 ; p rin cip a se c t io n s,
55
5
30
h vd
.
3 00—303 , ti
555 5
5
Sur f ac e s, T e o ry o f c ur e ,
2 ,
26 ; n o r m al se c o n s, 300
303 , ,
26 2
; p r in c ip a l s e c t io n s ,
3 02 ,
2 .
t
5
Susp e n so r y l ig am e n , 42 8 , 434 .
t
Symm e r ic l e n s, 2 1 7 , 38 , 388 .
Sym m e ti r c p oin t s, 339 .
T an g e n t- co n dit io n of o r th o sco p y , 45
5 .
T e l e ce n tr ic op ti c al sys t e m , 42 0 42 3 — .
T e l e s co p e : se e A str o n o mi ca l te lesco p e , Du tc h (or Ga li lean ) te lescop e ,
55
Terr e stri a l te le scop e
N
.
:E y - i f
5 v 55 5
5
T e le sc 0p e e r n g or R A M SD E 41 3 , 4 8 , 4 9 ; m a g n i yin g
c ir c l e ,
44 —460; in j t
55
p o we r , e t
n io n 4 6 4 7 ; o b e c -
g lass an d o c ul ar , 4 ;
h t tl
, ,
5
sim p l e sc em a ic e e sc o p e , 4 .
5
T e le sc o p ic im a g e r y, 3 9
t
45
T e le sco p ic sy s e m , 3 9
th-m t
.
45
Ten e er, 1 0, 7 .
Terres tilt
r a e l e sc o p e , 7 .
l t t l t
5
Thi c k l e n s, 3 62—3 6 6 ; f o c a p o in s, n o dal p o in s, p r in c ip a p o in s , a n d
r e f r a c t in g p o we r , 3 63 ; e r e x r e r a c io n , 3 6 , 3 66 v t f t
h
.
T i c k mi r r o r , ” — —
3 7 6 384, 3 9 2 , 3 9 3 ; p r in cip al p oin s, 3 77 3 7 9 , 383 ; t
fl t
r e e c in g p o we r , 3 7 9
h
.
T in le n s : se e In fi n i tely thi n len s, In fi n i te ly thi n le n s-system

“ h
.
T in mirr o r , 377
h
.
: t
T hi n p r ism c o m b in a io n o f t wo t in p r ism s, 1 3 8 1 42 ; de v ia t it n , 1 33 , —
1 3 4 an d p o we r , 1 3 4—1 3 8 Se e also Op htha lmi c p ri sm

h tv
. .
T hi n p r ism s, A c r o m a t ic c o m b in a io n o f , 49 1 —493 ; an d di r e c - isio n t

5
c o m b in at io n o f , 4
T H O MPS O N ,
S P
9 3—49
. .
,
5
.
3 8, 1 3 ; axi a l (o r de p t ) m ag n ifi c at io n , 3 1 ; o b l iq u e y
c r o sse d c ylin dr ic al l e n se s, 3 2 1 ; sym m e r i c p o in s o f o p t ic al sys e m ,
h
t t
5 t
l
T O E PLE R , A . :
N eg a tiv
p r in c ip al p o in
e t s op ti t
c al sy s e m , 338 .
55
T o r ic le n s, 3 1 0, 3 1 4, 3 16 , 3 1 7 .
T o ri c sur fa ce , 26 30 306 , —
308 3 1 0 320
fl ti
.
, , ,
To tal re ec on , —
7 9 86 ; e xp e r im e n t al ill u s t tira o n s, —
83 89 .
5 5
Pri s m
fl ti
.
T o t al re ec on p r ism , 8 , 86 , 1 2 ,
12 7 .
T r an slu c e n t b o dy, 3 .
T r a n sp ar e n t b o dy , 2 .
T r an sp o sin g of c ylin dr ic a l l e n se s , 3 1 8—3 2 0 .
T SC H E R N IN G , M . :Phy i s o lo g i c a l Op ti c s, 28 7 .
I n de x
Um b r a , 7
th ht :
.
Un dulato r y Wave
5
e ory of lig see Theor y .
Un it p lan e s an d un i t p o in t s of op ti c a l sys e m , t 33 .
V ty ht i tm 55v th
5
e lo c i of lig n diff e r e n e di a, 7 2 —7 ,
47 ; ar ie s wi c o lo r , 47 4;
in va cuo , 1 0, 7 ,
47 4, 47 6 .
V t 41 8
e r an
V t f ph i l u f
.
,
36 5 ti -g l 445
e r ex o s 1 49 f er ca 43 1 s r ac e , o c orn ea, .
V t f ti f l
e r ex r e rac 366 ; f on o 446 e n s, o c orr e c on ass,
“V t -d pth f v u f f m i u l 298
.
, ,
”
er ex e o con ca e s r ac e o e n sc s e n s, .
V ti
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ces 2 19 o e n s,
Vib ti f qu y d l 472 d f ll ; d w v -l g th 473

.
ra on re en c an c o or , an o . an a e en ,
d f ll
an o
“
.
Vi tu lr d a
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l 1 7 ; im g
an 17 18 rea ,
”
a e s, ,
.
Vi tu l im g 1 7 1 8 i
r a a f pl
e, mi 38 ,
n c a se o an e rr o r , .
Vi tu l b j t i
r a o f pl ec mi 38 n c ase o an e rr or ,
“ “
.
Vi i t 448 ; d i di t 446
f di ti t 45 2 45
s on ,Di re c ,
”
an n rec ,
”
.
Vi i Di t
s on ,
s an c e 3 o s nc , ,
.
Vi u l g l 2 0 446 d f ll ; p in ip l p i t g l 447 448 ; f c l

s a an e, ,
an o . r c a o n an e, ,
o a
p i t gl
o n 447 449 an e, ,
.
Vi u l i 433
s a a x s, .
Vi u l p u pl 430
s a r e,
Vit u hum 2 1 3 3 7 1 42 8
.
r eo s or,
Ab b vi ti 2 87 ; v
.
, ,
V N ROH M : t 418 ; Theorie u d

5
5
5
O R, . re a on e ran ,
n
Ge schi chte d p hotog r a p h Obj e k ti vs, . . .
W
Wav f e- ro n t Pl an e , 1 3, a n d sp h e r ic a l 11 Se e a so l Pla n e wa ve , S p heri ca l
UY N U
.
, ,
M AL
55 v 5v
w ave, H GE S, S
W v l h th
.
a e- e n g t in va cu o , 47 wa e -e n gl an d f r e q ue n cy, 47 wa e
h v h
, ,
l en g t an d in de x of r e rac f ti on ,
47 6 , 47 7 ; wa e-l e n g t a n d c o lor ,
55
47 4—47 7
v
.
W fa c e R ays n o r m al t o —
5
a e-sur 2 1 3 , 1 4, 89 9 1 ,
v h h
.
, ,
Wa e-t eo r y o f lig t 9 1 0 472 an d fo ll 08

N
. .
, , , ,
WO LLA ST O W H : Dar k lin e s o f sol ar sp e c tru m 472 ;

,
. .
,
disp e r sio n ex
p e r im e n t s, 46 9
“ h vl ht
.
WO OD, R W Fis -e ye
. . : c am e r a, 81 ; e o ci ty of lig of diff e re n t
co l o r s, 47 4 .
I n de x 5 79
t ( m ul lut ) 428
.
Ye llow
(K ) 5
sp o or ac ea
YO UN G
a
p tiv
.
T : t
,
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5
09 5 10 5 11 5
27 5 5
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cen er 32 ;
o ers ec e c on s r c on of r ay re
t d t ph i l u f
.
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fr a c e a s er c a s 2; p
r ac e , , , , ,
l
r in c ip e o f
in t e r f 14
e re n ce , .
Z INN
’
s z o n ul e (or susp e n so r y lig am e n t) ,
42 8 .
Prin ted in t he Un ited St ate s o f Ame rica

fo llo win g pag e s c on t ain adve r tise m e n ts
b o oks b y the s am e autho r o r o n kin dre d subj e cts
B Y T H E S A ME A UT H OR
The Pri n c iple s an d Me tho ds o f G

me tri c al O pti c s
Espe cially as A pplie d to O p tical In strume n ts
Fi r st E di ti on , 1 9 1 0
. S econ d E di tio n , 19 1 3
H a lf leather , 6 4
8 p ag es, i llustr a ted, 8 v0,
Thi s co mplet e an d up-t o -d ate t r e atise o n the prin ciples

an d m e th o ds o f ge o m et r ic al O ptics a pp lies especi ally t o the
theo ry o f o ptic al in st r u m en ts such as the telesc o pe mic r o

, ,
sc o pe an d ph o t o gr aphi c objective Th e b o o k is a d apted for

,
.
use as a c o llege text b oo k It will also pr o ve in valu able as

- .
a b o o k o f r efe r e n ce fo r ph y sicists m athe m atici an s a st r o n

, ,
om er s,
O ptici an s ,
o culi sts an d ph o t o g r a phe rs
, a n d f o r an y
,
scien tist who has o cc asio n t o study the theo ry of o ptic al

in strum en ts .
T HE MA C MILLAN C OMPANY
Pub l ish er s 64-6 6 Fifth Av en ue Ne w York
Li g h t FOr Stude n ts
BY EDWIN EDSER
Asso cia te of l
the R o ya C o lle g e of Sc ie n c e , Lo n don
Clo th, 54
7 p ag es, 1 2 mo,
This b o o k m eets t he r eq uir e m en t s o f studen ts wh o wish

t o o bt a in an a ccu r a te an d c o m p r ehen sive kn o wledge o f
geo m et r ic al an d ph ysic al o ptics Results o f r ecen t r esear ches
.
ar e desc r ibe d in c o n n ecti o n with i m p o r t an t l a ws which they
elucid ate The m at hematic al in vestig atio n s h ave in all

. .
,
c ases , be en r en dered as sim ple as po ssible an d h ave been

develo ped so as t o dir ect atten tio n t o the physical a spect o f
the subj ect The text c on t ain s on ly en ough m athe matic s
.
t o e xp r es s si m ple f o rm ulae .
Physi c al O pti c s
BY ROB E R T W WOOD
.
,
LL D . .
Pr o f
e sso r o f E xp e rim e n t l Phy i
a s cs in t h e Jh
o ns H o p k in s Un i v ty
e r si
69 5 p a g es, i llu str a ted, 8 00,
An dvan ced te t b k an d an in valu able wo r k o f r efer en ce

a x - oo
:
th at em b o dies r ecen t a dvan ces in the scien ce o f physic al

o ptics E speci a l str ess h as bee n l aid o n the e xpe r i m e n t al
.
side of the subj ec t m uch o f which h as been per s on ally c arr ied
o n b y the auth o r .
THE MAC MILLAN COMPANY

Pub lish e rs —
64 6 6 Fif th Av e n ue Ne w York
Li g h t Visi ble
, an d ln v isib le
BY TH E LA TE SYLVANIUS P . TH OMPSON ,
LO NDO N
3 69 p a g es, i llus tr a ted, 1 2 mo ,
A ser ies o f lectur es deliver ed at the Ro yal I n stitutio n of

G r e at B r it ai n The sec o n d editi o n o f this b o o k in 1 9 10 has
.
c o n side r ably e n l ar ged up o n the m ate r i al as fi r st p r esen ted
in lectu r e fo r m The t r e at m en t is clear an d sim ple In an

. .
exper ien ce l astin g o ver a goo d m an y year s the auth o r h as ,
foun d th at such t o pics as the phen o m en a o f po l ar i z ati on ar e

quite e asily gr a sped by per s o n s o f aver a ge in telligen ce pr o
v ide d they ar e p r ese n ted in a m o de rn way dev o id o f ped an ti c
term s an d illustr ated by a pp r o pr iate m o dels .
The Th e o ry o f Li g h t
BY TH E LA TE TH OMAS PR E ST ON
Pro f
essor o f Nt a ur a l h h
P il o so p y in Un i v ty C
e r si o lle g e , Dub lin
Fi r st E di tio n , 1 89 0 . Fou r th Re vi sed E di ti on , 1 9 12
606 p a g es, i llus tr a ted, 8 v0,
'
The usefuln ess o f this st an dar d t r e atise h as been m ater iall y

in cr ea sed in the fo ur th editio n by the a d ditio n o f a n a cco un t
o f the r a di ati o n phe n o m e n a in a m a g n etic field a full e r ,
t r eat m en t o f disper sio n a n d a m o r e c o m plete p r esen t ati o n

o f the elect r o -m agn etic the o r y .
Tre atise on Prac ti c al Li g h t

BY RE G I NA LD S C LAY .
Pr in l
c ip a of t he N th
or e rn Po y lt ec h
n ic In s i t tut e, Lo n do n
519 pa g es, i llus tra ted, 1 2 7720,
This b oo k is ly e celle t te t b k fo r a dvan ced

n o t on an x n x - oo
studen ts but will also pro v e o f gre at value t o an y o n e in

c
t e r e st e d in the O ptic al busin ess o r p r a ctic a l O ptics .
TH E MA C M ILLAN COMPA NY
Pub lish e r s 64-6 6 Fif th Av e n ue Ne w York
Prac ti c al Exe rc i se s in Li g h t
BY RE G I NALD S . C LAY
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e rn o y ec n ic t tut
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The appar atus which is o f the sim plest an d m o st in e x

pen sive ch ar a cter is so fully desc r ibed th at the studen t or :
in st r uct o r m ay e asily pr ep ar e it .
A Syste m o f A ppli e d O pti cs

BY H . D E NN I S TAYLOR
t lM
Op ica an ag er o f T C oo k e
. So n s, Lt d .
,
Lo n don
83 4pag es, i llustr ated, 4to ,
A c om plet e syst em of formul ae of the sec on d o r der an d ,
the fo un d ation of a c om plete sy stem o f the thir d o r der with

e xam ples o f thin pr a ctic al applic atio n In o r der t o fo llo w .
the lin es o f r e as o n in g em pl o yed the studen t sh ould be

,
familiar with the o r din ar y m an ipul ati on s o f algeb r a an d ,
h ave a clear gr asp of the Bin om ial Theo r em the chi ef ,
pr o p o sition s of Euclid an d the r udi m en t s of the Diff er e n tial

,
C alculus .
THE MA C M ILLAN C OM PANY

Pub lish e rs 64-6 6 Fif th Av e n ue Ne w York

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MIRRORS ,

In s pit e of the exist en ce o f a n umber of e xcellen t wo r k s

m en ts appe ar s t o be ge n e r ally r ec o gn i z ed ; an d the p r esen t

sen se it m ay be c o n sider ed as an a b r idgm en t o f m y t r eatise

the r e ader will als o ﬁ n d her e a c on sider able m ass o f m o r e or

in mi n d the li m it ati o n s o f the cl a ss o f studen ts fo r wh o m

o n ly the si m plest m athe m atic a l p r o cesses as far as p o ssible .

With this o bj ect in view I h ave pu r p o sely en te r ed in t o m uch

t o be m o st s atisfa ct o r y with my o wn pupils ; but I ven tu r e

R ece n t ye ar s h ave wit n essed e xt r ao r din ary p r o gr ess in

ar e a w ar e o f the r a pid r ate at which spect a cle O ptics in p a r ,

t icular is devel o pi n g in t o a sever e scien tiﬁc pu r suit ; a n d

ther e ar e cert ain p o r ti on s o f this vo lum e which I thi n k will

fo r e xam ple I h ave been at s o m e p ain s t o e x pl ain the fun d a

m e n t a l p r in ciples o f O phth almi c le n ses a n d p r is m s .

In ge n e ra l ho weve r I h ave n ecess ar il y h ad t o o mi t m uch

th at is es sen t ial t o a thorough kn o wledge of t he t heo ry o f

it h as been fo un d qui te im po ssible t o desc r ibe a sin gle o n e

b o o k the the o ry o f the chr om at ic an d sphe r ic al abe rr ati o n s

fo r m ul ae fo r the ﬁve sphe ric al aber r ati on s in the c a se o f a

ar e e x ceedin gly useful in the p re lim in ar y desig n o f an o ptic a l

syste m But a c o m plete discussi on o f these subj ects w o uld

lie far beyon d the pl an o f t hi s v o lum e .

The pr o blem s appen ded t o e a ch ch apter wer e o r igin ally

f o o ther t ext bo o k s bu t in such c ases I h ave n o w l o st sight

If per ch an ce thi s b o o k sh ould help t o st imul ate the stud y

a bun d an tl y r ep a id . Un for tun at ely at p r ese n t ge o m et r ic a l

o ptics w o uld s ee m t o be a kin d o f C in de r ell a in the cu r r i o

t o le r ati on as a m athe m atic a l disciplin e n o t with o ut va lue ,

but h ar dly per m itted t o t ake r an k on e qual term s with h e r

ferr ed th at an y sy st em o f kn o wledge which h a d alr e ad y

a pplic ati o n s in the a rts o f b o th pe a ce an d war w o ul d be de ,

se r vin g Of the hi ghest r ec o gn iti on an d w o uld be fo ster ed an d

f a s e st e t a b has te doce ri the f a ct th a t fr o m the tim e o f Fr a n n

h o fer the G erm an s h ave n o t ceased t o cultivat e this ﬁeld o f

theo r etic al an d a pplied scien ce with n o t able a chievem en ts ,

is cer t ain ly n o t With o ut sign iﬁc an ce fo r us in this c o un t r y

a pp ar en tly due t o the exigen cies o f war sch o o ls of appli ed ,

o ptics h a ve r ece n tly bee n o r g an i z ed .

N e ar ly all o f the di a gr a m s in this vo lu m e we r e d r awn b y

Mr J G Sp ar kes t o wh o m I am m uch in debted I desi r e

a ls o t o e xp r ess m y g ra teful a ckn o wledg m e n ts t o m y c o l

le ague Pr o fess or H W Far well fo r n um er o us valu able

c riticis m s fr o m tim e t o ti m e an d especially fo r aid in m ak in g

An y suggesti o n s o r c o r r ecti o n s which m ay i m p r o ve an d

5Rays o f Lig ht are No rmal to th e Wave Surf c e

The Di e ctio a d Lo c atio n o f a Lum i o us Po in t

12 Regul ar an d Diffuse Re ﬂecti on

16 T he Field o f View o f a Pla e Mi o n rr r

Suc c essiv e Reﬂe c tio s f om T wo Pla e Mi o s

18 . Imag es in a System of Two I clin ed Mir o rs n r

19 C o ns tru cti o n t h o f a Ray Reﬂected

20 Rectan gul a C o m b i ati o n s o f Plan e Mirr o s

22 Per le Lumi e e a d H elio st at r n

ight fr om O e Medi um t o An other

27 Law o f Refr ac tio n

Exp e im e tal P o o f o f t h e Law o f Refr a ction

R ev er sib ility o f t h e Li g h t Pat h

H U YGE NS S C o stru c ti o n o f a Plan e Wav e R efr a cted

Mec h an i cal Illustr ation o f t h e Ref action of a Pla e

33 Ab so lute In dex of R efra ction

36 To tal Reﬂe ction

G en e ali ati on o f t h e Laws o f R eﬂe c tio n a d R e

fr ac tion Prin cip le o f Least Tim e (FE RMAT S