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CATEGORY B1 B2 B3
MATHEMATICS 1
Licence By Post
Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.
AUTHORITY
You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.
For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
LBP
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Aylesbury
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Page
Arithmetic 1
Basic operations involving whole numbers 2
Fractions 7
Decimals 13
Rounding 15
Estimating 17
Units, weights, measures & conversion factors 18
Ratio and proportion 23
Percentages 25
Averages 28
Mensuration 29
Lines and angles 41
HOW TO TACKLE THESE BOOKS
The subject of mathematics has been divided into two books with book 2 being a
continuation of book 1.
The books have been written for the B1/B2/B3 engineer where all subject knowledge
levels are the same. For most of the EASA Part 66 syllabus this is level 2, but for
some it is level 1. We have separate books published for the category A line mechanic
syllabus.
Mathematics is a form of modelling – taking data from the real world, converting it
into numbers (and letters and symbols) and working on them in accordance with a set
of rules to produce an outcome. For example – there are 8 identical boxes of cargo to
be loaded onto an aircraft, each one has a mass of 60kg. The total mass is 8 x 60kg =
480kg. This could be written as an equation y × x = w (y times x equals w),
With the above equation ‘w’ is the unknown but is found by multiplying y by x. If w is
known (ie the total mass) and if the number of boxes are known then the average
mass of each box can be found by dividing the total mass by the number of boxes, ie x
= w/y or
x=w .
y
Almost everyone will have studied mathematics before, and understanding the subject
for some people does not come easy, for others it does not present a particular
problem. For the former group of people these books will have to be studied carefully –
re-reading, and re-reading again, any subject that is not fully understood. For the
latter group the books may be used as revision – and as a guide to the syllabus
coverage.
Most students will have studied mathematics at school/college. If you have learnt
procedures for carrying out mathematical calculations that are different from the
procedures used in these books then do not try to learn these new procedures but
stay with the ones you know – so long as the procedure works for you and you get
the right answer.
In general:
1. Study each section of the book and make sure you fully understand the
material before moving on to the next section. If you have difficulties, re-
read it. If it is still a problem and you are an FS student, contact your
tutor.
2. Complete each activity as you complete each section.
3. Complete the revision questions at the back of book 2.
4. Plan your CAA examination and study timetable so that after completion
of your studies you have about one week for revision then do the CAA
examination.
The use of x and x
To try and avoid confusion between ‘×’ the times sign and ‘x’ the unknown, we have
used ‘×’ for the times sign and ‘x’ for the letter as in xyz.
Pi
Is a letter in the Greek alphabet which is used to denote a constant when dealing with
circles. This constant is the ratio between the circumference of a circle to its diameter.
It is equal to 3.142 approximately or 22/7 to be more precise. It may be written as π or
Π. Either of these symbols may be found in this book depending on whether normal
text is used or Maths text is used. You should commit 3.142 to memory. Pronounced
as ‘pie’.
Length
On some drawings the upper case letter L is used to denote length but in many books
the lower case l is used. We have used L where we think there might be confusion
with the letters l or i or the number 1.
Calculators
Not allowed in any CAA examination so it would be advisable to avoid their use here
(but during your studies they are very useful for checking answers).
Scientists
Details of various scientists are given in the text. This is to provide some historical
perspective and details need not be remembered.
There is some overlap with this topic between modules 1 and 2 but it has been
included in this module in its entirety for the sake of completeness.
Books in this module 1 series = 2 with a copy of the CAA syllabus in the appendix to
book 2.
ARITHMETIC
A whole number is called an INTEGER and they can exist as either a positive number
or a negative number. Positive numbers are recognised by a positive sign in front of
the number, eg:
+2 +4 +7 + 15 etc
Negative numbers are recognised by a negative sign in front of the number, eg:
–3 –6 – 12 – 28 etc
2 4 7 15 etc
Prime Numbers
A prime number is an integer that is exactly divisible only by itself and by 1. For
example 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 etc are prime numbers. Numbers such as 4, 6, 8, etc are called
Composite Numbers and a composite number can be divided by itself and by 1 and
one or more other numbers. For example 11 can only be divided by 1 and 11 only
(prime number). 8 can be divided by 1, 2, 4 and 8 (composite number).
Basic Operations
eg –5 × 6 = –30
12 ÷ –3 = –4
-1-
7. When two numbers with like signs are multiplied, or divided, with each
other the result is a number with a positive sign.
eg 1. –7 × –6 = 42
2. –40 ÷ –5 = 8
3. 40 ÷ 5 = 8
Addition
1. 6 + 4 = 10
(the sum of 6 & 4 is 10).
6 + –4
Subtraction
1. 10 – 6 = 4
2. –10 – 6 = –16
Example
Add together the following numbers: +5, –3, –7, and +4.
+ 5 + –3 + –7 + +4
5–3–7+4
gives an answer of –1
written as 5 – 3 – 7 + 4 = –1
The equal sign (=) means that the quantity on the right is equal to that on the left.
-2-
Fig. 1 POSITIVE & NEGATIVE NUMBERS
The signs positive (+) and negative (–) can also be thought of as indicators of direction
(figure 1). Conventionally it is accepted that the positive direction is to the right of
some datum and the negative direction is to the left of the datum.
Thus if zero (0) is considered as the datum in figure 1, the sum (+5 – 3 – 7 + 4) would
follow the path as shown, starting at the start (at 0) and finishing at –1 taking the
sequence +5 (5 divisions to the right), -3 (3 divisions to the left), -7 (a further 7
divisions to the left) then +4 (four divisions to the right), to finish at -1.
Multiplication
(–6) × (–3) × (–2) = ? (Brackets have been used to make the equation clearer.)
(+18) × (–2) = ?
-3-
When multiplying larger numbers without the use of a calculator it is important to
keep the numbers on the page in their respective columns.
Consider 62 × 14
This is written as 62
14 ×
62
14 ×
620 62 × 10
248 62 × 4
add 868 62 × 14
Division
This is the name given to the process of determining the number of times one number
(the DIVISOR) is contained within a second number (the DIVIDEND), the result being
known as the QUOTIENT.
12 ÷ 4
or as 12 or 12/4
4
The answer, the quotient, is 3 in all cases. If either number was a negative number
then the answer would be negative, eg –3.
142
Which may be solved thus: 4 569
400 4 × 100
169 Difference
160 4 × 40
9 Difference
8 4×2
1 Difference
-4-
Brackets
Brackets are used in mathematics to group terms that are to undergo a common
operation. Brackets are always used in pairs of the same type. A wide range of
shapes exist including the following: [ ], { }, ( ).
ie 3(7 + 2)
= 3(9)
= 3×9
= 27
The multiplying number written in the previous question in front of the bracketed
terms has the same effect if written immediately behind.
= (3)(8)
= 3 × 8 = 24
Problems that involve multiple brackets are solved by working outwards from the
innermost bracket.
= 2[6(3)]
= 2[18]
= 36
Mixed Operations
In arithmetic the operations required, when the signs are mixed, must be carried out
in a particular order (in effect the signs have different strengths). The sequence of
operations follow the pattern shown below:
-5-
Firstly ‘Brackets’ must be removed.
Then any ‘Division’ must be carried out,
Followed by ‘Multiplication’
Then ‘Addition’
And finally ‘Subtraction’
This is more easily remembered from the word made up of the first letter of each
operation.
‘BODMAS’
‘O’ has been added to help form the word and may be taken as the operation ‘of’.
Consider the following:
Now try activity 1. Do not look at the answers until you have completed the questions.
Activity 1
9 + 4 × 30 ÷ 3(6 + 4) – 4
-6-
Answer to Activity 1
1) 312
2) 426
3) 405
If you feel confident with this section then continue onto the next.
FRACTIONS
A fraction is part of a whole.
ie 3 is ½ (one half) of 6
1
Similarly 1mm is 10 (one tenth) of 1cm.
Quantities expressed in a way that involves one integer divided by another integer are
called VULGAR or COMMON FRACTIONS. The term vulgar is used to distinguish
them from decimal fractions which we will cover later.
The fraction ⅞ (or 78 ) indicates that the whole has been divided into 8 equal parts and
that 7 of these parts are being considered. The number above the line, 7 in this
example, is known as the NUMERATOR and the number below the line, 8, as the
DENOMINATOR.
Vulgar fractions may be further classified into the following groups: Proper Fractions,
Improper Fractions and Mixed Fractions.
7
A Proper Fraction has the numerator smaller than the denominator eg, 16 and ¾ etc.
Proper fractions are therefore always less than 1.
An Improper Fraction is one in which the numerator is the same as or greater than
the denominator eg, 53 and 18
18 etc.
Mixed fractions are a combination of a proper fraction and whole numbers eg, 1 14 and
15 78 etc.
18
Improper fractions can be changed into either 1, as with 18 , or into a mixed number
5
as with 3 which can be expressed as 1 . 2
3
We will now consider the four basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division, as applied to fractions.
-7-
Addition and Subtraction
To add or subtract fractions, first express them with a common denominator. When
this has been done the numerators may then be simply added or subtracted. As
previously shown, unity or 1 can be represented by a fraction in which the numerator
and denominator are the same ie 33 , 77 , 10
10 , etc, thus the value of any fraction remains
the same if both the numerator and denominator are multiplied by the same integer.
1 2 3 12
ie = = = etc
2 4 6 24
The value also remains the same if the numerator and denominator are divided by the
same number.
36 18 9
ie = = (dividing by 2 in each case)
80 40 20
This process is known as SIMPLIFICATION and can reduce the fraction to a simpler
form. Consider the following examples.
2 1
Example 1. +
3 9
6 1
= + (both fractions now have the same common denominator)
9 9
6 +1
=
9
= 7
9
5 5
Example 2. −
6 12
10 5
= -
12 12
10 − 5
=
12
5
=
12
1 15
Example 3. 4 −1
8 16
-8 -
2 15
= 3 −
16 16
Here, although both the denominators are the same, 15 cannot be arithmetically
2
subtracted from 2, therefore it is necessary to convert 3 to 2 18 .
16 16
18 15
Hence 2 −
16 16
18 − 15
= 2
16
= 23
16
So for adding or subtracting fractions a common denominator is found. If all else fails
this can be found by multiplying both denominators. For example, solve:
3 + 1
5 3 (common denominator = 5 x 3 = 15). 5 into 15 go 3.
3 times 3 = 9. 3 into 15 go 5. 5 times 1 = 5.) So:
3 + 1 = 9 + 5
5 3 15
= 14
15
Multiplication
2 12 1
Example 1. × ×
5 15 4
24
Hence the resulting fraction is
300
Reduce this to its lowest form (divide both top and bottom by 6 then 2)
gives 4
2
=
50 25
-9-
2 21
Example 2. ×
7 40
42
= reducing this to its lowest form.
280
21
= (dividing both numerator and denominator by 2)
140
3
= (dividing both numerator and denominator by 7)
20
1 3
= ×
1 20
3
=
20
Multiplication of fractions involving mixed numbers is best dealt with by changing the
mixed number into an improper fraction before the multiplication takes place.
2 4
Example 3. 1 ×
3 25
51 4
= ×
3 255
1 4
= ×
3 5
4
=
15
- 10 -
Division
With division of fractions, the rule to follow is, ‘invert the divisor and then proceed as
for multiplication’.
6 2 2
Example ÷ ( being the divisor)
11 5 5
6 5
= ×
11 2
63 5
= × (cancelling)
11 21
15
=
11
4
= 1
11
Mixed Operations
5 7 3
÷ −
6 8 7
There are no Brackets so Division comes first. Solving the first two fractions first:
5 7 5 8 40
÷ = × =
6 8 6 7 42
Substituting 40/42 for the first two fractions in the equation gives:
40 3 40 − 18 22 11
− = = =
42 7 42 42 21
- 11 -
Activity 2
Solve the following, expressing your answer in the lowest fractional form.
3 3
1. +
4 16
2 1
2. 1 +2
3 12
3 3
3. 2 −
8 4
5 12
4. ×
9 25
1 9
5. 3 ×
2 14
2 3
6. 2 ÷
3 8
Answers to Activity 2
15
1.
16
3
2. 3
4
5
3. 1
8
4
4.
15
1
5. 2
4
1
6. 7
9
If you have managed to do all of these correctly, well done. If not, look back over the
areas in which you have had difficulty, and attempt the problem questions again. The
next section to consider is decimal fractions, or simply decimals.
- 12 -
DECIMALS
Decimals are fractions whose denominators are 10, or some multiple of 10, such as
100, 1000, 10,000 etc. They are indicated by writing one, or more digits to the right of
the decimal point.
2
Thus may be expressed in decimal form as 0.2
10
Decimal point
2
= 0.02
100
2
and = 0.002 etc.
1000
Decimal fractions written as above, that is, without a whole number, are called ‘pure
decimals’. When a whole number is combined with the decimal fraction, such as 2.2,
15.4, 120.65 etc then the number is known as a ‘mixed decimal’.
4 5 9
7+ + +
10 100 1000
400 + 50 + 9
= 7
1000
459
= 7
1000
Decimal Addition
When computing decimals, the rule of likeness requires that addition or subtraction
is carried out only with like denominations. This means that the decimal points of
each number must be kept in line as the example below shows.
2.57
34.8
0.04
37.41
11
Aligning the decimal point in each case, puts the numbers into their correct position.
Addition can then be carried out as with whole numbers.
- 13 -
ie Subtract 1.370 from 2.620
2. 6120
- 1.4 3 70
1. 2 50
Note that when taking 7 away from 2 above we have used the rule ‘add 1 to the top
and 1 to the bottom’ making the 2 into 12 and the 3 into 4. Some people will use the
rule ‘add 1 to the right and take 1 from the left’ making the 2 into 12 and the 6 into 5.
We suggest you use the rule you are used to.
Decimal Multiplication
This is carried out in the same way as that used for whole numbers.
This is achieved by ignoring the decimal point until the multiplication is completed.
The position of the decimal point can then be found by counting, from right to left, the
total sum of the decimal places, in the original problem, (three in this case) and
inserting it into the final product.
Summing the number of decimal places involved in this problem gives a total of five
(three for 0.216 and two for 2.31). Moving the decimal point from its position to the
right of the figure 6 (not shown) five places to the left and the answer becomes:
Decimal Division
Again, this procedure is performed the same way as for long division. However, if the
divisor (the number on the bottom line) is in decimal form, the problem may be
simplified by making it a whole number and correcting the dividend (the number on
the top line) accordingly. In other words moving the decimal point for both, several
places to the right to create at least one whole number.
- 14 -
Take the dividend 72.828 to be divided by the divisor 2.52.
72.828 7282.8
For example can be written as
2.52 252
ie To make the divisor a whole number, the decimal point (in this case) is
moved two places to the right. In order that the mathematical problem
remains unaltered, the decimal point of the dividend must also move the
same number of places in the same direction (to the right). So:
28.900
252 7282.800
- 504
1
22 4 2
2
- 2016
2268
- 2268
72.828
∴ = 28.9
2.52
ROUNDING
In the last example the problem happened to terminate after one place of decimals,
however in many problems an exact answer will not always occur and it will be
necessary to terminate the problem after a suitable number of decimal places has
been reached. This number will depend on the requirements of the question or
situation, and the operation performed is known as ‘rounding off’.
As an example. If a budget was being worked out for the running of a machine and
the hours were estimated at 23.75 running hours and the hourly running costs for
electricity were £8.3357, then the total cost would be (23.75 x 8.3357) = £197.97287
For budgeting purposes the sum of £197.97287 must be rounded to pounds and
pence. In other words to ---.-- (up to 99 pence). Starting with the last digit on the right
(7). It is greater than 5 so this makes the next digit (8) into a 9. The 9 is greater than 5
and this makes the next digit (2) into a 3. The 3, however is less than 5 so the next 7
is not rounded up.
So the nearest price after ‘rounding’ is £197-97. Of-course the accountants might like
to round it up further but the above is the mathematical answer.
Consider the number 15.7508. This becomes 15.751 if rounded off to three decimal
places, or 15.75 if rounded off to two decimal places, or 15.8 if rounded off to one
decimal place.
Note: The last decimal place number required, is increased by one if it is followed by
a 5 or larger digit.
- 15 -
The answers to decimal and non decimal problems are often required in the form of a
number of ‘significant figures’.
The number 3172 is 3000 correct to one significant figure, or 3200 correct to two
significant figures, or 3170 correct to three significant figures.
The count of the number of significant figures starts with the first number that holds
a value (ie 1, 2, 3 etc. Anything other than a zero) and is obtained by counting left to
right. Zeros before this value do not signify anything, but zeros within the number are
significant.
As with decimal places, the last significant figure required in the number is increased
by one if it is followed by a 5 or larger digit.
Before leaving this section on decimals, the relationship between vulgar fractions and
decimal fractions should be understood. If it is necessary to convert a vulgar fraction
into a decimal fraction, then all that is required is to divide the numerator by the
denominator.
0.5
Thus ½ becomes 0.5 ie 1 divided by 2 = 2 1.0
- 1.0
0.75
4 3.00
and ¾ becomes 0.75 ie - 2 .8
20
- 20
0.3125
16 5.0000
- 48
20
5 - 16
and becomes 0.3125 ie
16
40
- 32
80
- 80
- 16 -
ESTIMATING
(a) 277.47
(b) 2.77
(c) 27.74
Some examiners realise this and would put all the alternative answers closer to 27, so
you cannot always rely on estimates, but sometimes you can. When completing any
calculation it is always best to carry out an estimate afterwards just as a check.
Activity 3
1. 27.65 + 4.012
2. 60.25 – 4.71
4. Divide 0.455 by 0.14 stating your answer correct to one decimal place.
5. Divide 367.2 by 1.2 stating your answer correct to two significant figures.
5
6. (i) Convert to a decimal.
8
Answers to Activity 3
1. 31.662
2. 55.54
3. 0.4161
4. 3.3
5. 310
6. (i) 0.625
7
(ii)
8
- 17 -
UNITS, WEIGHTS, MEASURES & CONVERSION FACTORS
In the UK two systems of units exist, the imperial system and the metric system.
The imperial system is one that has existed from ancient times and, units such as the
‘inch’ - a unit of length (defined in early records as the length of three barleycorns
round and dry), and the ‘pound’ - a unit of mass (incorrectly called weight) (defined by
William the Conqueror as 7000 grains of wheat, taken from the middle of the ear of
corn) are part of this system of units.
These units have been modernised and standardised over the centuries, with the inch
being standardised against a very accurate test piece and the pound taking the form
of a cylinder of platinum known as the ‘British Standard Pound’.
The metric system was devised by the French in 1791 and has now been adopted for
general use in many countries. This system is based on the unit of length - the metre
and the unit of mass - the kilogram. The metre was originally defined as one ten-
millionth of the Earth’s quadrant (a quarter of the circumference), however, it is now
defined in terms of wavelengths of light.
A simplification of the metric system now exists, known as the ‘System International
d’Unit’ (the SI system), and this is the system most commonly used in engineering in
Europe and the UK – as well as other countries around the world.
There are six fundamental quantities in the SI system, from which all others are
derived, these are:
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature (thermodynamic) Kelvin K
Electric Current ampére A
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol
The above units can be used in combination to produce ‘Derived Units’. For example:
This system is a coherent system in that the product or quotient of two or more unit
quantities will in itself produce a unit quantity.
- 18 -
To make the writing of large numbers easier (and use up less space) the unit can be
raised (or lowered) by 10 to a power. The power can be any value but is normally in
units of 3. For example:
As can be seen from the SI table above the values are of ten raised to a power divisible
by 3. For some quantities, in particular length, this means that there is no division
between the metre and the millimetre. Because of this, the centimetre, a non-SI unit
is occasionally used.
In the introductory paragraphs on this topic, some terms were used which you may
not be familiar with, for instance, ‘mass’. This term is used as a measure of the
quantity of matter which a substance possesses (solid, liquid or gas). In calculations,
if a ‘mass’ is quoted, then it is assumed that this value will remain constant, even
though the volume, state or location of the mass may change. In the SI system the
fundamental unit, as already stated, is the kilogram (kg) (not the gram). Of course,
these two terms are related, the gram being one thousandth of a kilogram.
If mass is used in calculations and the values are given in anything other than kgs
then the units given must be converted to kgs. For example:
Weight is also a term that you are familiar with and although it is discussed in more
detail in the Science Module 2, an understanding of it here is useful. The weight of an
object is the force of attraction between the Earth and the mass of the object in
question. As the weight of a body varies slightly at different latitudes, due to the non-
spherical shape of the Earth, weight is not constant. Thus the piece of platinum used
as the British Standard pound is a standard mass and not a standard weight.
The unit of weight (and force) is the ‘Newton’ symbol ‘N’. 1N may be thought of as the
weight of a small apple approximately, so it is quite small. (Sir Isaac Newton was
supposed to have an apple fall on his head when he discovered the laws relating to
gravity).
- 19 -
If you are still unsure of the terms ‘mass’ and ‘weight’ then consider a bag of sugar. In
the UK the standard bag of sugar has a mass of 1kg. If it is placed on a set of
weighing scales (using an internal spring) they will, or should, read 1kg. In fact the
scales are measuring the force of attraction between the bag of sugar and the earth
not the mass of the bag of sugar. The force in fact being about 10N. If the scales and
the bag of sugar were to be taken to the moon, for example, the mass of the bag of
sugar would remain unchanged at 1kg, but put the bag of sugar on the scales and the
reading you would get would be about 0.2kg (1.6N). In other words the bag of sugar
would produce a force of about 1/6th of that which it exerted on the earth although
it’s mass has not altered.
Below are some of the units in use in the metric and imperial systems.
Imperial units
Metric Units
Mass: gram, kilogram and tonne (sometimes called the metric ton).
- 20 -
It is frequently necessary to convert between units, particularly from larger to smaller
units and vice versa. On occasions conversions are also required between metric and
imperial units. The table below provides some of the multiplying factors that will allow
this conversion to take place.
Having said this, it is still necessary to remember the most important ones as the CAA
are likely to ask questions on them in the multi-choice paper.
Note that there is a US ton (sometimes called a short ton) which equals 2000lb and
there is a long ton (used in the UK) which equals 2240lb.
- 21 -
Examples
(ii) How many feet are there in 10yd? 10yd = 10 × 3ft = 30ft
(iii) Convert 0.25 tonnes into kilograms. 0.25t = 0.25 × 1000kg = 250kg
Activity 4
3. Convert 150mm into in, giving your answer correct to two decimal
places.
Answers to Activity 4
1. 0.210 m
2. 126 in
3. 5.91 in
4. 4.4 galls
5. 33lbs
Ratio and Proportion
6. 762mm
- 22 -
RATIO & PROPORTION
In previous work, we covered vulgar fractions and you will remember that these are
written as ¾, 7/16, 1/8 etc. Written in this way they also form ratios, so that ¾ is the
ratio of 3 to 4, 7/16, the ratio 7 to 16 and 1/8, the ratio 1 to 8.
These may be written as 3:4, 7:16 and 1:8, where the symbol : means ‘is to’ and is a
corruption of the (÷) division sign.
Ratios are often used as a means of comparison of two or more quantities of the same
kind, that is in terms of weight or size or cost etc.
A lift to drag ratio of 10 to 1, (10:1) (for a wing for example) would indicate that for
every 1 unit of drag force the lift value would be 10 times as great.
The laws that are related to fractions may also be applied to ratios, hence since 12/16
may be cancelled down to ¾ a ratio of 12:16 should be expressed in the smallest
possible numbers, ie (in this case) as 3:4. In some circumstances ratios may appear
inconveniently large, such as 15:72. In such a case it is acceptable that the smallest
value is represented by 1 and, the other as whole numbers and decimals.
Ratios are not always confined to two elements. For example, the ratio of £12,000 to
£8,000 to £4,000 is in the ratio of 3:2:1.
As with all the previous examples, note that the ratio is a number independent of the
nature of the quantities involved.
For example, the ratios 4:6 and 6:9 have the same ratios and may be written as 4:6 ::
6:9 (where :: means ‘as’).
or 4 is to 6 as 6 is to 9
or 4:6 = 6:9
or 4/ 6 = 6/ 9
If you are not sure about this divide 6 into 4 and then divide 9 into 6. The answer in
each case is 0.666.
On occasions you will come across the term ‘inverse proportion’. In this case, if two
quantities are involved an increase in one results in a decrease in the other. A
practical example of this occurs in the cylinder of an internal combustion engine
between the pressure and volume of the gas. As the piston moves in, compressing the
gas, the volume reduces but the pressure increases.
ie , the pressure (p) is inversely proportional to the volume (v).
p∝v
- 23 -
Example 1. In mechanics the mechanical advantage is defined as the ratio of the
load that is to be moved, to the effort that has to be applied in order to
move the load. Hence, determine the mechanical advantage of a
machine if an effort of 20N is required to move a load of 600N.
Example 3. Five cleaners can clean an aircraft in 1½ hours. Determine how long it
will take two cleaners working at the same rate. If five cleaners take
1½ hours, One cleaner will take five times as long ie, 5 × 1½ = 7½
hours. Two cleaners will therefore take half this time ie, 3¾ hrs.
A ratio can only be made if the units are of the same kind. In this
example 1ft = 12in. Therefore the ratio is 3:12 or 1:4.
Example 5. Two meshing gearwheels have 20 teeth and 60 teeth respectively. How
far does the larger wheel rotate for 1 complete rotation of the smaller
one.
Gear ratios are 60:20, which is equal to 6:2 or 3:1. The smaller one
has to rotate 3 times to the larger one’s single rotation. So for 1
rotation of the smaller one the larger one rotates 1/3 of a revolution =
0.333 of 360° = 119.9° (nearly 120°).
Activity 5
1. In machines the velocity ratio is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort to
the distance moved by the load. Determine the velocity ratio if the effort moves
through a distance of 6m causing the load to move a distance of 200mm.
4. If it takes 3 persons to paint the livery on an aircraft, 5 days, how long will it
take 2 persons working at the same rate.
- 24 -
Answers to Activity 5
1. 30:1
2. £132:£88:£33
3. 4:9
4. 7½ days.
5. (a) 150:100
(b) 222:148
(c) 15:10
PERCENTAGES
Thus 25% (twenty five per cent) means 25 parts in every hundred and as a fraction is
written as 25/100 or, better still ¼. 75% as a fraction would be written as 75/100 or
better still ¾.
1 1 × 25 25
ie: = = = 25%
4 4 × 25 100
If the proper fraction is such that it is not easy to convert the denominator to 100
then convert the proper fraction to a decimal fraction first. The percentage can then
be obtained by multiplying by 100 as before.
5
Thus = 0.3125 = 31.25%
16
- 25 -
Example 1. Express 35% as a proper fraction.
35
=
100
7
=
20
= 57.6
3
Example 3. Express as a percentage.
16
3
= 0.1875
16
= 18.75%
50
=
2 × 1000
= 0.025
= 2.5%
30
= × 180
100
= 54
Example 6. The total fuel tank capacity of an aircraft is 6500 imperial gallons.
Number 1 tank holds 22% and number 2 tank holds 38%. How much fuel (in gallons)
is in the remaining tanks?
- 26 -
Total fuel in 1 and 2 tanks = (22% + 38%) × 6500 gals
= 60 × 6500 gals
100
= 60 × 65
= 3900 gals
Activity 6
1. Calculate ½ % of £560.
1
4. What percentage is 30mA of 0.6A (a ‘mA’ is of an ‘Amp’).
1000
Answers to Activity 6
1. 2.8
7
2. 25
3. 41.67%
4. 5%
5. 598.5kg
6. 16.67%
- 27 -
AVERAGES
Often to make sense of, or simplify, a mass of numerical data, an average value or
mean is calculated. This is a single value that can be used for comparison or
estimation purposes. You will have heard of ‘average rainfall’ for the month, or the
‘average family’ size. The average family in the UK consisted of 2.4 children. In reality
this is not possible but it does allow governments to calculate population growths,
school allocations, health service requirements etc.
Very often we talk about the ‘average speed’ of an aircraft or car which is the total
distance covered, divided by the total time taken, even though this may involve the
aircraft or car being stationary at intermediate airports or service stations en route.
Example 1. In an examination of six students the resulting marks obtained were 98,
73, 92, 65, 77 and 30. Determine the average mark.
98 + 73 + 92 + 65 + 77 + 30 435
Average = =
6 6
= 72.5
Comparisons can now be made. Those with marks above 72.5 can be considered to be
above average and those with marks less than 72.5 below average.
Example 2. What is the average speed of an aircraft in miles per hour if it travels
7,680 miles in 12 hours?
= 640 miles/hour
Given the average speed of an aircraft now allows estimations of time to be made for
other journeys, ie the time taken for the same aircraft to travel 2500 miles would be:
Example 3. A person driving to work uses main roads, motorways and side roads.
The total journey distance is 25 miles and the roads used are:
- 28 -
Total distance (miles)
Average speed =
Total time (hours)
3 + 15 + 5
=
60 + 60 + 60
6 15 15
23
= 36
60
= 38.3 miles/hour
or 36.8
36
60
= 61.3 km/hour
MENSURATION
The measurement of length, area and volume. All complex shapes can be broken
down into simpler basic forms and each basic form calculated separately. It is
important that you can recognise these basic forms and be able to apply the correct
formula or calculation when an area or volume is required.
A volume is a measure of the region contained within the outside surfaces of a three-
dimensional shape. The SI unit is ‘cubic metres’, written as ‘m3’ (metres × metres ×
metres). The imperial unit is cubic inch, cubic foot or cubic yard.
Below are listed some of the more common shapes together with the formula for their
area and volume as appropriate.
A ratio exists when it comes to the circle or shapes of which a circle is a part. This
ratio is between the circumference of the circle and it’s diameter. It is denoted by the
Greek symbol π (pi).
Irrespective of the size of the circle this ratio remains constant and approximates to
3.142. The fractional form 22/7 is often used as it is more accurate.
- 29 -
FORM AREA VOLUME
The first five forms are all polygons ie, plane closed
figures bounded by straight lines, in addition
these are further defined as quadrilaterals, ie
bounded by four sides. The sum of the interior
angles equals 360°.
b×d
b×d
b×d
- 30 -
FORM AREA VOLUME
b×d
A = ½(a+d)b
- 31 -
FORM AREA VOLUME
A = ½bh
OBTUSE-ANGLED TRIANGLE
EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE
- 32 -
FORM AREA VOLUME
A = ½bh
ISOSCELES TRIANGLE
blank
- 33 -
FORM AREA VOLUME
A = πd2
4
or
A = πr2
Circular Sector
A = ½rL
Circular Segment
A = ½[rL-c(r-h)]
- 34 -
FORM AREA VOLUME
Annular Ring
A = πD2 - πd2
4 4
Rectangular Prism
V= a × b × d
V = Ah
3
- 35 -
FORM AREA VOLUME
Right Cone. Where the tip lies above the centre of the
A = 4πr2 V = 4 πr3
3
Two ends
A = 2(πr2)
+ V = πr2L
2πrL
curved
surface
- 36 -
FORM AREA VOLUME
Regular Hexagon
A= 2.598s2
or
= 2.598r2
Regular Octagon
A
= 4.828s2
or
= 2.828r2
Prism
V=h×A
where
A = end
surface area
Wedge
V=
(2a+c).bh
6
- 37 -
WARNING Trapezium. The American definition is no sides parallel (on a four sided
figure), the UK definition is two sides parallel. With no sides parallel, in the UK this is
called a Trapezoid. If you get a Q on this on the CAA exam and it is not clear – put
your hand up and have a word. Remember, the CAA do use books published in the
US and the examiners may not be aware of the problem.
Is the centre of area of a two dimensional figure. The centroid of a circle, for example,
is the centre of the circle, the centre of a square is where the two lines intersect that
join alternate corners. Centroids for triangles and other shapes are worked out using
equations – which should not be necessary to know.
Centre of Gravity (C of G)
Applies to three dimensional objects and is the position where all the weight is said to
act. For a solid uniform sphere, for example, it is in the middle of the sphere. For a
horse-shoe it is the space between the two sides of the shoe. For an aircraft it is a
point where the lateral, longitudinal and normal (vertical) datum lines meet. On a
conventional jet airliner this would be somewhere in the fuselage near the centre
section about floor level (specified in the AMM).
Triangles
Several triangles have been shown above but two further points should be noted.
Similar Triangles are triangles that have a similar shape but their size may be
different.
Congruent Triangles have the same shape and are the same size.
Segments. Drawing a chord from one side to the other will create two segments. If the
chord is not the diameter there will be a minor segment and a major segment.
Diameter. A straight line drawn from one side to the other through the centre.
Radius. A straight line drawn from the centre to one side. Is equals to halve the
diameter.
Centre is at the centroid of the circle. The centroid is the centre of the area.
Tangent. A straight line drawn to touch the side of the circle. A line drawn at right
angles at the point where the tangent line touches the circle will cross the centre of
the circle.
- 38 -
Fig. 2 PROPERTIES OF A CIRCLE
The above covers most of the common shapes that you are likely to come across, so
lets now use these formulae and attempt activity 7.
Activity 7
(a) A triangle with a base length 4cm and perpendicular height 6cm.
(b) A circle of diameter 12cm.
(c) A sphere of radius 6cm.
Answers to Activity 7
1. (a) 12 cm2
(b) 113.14 cm2
(c) 452.57 cm2
2. 19.5 cm2
3. 65.48 cm3
- 39 -
Squares and Roots
Fig. 3 A SQUARE
The suffix ‘2’ positioned to the top right of the digit 4 is known as the index and
indicates the number of times the 4 (or base number) is multiplied by itself.
When we talk about ‘squaring’ a number this is the process that is referred to, thus:
two squared is 22 = 2 × 2 = 4
three squared is 32 = 3 × 3 = 9
Frequently we need to reverse this operation and this is known as finding the ‘square
root’ of a number. To indicate that this is required, a ‘square root’ sign is used. It
appears as √. If the square root is required a small number 2 is positioned just
outside and to the top of the sign thus, 2√.
With square roots, and only square roots, the small number 2 is often omitted.
Consider the cube below with sides of 4cm. The volume of the cube = 4 × 4 × 4 =
64cm3. In a similar way as that described for a square, the statement 4 × 4 × 4 = 64
may be written as 43 = 64 (four cubed equals sixty four).
- 40 -
Fig. 4 A CUBE
Similarly:
two cubed = 23 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8
three cubed = 33 = 3 × 3 × 3 = 27
As before, the ‘cube root’ of a number is the reverse of this process and uses the same
symbol but with a small ‘3’ positioned just outside and at the top of the root sign.
The examples in this section have been selected to give a whole number answer. This
will not always be the case, and you may need to seek the use of calculators or tables
to solve such problems (not allowed on the CAA examination – but of course, when
doing calculations with reference to aircraft a calculator will almost certainly be used).
A line is defined as a long narrow mark whereas an angle is the space between two
straight intersecting lines usually measured in terms of the amount of rotation.
- 41 -
In the majority of cases, angular measurement is made in degrees, the symbol of
which is a small ‘°’ ie, 20°, 45° etc. In a full circle or one complete revolution there are
360 divisions or degrees. ie one revolution = 360°. Thus in a semi-circle or one-half a
revolution there are 180°, and in one-quarter of a circle there are 90°.
A 90° forms what is known as a right angle and is often indicated by a small square
situated at the intersection of the two straight lines.
The lines which form a right angle are said to be perpendicular to each other.
To make one complete revolution, irrespective of the radius, the number of degrees
moved through will always be 360. Making two complete revolutions would mean
moving through 720°, three revolutions 1080° and so on.
The degree may be subdivided into smaller divisions of minutes (') which can then be
further divided into seconds (") of a degree.
A radian is a ratio and as such has no units, ie it is just a number. However its name,
abbreviated to RADS may occur in certain units for the purpose of clarity, ie angular
velocity has units of rad/s, angular acceleration rad/s2.
- 42 -
Fig. 8 THE RADIAN
One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle when the arc-length
formed between two radial lines, is equal in length to the radius.
If the arc length is made the length of the circumference (2πr), where ‘r’ is the radius,
then the number of radians
arc length
=
radius
2πr
=
r
= 2π
So one revolution or 360° is equal to 2π radians. Radians are frequently quoted as
multiples of π, so:
360° = 2π radians
Examples
1. Convert 120° into radians. Since 360° = 2π radians and 120° as a fraction of
360° is 120/360 then:
120 2
= × 2π = π radians
360 3
- 43 -
2. Convert 66°33'22" to radians.
22"
22" = = 0.37' (ie 0 point 37 of a minute)
60
33.37
33.37' =
60
= 0.556°
360° = 2π radians
66.556
then 66.556° = × 2π
360
= 1.162 radians
2π radians = 360°
4.761
∴ 4.761 radians = × 360°
2π
= 272.785°
= 47.1'
= 6"
4π
4. Convert radians to degrees.
7
2π radians = 360°
- 44 -
4π
4π
∴ radians = 7 × 360°
7 2π
4π
= × 360°
14π
= 102.9°
The following part of the book deals with the angular relationships that are formed
when straight lines intersect. Much of this section is confined to the definitions of
these relationships.
An angle that lies between 0° and 90° is known as an ACUTE ANGLE. Angles lying
between 90° and 180° are called OBTUSE ANGLES, whilst angles greater than 180°
but less than 360° are referred to as REFLEX ANGLES.
When 90° is formed from two angles, ie 60° and 30° or 42° and 48° etc, then the
angles are known as COMPLEMENTARY ANGLES, with each angle being the
COMPLEMENT of the other.
When the sum of two angles make an angle of 180°, then the angles are known as
SUPPLEMENTARY ANGLES with each angle being the SUPPLEMENT of the other.
In the figure 10 below, two straight lines intersect. The angle w and y are equal in
value and are called VERTICALLY OPPOSITE ANGLES.
In figure 11, a straight line cuts two parallel lines. Angles d and y are equal in value
and are named ALTERNATE ANGLES. Angles a and x, as a pair are also equal in
value to each other and are known as CORRESPONDING ANGLES.
- 45 -
Fig. 11 ALTERNATE & CORRESPONDING ANGLES
Activity 8
1. In figure 12 below, where lines PQ and RT are parallel, the angle PQS is equal
to:
(a) 30°
(b) 60°
(c) a right angle
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
2. In figure 13 above the sum of angles ABC and BAC is equal to:
(a) 50°
(b) 130°
(c) 180°
- 46 -
Fig. 14
3. If AB and DE are parallel in figure 14 above, the angle BAC is equal to: (Hint,
put a horizontal line through C.)
(a) 30°
(b) 60°
(c) 40°
Fig. 15
4. Figure 15 above shows two intersecting straight lines, angle ‘b’ relative to angle
‘a’ is called:
Fig. 16
- 47 -
6. In a straight line, that represents 180°, there are:
(a) 2π radians.
(b) π radians.
2
(c) π radians.
3
7. The sum of the internal angles of a triangle in terms of radians is equal to:
(a) 3π radians.
(b) 2π radians.
(c) π radians.
π
(a) radians.
2
(b) π radians.
(c) 2π radians.
(a) 2π radians.
(b) πradians.
(c) 4π radians.
10. An angle greater than 90° but less than 180° is called:
2
11. π radians in degrees is:
3
(a) 120°
(b) 60°
(c) 20.9°
π
(a) radians
6
(b) 0.013 radians.
(c) 0.785 radians.
- 48 -
Answers to Activity 8
1. (b)
2. (b)
3. (c)
4. (a)
5. (c)
6. (b)
7. (c)
8. (a)
9. (c)
10. (b)
11. (a)
12. (c)
”””””””
- 49 -