eCAADe 2016

Complexity & Simplicity

Volume 1

Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 1
 Editors
Aulikki Herneoja
Toni Österlund
Piia Markkanen
Oulu School of Architecture
University of Oulu

1st Edition, August 2016

Complexity & Simplicity - Proceedings of the 34th International Conference on Education and
Research in Computer Aided Architectural Design in Europe, Oulu, Finland, 24.-26. August
2016, Volume 1. Edited by Aulikki Herneoja, Toni Österlund and Piia Markkanen. Brussels: Ed-
ucation and Research in Computer Aided Architectural Design in Europe; Oulu: Oulu School
of Architecture, University of Oulu.

ISBN
9789491207105
978-94-91207-10-5

Copyright © 2016

Publisher: eCAADe (Education and Research in Computer Aided Architectural Design in Eu-
rope) and Oulu School of Architecture, University of Oulu.

Cover Design: Piia Markkanen and Toni Österlund

All rights reserved. Nothing from this publication may be produced, stored in computerised
system or published in any form or in any manner, including electronic, mechanical, repro-
graphic or photographic, without prior written permission from the publisher.

2 | eCAADe 34 - Volume 1
 eCAADe 2016

Complexity & Simplicity

Volume 1
Proceedings of the 34th International Conference on Education and Research in
Computer Aided Architectural Design in Europe

24.-26. August 2016

Oulu, Finland
Oulu School of Architecture
University of Oulu

Edited by
Aulikki Herneoja
Toni Österlund
Piia Markkanen

Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 3
 Sponsors of the eCAADe 2016 Conference

Alfred Kordelin Foundation

4 | eCAADe 34 - Volume 1
Theme

Complexity & Simplicity

The first volume of the conference proceedings of the 34th eCAADe conference, 24.-26. Au-
gust 2016, at Oulu School of Architecture, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland contains 81 papers
grouped under 14 sub-themes. Both volumes contain altogether 157 accepted papers.

The theme of the 34th eCAADe Conference is Complexity & Simplicity. We invited the eCAADe
community to address the multifaceted notions of complexity and simplicity, which are en-
countered in architectural design processes. Approaches discussing the theme from the per-
spective of computer aided design education; design processes and methods; design tool de-
velopments; and novel design applications, as well as real world experiments and case studies
were welcomed. What is the role of complexity or simplicity as part of the design process?
Does the use of complex design methods offer simplicity to the design process itself? Is it
possible to design complexity with simple methods? Does the use of computation in design
necessitate complexity or offer means to control it?

Recent development in digital technologies and digital design tools enable us to address com-
plex situations in architectural environments, ranging in scale from structures and buildings
to urban contexts. We often expect technology to better help us manage the complexity of
life, to simplify our daily lives and tasks. However, these developments also raise the question
of whether design technologies encourage complexity at the expense of simplicity in both
the design process and lived environments. Does computation cause complexity? Or does it
enable simplicity?

In addition to the accepted papers, the first volume contains Keynote Papers, including keynote
speakers contribution concerning the themes of their keynote lectures and the Workshop Con-
tributions, including the papers summarizing the contents of workshops given.

Theme - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 5

 All the papers of these proceedings will be accessible via CuminCAD - Cumulative Index of
Computer Aided Architectural Design, http://cumincad.scix.net

eCAADe 2016 Acting Conference Chairs

Aulikki Herneoja, Toni Österlund, Piia Markkanen

6 | eCAADe 34 - Theme - Volume 1

Acknowledgements

Welcome to eCAADe 2016, the 34th eCAADe conference, in Oulu, Finland. It has been exactly
fifteen years since the previous eCAADe conference was held in Finland, hosted by Helsinki
University of Technology (HUT) in 2001. HUT was also in charge of organizing the 3rd eCAADe
conference in 1984. We are now very happy to welcome you back to Finland, this time to the
most northern architect school in the world, the Oulu School of Architecture, University of
Oulu.
The original idea of bringing the eCAADe conference to Oulu dates back to September
2012 after the eCAADe conference in Prague. Officially, the eCAADe Council granted us the
permission to organize the 34th eCAADe conference in Oulu in March 2013. Over the last four
years several people have helped us to make this conference happen. We thank especially
the former Dean of Oulu School of Architecture, now the Vice Rector for Education, University
of Oulu, Professor Helka-Liisa Hentilä and the present Dean of Oulu School of Architecture,
Professor Rainer Mahlamäki for their positive and supportive attitude.
During the lengthy process of organizing the eCAADe 2016 we have had the privilege to
experience the supportive and kind atmosphere of eCAADe Council, whose members have
helped us with all aspects of the organizing. We warmly thank both Presidents Johan Verbeke
(until 2016) and Joachim Kieferle (since 2016) for encouragement and unswerving support
during the organizing of this conference. We most warmly thank Bob Martens, the liaison with
the conference host and the previous conference organizer, for always kindly and patiently
guiding us through the multistage arrangement process of the conference. Also, we wish to
thank all the other previous conference organizers, Henri Achten, Rudi Stouffs and Emine Mine
Thompson, for sharing their experience and knowledge without hesitation.
Quality control is an emerging issue concerning the publishing of a conference proceed-
ings. We are grateful for eCAADe Council for being able to use the OpenConf system through-
out the publishing process. Authors uploaded their extended abstracts (length of 1000 to
1500 words and one optional image) for the double blind peer review process. Each abstract

Acknowledgements - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 7

 was evaluated by three reviewers. With the help of the OpenConf system we could, for exam-
ple, easily ensure that none of the reviewers came from the same institution as the authors.
Altogether, we received 241 abstracts from authors from 44 different countries. After the peer
review process, 165 papers were accepted for full paper submission. In the end, altogether
157 papers were presented in eCAADe 2016 and published in the proceedings. We are very
grateful for all the 98 reviewers from 29 different countries (see the List of Reviewers) for their
constructive and thorough comments for each author. We also continued the practice started
in eCAADe 2015 conference in Vienna of having all the session chairs to give prospective com-
ments of the papers to evoke the discourse at early stage between the author and session
chair for the 27 sessions of the conference. All the session chairs also participated the peer
review process of the extended abstracts. We owe the session chairs great gratitude for their
commitment and long term contribution to the process until the final paper presentations.
Parallel to these prospective comments editorial team gave comments to the authors too. We
thank and congratulate all authors for their hard work and support on using the ProceeDings
tool and finalizing their full papers carefully in time. In this last phase of editing the full pa-
pers we may not thank enough Gabriel Wurzer, the Master of the ProceeDings, who patiently
and relentlessly worked together with us and enabled us to successfully produce high quality
proceedings in time.
We owe great thanks to the keynote speakers; Professor Branko Kolarevic (Chair in Inte-
grated Design and co-directs the Laboratory for Integrative Design (LID), University of Calgary;
Canada), Professor Mette Ramsgaard Thomsen (Chair in Architecture and Digital Technologies,
Head of CITA, Centre for Information Technology and Architecture, Royal Academy of Fine Arts,
School of Architecture, Design and Conservation (KADK), Denmark) and Professor Toni Kotnik
(Chair in Design of Structures at Department of Architecture in Aalto ARTS, Finland), and their con-
tribution of writing the keynote papers concerning their keynote lecture themes.
The Panel Session is a traditional Thursday afternoon event in eCAADe conferences. This
year the panelist were Finnish colleagues, the top level practicing architects. The visionary
discussion was moderated by Director Hanna Harris (Architecture Information Centre Finland).
The panelists were; Professor Rainer Mahlamäki (Lahdelma & Mahlamäki Architects), Architect

8 | eCAADe 34 - Acknowledgements - Volume 1

Antti Nousjoki (ALA Architects Ltd) and Architect Toni Österlund (Geometrics Ltd). We owe great
thanks to the moderator and the panelists for their rewarding presentations and discussions.
Workshops are an integral part of eCAADe conferences and eCAADe 2016 made no excep-
tion. We thank all the workshop organizers for the event and for their contribution of short
papers (non-peer reviewed) about the contents of the workshop. We are also grateful for Wolf-
gang Dokonal and the eCAADe council for organizing the traditional PhD workshop for young
researchers and supporting the participants with a subsidy for traveling to Oulu.
In addition to printed and digital conference proceedings, the team supervised by Wolf-
gang Dokonal provides the eCAADe community video streams of the paper presentations.
Harri Hämeenkorpi and Ari Orajärvi from University of Oulu were locally in charge of recording
and video streaming with the help of architecture students from Oulu School of Architecture.
Great thanks for the whole team.
We would like to express our gratitude for the administrative help in organizing this con-
ference. eCAADe council and especially Nele De Meyere, has provided us valuable input and
lessons learned from past conferences. We have also had Konffa Ltd as highly-appreciate part-
ner for managing the conference services, ranging from the registration process to the actual
on-site registration services. A big thank goes you to Pia Hanski, Hanna Hentilä and Jenni
Ylisirniö. We will also thank Erweko Ltd and Mikko Träskelin for smooth process and high qual-
ity printing of the proceedings.
Organizing an international conference of this scale requires financial help. We are in-
debted for our sponsors – The Federation of Finnish Learned Societies, Alfred Kordelin General
Progress and Education Fund, Autodesk Inc., Bentley Systems International Ltd., and the Oulu
School of Architecture, University of Oulu. Their sponsorship enabled us to fulfill the quality
standards of eCAADe conference. As a special form of sponsorship, the members of the local
conference staff donated their time to help prepare and organize this conference. Thank you
all for helping us out.

eCAADe 2016 Acting Conference Chairs

Aulikki Herneoja, Toni Österlund, Piia Markkanen

Acknowledgements - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 9

List of Reviewers
Persons marked with (*) acted as session chair, in addition to their role as reviewer
Sherif Abdelmohsen - American University in
Cairo, Egypt
Henri Achten* - Czech Technical University in
Prague, Czech Republic
Asterios Agkathidis - University of Liverpool,
United Kingdom
Aleksander Asanowicz - Bialystok University of
Technology, Poland
Daniel Baerlecken - Georgia Institute of
Technology, United States
Guenter Barczik - Erfurt School of Architecture,
Germany
Jakob Beetz - Eindhoven University of Technology,
Netherlands
Anand Bhatt - Architexturez Imprints, India
Stefan Boeykens - KU Leuven - University of
Leuven, Belgium
Johannes Braumann - Association for Robots in
Architecture & University for Arts and Design
Linz, Austria
Peter Buš - Faculty of Architecture, Czech Technical
University in Prague, Czech Republic
Gulen Cagdas - Istanbul Technical University,
Faculty of Architecture, Turkey
Gabriela Celani - School of Civil Engineering,
Architecture and Urban Design at the
University of Campinas, Brazil
Tomo Cerovsek* - University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Angelos Chronis - Institute for Advanced
Architecture of Catalonia, Spain
Birgul Colakoglu* - İstanbul Technical University,
Turkey
Mahesh Daas - University of Kansas, United States
Wolfgang Dokonal* - University of Technology
Graz, Austria
Dirk Donath - Bauhaus University, Germany
Jose Duarte - Faculty of Architecture, University of
Lisbon, Portugal
Athanassios Economou - Georgia Insitute of
Technology, United States
Antonio Fioravanti* - Sapienza University of Rome,
Italy
Pia Fricker* - ETH Zurich - Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology in Zurich, Switzerland
Harald Gatermann - Bochum University of Applied
Sciences, Germany
Evelyn Gavrilou - University of Thessaly,
Department of Architecture, Greece
David Gerber* - University of Southern California,
United States
Thomas Grasl - SWAP Architects, Austria
Aulikki Herneoja* - Oulu School of Architecture,
University of Oulu, Finland
Christiane M. Herr - Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool
University, China
Jia Hu - Philips Research North America, United
States
Patrick Janssen* - National University of
Singapore, Singapore
Anja Jutraz - Institute CoLab, Slovenia
Matevz Juvancic - University of Ljubljana, Faculty
of Architecture, Slovenia
Anetta Kepczynska-Walczak* - Institute of
Architecture and Urban Planning, Lodz
University of Technology, Poland
Joachim B. Kieferle* - Hochschule RheinMain,
Germany
Kristina Kiesel - TU Wien, Austria
Arto Kiviniemi - University of Liverpool, United
Kingdom
Erik Kjems - Aalborg University, Denmark
Robert Klinc - University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Michael Knight - University of Liverpool, United
Kingdom
Tuba Kocaturk - University of Liverpool, School of
Architecture, United Kingdom
Volker Koch - Karlsruhe Institute of Technology,
Germany
Branko Kolarevic - University of Calgary, Canada
Reinhard König - ETH Zurich - Swiss Federal
Institute of Technology in Zurich, Switzerland
List of Reviewers - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 11
 Jose Kos - Federal University of Santa Catarinaa,
Brazil
Krzysztof Koszewski - Faculty of Architecture,
Warsaw University of Technology, Poland
Toni Kotnik - Aalto University, Finland
Matthias Kulcke* - Hamburg University of
Technology, HafenCity University Hamburg,
Germany
Andrew Li - Kyoto Institute of Technology, Japan
Thorsten Lomker - Zayed University Dubai, United
Arab Emirates
Wolfgang Lorenz* - TU Wien – Institute of
Architectural Sciences, Austria
Russell Loveridge - NCCR Digital Fabrication, ETH
Zurich - Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
in Zurich, Switzerland
Earl Mark - University of Virginia, School of
Architecture, United States
Bob Martens* - TU Wien, Austria
Tom Maver - Glasgow School of Art, United
Kingdom
AnnaLisa Meyboom - School of Architecture and
Landscape Architecture, Canada
Volker Mueller - Bentley Systems, United States
Michael Mullins - Aalborg University, Denmark
Marc Muylle - University of Antwerp, Belgium
Pirouz Nourian - Delft University of Technology,
Netherlands
Kateřina Nováková* - Faculty of Architecture,
Czech Technical University in Prague, Czech
Republic
Toni Österlund* - Oulu School of Architecture,
University of Oulu, Finland
Rivka Oxman - Technion – Israel Institute of
Technology , Israel
Mine Özkar* - Istanbul Technical University, Turkey
Burak Pak* - KU Leuven - University of Leuven
Faculty of Architecture, Belgium
Vera Parlac - University of Calgary, Canada
Jenni Partanen - Tampere University of
Technology, Finland
Chengzhi Peng - University of Sheffield, United
Kingdom
Frank Petzold - Technical University of Munich,
Germany
12 | eCAADe 34 - List of Reviewers - Volume 1
Henrika Pihlajaniemi* - Oulu School of
Architecture, University of Oulu, Finland
Ulrich Pont - TU Wien, Department of Building
Physics and Building Ecology, Austria
Ahmad Rafi - Mutimedia University, Malaysia
Rabee Reffat - Assiut University, Egypt
Blair Satterfield - University of British Columbia,
School of Architecture, Canada
Marc Aurel Schnabel - Victoria University of
Wellington, New Zealand
Sven Schneider - Bauhaus University, Weimar,
Germany
Tim Schork* - RAW - The Monash Future Materials
& Processes Laboratory, Monash University,
Australia
Davide Simeone - Sapienza University of Rome,
Italy
A. Benjamin Spaeth - Welsh School of Architecture,
Cardiff University, United Kingdom
Martijn Stellingwerff - Delft University of
Technology, Netherlands
Rudi Stouffs* - National University of Singapore,
Singapore
Tiemen Strobbe - Gent University, Belgium
Kjeld Svidt* - Aalborg University, Denmark
Martin Tamke* - The Royal Danish Academy of
Fine Arts, Schools of Architecture, Design and
Conservation, Denmark
Emine Mine Thompson* - Northumbria University,
United Kingdom
Armando Trento* - Sapienza University of Rome,
Italy
Bige Tuncer - Singapore University of Technology
and Design, Singapore
Žiga Turk - University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Jos van Leeuwen - Hague University of Applied
Sciences, Netherlands
Johan Verbeke* - KU Leuven - University of
Leuven, Belgium
Spela Verovsek - University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Maria Voyatzaki - Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki, School of Architecture, Greece
Ivo Vrouwe - KU Leuven - University of Leuven,
Belgium
Jerzy Wojtowicz - Warsaw University of
Technology, Poland
Stefan Wrona - Faculty of Architecture, Warsaw
University of Technology, Poland
Gabriel Wurzer* - TU Wien, Austria
Claudia Yamu - University of Groningen,
Netherlands
Tadeja Zupancic - University of Ljubljana, Faculty
of Architecture, Slovenia

List of Reviewers - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 13

Contents
5 Theme
7 Acknowledgements
11 List of Reviewers

21 KEYNOTES
23 Keynote Speakers
25 Simplexity (and Complicity) in Architecture
Branko Kolarevic
33 Complex Modelling
Mette Ramsgaard Thomsen
43 Structural Design
Toni Kotnik

51 WORKSHOPS
53 The Wave of Autonomous Mobility
Jaehwan Kim, Mathew Schwartz, Andrzej Zarzycki
59 Contextualized Digital Heritage Workshop - Oulu
Danilo Di Mascio, Anetta Kepczynska-Walczak, Nicholas Webb
63 Digital Leadership
Tadeja Zupancic, Johan Verbeke, Henri Achten, Aulikki Herneoja
69 Folding The Unfoldable
Ergun Akleman, Negar Kalantar, Alireza Borhani
73 Transformational Intelligent Systems
Pablo Baquero, Nelson Montas, Effimia Giannopoulou
77 Multi User Online Design Environment for Mass Housing
Lo Tian Tian, Marc Aurel Schnabel

81 FABRICATION | Design & Application

83 Adaptive Fabrication
Zubin Khabazi, Michael Budig
93 Negotiate My Force Flow
Oliver Tessmann, Moritz Rumpf, Philipp Eisenbach, Manfred Grohmann, Topi Äikäs
103 Additive Manufacturing and Value Creation
Heidi Turunen

Contents - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 15

 113 Groove Light
Shinya Okuda, Lin Zhenyi

121 FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling

123 Building Traditions with Digital Research
Rui Oliveira, Jose Pedro Sousa
133 Biomimetic Robotic Construction Process
Chi-Li Cheng, June-Hao Hou
143 Discrete Assembly and Digital Materials in Architecture
Gilles Retsin
153 The Robotic Production of the GRC Panels in the CorkCrete Arch Project
José Pedro Sousa, Pedro Filipe Martins

161 FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design

163 Calculated Matter
Elif Erdine, Alexandros Kallegias
169 Optimization Process Towards Robotic Manufacturing in Actual Scale
Odysseas Kontovourkis, Panagiota Konatzii
179 AMA - Additive Merged Appliance
Alina Rejepava, Mario Haring, Anna Gruber
185 Generating an Anamorphic Image on a Curved Surface Utilizing Robotic
Fabrication Process
Marko Jovanovic, Vesna Stojakovic, Bojan Tepavcevic, Dejan Mitov, Ivana Bajsanski

193 CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies

195 Digital Architectural Composition - 30 years of experience and
experimentation
Aleksander Asanowicz
205 Flying Bricks
Wolfgang E. Lorenz, Gabriel Wurzer
213 Magnet-based Interactive Kinetic Bricks
Mohammad Kouchaki, Mohammadjavad Mahdavinejad, Parastoo Zali, Shahab
Ahmadi
219 Aesthetics of Decision
Alessio Erioli

16 | eCAADe 34 - Contents - Volume 1

229 Complexity and Simplicity
A. Benjamin Spaeth, Theodoros Dounas, Joachim Kieferle
237 From Designing Buildings from Systems to Designing Systems for Buildings
Heike Matcha
241 Ubiquitous Digital Repositories In the Design Studio
Theodoros Dounas, Benjamin Spaeth

251 CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools

253 Computational Thinking and the Architectural Curriculum
Guzden Varinlioglu, Suheyla Muge Halici, Sema Alacam
261 Teaching Programming and Urban Complexity to Architecture Students
Lukas Treyer, Daniel Zünd
269 Experience in CAAD Education Using a MOOC System
Ádám Tamás Kovács, Mihály Szoboszlai
275 Dynamic Light as a Transformational Tool in Computer-aided Design
Ellen Kathrine Hansen, Michael Finbarr Mullins, Georgios Triantafyllidis
283 IT Driven Architectural Design for All?
Sebastian Białkowski, Anetta Kępczyńska-Walczak
291 Implementing Biomorphic Design
Asterios Agkathidis
299 Building Information Modelling - the Quest for Simplicity Within Complexity
Anetta Kepczynska-Walczak

309 CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication

311 Crafting as Inquiry into Computation
Vernelle A. A. Noel
321 FlexiMold: Teaching Numeric Control through a Hybrid Device
Serdar Aşut, Winfried Meijer
329 Fabricating Semi Predictable Surfaces
Joachim B. Kieferle, George Katodrytis
335 Nip and Tuck: A Simple Approach to Fabricate Double-Curved Surfaces with
2D Cutting
Negar Kalantar, Alireza Borhani, Ergun Akleman
345 Digital Materialization: Additive and Robotical Manufacturing with Clay and
Silicone
Cristina Nan, Charlie Patterson, Remo Pedreschi

Contents - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 17

 355 CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices
357 Computation in Early Design Education as Investment in Attitudes
Desantila Hysa, Mine Özkar
367 Objects-to-sense-with
Athina Papadopoulou
377 'Starting with Nothing' and 'Ending up with Something'
Jeremy Ham, Marc Aurel Schnabel, Lawrence Harvey, Daniel Prohasky
387 Understanding the Verbal Concepts Appropriated by the Students in the
Architectural Design Studio
Burak Pak, Zeynep Aydemir

395 GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies

397 Coding as Creative Practice
Corneel Cannaerts
405 Using Processing with Architectural 3D Modelling
Inês Caetano, António Leitão
413 Using the Phase Space to Design Complexity
Mary Katherine Heinrich, Phil Ayres
423 Evolving Parametric Models using Genetic Programming with Artificial
Selection
John Harding

433 GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications

435 Homeorhetic Assemblies
Roberto Monesi, Alessio Erioli
445 Monolith: The Biomedical Paradigm and the Inner Complexity of Hierarchical
Material Design
Panagiotis Michalatos, Andrew Payne
455 Design Exploring Complexity in Architectural Shells
David Gerber, Evangelos Pantazis
465 DrAFT: an Algorithmic Framework for Facade Design
Inês Caetano, António Leitão
475 Elemental Intricacy
Alexandros Kallegias, Eleni Pattichi

18 | eCAADe 34 - Contents - Volume 1

483 COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION
485 CumInCAD 2.0: A Redesigned Scalable Cloud Deployment
Tomo Cerovsek, Bob Martens
493 Collaborative Design with Mobile Augmented Reality
Leman Figen Gül, Süheyla Müge Halıcı
501 De Humani Corporis Fabrica - Fabricating Emotions through Architecture
Maria da Piedade Ferreira, Andreas Kretzer, José Pinto Duarte, Didier Stricker,
Benjamin Schenkenberger, Markus Weber, Takumi Toyama

509 SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN

511 Responsive Systems: Foundations and Application
Goncalo Castro Henriques
521 Material Agency and Physical Boundaries
Christina Doumpioti
529 Using Tensegrity and Folding to Generate Soft Responsive Architectural Skins
Sherif Abdelmohsen, Passaint Massoud, Ahmed Elshafei
537 Sensitive Shelters: Poetics of Interaction
Andrés Martin Passaro, Gonçalo Castro Henriques, Rodrigo Cury Paraizo
549 Adaptive Pneumatic Shell Structures
Paul Poinet, Ehsan Baharlou, Tobias Schwinn, Achim Menges

559 MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts

561 Model Translations
Ashish Mohite, Toni Kotnik
571 Knitflatable Architecture
Yuliya Baranovskaya, Marshall Prado, Moritz Dörstelmann, Achim Menges
581 Natural Complexity
Arielle Blonder, Yasha Jacob Grobman
591 "Free Skin" Collaboration
Timo Carl, Frank Stepper

601 MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications

603 Bio-Enabled Façade Systems
Martina Decker, George Hahn, Libertad M. Harris
613 From Interactivity Towards Ambience Through a Bottle-brick
Kateřina Nováková, Henri Achten

Contents - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 19

 621 Bending-active Structures
Eleanna Panagoulia, Simon Schleicher
631 rolyPOLY
Andrew Wit, Simon Kim
639 Material Active Geometry
Alireza Borhani, Negar Kalantar

649 TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies

651 Smart City: Adding to the Complexity of Cities
Emine Mine Thompson
661 From Moving Cube to Urban Interactive Structures
Vasilija Abramovic, Henri Achten
669 SenCity - Piloting Intelligent Lighting and User-Oriented Services in Complex
Smart City Environments
Henrika Pihlajaniemi, Eveliina Juntunen, Anna Luusua, Mirva Tarkka-Salin, Johan
Juntunen
681 Adaptive Designs with Distributed Intelligent Systems
Andrzej Zarzycki
691 Animating the Static. Case Study of The Project "Urbanimals"
Sebastian Dobiesz, Anna Grajper

20 | eCAADe 34 - Contents - Volume 1

KEYNOTES
Keynote Speakers

Branko Kolarevic
Branko Kolarevic holds the Chair in Integrated Design and co-directs the Laboratory for Integrative De-
sign (LID). Prior to his appointment at the University of Calgary, he was the Irving Distinguished Visiting
Professor at Ball State University in Indiana. He has taught architecture at several universities in North
America, most recently at the University of Pennsylvania, and in Asia, in Hong Kong.
He has lectured worldwide on the use of digital technologies in design and production and has au-
thored, edited or co-edited several books, including the recently published “Manufacturing Material Ef-
fects: Rethinking Design and Making in Architecture” (with Kevin Klinger), “Performative Architecture:
Beyond Instrumentality” (with Ali Malkawi) and “Architecture in the Digital Age: Design and Manufac-
turing.” He is the past president of the Association for Computer Aided Design in Architecture (ACADIA)
and is the recipient of the ACADIA 2007 Award for Innovative Research.

Mette Ramsgaard Thomsen

Mette Ramsgaard Thomsen’s research centers on the intersection between architecture and computer
science. During the last 15 years her focus has been on the profound changes that digital technologies
instigate in the way architecture is thought, designed and built. In 2005 she founded the Centre for IT
and Architecture research group (CITA) at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, School of Architecture, Design
and Conservation, Denmark. During the last 6 years she has successfully built up a strong international
group. In 2010 she became full Professor in Architecture and Digital Technologies.
In CITA she has piloted a special research focus on the new digital-material relations that digital tech-
nologies bring forth. Investigating advanced computer modelling, digital fabrication and material spec-
ification CITA has been central in the forming of an international research field examining the changes
to material practice in architecture. This has been led by a series of research investigations developing
concepts and technologies as well as strategic projects such as the international Digital Crafting Network
that fosters interdisciplinary sharing and dissemination of expertise and supports new collaborations in
the fields of architecture, engineering and design.

Toni Kotnik
Toni Kotnik is Professor of Design of Structures at Department of Architecture in Aalto ARTS. Toni Kot-
nik (born 1969, Germany) received his Ph.D. degree (Dr. sc. Nat.) in mathematics from the Univ. of
Zurich, Switzerland, in 1999. After completion of his second degree in architecture he worked as se-
nior researcher at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich and as studio master at the
Architectural Association (AA) in London. Dr. Kotnik was Ass. Professor at the Institute for Experimen-
tal Architecture at the University of Innsbruck and Associate Professor at the Singapore University of
Technology and Design. He is principal of d'HKL, a Zurich-based office focusing on experimental and
research-oriented architectural design, and has been lecturing worldwide including Harvard University,
Copenhagen Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Princeton University, The Bartlett School of Architecture, Oslo
School of Architecture and Design, Sydney University of Technology, the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao

Keynote Speakers - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 23

 and MoMA New York. His practice and research work has been published and exhibited internation-
ally, including the Venice Biennale, and is centered on the integration of knowledge from science and
engineering into architectural thinking and the design process.

24 | eCAADe 34 - Keynote Speakers - Volume 1

Simplexity (and Complicity) in Architecture
Branko Kolarevic1
1
University of Calgary
1
branko.kolarevic@ucalgary.ca

The paper examines the interplay between simple and complex in contemporary
architecture. It discusses how complex-looking designs could arise out of simple
design and production strategies (i.e. through "simplexity") and likewise, how
simple-looking designs can be based on rather complex conceptual and tectonic
solutions (i.e. "complicity"). The paper focuses on simplexity as a conceptual
framework for architects to embrace complexity in design.

Keywords: Simplexity, Complicity

INTRODUCTION ily complicated designs and tectonic details; how-

The broad adoption of parametric design and digi-
tal fabrication in architecture schools and offices in
the first decade of this century led to a prolifera-
tion of complex-looking designs, often with dou-
bly curved surfaces and highly differentiated com-
ponents in series, each with a unique shape. This
triumph of differentiation over repetition marked a
dramatic departure from mass production as one of
the basic tenets of Modernism, which premised eco-
nomic production of buildings on an endless rep-
etition of standardized, identical components. The
emergence of geometric modeling software based
on NURBS meant that there were no limits to the
kinds of complex geometries that could be accu-
rately represented. The computer controlled ma-
chinery for subtractive and additive fabrication made
complex shapes relatively easily attainable in a vari-
ety of materials. Geometric complexity was no longer
a barrier, either representationally or production-
wise.
Many saw the resulting formal exuberance as
an aberration, an unnecessary distraction that would
quickly fade out. In some projects, complexity be-
came an end in itself, often leading to unnecessar-
ever, complexity - whether formal, spatial, program-
matic, or tectonic - need not be complicated. Simple
rules and processes can produce remarkably com-
plex looking outcomes. As argued later in this paper,
simplexity - defined as simple complexity - is seen as
a promising way to use effectively digital design and
production technologies.
In the sections that follow, complexity and sim-
plicity are briefly discussed, with their manifestations
within the disciplinary context of architecture. Sim-
plexity is introduced as a paradoxical notion that syn-
thesizes simplicity and complexity in a productive,
conceptually compelling duality, resulting in simple
design strategies that may lead to the emergence
of complex looking formal outcomes. Such thinking
is in line with the complexity theory (Gribbin 2004),
but is still at the periphery of interest in contempo-
rary architecture. The principal argument is that new
design insights may result from exploring how com-
plexity and simplicity could coexist and co-evolve in
the design process.

Keynotes - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 25

 EXPLAINING COMPLEXITY
According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, com-
plex means "a group of things that are connected
in complicated ways;" complex and complicated are
considered as synonyms, with "having confusingly
interrelated parts" provided as a definition. The dis-
cussion of synonyms, however, does make a distinc-
tion later on between the complex and the compli-
cated: complex "suggests the unavoidable result of
a necessary combining and does not imply a fault
or failure," whereas complicated "applies to what of-
fers great difficulty in understanding, solving, or ex-
plaining." Clemens Bellut (2008) examines the distinc-
tion between the "complex" and the "complicated"
in a similar vein when discussing the concept of
complexity from a philosophical perspective: stating
that something is complicated means that "the finite
number of its determinations cannot be grasped di-
rectly;" by contrast, saying that something is complex
means that "the number of its determinations is sim-
ply infinite." He also observes that "something com-
plex [...] can assume the appearance of simplicity,
while the complicated always excludes everything
simple from itself."
Complexity as a concept is present in many do-
mains, fields and disciplines, carrying a different
meaning depending on the context in which it is ap-
plied. As Mitchell (2009) points out, however, neither
a single science of complexity nor a single complex-
ity theory exists yet. According to Erdi (2008), in most
contexts the discussion of complexity is related to the
structure of a system. Herbert Simon in his seminal
article "Architecture of complexity" published in 1962
defined the principal challenge as finding the right
representation to describe complex structures:
"How complex or simple a structure is depends
critically upon the way in which we describe it. Most
of the complex structures found in the world are
enormously redundant, and we can use this redun-
dancy to simplify their description. But to use it, to
achieve the simplification, we must find the right rep-
resentation."
Simon argues that complexity frequently takes
26 | eCAADe 34 - Keynotes - Volume 1
the form of hierarchy, as a principal structural scheme
in which a complex system is decomposed into sev-
eral subsystems, which in turn have subsystems, and
so on. Simon offers additional insights, describing
the dynamic properties of hierarchical systems and
how their behavior could be analyzed.
The focus on structure is at a center of the aptly
named structuralism, which has emerged in 1960s to-
gether with reductionism as a parallel development.
The systems theory was developed at that time too,
with its discussion of open and closed systems, and
the emphasis on interactions between the system
and its environment (in open systems). Certain char-
acteristic properties of complex systems were identi-
fied early on: the importance of feedback loops, the
notion that a small change can cause dramatic ef-
fects (the so-called "threshold effect"), and that emer-
gence and unpredictability are essential.
There is a shared understanding in various fields
that complexity is dynamic in nature rather than
static, which then raised the questions of whether
there is a continuum between simplicity and com-
plexity and whether that continuum is linear or non-
linear. Furthermore, there is also a question of mea-
suring complexity, as it is rather obvious that some
phenomena are less and some are more complex.
Kolmogorov has proposed that measuring complex-
ity is rather straightforward: if some system could be
described in a concise manner then it is less complex.
Kolmogorov complexity, also known as K-complexity
and algorithmic complexity, measures the complex-
ity of a given system or a problem by the length of
the algorithm that describes it. Kolmogorov com-
plexity is particularly apt in the context of architec-
ture (and visual arts) as it distinguishes between vi-
sual and structural complexity. As observed by Je-
sus Mosterin (2002), "regardless of the complexity in-
volved in the appearance of a pattern, complexity is
by definition based on the reproducing algorithm,
that is, a series of instructions that will generate the
visual pattern."
For some, the essence of complexity is that the
outcome of the system's operation should not be ob-
vious from its constituent parts and their interactions
- all of which could be rather simple. Such struc-
tural simplicity seems to be at the core of research
aimed at understanding complex phenomena. Ac-
cording to Gribbin (2004), "complexity theory is un-
covering the deep simplicity from which complexity
arises: simple laws, non-linearity, and sensitivity to
initial conditions." It is this "deep" structural simplicity
in design systems capable of generating complex for-
mal and spatial outcomes that is the focus of this pa-
per. The topological definition of the design's struc-
ture, i.e. the definition of the relationships between
its constituent parts plays an essential role in this pro-
cess. The complexity of a design could be expressed
as the length of the algorithmic description of its gen-
esis. What is interesting to note here is that the algo-
rithmic definition of the design is independent of its
form; it operates at the structural level.
COMPLEXITY AND SIMPLICITY IN ARCHI-
TECTURE
There is no single definition of complexity in the con-
text of architecture. We talk about complexity as
being social, cultural, programmatic, functional, for-
mal, spatial, tectonic, performative, phenomenolog-
ical... It was Robert Venturi (1966) who famously
re-introduced the subject of complexity into archi-
tecture; Venturi, however, wasn't specific about the
kinds of complexity he was interested in, making
references both to historically present complexities
in architecture and the complexities associated with
the design itself. Around the same time, György
Kepes (1965), a Hungarian-American art theoreti-
cian, heralded the emergence of movement from the
"classical sciences of simplicity toward a modern sci-
ence of ordered complexity." For Kepes, complexity
offered an integrative structural ordering that would
interconnect arts, architecture, science and technol-
ogy. Three decades later, Charles Jencks in his "Archi-
tecture of the Jumping Universe" (1995) juxtaposes
what he refers to as the "Post-Modern sciences of
complexity" to the "Modern sciences of simplicity,"
with the former sublating the latter. For Jencks, the
complexities present in the projects by Peter Eisen-
man, Frank Gehry, and Daniel Libeskind, for example,
are manifestations of broader cultural influences of
the emerging sciences of complexity. Jencks makes
it clear that architectural form is where complexity
manifests itself.
Arguably, Modernism was about simplification in
architecture, succinctly articulated as "less is more"
by Mies van der Rohe. The resulting monotonic sim-
plicity in urban contexts is what Robert Venturi's was
reacting to. Venturi was interested in the effects that
buildings have on the perceptions; Modern architec-
ture with its stripped down articulation of surfaces
and simple forms didn't offer much to the eye. It was
the absence of surface ornamentation and complex
forms that arguably made the minimalist aesthetics
of Modernism less affectionate (Kolarevic and Klinger
2008), contributing in part to its demise.
According to Ernst Gombrich (1979), the human
mind has an intrinsic need for "careful balance" be-
tween complexity and order. The mind has no trou-
ble deconstructing a simple, regular grid (i.e. recog-
nizing the monotonous); it quickly "disconnects" in
reading complex configurations if it cannot recog-
nize an underlying structure. Gombrich argues that
a "careful balance" between these two conditions,
i.e. between monotony and complexity, is what the
mind looks for in its constant processing of the sur-
rounding environments. In that vein, the infatua-
tion with complex geometry in mid-1990s soon was
replaced by the exploration of highly crafted, non-
uniform surface effects based on complex pattern-
ing, texturing, or relief (Kolarevic and Klinger 2008).
COMPLICITY AND SIMPLEXITY
In the history or architecture complexity and simplic-
ity have generally been considered as contrary no-
tions. The complexity science demonstrates other-
wise, that simplicity and complexity are interdepen-
dent and mutually coexisting. As noted by complex-
ity theorists, there is a dialectical interplay between
simplicity and complexity (Gribbin 2004). Complex-
ity can arise out of simplicity, and likewise, simplic-
Keynotes - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 27
 ity can arise out of complexity, giving rise to sim-
plexity and complicity, respectively, as new concepts
that capture the interdependence and coexistence of
complexity and simplicity and interaction and emer-
gence that is implied. The exact origins of these
terms are not clear. Jack Cohen and Ian Stewart
(1995) define complicity and simplexity interchange-
ably as "interaction between coevolving systems that
supports a tendency toward complexity" and a "sim-
pler order to emerge from complexity". For Jeffrey
Kruger (2008), simplexity is about a "complemen-
tary relationship between complexity and simplicity".
Obviously, complicity and simplexity are hybrid, re-
lated concepts framed by a synergetic relationship
between simplicity and complexity. In my view, sim-
plexity can be defined as simple complexity and, like-
wise, complicity as complex simplicity.
Simplexity is compelling because it offers a way
of describing seemingly complex outcomes by rel-
atively few simple rules and interactions. Simple,
straightforward rules may facilitate the emergence of
highly complex designs by defining a direction with-
out confining it. This conditioned emergence can
lead to shapes, forms, and spatial organizations that
look surprisingly complex, yet, at the core, are gen-
erated by a system based on simple rules. (Cellular
automata are an example of simplexity, where sim-
ple rules can lead to startlingly complex outcomes.)
Intentional simplicity, however, can be problem-
atic, because a single goal, single focus, single pre-
occupation can preclude consideration of any oth-
ers. Simplicity may thus diminish the consideration
of other, often more promising options that exist
on the periphery and favor "exploitation" over ex-
ploration. A reductive spiral of simplicity can be of-
ten counterproductive in design. But, as Obendorf
(2009) observes, "reduction is the path to simplicity,
and minimalism describes paths to approach reduc-
tion." He argues for minimalism as a "tool to think
about the simple and to discover and instantiate pat-
terns for designing simplicity." Generating visual, spa-
tial, or formal complexity with minimal means, mini-
mal structure, is actually not that simple. It requires
28 | eCAADe 34 - Keynotes - Volume 1
careful deliberation and selection of influences that
would affect the designs that could emerge from the
operation of the system.
ECONOMY OF METHOD
After seeing many students hopelessly entangled in
complicated complexities of their own making, it
became apparent rather quickly that teaching (or
"preaching") of complexity requires a pedagogic re-
finement. As argued earlier, complexity - whether
formal, spatial, programmatic, or tectonic - need not
be complicated. Simple rules and processes can pro-
duce remarkably complex looking outcomes. A par-
ticularly potent example of a complex-looking de-
sign based on simple rules is the design for the Ser-
pentine Pavilion in London (2002, figure 1) by Cecil
Balmond and Toyo Ito. The apparently random pat-
terning that wraps the entire pavilion is produced
by incremental scaling and rotation of a series of in-
scribed squares, whose edges were extended and
trimmed by the pavilion's unfolded box shape (figure
2) to create a beautiful, seemingly irregular-looking
pattern of alternating voids and solids.
There are numerous examples of designers using
design strategies based on simple rules to produce
complex looking visual, surface, spatial or formal out-
comes (Kolarevic and Klinger, 2008). Such complex-
ity based on simplicity - that is, simplexity - implies a
certain economy of method that became the essence
of my design teaching over the past decade.
To explore the relationship between complex-
ity and simplicity and to understand their interplay,
I have asked students to produce relatively quickly,
in an iterative fashion over five weeks, a series of self-
similar, complex looking objects by defining simple
parametric and production processes. An important
design and production dimension of the exercise was
a certain "economy of method," introduced as "less
effort, less machine time, less material, less waste,"
and summed up in the end as "less for more" - a
thinly veiled reference to Mies van der Rohe's famous
motto, but with an entirely different connotation.
This design/production dimension was an attempt
Figure 1
The Serpentine
Pavilion in London
(2002), designed by
Cecil Balmond and
Toyo Ito.

Figure 2
Serpentine Pavilion:
the
irregular-looking
pattern is based on
incremental scaling
and rotation of a
series of inscribed
squares.

Keynotes - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 29

 Figure 3
Expanded
Topographies, by
Dustin Headley
(2006).

to introduce resource economy (time-, material-, and Figure 4

energy-wise) into the design and production pro- Expanded
cesses. Complex effects were to be achieved through Topographies: a
simple means; the underlying ethos being that com- simple parametric
plexity need not be synonymous with complicated, procedure
i.e. that conceptual and production simplicity can automatically
produce a perception of complexity in the outcome. generates different
Expanded Topographies (figure 3), a project by cutting patterns.
Dustin Headley completed in 2006 at Ball State Uni-
The project's premise was that variegated surface
versity, offers a particularly successful demonstra-
patterns, i.e. apertures of gradually increasing or de-
tion of such a resource economy approach to design
creasing sizes, could be produced by simply vary-
and production. It was inspired by research into ex-
ing the values of expansion parameters including the
panded metal meshes, which are produced by simul-
length of cut, aligned spacing between the cuts, and
taneous slitting and stretching of a flat sheet of metal,
spacing between the successive lines of cuts. Using
resulting in a regular, repetitive pattern of diamond-
scripting in Rhinoceros, a simple parametric proce-
shaped holes. What is interesting about this process
dure automatically generated different cutting pat-
is its geometric and production simplicity, and that
terns (figure 4), which could be directly transmitted
nearly zero metal waste is generated during the pro-
to a digitally controlled cutting machine. Various pro-
cess; in addition, the final product - the expanded
totypes were produced by laser-cutting flat, rectan-
mesh - is stronger (by kilogram) and lighter (by me-
gular sheets of acrylic, which were then heated and
ter) than the original sheet.
expanded by applying equal force (in opposite di-

30 | eCAADe 34 - Keynotes - Volume 1

rections) to the two shorter sides of the sheet. The
sheets would deform in the process, depending on
the density and the lengths of the cuts, producing to-
pographic surfaces, with apertures that vary in size
across the length of the surface. Precise topogra-
phies were produced by controlling the length of
each cut and X and Y spacing between the adja-
cent cuts. In addition, by making non-parallel cuts,
i.e. by introducing angle as an additional parameter,
further possibilities for surface articulation opened
up. The design and production processes were sim-
ple and straightforward, with nearly zero material
waste, resulting in an artifact with intricate surface ef-
fects, subtle undulations and series of apertures that
change in size across the length of the panel.
CONCLUSION
The multiplicity of opposite meanings associated
with simplicity and complexity in architecture and
the implied paradoxical relationship between the
two actually open up interesting opportunities to ex-
plore them in a non-dichotomous way. The dialecti-
cal relationship between the two could be very pro-
ductive, as demonstrated by a number of authors
from a very broad range of disciplines and fields, who
argue that complexity and simplicity coexist and im-
ply each other in so many different contexts. Think-
ing of them as diametrical opposites diminishes the
productive role of simplicity in understanding com-
plexity (and vice-versa). The principal argument is
that simplicity is an elegant, efficient, way to produce
complexity in architecture. The resulting simplexity
could indeed be the source of new conceptual "min-
imalism" in architecture.
REFERENCES
Bellut, C 2008, 'The Gordian Knot of Complexity', in
Gleiniger, A and Vrachliotis, G (eds) 2008, Complex-
ity: Design Strategy and World View, Birkhauser, Basel
Cohen, J and Stewart, I 1995, The Collapse Of Chaos:
Discovering Simplicity In A Complex World, Penguin
Books, London, UK
Érdi, P 2008, Complexity explained, Springer, Berlin
Gombrich, EH 1979, The Sense of Order: A Study in the Psy-
chology of Decorative Art, Cornell University Press,
Ithaca, NY
Gribbin, JR 2004, Deep Simplicity: Bringing Order To Chaos
And Complexity, Random House, New York
Jencks, C 1995, Architecture of the Jumping Universe: A
Polemic: How Complexity Science is Changing Archi-
tecture and Culture, Wiley, New York
Kepes, G (eds) 1965, Structure in Art and Science, George
Braziller, New York
Kolarevic, B and Klinger, K 2008, 'Manufacturing / Ma-
terial / Effects', in Kolarevic, K and Klinger, K (eds)
2008, Manufacturing Material Effects: Rethinking De-
sign and Making in Architecture, Spon Press (Taylor &
Francis), London, UK
Kruger, J 2008, Simplexity: Why Simple Things Become
Complex (And How Complex Things Can Be Made Sim-
ple), Hyperion, New York
Mitchell, M 2009, Complexity: A Guided Tour, Oxford Uni-
versity Press, Oxford, UK
Mosterin, J 2002 'Kolmogorov Complexity', in Agazzi,
Evandro and Montecucco, Luisa (eds.), Complexity and
Emergence, Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the
International Academy of the Philosophy of Science,
Bergamo, Italy
Obendorf, H 2009, Minimalism: Designing Simplicity,
Springer, New York
Simon, HA 1962 'The architecture of complexity', Pro-
ceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol.
106, No. 6. (Dec. 12, 1962), pp. 467-482
Venturi, R 1966, Complexity and Contradiction in Architec-
ture, Museum of Modern Art, New York
Keynotes - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 31
Complex Modelling
Questioning the infrastructures of information modelling
Mette Ramsgaard Thomsen1
1
The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts
1
Mette.Thomsen@kadk.dk
This paper outlines the keynote given at eCAADe 2016, Oulu.
Keywords: Simulation, Adaptive Parametrisation, Open Topologies, Multi Scale
Modelling
INTRODUCTION
We are finding ourselves in a time of rethinking our
material practices. As research into design compu-
tation matures, its fundamental links to fabrication
are challenging industrialised paradigms of building
construction. With origin in the many explorations of
mass customisation and material investigation, our
practice is entering a new era in which architects
become the designers of materials as well as arte-
facts. The interest in designing directly for fabrication
has transcended the scales of materialisation mov-
ing from the fabrication of individualised building el-
ements to the direct production and specification of
the materials themselves. This extension of the dig-
ital design chain integrating the design of not only
material systems but also the composition of their
components is now an overarching paradigm inform-
ing research and finding its way into practice.
In this paradigm materials are no longer stan-
dardised to a measure of global uniformity, but in-
stead locally tuned and optimised. This thinking is
linked to interdisciplinary efforts in the broader fields
of engineering and material science that are rethink-
ing how we materialise our world. We are living in a
time of extreme material inventiveness and are sur-
rounded by highly engineered materials. The 20th
century has brought with it an era of synthetic and
engineered materials from the artificial silk of nylon
stockings to high modulus polymers, ceramic com-
posites to Nano-materials (Beukers 1999, pp. 14-
15). Now, architecture and building culture is enter-
ing this way of thinking. The link between design
and direct material manufacture and the ability to
programme advanced steering mechanisms, has al-
lowed architects to prototype material systems that
grade intensity or structure in response to design in-
tent, optimising material usage and employing in-
herent material performances. In architecture, the
ability to use materials in smarter and less intense
manner are fundamental building blocks for the con-
ception of lighter building culture; a culture in which
lighter means less material, less transportation and
altogether a lighter impact on our environments.
This paper discusses the modelling paradigms
needed to engage with this new material practices.
If traditional architectural drafting have successfully
transitioned into parametric design paradigm such
as Building Information Modelling (BIM) and other
more bespoke computational design practices, the
question remains how we transform these systems to
engage the profoundly inter-disciplinary and inter-
scalar design environment of the extended digital
chain. When we design across the scales of the build-
ing system, the element and the material, we en-
Keynotes - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 33
 counter multiple scales of engagement all of which Figure 1
has its own discipline specific modelling paradigms. 3D printing auxetic
This paper questions how these models can be inte- material, Norbert
grated so as to enable strategic exchange between Palz, CITA 2009.
them, and what underlying infrastructures we need
to develop in order to work successfully with these
concepts. The claim is that these new practice ne-
cessitate new modelling practices that fundamen-
tally exceeds the boundaries of existing modelling
paradigms and that it is this ground research ques-
tion that is the core enquiry of our time.

CONSTRAINTS IN CURRENT MODELLING

PRACTICES
At present, the development of digital design tools Figure 2
in architecture is structured around large-scale indus- Stressed Skin, Paul
try led efforts that have sought to standardise infor- Nicholas, David
mation and develop shared protocols between inter- Stasiuk, Esben
disciplinary partners (Jernigan 2008). However, core Clausen Nørgaard,
efforts such as BIM have proved inadequate in tack- CITA 2015.
ling the high degrees of complexity of current build-
ing practice while at the same time not being able to
support the needs for flexible, intuitive and commu-
nicable design processes (Salim 2010, Holzer 2007).
Practice is aware of these embedded limitations of
current modelling practice and the industry devel-
opment has therefore been paralleled with a series
of profession-led research and development efforts
creating bespoke modelling methods allowing com-
plex design solutions and creating links to fabrica-
tion (Burry 2011, p. 28). The practice of architects
building their own information tools, encoding their
models and engaging directly with model interfacing
is therefore an embedded part of existing practice.
However, this effort is project-led, practice-specific
and rarely shared.
As building culture enters a rethinking of its ma-
terial practices, we need to future-proof our rep-
resentations. Rather than building common stan-
dards and libraries for known practices, we need to
develop the fundamental infrastructures for yet un-
known practices. This position fundamentally chal-
lenges some of the cornerstones of present mod-
elling paradigms.

34 | eCAADe 34 - Keynotes - Volume 1

Figure 3 A persistence of hierarchy: Building practice is tra-
The Rise, Martin ditionally organised hierarchically as a sequence of
Tamke, Mette subsystems each with their own scale of engagement
Ramsgaard and team of specialised professions. This division
Thomsen, David persists within modern design practice and is mir-
Stasiuk, Hollie rored by legislative according of responsibility within
Gibbons, CITA 2013. the design chain. However, this understanding of de-
In The Rise the sign as a progression through the scales limits the po-
growth algorithm tential for design innovation as it excludes our ability
and consecutive to understand how the small scales - material or de-
sprouting of tail - can affect large scales - environment or struc-
branches means, ture. To support a real implementation of feedback
that structural in the design chain we need to develop mechanisms
performance of the for multi-phased and multi-scalar feedback in which
artefact is cyclical interdependencies can be investigated and
continually assessed.
changing.

Figure 4
Tower, Mette
Ramsgaard
Thomsen, Martin
Tamke, Anders
Holden Deleuran,
Ida Tinning Friis,
CITA and Christoph
Gengnagel, Michel
Schmeck, UDK The ideal of the unified model: The ambition to inte-
2015. In Tower grate all design phases and practices has proven dif-
highly ficult as different practices use different kinds of tools
interdependent to analyse and represent knowledge. BIM models are
system of active breaking their own modelling frameworks in terms
bent GFRP rods and of pure scale becoming bigger, wider and deeper The expectation of known design parameters: De-
tensile membranes in the sense that they encompass more information sign is process of discovery. Unknown opportunities
interact to create from more disciplines (bigger), they include more and limitation appear through the collective invest-
overall structural phases or design (wider) and they expand into new ment into the design phase. However, current infor-
performance. These scales of design concern (deeper). This is creating a mation modelling necessitates a priori understand-
interactions are bottle-neck that is impeding innovation and creativ- ing of key design parameters. When new parame-
simulated ity in architectural design practice. Instead of inte- ters appear, design models break and either need re-
employing light grating information into one containing model, we programming or become messy hacks (Davis 2013,
weight goal based need to build networked models that pass informa- pp 37-47). A central premise for the future of the in-
methods and tion between discreet part models that are dedicated formation model is therefore that it engenders open
correlated to FE to particular tasks and can be continuously tuned and topologies by which adaptive parametrisation can
analysis. changed. take place so that we can build models in which pa-

Keynotes - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 35

 rameters can appear or conversely dissipate into con-
stants without breaking the design logic.
Geometry as information interface: Finally, we
need to reconsider our reliance on geometry as a
prime interface for information. Simulations and
generative design processes include numerical mod-
elling occurring across discreet time steps though
which solutions emerge. We therefore need to ex-
pand our perception of modelling as something that
occurs in time and through event (Nicholas 2014).
Furthermore, as we start implementing more com-
plex n-dimensional data analysis algorithms such
as k-means clustering, the description of three-
dimensional extension becomes a limitation in our
means of visualisation of a design space. Finally,
the expansion of digital design chain, making mate-
rial design part of architectural design, also includes
the encounter of new discipline- and scale-specific
models that do not fit with geometric representation.
Where building culture is used to other means of de-
scription such as numeric tables for processes such
as cost estimation or stress strain graphs, these are
understood as secondary to the actual 3D model. As
new modelling methods mature, we need to under-
stand the inherent heterogeneity of the networked
model while retaining the creative and intuitive prop-
erties of our own methods.
RESEARCHING COMPLEX MODELLING
In CITA, the enquiry into how these modelling
paradigms are changing have shaped the last five
years of research. Currently this is framed by the re-
search project Complex Modelling, a framing project
supported by the Danish Sapere Aude Advanced
Research Programme. Here, we are exploring fu-
ture modelling paradigms and how methods from
parallel disciplines including engineering and com-
puter science can broaden our practices and trans-
fer central concepts and tools. With special focus
on systems that integrate material performance, en-
gage high degrees of interdependency and allow the
emergence of design agency and feedback between
the multiple scales of the structure, the element
36 | eCAADe 34 - Keynotes - Volume 1
and material, our aim is to prototype future meth-
ods for information modelling. The project builds
on CITA's central investigation into material perfor-
mance. Here, material performance is understood as
a core resource for design innovation being closely
tied to material optimisation. Positioning feedback
as a central concern cascading through all scales of
engagement, the project asks how dynamic modes
of organisation can introduce new logics into the de-
sign of architectural information models.
Where an initial interest in Complex Modelling
lay with the abstraction of the high dimensionality
of complex solution spaces and the construction of
methods by which to strategically steer these, it has
become clear that the challenge is not how to de-
sign in n-dimensions but rather how to understand
and capture interdependency. In Complex Mod-
elling interdependency occurs at multiple levels. Be-
tween material systems, between scales of material
manipulation, between modes representation and
modes analysis and simulation and between explicit
design strategies and those that are generative and
optimised. As such each project engenders their
own distinct landscape of networked models. Where
concepts and tools are ported across projects, each
project finds their own particular way of orchestrat-
ing these into cohesive wholes.
The following goes through some of the cen-
tral enquiries of Complex Modelling. These are ex-
emplified through brief project presentations. Com-
plex Modelling follows an experimental design led
method in which a series of linked research projects
as well as 'sketch probes' act as material experiments.
The emphasis on the design and implementation al-
lows the project to engage directly with the inves-
tigated techniques and technologies moving along
the digital chain from design and analysis to spec-
ification and fabrication. This integrated approach
positions the research inquiries within a network of
interconnected expertise and practice. The results,
the design probes and the demonstrators generate
shared empirical data that can be further tested, anal-
ysed and evaluated. The projects are therefore to
be seen more as vehicles by which the research en-
quiry can be undertaken than as independent re-
search goals. The discussion presented here there-
fore moves across multiple projects exposing the
methods by which different concepts are investi-
gated.
Integrating Simulation
CITA's central interest in material performance has led
to a fundamental exploration into integrating simu-
lation. The emergence of the shared digital design
platform has brought with it an opening up of tradi-
tional disciplinary boundaries and a merging of core
modelling concepts. The ability to interface complex
analysis tools for the simulation of force and flow,
such as Finite Element (FE) analysis that discretise
complex problems into finite numbers of interrelated
nodes to compute their force-relations, is influencing
the thinking of structural design enabling the realisa-
tion of buildings with higher degree of formal free-
dom and structural complexity (Clough 1999).
In CITA, our interest lies especially with the in-
tegration of simulation into the early design phases.
By allowing simulation to not only be employed as a
concluding evaluation of an already mature design,
but also a tool for exploration and form finding, sim-
ulation becomes part of a larger set of dynamic mod-
elling tools for exploring and creating design possi-
bilities. This has meant a particular interest in light-
weight spring-based simulation tools including first
Nucleus (Holden Deleuran 2011) and later Kangaroo
but also self-scripted physics engines (Tamke 2014).
In our extensive exploration of active bending (Rams-
gaard Thomsen 2011, Tamke 2012, Nicholas 2013)
and highly interdependent material systems (Rams-
gaard Thomsen 2015, we examine light-weight sim-
ulation as a means of understanding and formalising
material behaviour, calibrating the bending of tim-
ber lamellas or GFRP rods and calculating its interac-
tion with interconnected tensile members. In these
investigations, simulation is not seen in isolation, but
rather as intrinsically correlated. Light-weight simu-
lations are both tested against and testing more solid
FE simulations allowing for continual feedback be-
tween early stage design exploration and later stage
design refinement. Similarly, simulations are not lim-
ited to material or structural simulation, but incorpo-
rated into a larger framework of simulation particular
to each individual project. These have included light
simulation (Nicholas 2014), computational fluid dy-
namics or agent based simulations (Tamke 2010) by
which design performance, structural performance
and material assembly are negotiated.
This practice of conceiving the information
model as comprising multiple design integrated sim-
ulations only intensifies as we work in a multi scalar
design space. Here, scale specific simulations at the
scale of the structure, the element and the material
are interfaced, passing information between individ-
ual part models. As such, simulation is not singular,
but instead recurrent and distributed across the land-
scape networked model.
Simulations introduce important concepts to de-
sign modelling. Occurring in time and through event,
simulation necessitate time steps thus making us un-
derstand design as the incremental movement to-
wards solutions in difference to the explicit shaping
of absolute form. This new temporality of our compu-
tational design space is exploded and discontinuous.
Rather, discreet events can be called, occur in parallel
or enact in isolation triggering new design decisions.
Adaptive Parametrisation and Open
Topologies
A second focus in Complex Modelling is the explo-
ration of methods for adaptive parametrisation in the
information model. To preserve design control, para-
metric models necessarily operate with a reduced
number of design parameters thereby reducing the
complexity of the model. Where this is practical, it
also limits our way of understanding the potential of
design synthesis and leads to an inherently reductive
design process.
The field of computational design is currently en-
gaged in a push to build new models of for under-
standing and capturing the emergent effects of high-
Keynotes - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 37
 Figure 5
Leaning to be a
vault, David Stasiuk,
Mette Ramsgaard
Thomsen, CITA
2014. In Leaning to
be a vault
generative
algorithm are
coupled with
machine learning
algorithm to
explore the
classification of a
large design space
employing open
topologies. The
model optimises
the active bending
of rattan elements
as well as multiple
other design
parameters.

order parametric design. Here, new tools are being
prototyped for understanding multi objective opti-
misation allowing architects to navigate the design
space along the Pareto-front and "...giving feedback
on the best trade-offs that were found so far" (Vier-
linger 2014). These new tools support existing con-
cepts for understanding design as 'optioneering' or
'versioning', in which the singular design object, is
seen as part of a larger space of possibility, that were
introduced already in early digital design processes.
However, they often entail a fundamental fixing of
the underlying topology onto which variation is pro-
cessed.
To retain the flexibility of this new design space,
we need to embed the possibility for change of the
topology of the design model. Open topologies,
in which the dependencies between parameters are
emergent and open to change during the design pro-
cess, allow an inherent flexibility in design by en-
abling the activation of new - or the neglecting of
obsolete - parameters. We need to build methods by
which these can be steered and controlled so that we
can move beyond random mutation and into much
more deliberate progressions.
In CITA recent work is exploring these concepts
through dynamic modelling tools including growth
algorithms and machine learning tools. Growth algo-
rithms introduce interesting ways of understanding
the model as actively evolving through the design
process. This firstly establishes a temporal dimen-
sion to the design model but also allow us to think of
topologies with changing body plans (Tamke 2013).
This enquiry into open and adaptive modelling
strategies has led to an interest in machine learn-
ing. Here, generative and evolutionary design strate-
gies are coupled with tools for emergent classifica-

38 | eCAADe 34 - Keynotes - Volume 1

Figure 6
Leaning to be a
vault, David Stasiuk,
Mette Ramsgaard
Thomsen, CITA
2014. The
unsupervised
learning algorithm
classifies the design
space into
intuitively
understood
differences.

Keynotes - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 39


tion. In sketch projects such as "Learning to be a
vault" we have explore supervised as well as unsuper-
vised learning methods for clustering large scale de-
sign spaces into formal classification systems, guided
both by the designer and allowed to emerge from
a design model's underlying data structure (Stasiuk
2014).
Topological thinking has furthermore led to an
interest in graph modelling as a means to repre-
sent and manage the underlying interconnectivity
of design parameters and in new projects we are
exploring neural networks methods such as NEAT
(NeuroEvolution of Augmenting Topologies) (Stanley
2002) by which to create evolutionary processes that
can change and optimise design topologies.
These processes present alternative strategies
to the embedded reductionism of parametric mod-
elling. Here, models exist in multiples - in thou-
sands of models - that are spawned by the generative
system to then be analysed by the learning system.
Models are no longer singular end points but belong
40 | eCAADe 34 - Keynotes - Volume 1
Figure 7
The multi scale
modelling levels of
Stressed Skin, Paul
Nicholas, David
Stasiuk, Esben
Clausen Nørgaard,
CITA 2015.
processes of expansion, increasing in number and in
complexity by each time step of evolution. The de-
signer becomes part of a design cycle in which classi-
fication, querying and management of data sets be-
come new design concepts.
Multi Scale Modelling
In CITA, the interest in these new modelling
paradigms is how they impact on the way we work
with material systems. Where the above outlines
strategies for developing model landscapes com-
posed of multiple dynamic and interacting part mod-
els operating across different design phases and mul-
tiple scales, the question becomes how inter-model
communication is facilitated. The aim is feedback.
Rather than reducing the digital chain to adhere to
a traditional perception of design as a one-way pro-
cess of refinement consecutively encountering ever
smaller scales, our interest is in supporting inter scale
relationships, in which design at the small scale is
linked to design at the large scale.
This is explored through concepts for multi scale
modelling (Nicholas 2015). Multi scale modelling is
interesting because of its broad interdisciplinary ap-
plication in problems that aim to analyse and repre-
sent large scale problems with high degrees of com-
plexity and where it becomes intractable to model
the problem within one unified model. Multi scale
modelling presents methods for coupling and inter-
facing models so that meta scale models can be in-
formed and parametrised through lower scale mod-
els but also conversely parse information back down
through the design chain thus profiting from both
the macroscopic models as well as the accuracy of the
microscopic models (Weinan 2011).
In CITA we employ multi scale modelling meth-
ods using both nested strategies in which lower scale
models neatly reference the uniform subdivision of
a larger scale model as well as more tactical strate-
gies in local variation in the scale subdivisions corre-
late to areas of higher degrees of complexity. In these
strategies, the mesh becomes a shared interface al-
lowing the translation of information between dif-
ferent scales of design engagement (Nicholas 2015).
The mesh is no longer only a geometric descriptor
but instead a dynamically changing infrastructure
coarsening or refining so as to keep information at
the right resolution level.
CONCLUSION
Complex Modelling is one out the many projects
across our community to explore these paradigms.
Although perhaps unique in its focus on the under-
lying infrastructure of advanced digital modelling, it
is part of larger push to expand and evolve our mod-
elling practices. Our community is maturing. With
large scale research projects such as the Digital Fab-
rication NCCR at ETH, the Biological Design and In-
tegrative Structures at University of Stuttgart and In-
nochain at CITA and across 6 European institutions,
our field is contributing with real solutions for future
building culture.
However, we need to be much more conscious
of the research contribution that the evolution of our
modelling methods is presenting. Where projects
tend to foreground the particular structural, material
or performative advancement it is investigating, the
new modes of information modelling developed to
do so are equally important. Our field is criticised
for being speculative or overly interested in formal
aspects of design, both by more conventional prac-
tice and by our neighbouring disciplines. However,
I believe that we need to think of these multiple ex-
periments as the prototyping of methodologies. As
such, we are embedded into a culture of ground re-
search exploration, which will profoundly change the
modalities of architectural representation. This is im-
portant because, as all architects know, the means of
representation are our means of conception and en-
action.
Furthermore, it is a field in which we are con-
tributing quite singularly. Where design computa-
tion is fundamentally interdisciplinary, and core re-
search engagements are achieved because of the
broad disciplinary project teams, then the evolution
of the design model tends to be in the hand of the
architects. Perhaps this is because geometric repre-
sentation traditionally is the hands of the architect or
because it supports the architect's role of orchestrat-
ing collaboration. Despite the actual methods being
highly interdisciplinary coming from computer sci-
ence, engineering, material science or biology, then
it is architects that are standing for these transfers of
knowledge.
We are transforming our practice and present-
ing a new consideration of design as something in-
herently dynamic, interconnected and incongruous.
Here, complexity is not an extravagance but rather
the probing of a future to come.
REFERENCES
Beukers, A and van Hinte, E 2001, Lightness: the inevitable
renaissance of minimum energy structures, 010 Pub-
lishers, Rotterdam
Burry, M 2011, Scripting Cultures - Architectural design and
Programming, Architectural Design Primers, John
Wileys and Sons Ltd, London
Clough, RW and Wilson, EL 1999 'Early finite element re-
Keynotes - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 41
 search at Berkeley', Proceedings of the 5th US National Tamke, M, Stasiuk, D and Ramsgaard Thomsen, M 2013
Conference Computational Mechanics, Boulder, Col- 'The Rise – Material Behaviour in Generative Design',
orado Proceedings of the 33rd Annual Conference of the As-
Davis, D 2013, Modelled on Software Engineering: Flexi- sociation for Computer Aided Design in Architecture,
ble Parametric Models in the Practice of Architecture, Cambridge, Ontario, pp. 379-388
Ph.D. Thesis, chool of Architecture and Design, Col- Tamke, M, Stasiuk, D and Ramsgard Thomsen, M 2014,
lege of Design and Social context, RMIT University 'The Rise – Building with Fibrous Systems', in Gra-
Holden Deleuran, A, Tamke, M and Ramsgaard Thom- mazio, F, Kohler, M and Langenberg, S (eds) 2014,
sen, M 2011 'Designing with Deformation - Sketch- Fabricate: Negotiating Design and Making, GTA Pub-
ing material and aggregate behaviour of actively lishers
deforming structures', Proceedings of SimAUD 2011, Ramsgaard Thomsen, M, Bech, K and Tamke, M 2011,
Boston, pp. 5-12 'Thaw – Imaging a soft tectonics', in Glynn, R and
Holzer, D 2007 'Are you talking to me? Why BIM is not the Sheil, B (eds) 2011, Fabricate: Making Digital Archi-
answer', Association of Architecture Schools Australa- tecture, Riverside Architectural Press, Canada
sia Conference, University of Technology Sydney Ramsgaard Thomsen, M, Tamke, M, Holden Deleuran,
Jernigan, FE and Onuma, KG 2008, Big Bim Little Bim, 4site A, Friis Tinning, I, Leander Evers, H, Gengnagel, C
Press, Salisbury and Schmeck, M 2015 'Hybrid Tower, Designing Soft
Nicholas, P 2013, Designing Material Materialising Design, Structures', Design Modelling Symposium: Modelling
1st Ed., Riverside Architectural Press Behaviour, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg
Nicholas, P, Stasiuk, D, Clausen Nørgaard, E and Hutchin- Vierlinger, R and Bollinger, K 2014 'Accommodating
son, C 2015 'A Multiscale Adaptive Mesh Refinement change in parametric design', Proceedings of the
Approach to Architectured Steel Specification in the 34th Annual Conference of the Association for Com-
Design of a Frameless Stressed Skin Structure, in puter Aided Design in Architecture (ACADIA) ISBN
Modelling Behaviour', Design Modelling Symposium: 9781926724478, Los Angeles, pp. 609-618
Modelling Behaviour, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg Weinan, E 2011, Principles of Multiscale Modelling, Cam-
Nicholas, P, Tamke, M and Riiber, J 2014 'The Agency of bridge University Press
Event: Event based simulation for architectural de-
sign', Proceedings of the 34th Annual Conference of the
Association for Computer Aided Design in Architecture
(ACADIA) ISBN 9781926724478, Los Angeles, pp. 63-
74
Stanley, KO and Miikkulainen, R 2002, 'Evolving Neural
Networks Through Augmenting Topologies', Evolu-
tionary Computation, 10(2), p. 99–127
Stasiuk, D and Ramsgaard Thomsen, M 2014 'Learning
to be a Vault - Implementing learning strategies for
design exploration in inter-scalar systems', Proceed-
ings of the 32nd International Conference on Educa-
tion and research in Computer Aided Architectural De-
sign in Europe, Volume 1, Northumbria University,
Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, pp. 381-390
Tamke, M, Lafuente Hernández, E, Holden Deleuran, A,
Gengnagel, C, Burry, M and Ramsgaard Thomsen,
M 2012 'A new material practice - Integrating de-
sign and material behaviour', Proceedings of SimAUD
2012, Orlando, FL, USA, pp. 5-13
Tamke, M, Riiber, J, Jungjohann, H and Ramsgard Thom-
sen, M 2010, 'Lamella Flock', in Ceccato, C, Hes-
selgren, L, Pauly, M, Pottmann, H and Wallner, J
(eds) 2010, Advances in Architectural Geometry 2010,
Springer Verlag, Vienna, pp. 37-48

42 | eCAADe 34 - Keynotes - Volume 1

Structural Design
A Systemic Approach
Toni Kotnik1
1
Aalto University
1
toni.kotnik@aalto.fi

The paper sketches out the idea of a systemic approach to structural design.
Starting with the notion of complexity as interweaving of feedback loops it
introduces a thermodynamic understanding of the problem of form-finding and
discusses some implications for the design of building structures.

Keywords: structural design, systemic thinking, form-finding, thermodynamics,

complexity

INTRODUCTION This paper is examining the notion of complexity

Over the past twenty years, the introduction and in-
tegration of computational methods and techniques
into architectural design and discourse has been par-
alleled by the almost ubiquitous presence of the no-
tion of complexity in connection with applications
of the digital: complex architectural geometry, com-
plex fabrication, complex assembly, complex envi-
ronmental performance, or complex urban analysis
to name but a few. In this context, complexity is used
synonymously as indication of an advanced level ap-
plication to an otherwise well-known topic within ar-
chitecture.
Such a connotation of the notion of complex-
ity as advanced level application, however, stabilizes
our current understanding of architecture. It veils the
mind-changing potential of the digital and limits the
conscious recognition of computation as a paradig-
matic shift within the discipline. Architecture is tak-
ing part in an "intellectual revolution [that] is happen-
ing all around us, but few people are remarking on
it. Computational thinking is influencing research in
nearly all disciplines, both in the sciences and the hu-
manities. . . . It is changing the way we think" (Bundy,
2007).
and its relation to computation more carefully and is
sketching out some of its implication for architectural
thinking, exemplified by changes to structural design
as a sub-discipline.
WOVEN COMPLEXITY
The etymological roots of the word complex can be
traced back to the Latin complecti, from com- (with,
together) and plectere (to weave, to twine). In its
original meaning, therefore, complexity refers to an
activity of weaving together independent threads
into a new organized whole. This bringing together,
however, is not a simple additive process as the ac-
tual weaving of material illustrates: the weft and the
warp interact with each other, both threads deform
and connect to one another by friction.
It is the coordinated accumulation of this active
interaction that results in new properties of the over-
all configuration that is not apparent in the threads
themselves. Such emergent properties like a specific
spatial morphology or structural rigidity are used for
example by the artist Joe Hogan in the creation of
sculptures based on traditional basket weaving tech-

Keynotes - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 43

 Figure 1
Principle of
weaving based on
embedding of weft
thread into
collection of warp
threads and
examples of
possible weaving
patterns; From
Earth And Sky,
woven sculpture,
2012, by Joe Hogan,
Co Galway, Ireland
(Photo: Rory Moore,
Belfast, Northern
Ireland).

niques (Figure 1). Here, especially the resulting over- Figure 2

all shape of the sculpture is often hard to predict as
the bending stiffness of the willow changes along the
thread as well as from thread to thread.
In general, the weaving pattern introduces an in-
terdependency between neighboring threads which
causes a feedback mechanism that influences the
precise formation of each individual thread (Figure 2).
That is, weaving can be seen as the construction of a
network of threads with a large number of overlap-
ping and interacting feedback loops. It is this feed-
back mechanism that guides the formation process
as visible expression of the regulatory behavior and
distribution effect caused by the circular interaction.
An effect, explored in depth first by Norbert Wiener in
his seminal book Cybernetics or Control and Commu-
nication in the Animal and the Machine published in
1948 (Wiener). Together with General Systems The-
ory, established by Ludwig von Bertanlanffy in the
1940s, Wiener's Cybernetics provided the foundation
for the development of systemic thinking and sys-
tems theory up to the present (Ståhle, 2009).
Translation of a
simple warp-weft
configuration into
the related
connectivity matrix
and according
With this in mind, the notion of complexity has to
directed graph.
be understood essentially as a systemic notion. It
relates to pattern of interwoven simple relationship
between a larger set of agents that allow for feed-
back loops as a form of exchange of information be-
tween the agents. Complexity describes the ability
of a set of agents to organize itself into a new whole,
of phase change, of re-organization into a new unity.
Complexity, therefore, fundamentally is a transitional
phenomena at the transformational stage between
hierarchies of organization. It refers to the ability in-
herent in a system for organized construction, a con-
struction of morphology or structural stability like in
the example of the woven sculpture by Joe Hogan.

44 | eCAADe 34 - Keynotes - Volume 1

Figure 3
Paradigmatic shift
in science from
reductionism to
systemic thinking
and related
concepts of
exploration that
have been taken up
in digital
architectural design
with some temporal
delay.

SYSTEMIC BEHAVIOR due to potentially new methods of spatial organi-

Systemic thinking is a holistic thinking that caused
a paradigmatic shift in science by questioning the
universality of reductionism as scientific method of
exploration. Since the 1950s, this shift has been
triggered by the availability of computational means
which made is possible to handle and explore a large
set of interaction between various quantifiable enti-
ties (Mussmann, 1995). The possibility to explore in
more depth the self-regulating effect of feedback has
resulted in a successive modification or even replace-
ment of reductionism as the predominant paradigm
of research thinking. That is, the mechanistic under-
standing of nature and the continuous top-down re-
duction of the whole into parts has been exchanged
from patterns of local interaction to the overall global
arrangement of the parts as an emergent bottom-
up property of the system (Figure 3). Starting in
the late 1980s it is not surprising that architects be-
came interested in these systemic models of nature
zation and form-generation provided by computers
and appropriate software (Weinstock, 2010). As a re-
sult, over the past decade, systemic notions and con-
cepts from science have diffused into architectural
discourse and are currently being explored for design
purposes.
One of the main applications of the self-
regulating capacity of systems has been in the devel-
opment of computational tools for form-finding of
long-span roof structures and lightweight structures,
a classical problem in structural design, at the con-
ceptual stage of the design process. Such structures
transfer their loads purely through axial or in-plane
forces and the shape is determined primarily by the
flow of forces in space. This distribution of forces in
space is typically not know in advance and therefore
a formation process is required (Veenendaal & Block,
2012).

Keynotes - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 45

 Figure 4
Material system
with multiple stable
equilibrium
positions. The
material system is
based on a
membrane covered
by
triangular-shaped
panels resulting in a
hinged plate
Before the availability of computational tools, physi- The reason for this limitation is that particle-spring system with limited
cal experiments were used to determine the shape. systems are highly ordered systems: the relation be- angular range.
Probably the best-known examples are the hang- tween neighboring particles is very restrictive and Through the
ing chain model by Antonio Gaudi for the Colònia aims for balancing out of uneven force distribution lightning effect at
Güell in Barcelona or Heinz Isler's membrane models resulting in pure compression or tension within each the interior zones of
for thin-walled shell buildings (Kotnik, 2011). These neighborhood of a particle and no rapid change of compression and
experimental form-finding methods can be approx- the surface geometry. This means all neighborhoods tension can be
imated computationally by particle-spring systems, of the surface have to be similar in their geometric identified visually
a multibody system method (Kilian & Ochsendorf, quality. If, on the other hand, compression and ten- (Aalto University,
2005). One of the first tools created to explore sion are available within the same neighborhood of Creative Design in
particle-spring systems as a method of form-finding a particle then rapid change of the surface geometry Engineering,
was CADenary, a simulation tool built mainly by Axel is possible and various equilibrium solutions of the Students: Iulia
Kilian in 2002. It gained popularity due to the intu- system can exist (Figure 4). This means, the systemic Radion, Joonas
itive understandability and the interactive character behavior of structures in general is much more intri- Jaaranen, Umar
of the particle-spring system but lacked features to cate than the existing methods of form-finding are Riaz).
make it into a versatile design tool. Some of these de- able to capture. Compression and tension function
sign limitations have been overcome by Kangoroo, a as pushing-and-pulling effect in the formation pro-
popular physics engine for Rhinoceros developed by cess of structural systems and it is well-known from
Daniel Piker that allows an interactive simulation and the study of dynamic systems in physics and biol-
form-finding (Piker, 2013). ogy that it is the simultaneity of pushing and pulling
One of the big shortcomings of the particle- within a system which is responsible for the emer-
spring approach is that the described method of gence of new phenomena and configurations (May-
form-finding is only valid for tension-only respec- field, 2013).
tively compression-only structures like membranes
or shells. In more general cases, the underlying dy- THERMODYNAMIC FORM-FINDING
namic relaxation process does not converge. The In order to overcome the limitations of the existing
same limitation is true for other existing methods of methods of form-finding it is, therefore, suggested
form-finding in structural design like the Thrust Net- that a new systemic approach to structural design is
work Analysis (Block & Ochsendorf, 2007) embedded required for a better understanding of formation pro-
into Rhinovault, a form-finding software by Philippe cess in structural systems.
Block. Starting point of such a new approach is the

46 | eCAADe 34 - Keynotes - Volume 1

Figure 5
The transformed
free body diagram
of static equilibrium
of the hanging
chain model as
open system
diagram and
alternative force
flow within system observation that in engineering the understanding
which result in of the system under consideration is defined by the
bending. free body diagram, an isolated description of the
part of the structural system and all the forces act-
ing upon it (Muttoni, 2006). The primary goal of this
diagram is the detailed examination of the force dis-
tribution within the structural system at static equi-
librium. Hence, it describes a fixed situation, the sit-
uation at the end of the formation process. Form-
finding, however, is a dynamic process and is driven
by constant change of the configuration. In the case
of the particle-spring system this change is provoked
by a residual force at each of the particles, a lumped
mass, that introduces some kinetic energy into the
system (Figure 5). The process of change continues
till all the energy has dissipated and structural equi-
librium is achieved. By introducing this residual force
and the initial configuration into the diagram, the
free body diagram transforms into a diagram of an
open system with the external forces as exchange of
energy of the system with the surrounding and the
residual forces as internal energy flow. This reading of
the diagram introduces a thermodynamic perspec-
tive into structural design and with it the interpreta-
tion of the above mentioned form-finding methods
as near-equilibrium systems.
Such systems tend to evolve towards equilib-
rium, a special state that has been the focus of multi-
body research for a century. Yet much of the richness
of the world arises from conditions far from equilib-
rium (Schneider & Sagan, 2005). Phenomena such as
turbulence, earthquakes, fracture, and life itself oc-
cur as phenomena far from equilibrium. Subjecting
materials to conditions far from equilibrium leads to
otherwise unattainable properties. This is also true in
structural systems.
As mentioned above: one of the essential pre-
requisites for the existing form-finding methods is
the assumption of flow of forces through the sys-
tem purely through axial or in-plane forces. On one
hand, this enables an efficient use but on the other
hand it reduces the typology of shapes to a mini-
mum. If more material is introduced into the sys-
tem then other types of inner force flow get possi-
ble like in the case of a beam where non-axial forces
lead to the simultaneity of compression and tension
in the same material section and consequentially to
bending of the beam (Figure 5). In the case of the
particle-spring system residual forces dissipate into
movement, in the case of the beam energy does not
dissipate out of the system but remains within, stored
as elastic deformation respectively bending stress.
Thermodynamically, bending can be under-
stood as dissipation of energy within the system that
is the resulting deformation is a morphological re-
action of the system to the flow of energy through
space. This interpretation seem to be farfetched.
However, locally compression and tension define op-
posite directionalities. In a material section with com-
pression and tension like for example in the redirec-
tion of the force flow around a cut the resulting bend-
ing can be seen as a local turbulence pattern around
the cut. This pattern of energy dissipation resembles
the flow of wind around an obstacle like for example
a wall (Figure 6).
Consequently, the inner flow of forces as phe-
nomena of mechanics shares some similarity with the
flow of energy as phenomena of thermodynamics.
An insight that forms the basis for constructal the-
ory, a general theory on the formation of pattern
Keynotes - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 47
 Figure 6
Based on plasticity
theory the flow of
forces can be
manipulated
following simple
geometric
operations like the
redirection of
forces: The direct
flow of inner forces
between two
external loads (a)
within flow systems (Bejan & Zane, 2012). But it also primarily along linear elements. This has fostered a can be redirected
an insight that should motivate the interpretation of move from surface to line that is the replacement of within the material
structural systems as distributed systems of energy massive walls by linear structure and the develop- by adding an
in space. Such a perspective would relate the prob- ment of building elements and fixed typologies as internal force that
lem of form-finding much closer to research in sci- structural solutions. The implied tendency towards pushes the flow out
ence like physics and biology and especially with re- lightness and dematerialization of structure has di- of its preferred line
search into pattern development in far from equi- minished the potential of building structures to func- and compensating
librium open system. On the scale of urban design tion outside of the mono-functional purpose of pro- the additional force
such a perspective already has been put forward al- viding structural stability. to ensure
ready (Pulselli & Tiezzi, 2009; Wilson, 2009). On the Within a systemic paradigm building structures equilibrium in the
building scale a thermodynamic perspective within are perceived differently. Based on a thermodynamic system (b). The
research and design is only slowly emerging (Bra- ambition building structure should be spread into resulting
ham, 2016; Moe, 2013) but not specifically targeted space in order to maximize the possibility for the configuration of
towards structural design. even distribution of loads. Animal architecture like forces can be
for example bird nests exemplify this very well (Figure understood as
7): out of the interweaving of soft and flexible mate- pattern of turbulent
CONCLUSION: DESIGN OF STRUCTURE
rial structural stability emerges as complex property dissipation of
Clearly, the implied similarity of flow pattern still re-
like in the initial example of the basket weaving. At energy (c). The
quires a lot of in depth research before it can be made
the same time the weaving enables a flexible adapta- discrete turbulence
operative and a thermodynamic approach to struc-
tion of the material system to the environmental con- pattern in force
tural design is only sketched out in a very rough way.
ditions and the spatial requirements. This step-by- flows resembles in
But it already starts to point towards a possible direct
step construction is a formation process that results an abstract way the
link between ongoing research within science and ar-
in a structural system that not only fulfils a mono- patterns of energy
chitectural design based on formation process. And
functional purpose but is also the generator of the dissipation - visible
even at this infant state of development some con-
space as well as shading device and thermal regula- in the local increase
clusion can made regarding the implications for our
tion. of wind speed - that
current understanding of structural design.
A system design of structural systems aims at occur in the flow of
At the moment, teaching and design of building
such kind of polyvalent use of the building structure. wind around an
structures still is based on a reductionistic paradigm
Systemic structural design, therefore, has to be non- obstacle like a wall
of hierarchy of structural systems governed by the
hierarchical and cannot be based on typologies but (d).
idea of accumulation of forces from top to bottom

48 | eCAADe 34 - Keynotes - Volume 1

 rather has to be based on first principles as genera- Energy, Routledge
tive driver of the design. Systemic thinking in struc- Mussmann, F 1995, Komplexe Natur - Komplexe Wisssen-
tural design is the move away from the static iconog- schaft: Selbstorganisation, Chaos, Komplexität und
der Durchbruch des Systemdenkens in den Naturwis-
raphy of form towards the dynamic and procedural of
senschaften, Leske + Budrich
formation. It is the move away from structural design Muttoni, A 2006, The Art of Structures, EPFL Press
towards design of structures! Piker, D 2013, 'Kangoroo: Form-Finding with Compu-
tational Physics', AD Architectural design, 83(2), pp.
Figure 7 132-133
Nest of a Baya bird Pulselli, RM and Tiezzi, E 2009, City out of Chaos: Urban
in Southeast Asia Self-organization and Sustainability, WIT Press
and nest construct Schneider, ED 2005, Into the Cool: Energy Flow, Thermo-
dynamics and Life, University of Chicago Press
of Social Weaver in Ståhle, Pirjo 2009, 'The dynamics of self-renewal', in A,
South Africa. Bounfour (eds) 2009, Organisational Capital – Mod-
elling, measuring, and contextualizing, Routledge,
pp. 119-145
Veenendaal, D and Block, P 2012, 'An overview and
comparison of structural form finding methods for
general networks', International Journal of Solids and
REFERENCES Structures, 49, p. 3741–3753
Bejan, A and Zane, JP 2012, Design in Nature: How the Weinstock, M 2010, The Architecture of Emergence: The
Constructal Law Governs Evolution in Biology, Physics, Evolution of Form in Nature and Civilisation, Wiley &
Technology, and Social Organization, Doubleday Sons, Oxford
Block, P and Ochsendorf, J 2007, 'Thrust Network Anal- Wiener, N 1948, Cybernetics or Control and Communica-
ysis: A New Methodology for Three-Dimensional tion in the Animal and the Machine, MIT Press
Equilibrium', Journal of the IASS, 48(3), pp. 167-173 Wilson, A 2009, 'The “Thermodynamics” of the City: Evo-
Braham, WW 2016, Architecture and Systems Ecology: lution and Complexity Science in Urban Modelling',
Thermodynamic Principles of Environmental Building in Reggiani, A and Nijkamp, P (eds) 2009, Complexity
Design, Routledge and Spatial Networks, Springer
Bundy, A 2007, 'Computational Thinking is Pervasive',
Journal of Scientific and Practical Computing, 1(2), pp.
67-69
Hogan, J 2011, Bare Branches, Blue Black Sky, Musgrove
Willows
Kilian, A and Ochsendorf, J 2005, 'Particle-Spring Sys-
tems for Structural Form-Finding', Journal of the IASS,
46(2), pp. 77-84
Kotnik, T 2016, 'Geometric Diagrams of Energy Flow', in
García-Germán, J (eds) 2016, Thermodynamic Inter-
actions, Actar, pp. 125-132
Kotnik, T 2011, 'Experiment as design method: On the
possibility of the integration of the methodology of
the natural sciences in architecture', in Moravansky,
A and Kirchengast, A (eds) 2011, Experiments in Ar-
chitecture, Jowis, pp. 24-53
Kotnik, T and Schwartz, J 2011, 'The Architecture of Heinz
Isler', Journal of the IASS, 52(3), pp. 185-190
Mayfield, JE 2013, The Engine of Complexity: Evolution as
Computation, Columbia University Press
Moe, K 2013, Convergence: An Architectural Agenda for

Keynotes - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 49

WORKSHOPS
The Wave of Autonomous Mobility:
Architecture Facilitating Indoor Autonomous Navigation

Jaehwan Kim1 , Mathew Schwartz2 , Andrzej Zarzycki3

1,2
Advanced Institutes of Convergence Technology, South Korea 3 New Jersey In-
stitute of Technology, USA
1
jhkim13@snu.ac.kr 2 umcadop@gmail.com 3 andrzej.zarzycki@njit.edu

When considering architectural and urban responses to autonomous mobility, it

becomes evident that the future strategies will have to include a significant
transformation to the built environment, particularly the ways it operates and
interacts with inhabitants. Designers will not only need to rethink formal and
functional arrangements but also, and perhaps primarily, consider the
environment--buildings and cities--as active and equal actors with adaptive and
autonomous behaviors similarly to those people or self-driving cars manifest.
This paper discusses initial planning and design strategies for the integration of
autonomous vehicles and other forms of autonomous mobility into the built
environment. Specifically, it looks into necessary steps required to develop
infrastructure to a level of autonomy that can facilitate a next generation of
wayfinding and mobility. A growing research area into smaller personal mobility
vehicles that would revolutionize elderly and disabled mobility brings to the light
the major technical challenges present in current building infrastructure.

Keywords: Autonomous Vehicle, Navigation, Localization, Smart Buildings,

Smart Infrastructure

INTRODUCTION tects are able to formulate a design-informed and

With the rapid and technology-driven implemen-
tation of autonomous mobility, from assisted
wheelchairs to drones and autonomous vehicles,
the question of what kind of cities and buildings
are necessary to facilitate this transformation takes
front stage. Are architects and urban planners ready
to embrace this imminent intervention into the built
environment they have stewarded in the past? Will
the future direction and shape of autonomous-
vehicle-enabled cities be established before archi-
user-centered vision? The most immediate and di-
rect technology in the relation to architecture is an
introduction of the autonomous personal mobility
vehicles (PMVs).
Autonomous and connected vehicles, given
the issues surrounding their implementation, must
be tested within real-world conditions (Jiménez-
González et al. 2013; Martinez et al. 2013). How-
ever, these tests often rely on limited-scope devel-
opment as a necessary step in optimizing known

Workshops - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 53

 technologies and coping with unknown limitations,
as is the case with Masdar City, Abu Dhabi.[1] How-
ever, full integration into current infrastructure re-
mains a challenge. For this reason, places such as the
Mcity research facility in Ann Arbor, Michigan, have
opened (in 2016) to serve as research test beds for
autonomous and connected cars. Additional testing
grounds are appearing throughout the world, such as
in Singapore [2], GoMentum and Willow Run. While
testbeds are being created to research the city wide
aspect of autonomous vehicles, the work done in
PMVs is still in the early stages without significant
precedents or case studies.
While PMVs benefit from many technology transfers
coming from self-driving cars and test beds discussed
earlier, there is a need for the research and case stud-
ies specifically addressing the scale of architectural
spaces and their users. Consequently, this paper ad-
dresses three important urban- and building-design
strategies for the (future) autonomous personal mo-
bility technology:
1. The role of infrastructure in supporting mo-
bility has expanded beyond its original appli-
cations in transportation networks. This ex-
pansion will continue affecting other aspects
of physical environments and it will closely
interconnect transportation and building in-
frastructures.
2. The advancement of PMV technology (Figure
1) is highly contingent on the availability of
supporting infrastructure that would be able
to communicate with or, at least facilitate, the
54 | eCAADe 34 - Workshops - Volume 1
PMV deployment. This would require changes
to existing urban and building systems, mate-
rials used, and control technologies.
3. Broader building design issues, such as a
building access and navigation for larger
amounts of wheeled mobility will require spa-
tial adjustments to horizontal and vertical cir-
culation including the question whether the
continued reliance on elevators for indoor
movement in appropriate.
THE PAST MODES OF QUASI-AUTONOMOUS
INFRASTRUCTURE
The history of human civilization is filled with
machines and technologies that assisted people. Figure 1
Some argue that technological development is what Personal mobility
shapes or even defines the progress as well as the vehicles designed
very nature of our culture (Ornstein and Burke 1995). for an in-building
The idea of autonomous, or at least human- and use. This split
vehicle-guiding infrastructure is certainly prevalent image shows a PMV
today, but it has already been around for some time. entering and
For example, much of the navigation on canals in exiting an elevator
Europe and the United States was guided and con- autonomously. The
trolled by outside agents. These could have been vehicle was
horses pulling barges or, during the Industrial Era, a developed in the
series of elaborate locks, ramps, and rail platforms, Advanced Institutes
such as those still deployed in the Morris Canal [3], of Convergence
in Great Britain, or the Elbląg Canal in Poland (Figure Technology.
2) [4]. From early beginnings, railways relied on the
infrastructure of switches to direct train navigation,
and more recently, autonomous subway systems in-
troduced sensors for speed guidance and train car lo-
calization in respect to each other or to a platform. A
number of metropolitan cities, such as Copenhagen
in Denmark, operate fully automated car parking fa-
cilities [5], in which cars are self-parked by a con-
trolling robot-like structure with no human presence
or participation. A similar approach has spread into
the airplane industry, where on-ground infrastruc-
ture significantly assists pilot-controlled landings,
particularly in limited-visibility situations when auto-
landing may be preferable [6]. A question is; to what
point and to what extent similar autonomy-assisted
functionalities applicable to buildings should be con-
 sidered? Considering the impact of safety eleva-
tors on the development of high-rise buildings in the
late 19th-century America [7] and the following high-
density urbanization in many cities around the world,
an introduction of PMVs could similarly redefine what
is possible in cities and architecture.
Figure 2
A boat transfer
between two levels
of the canal.
AUTOMATED BUILDINGS
In addition to elevators, there are many other in-
tegrated automated systems present in contempo-
Figure 3 rary buildings, such as motion-sensors (pyroelectric
Tactile paving infrared, or PIR), actuated lights, automatic doors
provides guides for with PIR, vision, floor pressure sensors, or sensor-
vision-impaired controlled water flow in public showers, where users
building occupants. often demonstrate lower resource conservancy. All
of these examples speak to the increased role that
building infrastructure plays in defining occupancy
patterns and safety. Occupancy and assets tracking
becomes a critical factor in operations of large-scale
infrastructure, such as airports, with a close integra-
tion between data BIM models and real-time moni-
toring (Kim et al. 2015). These models could be fur-
ther extended into future guidance systems for au-
tonomous mobility and real-time resource and user
management.
Similarly, an increased focus on inclusive envi-
ronments transforms many aspects of urban infras-
tructure and technologies used in buildings (Williams
et al. 2016; Parkin et al. 2012). Tactile paving provides
guidance to vision-impaired building occupants (Fig-
ure 3) [8] by demarcating travel paths and access
points. For the same reason, auditory guides often
accompany pedestrian crossings on busy streets to
compensate for the static nature of tactile paving.
In these cases, an outside building and city infras-
tructure provides a framework for enhancing mobil-
ity and safety. Similar strategies, such as guiding
floor patterns, could easily be applied to autonomous
forms of mobility, from wheelchairs and personal
mobility vehicles to construction and maintenance
robots and self-driving cars (Jeon et al. 2015). Au-
tonomous vehicles navigating a city or following a
path, even when the environment is known, may
benefit from these forms of guidance in the same way
vision-impaired people may know the general area
of where they are but need an extra tactile path to
precisely locate an elevator door, water fountain, or
building exit. The significant difference between tac-
tile guides (Figure 3) and embedded sensory guid-
ance systems is that the latter can change real-time
and adapt to various occupancy scenarios. For exam-
ple, elevators that are not in service would have deac-
tivated guides to avoid possible "signage" confusion.
Furthermore, PMV guidance systems could also be
used by visually impaired in conjunction with mo-
bile devices to more effectively and effortlessly move
around the building.
PMV NAVIGATION STRATEGIES
Materials
Methods for a PMV to 'see' the world largely focused
around 3-dimensional data, 2-dimensional cameras,
and magnetic sensors. While an autonomous car
may rely heavily on GPS data, the indoor nature of
Workshops - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 55
 a PMV makes common GPS unusable. While other
methods for indoor localization exist, such as motion
capture or UWB networks, both of these require high
costs for installation throughout an environment. As
more Internet of Things (IoT) devices and connectiv-
ity between users and infrastructure develop, tech-
nology based infrastructure will provide more use
than for only a PMV. Until then, a few considerations
during the design process can help alleviate the chal-
lenges and delays in deploying PMVs into the build-
ing.
One of the most relied on sensors is the LIght
Detection And Range Sensor (LIDAR) to receive
the 3-dimensional data. This sensor captures 3-
dimensional points based on the distance a point is
from the device. Through multiple channels and a
sweeping method, a cloud of points can be gener-
ated quickly, giving a rough 3-dimensional map of
the surrounding space. This can be used by itself,
or more commonly as test dataset to compare to a
known 3-dimensional model of the building in order
to find the relative position. The real-time and real-
location aspect of LIDAR allows for tracking of peo-
ple or other obstacles that are not within the building
model. The downsides of a LIDAR system are the poor
quality in detecting reflective or glass surfaces, and
the need for matching to an existing 3-dimensional
56 | eCAADe 34 - Workshops - Volume 1
model to complete a wayfinding task. As buildings
continue to be made out of glass facades and floor
to ceiling glass walls, the use of a LIDAR for naviga-
tion becomes increasingly difficult, and must rely on
other sensors. On the other hand, if a standard can
be decided to which all glass walls or facades have
a specific band allowing LIDAR to track these reflec-
tive or clear objects, the autonomous vehicles can be
designed to expect this information. This could be
integrated with current code requirements that re-
quire marking large glass surfaces with visually dis-
tinct markers to avoid human-to-glass collisions.
To give a PMV a path to follow, two methods, in- Figure 4
dependent of each other, can be used. In the first Diagram of a tiling
case, a magnetic sensor on the vehicle can detect system in which
floor embedded magnets. The strength of the mag- colored tiles
net is directly relational to the height of the PMV sen- provide a path to
sor off the floor, and the materials between them. follow. Intersecting
The cost of high powered magnets can become pro- paths blend colors
hibitive for implementing under flooring, while low and can be thought
powered magnets may pose an aesthetics issue due of as transfer
to a limited number of cover materials. Addition- stations. The map
ally, implementation of this could be similar to metal can be stored as a
tracks embedded in asphalt, and conceptually would 2D representation
work similar as a fixed track with intersections of- of the building
fering an option for direction. As lightweight and space without
durable floorings become available, architects and requiring a full 3D
engineers can test the efficacy of using these mag- map.
nets in a building for the expectation of autonomous
vehicles and PMVs in the future.
Finally, one of the simplest methods for naviga-
tion is line tracking. The initial problem with a cam-
era based system is the effect of ambient light on
color. However, built-in under body lights of a PMV
can alleviate this issue to create a consistently lit line.
This method can be created cheaply by painting lines
on flooring, similar to how road lines are painted, or
more creatively and long lasting, by embedding the
information into the flooring materials itself.
One possibility is to make a specific line for a PMV
to follow. Using colored tiles, lines can represent a
path for the PMV to take, and can be reduced to spe-
cific locations that the PMV can travel to. A simple
Figure 5 the primary access point for various floors become a
In an alternative to hindrance, and a ramp similar to those in a parking
a direct line structure become the logical choice. A simple calcu-
representing a path, lation based on general values provides initial insight
a coded system to the benefits of using the ramp type structures used
could be in car parks. Using a minimum turning radius of 6 me-
implemented in ters, a ramp able to accommodate a two-way flow of
which a given PMVs is evaluated. This type of ramp would have a
section represent a 16m diameter with a 4.2m width, compared to esti-
unique pattern mates of current infrastructure in Table 1.
within the overall While the ramp model requires significantly
map. Autonomous more space, this number should be considered
vehicles would have against the speed at which mobility exists within the
the ability to freely space, especially as general elevators rated for higher
travel throughout weight will travel slower. In this example case, a
the space while multi-floor building is assumed, where the average
maintaining a example is shown in Figure 4.
PMV travels to the 5th floor (Figure 6).
localization To give a PMV more freedom in movement while
This calculation, however, does not take into ac-
accuracy equal to maintaining localization, a coded floor can be cre-
count multi-directional movement that will often oc-
the unique pattern ated. Similar to the unique combinations of barcodes
cur between the floors, in which case the ramp ef-
size. or QR codes, a tiled floor can be generated to give
ficiency would further increase. Beyond the effi-
unique groupings a unique position within the space
ciency for transportation, while elevators are safe due
(Figure 5).
to physical stops, an elevator may be "out of com-
Table 1 mission" for structural or electrical issues, whereas a
Required Space for ramp is solely reliant on its structural integrity.
Infrastructural
Transportation
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Autonomous vehicle-enabled cities can be seen as
Methods.
the next level of human cohabitation that considers
a diverse range of users (human and nonhuman) and
provides a higher level of services and efficiencies.
Rather than matching LIDAR data to a 3-dimensional For some, it will be a more sustainable and resilient
model, a simple algorithm for detecting a cluster of environment that will optimize resources; for others,
tiles within the larger map can give a PMV ultimate a more inclusive and democratic environment that
flexibility within the space while remaining localized. will allow them a greater participation in urban life,
The size of the tile, resolution of the camera, and den- as in case of mobility-impaired or elderly residents.
sity of the coded pattern can determine the variety of For others yet, it will be a place for new interactions
designs. with similar transformative qualities as social net-
works have. The inclusion, and possibly even eman-
Indoor Mobility cipation, of nonhuman agents as new urban inhabi-
As PMVs begin integration with indoor infrastructure, tants will definitely reposition our understanding of
the mobility methods of car parks and multi-level cities and the way architects design them. There will
garages become of interest. Specifically, one must also be a change to what we consider privacy, iden-
consider at what point does the use of an elevator as tity, and control.

Workshops - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 57


Further, the increased connectivity between au-
tonomous agents and the built environment open
new possibilities for design workflows. As BIM ex-
pands from building planning to lifecycle mainte-
nance, the connectivity provided by autonomous ve-
hicles can expand to the construction phase. While
researchers are tackling issues of robotic fabrication
and pre-fab, the use of ramps in the final construction
can just as well provide a new industry for on-site fab-
rication in which robotics can travel throughout the
space through similarly using the ramp.
There is a need for continued research in the area
of the PMV integration within buildings as they pro-
vide an extremely accessible mode of transportation
for a variety of users. Beyond people with disabili-
ties, larger buildings such as airports, complex set-
tings such as shopping malls or grocery stores, and
other structures in which a user needs fast access to
a small portion of a building can enhance user inter-
action with the use of PMVs.
58 | eCAADe 34 - Workshops - Volume 1
REFERENCES Figure 6
Jeon, D, Kim, Ck and Kim, J 2015 'Dynamic Object Track- Speed ratio of
ing System', 2015 12th International Conference on elevator to ramp
Ubiquitous Robots and Ambient Intelligence (URAI), per square meter.
pp. 512-515 At roughly 14
Jiménez-González, A, Martinez-de Dios, JR and Ollero, A vehicles the size to
2013, 'Testbeds for Ubiquitous Robotics: A Survey',
Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 61(12), pp. 1487- speed ratio of a
1501 ramp system
Kim, E, Yun, J and Cho, S 2015 'Integrated Space and becomes more
Asset Management System for Large Scale Airport', efficient, and
Emerging Experience in Past, Present and Future of continues for each
Digital Architecture, Proceedings of the 20th Interna- extra vehicle.
tional Conference of the Association for Computer-
Aided Architectural Design Research in Asia (CAADRIA
2015), Daegu, pp. 807-816
Martinez, DSH, Gonzalez, M, Huang, X, Irvine, B, Hsieh,
CH, Huang, YR, Short, MB and Bertozzi, AL 2013,
'An Economical Testbed for Cooperative Control and
Sensing Strategies of Robotic Micro-vehicles', in Fer-
rier et al., J.-L. (eds) 2013, Informatics in Control, Au-
tomation and Robotics, Springer Berlin Heidelberg,
pp. 65-75
Ornstein, R and Burke, J 1995, The Axemaker's Gift, G.P.
Putnam’s Sons, New York
Williams, MA, Dubin, B, Amaefule, C, Nguyen, L, Ab-
dolrahmani, A, Galbraith, C, Hurst, A and Kane, SK
2016, 'Better Supporting Blind Pedestrians and Blind
Navigation Technologies Through Accessible Archi-
tecture', in Langdon et al., P (eds) 2016, Design-
ing Around People, Springer International Publish-
ing, Cham, pp. 237-246
[1] http://www.crankandpiston.com/on-the-road/all-a
board-the-future-self-driving-car-abu-dhabi/
[2] http://www.jtc.gov.sg/industrial-land-and-space
/pages/one-north.aspx
[3] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris_Canal
[4] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elbl%C4%85g_Canal
[5] http://www.alectia.com/en/projects/copenhagen-o
pens-its-first-fully-automated-car-park-en/
[6] https://www.quora.com/How-often-are-commercial
-flights-landed-using-autopilot
[7] http://nypost.com/2014/02/08/how-elevators-tran
sformed-nycs-social-landscape/
[8] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactile_paving#/m
edia/File:Tactile_pavers_Japan_yellow.jpg
Contextualized Digital Heritage Workshop - Oulu
Danilo Di Mascio1 , Anetta Kepczynska-Walczak2 , Nicholas Webb3
1
Northumbria University 2 Lodz University of Technology 3 University of Liverpool
1
https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/ 2 http://www.p.lodz.pl/en
3
https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/
1
danilo.dimascio@northumbria.ac.uk
2
anetta.kepczynska-walczak@p.lodz.pl 3 N.Webb1@liverpool.ac.uk

Constructions pertaining to built heritage represent precious material and

cultural resources to be studied and preserved for present and future generations.
In recent years, this built heritage is increasingly understood, documented,
managed, analysed and disseminated through the application of several digital
technologies; this trend has created one of the main research areas in
architecture, called Digital Heritage. Digital technologies open up alternative
and new possibilities in the study of tangible and intangible features of built
heritage. This workshop aims to create a space to allow scholars to discuss, share
and apply their knowledge in a digital heritage exercise contextualized in Oulu.

Keywords: Digital Heritage, Context, Built Heritage, Digital Technologies

BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION and disseminated through the application of several

Built heritage represents a precious material and
cultural resource to be studied and preserved for
present and future generations. Italo Calvino, the fa-
mous Italian writer, wrote that literature classics have
always something new to say (Calvino 2013), this is
why we are still studying them. Remarkable build-
ings pertaining to built heritage can be compared to
the literature classics (Di Mascio 2015); they continue
to inspire people's projects and lives also after cen-
turies. Built heritage is a key element in defining and
understanding local identity. It reflects not only the
importance of tangible objects but also the intangi-
ble image of a society and its attitude towards pro-
tecting the past (Kepczynska-Walczak and Walczak,
2013). In recent years, constructions (buildings, mon-
uments) pertaining to cultural heritage are increas-
ingly understood, documented, managed, analysed
digital technologies; this trend has created one of
the main research areas in architecture, called Digi-
tal Heritage. Digital technologies open up alternative
and new possibilities in the study of tangible and in-
tangible features of built heritage. They don't substi-
tute traditional methods and tools but complement
and enrich them; for example, freehand analytical
sketches can represent an invaluable support during
3D digital reconstructions because they allow to in-
vestigate and clarify complex or missing parts. The
huge variety of constructions pertaining to cultural
heritage is studied using a likewise wide range of dig-
ital technologies and methods such as: laser scan-
ning, CAAD, 3D modellers, game engines, BIM and
Semantic Web technologies. The use of these digi-
tal technologies is always supported by the collection
and analysis of historical information and by theoret-

Workshops - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 59

 ical and methodological frameworks, influenced by a
large number of architectural theories and concepts.
One of the main points that characterizes built her-
itage compared to most of the contemporary con-
structions is the strong connection with a specific
physical and cultural context. For this reason, un-
like most of the traditional workshops on this topic,
the main idea that underlies this workshop proposal
is linked with a contextualized practical exercise in
Oulu, Finland. Every tangible and intangible feature
of a heritage construction can be documented and
analysed in a multitude of ways using several con-
cepts, theories and digital tools. The participants will
be asked to creatively use their diverse knowledge
and experiences in the local context to deal with spe-
cific buildings' features. The workshop could also
produce a project for the local historic heritage com-
munity. This event is thought to represent the first
of a series of future contextualized digital heritage
workshops and hence, the name Oulu interchange-
able with the name of any other city or place.
GOALS AND OUTCOMES
The workshop will represent a place to share con-
structive and polyvalent discussions on digital her-
itage; participation in a previous digital heritage pro-
ject/research is mandatory.This workshop aims to
create a space to allow scholars to discuss, share and
apply their knowledge in a digital heritage exercise
contextualized in Oulu. Moreover, this event also
aims to build a community of scholars interested in
digital heritage, with a specific focus on architecture.
With the support of the organizing committee, two
different built heritage in Oulu (pertaining to diverse
building typologies) will be selected as case studies
for the exercise. Participants will be asked to use their
expertise to speculate how to document, manage,
analyse or disseminate any specific feature of the se-
lected constructions. In this way, they will have the
opportunity to share their different point of views
and approaches on the same built heritage and learn
from each other. As far as we are aware, this event
may represent the first attempt to connect a digital
60 | eCAADe 34 - Workshops - Volume 1
heritage workshop to a local context in a multidisci-
plinary way.To summarize, we seek to:
• Create a space to allow scholars to discuss,
share and apply their knowledge on case
studies located in Oulu;
• Build a community of scholars interested in
digital heritage;
• Plan future activities on digital heritage.
A poster will be prepared to show to the conference
attendees the different methodologies and tools
elaborated by the workshop participants for each
case study. Concepts and methodologies elaborated
during the workshop will be presented in a confer-
ence paper or journal article.
WORKSHOP PLAN
The workshop will provide a balance of on-site vis-
its, plenary sessions, breakout discussions and prac-
tical exercise activities. The event will be split in two
days. During the first day, the selected constructions
pertaining to Oulu's built heritage will be presented
with the support of a member of the local organizing
committee. After the presentations, there will be on-
site visits to have a direct experience of the building
and collect information (such as notes, sketches, pic-
tures, videos) useful for the exercise. During the after-
noon and the morning of the day after, participants
will work in groups of two or three to elaborate their
speculations using their specific knowledge and ap-
proaches. During the rest of the day, participants will
present their ideas and receive feedback and ques-
tions from the other scholars. A final discussion led by
the workshop organizers will attempt to synthesize
the key points touched during the event and to iden-
tify themes and issues for future research and collab-
oration, and to develop concrete actions to progress
future work in this area (e.g. developing networks, fu-
ture workshops). Finally, attendees will be invited to
propose new and emerging themes identifying po-
tential plans for publications.
Figure 1
Workshop's
Programme.
PRESENTERS
Danilo Di Mascio, Architect and PhD, is currently
a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at Northumbria Uni-
versity (Newcastle, UK). He has undertaken research
projects on digital technologies applied in the com-
prehension, analysis and documentation of tangible
and intangible characteristics of cultural heritage, in:
Belgium, England, Italy, Scotland and United States.
The research include a wide variety of buildings from
vernacular architecture to masterpieces such as the
Glasgow School of Art designed by C.R. Mackintosh.
He participated and published at various interna-
tional conferences in Europe, Middle and Far East; at
the Chinese University of Hong Kong (2010), he re-
ceived the Young CAADRIA Award.
Anetta Kepczynska-Walczak, Associate Profes-
sor and Head of Department of Digital Technologies
in Architecture and Urban Planning at Lodz Univer-
sity of Technology, Poland. M.Sc. in Architecture;
Pg.Dip. in Computer Aided Building Design and Ph.D.
at the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow, UK; 2014
habilitation. Acted as Director Commissioner for the
implementation of the National Heritage Database at
the National Heritage Board of Poland and as Rep-
resentative of the Ministry of Culture and National
Heritage in the Council for the Implementation of IN-
SPIRE Directive in Poland. Recent monograph "Cul-
tural heritage management in the knowledge-based
society". She will be hosting the 2018 eCAADe con-
ference.
Nicholas Webb is a PhD, a qualified architect and
lecturer at the Liverpool School of Architecture. He is
researching the application of contemporary digital
techniques as a method of analysing historic works
of architecture, providing new and enhanced infor-
mation that would not have been possible in a pre-
digital era. These applications are investigated in re-
lation to designs that were destroyed or unbuilt, for
example using immersive VR to augment our under-
standing of Jeremy Bentham's Panopticon prison, as
well as buildings that still exist; such as studying me-
dieval vault design and construction in the British
Isles for the Tracing the Past project.
REFERENCES
Calvino, I 2013, Why Read the Classics, Penguin, London,
United Kingdom
Kepczynska-Walczak, A 2013 'Performing the Past and
the Present for the Knowledge of the Future', Pro-
ceedings of the 31st eCAADe Conference – Volume 2,
Workshops - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 61
 Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of Technol-
ogy, Delft, The Netherlands, 18-20 September 2013,
pp. 453-462
Kepczynska-Walczak, A and Walczak, B 2013 'Visualis-
ing »genius loci« of built heritage', Proceedings of the
11th Conference of the European Architectural Envi-
sioning Association, Envisioning Architecture: Design,
evaluation, communication, 23-28 September 2013,
Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy, pp. 451-457
Di Mascio, D 2015 'Analytical drawings of architec-
tural built heritage', Proceedings of the 12th Confer-
ence of the European Architectural Envisioning Associ-
ation (EAEA), Envisioning Architecture: Imag, Percep-
tion and Communication of Heritage, Lodz University
of Technology, Lodz, Poland, pp. 197-206

62 | eCAADe 34 - Workshops - Volume 1

Digital Leadership
Tadeja Zupancic1 , Johan Verbeke2 , Henri Achten3 ,
Aulikki Herneoja4
1
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Architecture 2 KU Leuven, Faculty of Archi-
tecture Sint Lucas / Aarhus School of Architecture 3 Czech Technical University in
Prague, Faculty of Architecture 4 University of Oulu, Oulu School of Architecture
1
http://www.fa.uni-lj.si/ 2 http://arch.kuleuven.be/
3
http://www.fa.cvut.cz/ 4 http://www.oulu.fi/architecture/
1
tadeja.zupancic@fa.uni-lj.si 2 johan.verbeke@kuleuven.be
3
achten@fa.cvut.cz 4 aulikki.herneoja@oulu.fi

Leadership is an important quality in organisations. Leadership is needed to

introduce change and innovation. In our opinion, in architectural and design
practices, the role of leadership has not yet been sufficiently studied, especially
when it comes to the role of digital tools and media. With this paper we intend to
initiate a discussion in the eCAADe community to reflect and develop ideas in
order to develop digital leadership skills amongst the membership. This paper
introduces some important aspects, which may be valuable to look into when
developing digital leadership skills.

Keywords: digital leadership, research by design, creative practice, design

research, impact

INTRODUCTION In this position paper we outline a number of relevant

Digital tools are part and parcel of contemporary
practice in architecture and in the academic envi-
ronment. Everyone is aware of the potential of
tools such as parametric design, Building Information
Modelling (BIM), generative design, and so on. High-
profile projects such as the British Museum Great
Court, Smithsonian Institution Courtyard roof, Bei-
jing New Airport Terminal Building, Arnhem Central
Transfer Hall, and so on could not have been realized
without such technologies. Characteristic for leading
offices that are pushing the envelope of architectural
design is that they have an integral view of the archi-
tectural design and the digital tools that enable such
design - we would call this "digital leadership."
aspects related to "Digital leadership." We hope to de-
rive from this a first attempt to define digital leader-
ship, but we are well aware that this very new con-
cept can only be developed through collaborative ef-
fort between academic and practice partners.
IMPACT
This section is focused to the digital leadership im-
pact potentials at diverse levels and scales. The lead-
ership position, when achieved, seeks for and offers
a high level of impact on the society - in its essence.
This impact includes a better transfer of knowledge
between sectors and disciplines, stronger networks.
Which leadership styles are most effective in this

Workshops - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 63

 sense, appropriate for the contemporary society and
in diverse socio-cultural settings?
The shift from the creative applications of digi-
tal tools and communication interfaces towards lead-
ing the development of the digital initiative and sup-
port of the design process, from responding to driv-
ing, changes the impact flow essentially. The impact
from the digital is shifted to the impact on the dig-
ital realm - and far beyond. The digital realm may
become design-led but still and even more powerful.
The integrated power of the creative research/prac-
tices within the diverse digital domains seems to po-
tentially create an important impact on the society as
a whole.
The knowledge collected in a digital database is
highly specialized and still distributed (Kocaturk and
Medjdoub 2011) rather than integrated. How can
the idea of the digital leadership impact the essential
knowledge integration? It offers a wider view, miss-
ing in the last decades of architectural computing.
This wider view is also a potential for a wider impact.
To the communities of practice and research that we
cannot even imagine.
However, the identification of the potential and
actual impact of digital leadership is not as easy
as it seems on the first inspection. What is share-
able/transferrable from/to design research through
practice/practice based research (Rendell 2004, Os-
terle and Otto 2010, Koskinen et.al. 2011, Schaik
and Johnson 2011, Verbeke and Zupancic 2014) and
how? How/where can we find the initial and also the
longer-term evidence of the added value of what we
are doing for diverse communities? How to find and
monitor the evidence of the quality of the impact?
The shift to social science research is essential here.
We are far from the potentially misleading calcula-
tions of the 'impact factor' from the research dissem-
ination databases.
The initial questions to identify the (potential)
impact are: Who/how/with what do we want to ad-
dress? How can we develop the arguments about
the relevance of what we are doing, especially in the
case of a high level of research singularity? Where
64 | eCAADe 34 - Workshops - Volume 1
and how do we seek recognition (Hatleskog 2015)?
How do we identify recognition in relation to the
topic discussed? How can we change the commu-
nity where we are able to identify recognition? How
is this related to the media we use for communica-
tion? Who can we address if we change the commu-
nication mode?
MEDIA
How do we communicate the design ideas with our-
selves and with others? Who are these others - in the
case of digital leadership? How can we achieve the
leadership position in relation to the flexible and re-
sponsive media use and development?
The studies of design media have already shifted
from the obsession with the digital to more hetero-
geneous inclusiveness of the diverse analog options.
On one side the development of the BIM modeling
(intended for professional collaboration) and the po-
tential of rapid prototyping both clearly lead to the
sculptural way of thinking about architecture. Archi-
tecture becomes a pure object, a sculpture, a mon-
ument. The dimensions of the spatial contextualisa-
tion often move to other areas, to landscape architec-
ture, to painting. This is the consequence in the cases
where the cognitive visualisation is used more for the
discussion with clients and general public (in urban
design) than for the self-reflection within the design
process. How can we overcome these tendencies?
Some further questions: How the use of media
influences the design thinking? How do we choose
and develop the media in relation to the way we
think? What drives the main media flows, what are
the triggers of the changes (Holder 2015)? How can
we start the leading position in this process, being
aware of the potential shifts within the design think-
ing, that originate from or lead to the media devel-
opment? How can we lead the public behaviour of
creative practices through the media development?
RESEARCH BY DESIGN
Based on the work of Henk Borgdorff (2010), EAAE
produced the following definition of research by de-
sign:
"In architecture, design is the essential feature.
Any kind of inquiry in which design is a substan-
tial constituent of the research process is referred to
as research by design.In research by design, the ar-
chitectural design process forms a pathway through
which new insights, knowledge, practices or prod-
ucts come into being. It generates critical inquiry
through design work. Therefore research results are
obtained by, and consistent with experience in prac-
tice."(www.eaae.be)
Following the Frascati manual, research and ex-
perimental development is creative work undertaken
systematically to increase the stock of knowledge-
including knowledge of humanity, culture, and
society-and the use of this stock of knowledge to de-
vise new applications (OECD).
The crucial aspect is that knowledge can be
emerging or produced through designing. This is
in line with the work of Donald Schön (1983) who
stimulated practitioners (including but beyond de-
sign) to actively reflect on their activities (design or
other) and to consolidate these reflections into more
explicit knowledge. There reflections can be on two
levels: a) on the use of digital tools and environments
to contribute to a better design and b) on digital tools
to support the development and sharing of design
knowledge.
Within digital leadership, it seems beneficial that
digital leaders act on three levels: a) stimulate mem-
bers of the organization to consolidate knowledge
from their individual activities; b) consolidate and
share knowledge within the team or group to de-
velop a deeper understanding and c) brokerage
knowledge between members of the organization
but also bring external knowledge into the organiza-
tion.
The main questions, which are then arising, in-
clude the following: which (digital) tools can help
members of the organization to develop and share
knowledge? Which knowledge processes need to
be facilitated and stimulated in order to learn from
the use of digital tools for designing? Which Which
knowledge processes need to be facilitated and stim-
ulated in order to develop knowledge form the de-
sign activities? Which skills and competencies are
needed for a digital leader?
INTEGRATIVE KNOWLEDGE
As described in Verbeke (2013) it is explained there
are many forms of knowledge which are all important
for our actions and understanding of the world. In
Verbeke and Glanville (2006) it is stated that knowl-
edge is much more than the traditional understand-
ing of explicit written-down knowledge. Tacit knowl-
edge is discussed since Polanyi (1966). The distinc-
tion between mode 1 and mode 2 knowledge was in-
troduced in Gibbons et al. (1994). Effable, embedded
and embodied knowledge are frequently used to in-
dicate specific types of knowledge.
Integrative knowledge is developed while iden-
tifying, connecting, synthesizing and demonstrating
knowledge and skills that are gaining from all areas of
life, in our case more specifically in the field of digital
technology and architectural design.
In Peet et al. (2011) it is concluded that focus
on integrative knowledge leads to increased capac-
ity to: 1. identify, demonstrate and adapt knowledge
gained within/across different contexts; 2. adapt to
differences (i.e. in people and situations) in order to
create solutions; 3. understand and direct oneself as
a learner; 4. become a reflexive, accountable, and re-
lational learner; 5. identify and discern one's own and
others' perspectives; and 6. develop a professional
digital identity.
While designing and while directing develop-
ments, it is crucial to combine and integrated dif-
ferent types of knowledge. It is well known that
a field developed when implicit and explicit knowl-
edge both develops and interact with each other.
For a digital leader, it then becomes important
to be able to manage these different types of knowl-
edge and to be able to integrate them in activities,
innovation and development. But, how to do this?
Are there heuristics? Are there specific ways for doing
this? For facilitating that knowledge get integrated.
Workshops - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 65
 That knowledge form different fields and disciplines
gets combined and integrated into new ideas and de-
signs? What skills are needed to facilitate such pro-
cesses? Which role can a digital leader play in archi-
tectural offices? And how can the variety of experi-
ences by brought together to develop a deeper un-
derstanding and contribute to better designs?
DIGITAL DOMAINS
Leadership in design originates from a keen under-
standing of all aspects of design. Digital leadership
is not different in this respect. The complex nature of
design makes it impossible that any advanced level of
design can be obtained through digital means only.
Therefore, a "digital leader" not only has knowledge
and mastery of digital techniques, but also of pro-
cess management, materials, analogue techniques,
and so on that we can find in design leaders as well.
What stresses the "digital" in digital leadership how-
ever, is an acute understanding how "digital" can be
a unifying set of methodologies and technologies to
bring skills and knowledge together.
Computers have been used in architecture for
about six decades. Throughout this period there
have been a lot of developments, not only in com-
puter aided architectural design itself, but also in ar-
chitecture (the application area of CAAD), informa-
tion & communication technology (the base tech-
nology for CAAD), and society itself (the context in
which architecture unfolds). Major advances have
occurred in Human-Computer Interface (the ease by
which architects can use CAAD), visualization, com-
plexity and size (the degree to which comprehensive
models can be built), data exchange (to support in-
formation exchange between experts), reality cap-
ture, adapting software (through scripting languages
like Grasshopper) and output to reality (rapid proto-
typing and design-to-production pipelines).
Despite these advances there are also still areas
where progress is lacking. Architects are still slow to
pick up simulation technology in design; the concep-
tual design process and hence it's support remains
largely unclear; the same applies for collaborative de-
66 | eCAADe 34 - Workshops - Volume 1
sign; BIM has yet to reach maturity; reliable costing
is still far way; and sustainable and safe designs and
processes have not yet been reached.
The most dominant technology to integrate de-
sign in a comprehensive format is Building Informa-
tion Model. BIM is based on the long-standing vi-
sion of a shared data and process model formulated
as early as the 1970'ies (Eastman 1980, Kalay 2004,
66-68). Whereas early visions included all phases of
the design process, BIM today is geared towards pro-
duction of final phase documentation - a task which
is of high complexity but occurs after most design
work has been carried out. Pushing design and dig-
ital technologies forward then, does not rely solely
on BIM but on a wide range of additional software
and techniques. It is in particular in the selection of
relevant techniques within a proper framing (Schön
1983) that the most interesting advances are made.
Within Schön's understanding of design as a se-
ries of naming - framing - moving - evaluating, the de-
sign process takes on a guided bottom-up approach.
By naming the architect sets the boundaries of the
current issue in design; framing sets the actual prob-
lem and way of thinking of the problem - these two
steps influence the choice of (digital) design technol-
ogy. By moving the architects creates one or more
design solutions - with creating also meaning gener-
ating through some digital tool if necessary, followed
by evaluation to check whether the process is going
in the right direction. This process is not completely
bottom-up as this would imply ad-hoc reaction to
problems as they become apparent, but it fueled by
experience and top-down set goals.
There is not one single selection of digital do-
mains that gets the job done. The skill of the digital
leader lies in a confident and fluent command of sev-
eral design techniques (digital or not) that best fit the
current and overall design strategy.
LEADERSHIP
Leadership is a term that originates mainly from or-
ganizational sciences. There is a great amount of re-
search on the aspect how leadership is compounded
of interpersonal skills and managerial skills (de Vries
et al. 2010), but the amount of research on leadership
in a design context is almost non-existent. Pahl's et
al. (1999) review of 12 years interdisciplinary empiri-
cal studies of engineering design in Germany shows
that leadership in design is not well understood.
Leadership is often viewed as a negative thing,
where a person is perceived as dominating and set-
ting a course without consideration of others. In de-
sign, where often results are achieved through team-
work, such attitudes may have an adverse effect on
the quality. Lee and Cassidy (2007) discuss leader-
ship in industrial design - they identify among oth-
ers "the leader as a catalyst of organization change"
which seems to be the closest to a "digital leader."
The list of good leadership traits at the end however,
includes mostly interpersonal skills (personal char-
acteristics, maintain friendship, attitudes and values,
leading styles, and proper roles). This list stresses the
team player aspect of good leadership.
Adams et al. (2011) stress strategic leadership
in particular in cross-disciplinary team. More specifi-
cally, among others they identify the ability to "mak-
ing or enabling conceptual connections" and "fa-
cilitating systems-oriented strategies or frameworks
that leverage diverse perspectives" as important fac-
tors for leadership success. It is precisely in this area
of speculative and multi-facetted work that digital
leadership operates as well.
In a managerial context the only example we can
find is described in Buhse (2012). Buhse stresses agile
management as an important building block for suc-
cessful Enterprise 2.0 business model, including as-
pects like team-based formulation of agenda, goals,
and strategies. He sees the digital leader as mod-
erator, bridge builder, and network organizer rather
than classical top-down manager.
We define in our workshop "digital leadership"
on two levels: (a) a particular skill set of a designer
that allows him or her to push the frontiers of design
- therefore on the individual level - being a digital
leader by example; (b) a particular skill set of a per-
son to advance game-changing technologies in a de-
sign team or organization - therefore on the organi-
zational level - being a digital leader by team effort.
CONCLUDING TEXT
This paper initiates a discussion on the role of digital
leadership in current architectural practice and de-
sign. It introduces 6 key elements: impact, media, re-
search by design, integrative knowledge, digital do-
mains and leadership itself. These elements should
be seen as a start of further research on skill, compe-
tences related to digital leadership and how we can
understand and use these skills in practice.
REFERENCES
Adams, RS, Daly, SR, Mann, LM and Dall'Alba, G 2011, 'Be-
ing a Professional: Three Lenses Into Design Think-
ing, Acting, and Being', Design Studies, 32, pp. 588-
607
Borgdorff, H 2010, 'The Production of Knowledge in
Artistic Research', in Biggs, M and Karlsson, H (eds)
2010, Routledge Companion to Research in the Arts,
Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon
Buhse, W 2012, 'Changing the Mindset: Die Bedeu-
tung des Digital Leadership für die Enterprise 2.0-
Strategieentwicklung', in Lembke, G and Soyez,
N (eds) 2012, Digitale Medien im Unternehmen,
Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 237-252
Eastman, C 1980 'System Facilities for CAD Databases',
ACM, New York, pp. 50-56
Gibbons, M, Limoges, C, Novotny, H, Schwarymann, S,
Scott, P and Trow, M 1994, The New Production of
Knowledge: The Dynamics of Science and Research
in Contemporary Societies, SAGE, London, Thousand
Oaks, New Delhi
Hatleskog, E 2015, Public Behaviours: Compilation and
analysis of combined behaviours (report), ADAPT-r
Holder, A 2015, Transformative Triggers: Compilation and
analysis of combined triggers (report), ADAPT-r
Kalay, YE 2004, Architecture’s New Media: Principles, The-
ories, and Methods of Computer-Aided Design, MIT,
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Kocatűrk, T and Medjdoub, B 2011, Distributed Intelli-
gence in Design, Willey & Blackwell, Chichester
Koskinen, I, Zimmerman, J, Binder, T, Redstorm, J and
Wensveen, S 2011, Design Research Through Practice,
Morgan Kaufmann, Waltham
Lee, KCK and Cassidy, T 2010, 'Principles of Design Lead-
ership for Industrial Design Teams in Taiwan', Design
Workshops - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 67
 Studies, 28, pp. 437-462
Osterle, H and Otto, B 2010, 'Consortium Research, A
Method for Researcher-Practitioner Collaboration in
Design Oriented IS Research', Business & Information
Systems Engineering, 5, pp. 283-293
Pahl, G, Badke-Schaub, P and Frankenberger, E 1999, 'Ré-
sumé of 12 Years Interdisciplinary Empirical Studies
of Engineering Design in Germany', Design Studies,
20, pp. 481-494
Peet, M, Lonn, S, Gurin, P, Page Boyer, K, Matney, B, Marra,
T, Himbeault Taylor, S and Daley, A 2011, 'Fostering
Integrative Knowledge through ePortfolios', Interna-
tional Journal of ePortfolio, 1, pp. 11-31
Polany, M 1966, The Tacit Dimension, Doubleday, Garden
City, NY
Rendell, J 2004, 'Architectural Research and Disciplinar-
ity', Architectural Research Quarterly, 8(2), pp. 141-
147
Schaik, LV and Johnson, A (eds) 2011, By Practice, By
Invitation: Design Practice Research at RMIT, One-
pointsixone, Melbourne
Schön, DA 1983, The Reflective Practitioner: How Profes-
sionals Think in Action, Basic Books (2003: Ashgate),
London (2003: Aldershot)
Verbeke, J 2013, 'This is Research by Design', in Frazer,
M (eds) 2013, Design Research in Architecture, An
Overview, Ashgate, Burlington, pp. 137-159
Verbeke, J and Glanville, R 2006 'Knowledge Creation
and Research in Design and Architecture', EURAU 04.
European Symposium on Research in Architecture and
Urban Design, Marseille 2004�: Considering the Imple-
mentation of Doctoral Thesis in Architecture, Marseille
Verbeke, J and Zupancic, T 2014, 'Adapting to and
adapted by ADAPT-r = Prilagajanje projektu in pri-
lagajanje projekta ADAPT-r : architecture, design
and art practice training-research', AR Arhitektura,
raziskave / AR Architecture, Research, 15(2), pp. 49-52
Vries, RE de, Bakker-Pieper, A and Oostenveld, W 2010,
'Leadership = Communication? The Relations of
Leaders’ Communication Styles with Leadership
Styles, Knowledge Sharing and Leadership Out-
comes', Journal of Business Psychology, 25, pp. 367-
380

68 | eCAADe 34 - Workshops - Volume 1

Folding The Unfoldable
A Method For Constructing Complex-Curved Geometry With Quad Edge
Panels

Ergun Akleman1 , Negar Kalantar2 , Alireza Borhani3

1
Department of Visualization, Texas A&M University 2,3 Department of Architec-
ture, Texas A&M University
1
http://www.viz.tamu.edu/faculty/ergun 2,3 www.thetranslab.com
1
ergun.akleman@tamu.edu 2,3 {kalantar|borhani}@tamu.edu

This paper explains a method will be used during a workshop for constructing
complex-curved geometry with quad edge panels. In this workshop, we
demonstrate that quad-edge mesh data structure can efficiently be used to
construct complex large shapes. With hands-on experiments, we will show a vast
variety of shapes can be constructed using square, rectangular, parallelogram
and extruded-line shaped panels. In addition, using a system we have recently
developed to unfold polygonal mesh, we will demonstrate how desired shapes can
be constructed by using laser-cut quadrilateral panels. This approach is
particularly suitable to construct complicated sculptural and architectural shapes
from anisotropic materials that can only be bended in one direction.

Keywords: Shape Modeling, Physical Construction, Complex-Curved Geometry,

Digital Fabrication

INTRODUCTION sume that we can use isotropic materials such as pa-

Currently, the most readily available digital fabrica-
tion tool is flat cutting technology such as laser cut-
ters or 3-axis CNC routers. In general, this workshop
introduces a simple method of fabrication, allowing
complex forms with positive or negative Gaussian
curvatures to be constructed from planar surfaces.
In this workshop, we demonstrate our current
progress for the realization of complex 3D surfaces
and structures that are assembled from 2D planar
shapes (Akleman et al. 2016). Our goal is to construct
physical structures that can be raised and formed in
3-space using minimal amount of planar materials.
In current construction processes with panels, we as-
per or thin metal that can provide forming any devel-
opable shape.
On the other hand, not all materials are isotropic
and there is now a strong interest in construction
with anisotropic active materials that can change
their shapes when they are activated (Gandhi and
Thompson 1992, Otsuka and Wayman 1999). These
materials have now been applied to medical and
aerospace and we predict that they will be common
in architectural construction.
There is one significant restriction with some of
these active materials such as smart laminates made
from shape memory alloys (SMAs). They cannot pro-

Workshops - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 69


vide all possible developable structures since they
are anisotropic; i.e. they can bend only one (or few
directions) direction and almost rigid in the perpen-
dicular direction (or other directions) (Saunders et al.
2014). In other words, they can provide only gen-
eralized cylinders and cannot provide general devel-
opable structures such as cones.
Therefore, the panels we can use can have only
a single bending direction. Moreover, since such ac-
tive materials are much more expensive than paper,
it is also important to reduce waste materials. In con-
clusion, there is now a need for a general framework
that can facilitate economic construction with such
anisotropic planar materials. In this workshop, we
70 | eCAADe 34 - Workshops - Volume 1
Figure 1
At Texas A&M
University, we had a
workshop for
architecture
students. Each
individual designed
and fabricated a
complex geometry
with quad-edge
panels.
present such a framework for modeling the geome-
try of planar panels that can self-fold into the desired
3D shape and we demonstrate that these elements
can be folded to create desired shapes.
METHODOLOGY
In this workshop, we consider physical shapes that
are constructed with panels corresponding to edges
of the planar meshes. We assume that each edge of
initial planar mesh unfolded into a special type of flat
shaped panel, which we call quad-edge panels (See
Figure 3). Using these quad-edge panels, it is possible
to unfold any given polygonal mesh surface into a set
of planar pieces that can efficiently be packed since
Figure 2
A Stanford Bunny
structure
constructed with
quad-edge panels.
The construction
took 12 hours to
assemble for 4
people. There are
approximately 600
quad-edge panels
and1200 fasteners.

they consist of a series of trapezoids without even us-
ing simple rectangular packing algorithms.
Figure 3
Examples of
Quad-edge panels
that can allow
anisotropic
materials to be used
in construction. In fact, one of the biggest expenses for construction
Square, rectangle, of large shapes comes from packing large number
rhombus, planar panels. If the panels have irregular shapes, it
parallelogram and will be harder to pack them efficiently. If expensive
trapezoids are anisotropic materials, which have a preferred bend-
shown here. ing direction, need to be used, packing become a
bigger issue since we cannot freely rotate shapes for
more efficient packing. This restriction can cause sig-
nificant amount waste material.
Quad-edge panels provide efficient packing with
anisotropic materials since they only need to be
bended along parallel fold lines -- called scores
in laser cutting terminology -- forming generalized
cylinders in the construction of large shapes. This
property of quad-edge panels makes them suitable
to be printed using anisotropic materials, which al-
ready have a preferred bending direction. The quad-
edge panels can be packed efficiently along their pre-
ferred bending direction that is given by a set of par-
allel lines. Moreover, a single quad-edge panel can fit
inside of a single rectangle without significant waste
area. Therefore, it is possible to obtain efficient pack-
ing even with anisotropic materials.
Another important problem is handling and as-
sembling the large number planar panels. This prob-
lem is like putting pieces of a large puzzle together.
However, unlike puzzles we do not want construction
process to be challenging to the construction peo-
ple. Instead, we want to simplify the construction
process in such a way that the construction people
who may not have extensive experience can assem-
ble the components with a minimum instruction. The
quad-edge data structure is particularly suitable for
construction since it provides a well-defined assem-
bly process. The construction workers can simply as-
semble quad-edge panels checking identical corners,
which are given a pair of face and vertex identifica-
tion numbers.
We have developed a multi-panel unfolding soft-
ware (Akleman et al. 2016). In our framework, we
start with a polygonal mesh approximation of the
desired 3D shape. Then, we unfold it into multiple
planar panels, which are simply 2D polygons. We
have used our unfolding software in one architec-
tural studio at Texas A&M University [1]. Students (de-
signed and) physically constructed a wide variety of
shapes that closely resemble the shapes of their orig-
inal designs by demonstrating the feasibility of this
approach (Figure 1& 4 & 5).

Workshops - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 71


CONCLUSION
With the design and construction of more and more
unusually shaped buildings, the computer graphics
community has started to explore new methods to
reduce the cost of the physical construction for large
shapes. Most of the currently suggested methods ei-
ther focus on reduction of the number of differently
shaped components to reduce fabrication cost using
mass production (Eigensatz et al. 2010) or identify
shapes that can be built using components that are
already mass produced. In this workshop, by using
our custom software, we will demonstrate that it is
72 | eCAADe 34 - Workshops - Volume 1
Figure 4
Top: Original mesh,
Folded quad-edge
panels and
Unfolded
quad-edge panels
and details. Bottom:
Physical structure
constructed by
quad-edge panels.
possible to form desired shapes by using quad-edge Figure 5
panels. The quad-edge panels are guaranteed to be Assembly process,
developable and have a preferred bending direction. Freshman design
Therefore, they can easily be unfolded and folded. studio at Texas A&M
Once folded, quad-edge panels become stronger in University.
the perpendicular direction.
REFERENCES
Akleman, E, Ke, S, Wu, Y, Kalantar, N and Borhani, A 2016,
'Construction of 2-Manifold Surfaces Using Physical
Version of Quad-Edge Data Data Structure', Shape
Modeling International, 58, p. 172–183
Eigensatz, M.V., Kilian, M, Schiftner, A, Mitra, N.J.,
Pottmann, H. and Pauly, M 2010 'Paneling architec-
tural freeform surfaces', ACM Transactions on Graph-
ics (TOG), p. 45
Gandhi, M.V. and Thompson, B. 1992, Smart materials
and structures, Springer Science & Business Media,
Netherlands
Otsuka, K and Wayman, C.M. 1999, Shape memory mate-
rials, Cambridge university press, United Kingdom
Saunders, R, Hartl, D, Malak, R and Lagoudas, D 2014
'Design and analysis of a self-folding sma-smp com-
posite laminate', ASME 2014 International Design En-
gineering Technical Conferences and Computers and
Information in Engineering Conference, Buffalo, p. 8
[1] www.youtube.com/watch?v=xpR_3_szq5g&
nohtml5=False
Transformational Intelligent Systems
Parametric Simulation Workshop

Pablo Baquero1 , Nelson Montas2 , Effimia Giannopoulou3

1,3
Faberarium 2 Universitat International de Catalunya
1,3
www.faberarium.org
1,3
{paniba|efeminno}@faberarium.org 2 arq.montas@gmail.com

This workshop intends to propose a specific kinetic design application, to define

an architectural component and to simulate Shape Memory Alloy material
behavior. The objective of the workshop is to simulate the experiment before the
fabrication, itself aimed to model and anticipate the application's physical
behavior traits as a means to preview assembly.

Keywords: digital simulation, muscle wires, programmable matter, responsive

components, kinetic architectural systems

INTRODUCTION the gap between those two workflow processes (de-

Contemporary design methods and processes are
shaped by the tools and industry related topics
such as materiality, mechanics and organic assembly.
These factors influence, if not determine, not just the
way the final product is achieved, but also how we
think about our emotional attachment to products
themselves.
In that framework, our proposal is that if we can
develop integrated design, simulation as a mean to
preview fabrication, not only can we achieve a more
fluid road between ideas and component/products,
but also upgrade its potential influence in the pub-
lic through an adaptability that can be far more cus-
tomizable than anything we've done or even imag-
ined before. In this mindset, intelligent kinetic sys-
tems are at the forefront regarding intelligence em-
bedded, dynamic systems.
Material behavior simulation (specifically Shape
Memory Alloys or SMA, in this case Ti-Ni) could shape
the decision making processes in design and pose
specific kinetic challenges that arise from bridging
sign and fabrication).
"Kinetic systems with embedded intelligence
will expose new programmes and forms as this
technology is incorporated into our everyday
lives." (Fox, 2014)
METHOD STEP ORDER SWAPPING
In a conventional research method, the steps
to achieve the design of self assembly and Pro-
grammable Matter, according to Raviv et al., are:
Design, Fabrication and Simulation, because before
a certain material property are not mapped to be
computed in artificial simulation systems, it is im-
possible to carry out the simulation cause of lack of
data input. After the necessary data is derived from
physical material testing, then it is possible to build
a reliable simulation model. What were are propos-
ing to achieve is, using laboratory tested and proved
data, to swap the last two stages in the decision-
making process to make the laboratory testing step

Workshops - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 73


an optional one, which is a more expensive one to
accomplish. (see Figure 1)
A FRINGE PARADIGM
As Skylar Tibbits et al. have stated, "if today we
program computers and machines, tomorrow we
will program matter itself" (Tibbits et al. 2014).
This domain in material science has taken over re-
search institutions over the last 5 years, with the
Self-Assembly Lab (SAL) at the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology (MIT) being one of its world lead-
ers. Programmable Matter (PM), a term coined by
the staff at SAL and Thomas Campbell on a project
commissioned by the United States Defense Ad-
vanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA-with none
of them taking direct credit for the term's coining) is
what is called a "fringe science", sitting at the cross-
disciplinary convergence of, at a general level, three
main research and design fields: material science,
computational design and digital fabrication.
Material Design, Programmable Matter and
Computational Design will be the three convergent
74 | eCAADe 34 - Workshops - Volume 1
Figure 1
Proposed
simulation to
fabrication swap
method, taken from
(Montás, 2016)
conceptual frameworks used to address the design
and decision-making processes towards the imple-
mentation and definition of kinetic, programmable
and shape shifting component applications. Which
themselves will be drawn from a joint, intertwined
design process regarding a Symbolic, top-down
logic, which is based on a combination of higher
level, ad hoc application and problem solving logics
and a Sub-symbolic, bottom-up logic which is de-
rived from lower level traits and features that evolve,
in open ended processes, as these systems grow or
adapt to different multi-level situations and contexts.
This suggests that material functionality and aesthet-
ics, which from now on will be conflated together,
will be developed from a small (millimeters) to an ar-
chitectural construction scale (meters) to meet spe-
cific building and environmental criteria acting as
design guidelines to be followed.
This article's definition of Material Design (MD),
while aware that there are a number of authors that
have coined slightly different ones on the subject,
will be the one that this paper's authors have coined,
 which itself is influenced by Liat Margolis's definition, thus influencing and, in a larger extent, potentially
in which "material" becomes a notion that is simulta- determining the overall building design. The pro-
neously matter (an alchemy of the periodic table) and posed Ni-Ti alloys in this paper have been selected
meaning (that which accrues behavioral descriptors from a commercially available in Robotshop.com and
according to their ever-changing empirical or theo- hold a transition temperature of 70C° to 90C° so, un-
retical contexts) ( Margolis et al. 2011), therefore: der normal thermal conditions, they have to be ac-
tuated by electricity (very low voltages ranging be-
Material Design (MD) tween 20 and 4000 Milliamps, for more information
MD as this research defines it is, within material sci- please refer to: [1] ).
ence, the process of configuration, reconfiguration or
Figure 2 modification, through programming or other meth-
Comparison of both ods like physical form finding, of any material to meet
(original and a certain set of criteria ranging from macroscopic
replicated) manifestation to behavior properties, thus enhanc-
simulations of the ing its capabilities to meet a specific set of design
deformation of a 2D needs, all together from the molecular scale, chem-
grid into a ically designing purpose oriented matter and thus
sinusoidal wave, developing unobtanium materials or multi-material
still-frames matrices and cast combinations that own up to such
sequence objectives (Montás, 2015).
(perspective view)
Nelson Montás Programmable Matter (PM)
(2015) based on PM is in science, engineering, and design of physi-
Raviv et al. (2014). cal matter that has the ability to change form and/or
Here the double function (shape, density, moduli, conductivity, color,
curvature etc.) in an intentional, programmable fashion[iv].
deformation Numerous authors, such as Michael Hensel, Achim
compared to that of Menges, Skylar Tibbits, Dan Raviv, Manuel Costoya,
the Raviv et al. Emilio Otero, Michael Fox et al., seem to agree on the
simulations and fact that this "procedural" way, as some have called It,
physical models is of designing architectural components straight from
an astonishingly the properties of materials and addressing design PHYSICS SIMULATIONS
close from their inner structures provides a new field of Kinematics is the part of mechanics that studies the
approximation to work whose unpredictable results mark a new stage movement of particles and systems without taking
the real models in of man's relationship with matter and nature itself in account the forces that produce it or, more simply
the original (Montás, 2015). put, the geometry of movement and which is used to
experiments.
relate displacement, velocity, acceleration and time,
Material Functionality and Design without making reference or the cause of the move-
Shape Memory Materials (SMM), in this case, Shape
ment. Then based on the notion that Kinetics is the
Memory Alloys (SMA), in the form of Nickel-Titanium
part of dynamics that studies the vector systems that
(Ni-Ti) alloys, pave the way for actuation driven, ar-
produce movement.
chitectural component systems that embed low level
The simulation will be done with Kangaroo, a real
intelligence (on-off, open-close logic) into their envi-
time, interactive physics engine that allows to ma-
ronmental mediation technology and programming,

Workshops - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 75

 nipulate time parameters and possible external fac- will search for application possibilities and formal lan-
tors such as thermal conduction which can be de- guage expression concerning the morphological re-
rived into structural load transmission. The forces sults.
derived from the alloys' programmed behavior are Digital materialization and the behavior of a ki-
used as data inputs to digitally model the transforma- netic system could give various values to design pro-
tions as springs with different stiffness and and rest cess and its final product. The simulation on a digital
length factors, according to the shape-shifting inher- platform helps designers to optimize geometric com-
ently designed for the kinetic material system, these positions according to a configuration of multiple pa-
spring particle systems are based in Hooke's elasticity rameters. Using SMA systems and parametrically op-
law (unary forces or springs). (see Figures 2 and 3) timizing the composition it is possible to reduce over-
charged mechanical stress and energy consumption
hence improving environmental performance. Hav- Figure 3
ing a digital simulation of a kinetic project can inform Comparison of both
future users about the behavior and can be used as (original and
visual demonstration and proof of concept. replicated)
simulations of the
deformation of a 2D
REFERENCES grid into a double
Baquero, Pablo and Giannopoulou, Effimia 2015 'Strate-
gies for Metallic Vault Structures', Proceedings of curvature surface
eCAADe 2015, Vienna (convex and
Fox, Michael A 2001 'Sustainable applications of intel- concave)
ligent kinetic systems.', Second International Confer- still-frames
ence on Transportable Environments. sequence (left side
Margolis, Liat 2011, 'Encoding Digital & Analogue Taxon- one-point
avigation', in Schröpfer, TS (eds) 2011, Material De-
SCOPE AND CONTRIBUTION sign Informing Architecture by Materiality, Birkhäuser perspective) Nelson
Our workshop exercise consists of building a spring GmbH, Basel, p. 148 Montás (2015)
mass, particle system approximation (Grasshopper + Montás, Nelson 2015, Performance Software Approaches based on Raviv et al.
kangaroo) simulation of an imploding structure that for Kinetic Architecture: Programmable Matter Based (2014). The graphic
will have the ability to shapeshift from a rigid poly- Simulations., Ph.D. Thesis, Universitat Internacional animations show a
de Catalunya strong resemblance
hedron shape (shape A) into "collapsed" like mor-
Tibbits, Skylar 2014, 'THE NEXT WAVE: 4D PRINTING PRO-
phology (shape B), derived from modeling the actu- GRAMMING THE MATERIAL WORLD', Atlantic Council of the replication
ation patterns comprised of flexible joints and rigid BRENT SCOWCROFT CENTER ON INTERNATIONAL SE- simulation with the
bars that react, as a whole, to external stimuli, in this CURITY, may 2014, p. 12 original one.
case heat. One of the objectives is to simulate the [1] http://www.robotshop.com/media/files/pdf/flexin
material's programmed behavior in order to properly ol-technical-data.pdf
predict critical function, actuation and physical prop-
erties. Grasshopper + Kangaroo bridge the design-
simulation tool's workflow in a single stream to opti-
mize and protocolize a smoother and fluent decision
making process.
These mechanisms will be studied from a macro-
scopic behavioral standpoint nonetheless being de-
rived from, lower level, molecular phenomena. Dur-
ing the workshop, together with the students, we

76 | eCAADe 34 - Workshops - Volume 1

Multi User Online Design Environment for Mass Housing
A collaborative decision-support tool

Lo Tian Tian1 , Marc Aurel Schnabel2

1,2
Victoria University of Wellington
1
skyduo@gmail.com 2 marcaurel.schnabel@vuw.ac.nz

Participatory design is not new, various design projects have included public
opinions, ideas, and suggestions to help architects to produce designs that fit the
desires and needs of the users or community. In the context of mass housing,
participation is seldom applied as the primary focus is on efficiency. Designs are
generated mainly based on architects' experiences or through data from
developers or government sectors that claim to reflect the needs and desires of the
occupants. In this workshop a digital platform called 'ModRule' is introduced to
provide a means for a participatory process in the connection with a virtual
environment software, 'Fuzor'. ModRule plays the role of a collaborative design
platform while Fuzor provides real-time visualisation and building information.
The aim of this workshop is to explore how a user participatory design set-up
allows for an active participation of stakeholders in the initial design phase of
mass housing.

Keywords: participatory design, mass housing, digital system

INTRODUCTION
This workshop aims to achieve design collaborations
between end users and architects to jointly generate
a mass housing design solution. Using a computa-
tional support system, the process can be facilitated
and 'simplified' into design and interaction rules for
participants to engage with the process effortlessly.
The participatory design experience of mass housing
is enriched by an interactive gamified virtual environ-
ment that offers incentives for social design interac-
tions.
MODRULE
'ModRule' (Figure 1) is a system [1] developed to fa-
cilitate the collaboration between the architects and
the end users during the preliminary stage of mass
housing design (Lo et al., 2015). This system takes ref-
erences from game design logic to develop a design
flow that allows architects to prepare a framework for
collaborative design with end users. The interface is
a step-by-step workflow that is very easy for partic-
ipants to get actively involved and be able to con-
tribute to the process in an informed manner.

Workshops - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 77


FUZOR
'Fuzor' (Figure 2) is a virtual environment BIM soft-
ware [2] that allows users to simulate, evaluate and
collaborate design through real-time a cutting edge
visualisation and communication system. Fuzor has
the capability of incorporating and linking data that
derive from a BIM software (e.g. Autodesk Revit) into
its system.
Fuzor offers an open source API for other pro-
grams to connect like a plugin. ModRule take this
opportunity making use of Fuzor's strong visualisa-
tion and BIM capability to provide the users with a
more realistic virtual environment for their design en-
gagements. As ModRule is a prototype that uses we-
bGL as its source code, the interface is limited to geo-
metric planes. Since the target audiences of users of
the above described systems are laypersons without
much architecture knowledge, a better visualisation
environment is necessary for a more intuitive interac-
tion.
78 | eCAADe 34 - Workshops - Volume 1
WORKSHOP SET UP Figure 1
In this workshop, participants shall experience a real- Top: Screenshot of
time online design collaboration. The workshop fo- ModRule
cuses on mass-housing designs. The aim is that preparation
every participant engages actively in the design of interface. Bottom:
their apartment within one mass-housing while at Screenshot of
the same time negotiating with their neighbours. ModRule
Obviously a higher number of participants will in- collaboration
crease the communication and negotiation possibili- interface.
ties testing both the capability of the system and the
design methodology. Every participant has the op-
portunity to encounter both perspectives, the one
of the architect and the one of the end user, allow-
ing participants to understand system setups and the
participatory processes.
Performing the role of the architects, the partici-
pants will have to set up their overall design and lay-
out within ModRule to establish the overall design
framework of the proposed mass housing building.
They have to decide how much design freedom they
are willing to offer to their end users. They define fix
points, such as vertical access, etc. and sub-divide
the plan in a meaningful grid for end users to build
upon. Since ModRule is developed based on game
design logics, the architects may have the impres-
sion that they are designing an architectural game for
their end users. This process makes them aware of
the various issues that are involved in participatory
design set ups.
Performing the role of the end-users, partici-
pants explore the many folded possibilities the sys-
tem offers to them reflecting a variety of users' needs.
Thus exploring the how mass housing allows for indi-
vidual and collective design options. They can role-
play a certain family type or simply try to design an
apartment to their own liking. In this process, the
participants will use both ModRule and Fuzor to en-
gage with their design processes. They can experi-
ence a virtual simulation of their design within Fuzor
and make their design decision based on these expe-
riences.
Figure 2
Top: Screenshot of
Fuzor with design
model and site
environment.
Bottom: Screenshot
of Fuzor with BIM
data and
component library
for user to choose
and design their
spaces.

Workshops - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 79

 WORKSHOP EXPLORATIONS REFERENCES
The workshop explores and discusses with the partic- Lo, TT, Schnabel, MA and Gao, Y 2015, 'ModRule, A User-
ipants the follow points: Centric Mass Housing Design Platform', in Celani, G,
Sperling, DM and Franco, JMS (eds) 2015, Computer-
Aided Architectural Design Futures. The Next City -
• Co-designing living space: How can layper- New Technologies and the Future of the Built Envi-
ronment, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Sao Paolo, pp.
sons without any knowledge of how to design
236-254
architectural spaces play a significant role in [1] http://modrule.com/session/login
the design development and to what extent [2] https://www.kalloctech.com
can they insert their own visions into this pro-
cess?
• Presence of the architect: How can an effec-
tive communication between architects and
laypersons be achieved?
• Mass-housing: How can design of mass
housing be modified such that participants
can be included without much complica-
tions?
• Computational tools: What are the elements
that allow the design of mass-housing to pro-
vide high flexibility yet still within the con-
straints of an architect's design?
• Virtual environment: What are the level of
details needed to attain a comprehensive de-
sign collaboration process?

The participants are invited to provide constructive

feedback to the authors of how to simplify or en-
hance the participatory design process of mass hous-
ing.

ANTICIPATED OUTCOMES
At the end, participants are able to generate an de-
sign outcome of a mass housing building that caters
for the need for all involved stakeholders. Partici-
pants gain a deeper understanding about the prepa-
rations required for participatory designs in general
and how technology can assist with this process.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ModRule has been supported by Kalloc Tech provid-
ing technical knowledge to develop the interoper-
ability of ModRule and Fuzor.

80 | eCAADe 34 - Workshops - Volume 1

FABRICATION | Design & Application
Adaptive Fabrication
Cellular Concrete Casting Using Digital Moulds

Zubin Khabazi1 , Michael Budig2

1
PhD Candidate at Singapore University of Technology and Design 2 Assistant Pro-
fessor, Singapore University of Technology and Design
1
morphogenesism.com
2
http://asd.sutd.edu.sg/faculty/michael-budig/
1
zubin@morphogenesism.com 2 michael_budig@sutd.edu.sg

Computational design and digital fabrication have expanded the use of digital
manufacturing machineries for the realization of architecture, yet they have their
own limitations of material use. These limitations caused some materials like
cement, plaster and clay become marginal in this new digital context, despite
their vast use in the building industry. In this context, this paper will present a
research, focusing on the use of concrete through the development of a
custom-designed device, which is an adjustable digital mould. This digital mould
has been designed specifically for a project called Procrystalline Wall and has
been 'adapted' to the conditions of its agenda in terms of size, shape, typology,
and even technical matters. However, this adaptability means that the device is
not aimed to work for any other project and remain exclusive to this particular
design only. This paper will further discuss the validity and obstacles of the
presented method in a more global context.

Keywords: Concrete Fabrication, Digital Casting, Digital Adjustable Mould,

Cellular Concrete Casting, Cellular Solid Morphologies

INTRODUCTION so-called 'paradigm shift' in its agendas, education,

Access to affordable hi-tech digital facilities and dom-
inance of information technologies, have gradually
integrated into our daily lives, with the aim of im-
proving our lifestyle, and fluency and easiness of
workflows in everyday life. Architecture, as one of
the most physical phenomenon in human culture,
also utilizes digital media, to incorporate new de-
sign tools and new fabrication technologies in its pro-
cesses. Such incorporation caused it to experience a
practice and even theory (Schumacher 2014). There
are methods and tools for design and fabrication that
have been established already, and have been used
for a while, yet new researches, especially for the
realization of design products, would be needed to
widen the spectrum of applications and possibilities.
Extensive use of computation in architecture,
created a global tendency towards complexity in de-
sign, yet the question of materialization of such de-

FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 83

 sign products in the real world has engaged lots of
practitioners and researchers (Menges 2015). Search-
ing to answer this question resulted in the use of
digital machineries (i.e. CNC routers, industrial laser
cutters, robotic arms, 3D printers), for the fabrica-
tion of complex products. But these machines have
brought their own limitations when used with certain
materials such as cement, plaster, clay, and caused
them become marginal in this new digital context,
despite their vast use in building industry. Because
of the lack of proper machines to work with these
substances (especially in the paste form), they have
not been used more than some academic researches
and experimentations. It seems that because of the
integration of machine and material in this digital
realm, proper machines (and their respective meth-
ods) should be developed to facilitate the utilization
of such substances.
In this context, this paper will present a research
about using concrete through digital media of design
and fabrication. In order to have a comprehensive
understating of the context, in the first part, research
background is studied and common achievements
and problems in the area are reviewed. This would
help to establish the main research questions, which
are addressed in part two. To study the methodol-
ogy of the work in second part, experimentation on
a cellular concrete casting project with its relevant
custom-designed mould is described. Final evalua-
tions, main obstacles in front of the system devel-
opment, and conclusions are discussed in part three
where it would also address future developments
and agendas.
RESEARCH BACKGROUND
Research background would investigate the most es-
tablished techniques of digital fabrication with con-
crete. Methods that are cited here are mostly from
academia and research projects to observe develop-
ments, and to further address the achievements as
well as shortcomings and technical difficulties they
face. This has been addressed in two categories:
84 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1
Category 1: 'Concrete Casting' by Digitally
Fabricated Moulds/Formworks
Three types of methods are studied in this category:
- Mass-Customized Moulds/Formworks/Flexible
Formworks/Lost Formworks. Mass-Customized
Moulds/Formworks are group of similar, but non-
identical moulds which are made for casting every
single component of a project, with differentiated
parts. Here, instead of one mould for a singular
module, being casted repeatedly for several times,
there would be several customized moulds that each
would be used once. The use of mass-customized,
digitally fabricated moulds/formworks is now easily
achievable in terms of technicality. Digital design
platforms are capable of providing facilities to model
differentiated geometries and it is just couple of steps
further to convert them into moulds or formworks to
be fabricated. The main concern here is not the tech-
nique or process, but material use.
The very first negative aspect of customized
technique is material waste. Moulds and Formworks
provided by these techniques are unique for any sin-
gular object and they are not intended to be used for
any other piece/project. The waste that they provide,
show more drastic negative impacts because of the
materials these techniques usually use: PVC, foam,
polyurethane, and other similar materials are 'smart'
selections when considering the cost, but leaving
them as (mostly non-recyclable) waste in large quan-
tities, is noticeable. Another important issue that
should also be noticed is the machining time needed
for this processes (especially for methods like engrav-
ing) which is time/manpower expensive.
- Re-Useable Moulds. Implementation of re-useable
moulds in concrete construction seems promising to
solve the problem of material waste. The intention
is to use a flexible material for moulding, getting it
formed each time for a new piece, and re-form it for
another use after casting (Gramazio et al. 2014b).
Clay and Wax currently exist as tried-and-tested de-
formable materials (McGee et al. 2014). In order to
prepare the set up, clay/wax should be formed inside
a container to make the negative geometry of cast-
ing piece. This could be done using a robotic arm or
a customized CNC machine. While this process shows
smarter material use, there are certain shortcomings
as well.
Using flexibility as the initial property might
cause deformations during casting. This would cause
inaccuracies in the piece. It would be more drastic
when the size of the piece becomes bigger and hy-
draulic forces of the fresh concrete become higher.
These inaccuracies would affect the homogeneity of
the product, and if complex assembly is also included
in the final process, would be a critical point. Mate-
rial specific problems exist as well. For example in the
choice of wax, the amount of energy needed to form
it, and then melt it back, should be calculated. The
extra use of energy should not sacrifice the material
re-use.
- Adjustable Moulds. Using a mechanically ad-
justable mould, either being controlled by electrical
motors or actuated with an external robotic arm (Gra-
mazio et al. 2014b), could potentially solve the prob-
lems of material and energy use. In this scenario, a
mould could get various forms and thus could pro-
vide various outputs. But it should be noted that
these moulds are limited in terms of geometrical out-
put, mostly to one family of forms with capability of
differentiation in some features like length, angle or
curvature. This means that they are not generic solu-
tions and should be designed for any specific project
separately. The cost of such operation, and time
needed to do so is considerable and sometimes a real
obstruction.
Category 2: 'Additive Manufacturing' of
Concrete Elements
Three main strategies are cited in this category:
- Concrete 3D Printing (Deposition). The idea of 3D
Printing concrete like 'Contour Crafting' (Khoshnevis
2004), or 'Deposition' technique, use this strategy to
deposit fresh concrete with a nozzle that is driven
by a computer-controlled machine. Inherent to the
idea are certain questions that are still under devel-
opment. There is the problem of size and that de-
FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 85
termines the maximum envelope of a structure that
could be printed. So far, large printers have been
developed to print in the scale of houses, but any
larger structure does not mean to enlarge the printer
(Skyscraper problem), and definitely other strategies
should be developed (Tibbits 2015). There still exist
the problem of making inclined geometries, curved
surfaces and so on, which without support for the al-
ready printed concrete, is not easily possible. There is
the question of consistency and cohesiveness of the
concrete, suitable for printing purposes. The ques-
tion of reinforcement and how to implement it in the
concrete is also valid.
- Concrete Deposition using Mobile Robotic de-
vices. The main idea behind mobile robots is to use
small robotic fabricators, which can deposit concrete
while moving. They could move on top of the lay-
ers that they have laid by themselves, so using the
already printed structure as the pathway (i.e. IaaC
Minibuilder project) (Gramazio et al. 2014a) (Male-
Alemany and Portell 2014). If working effectively in
groups through (mobile) communication, it is pos-
sible to use multiple robotic agents that are print-
ing a building in a collaborative manner (an image
of agent-based fabrication). The idea of using small
robots to do building jobs, now gets more attention
in academic fields. Using multiple drones to assem-
ble a building, follows the same logic. While most
of the problems from the previous section (concrete
deposition) would remain the same, there are certain
technical issues that should be researched in the filed
of robotic devices, which is mostly related to engi-
neering, computer science, robotics and other inter-
disciplinary fields.
- Cement 3D Printing using Powder-Based Print-
ing Technology. While the earlier experimentation
and mainstream of concrete 3D printing focused
on the deposition of fresh concrete, there exist a
strategy of using cement in powder-based print-
ers to print concrete. This idea has been tested in
the academic fields, but not through printer-making
companies to see the actual working capacity of
an industrial machine. The quality of the output
 product, its density, strength, modulus of elasticity,
etc. needs lots of laboratory tests and proves to
be considered as standard concrete. But in general,
this technique would be an interesting solution for
cellular/component-based 3D printing of differenti-
ated building blocks.
METHODOLOGY AND IMPLEMENTATION
Research Questions
While investigating how digital media could form
concrete in two categories, it should be noticed that
the idea of 3D printing is out of the scope of this pa-
per. On the other hand, casting techniques have their
own benefits, but need to meet the requirements of
digital technologies and comply with its machines to
develop further. Casting concrete with digital me-
dia has different variables like mould/formwork/lost-
formwork approach, pre-fab or in-situ strategy, con-
tinuous or discrete elements, solid or adjustable
mould, etc., where the focus of this work is on pre-
casting of discrete elements. This would be possible
through customized or adjustable/reusable moulds,
and as already discussed, those techniques are deal-
ing with issues like waste, inaccuracy, time/manpow-
er/cost, and so on. The enquiry of this project is about
reducing the waste, time and cost of casting differen-
tiated pieces, and the focus is on the development of
a 'custom-designed moulding device' as an alterna-
tive to 'customized moulds'. The methodology and
procedure will be discussed in this part.
Adaptive vs. Customized Moulding: 'Pro-
crystalline Wall' Project
In response to the problems of customized mould
making, a new strategy has been developed to use
an adjustable mould, with digitally controllable ge-
ometry. In this scenario, digital mould could adapt
its geometry to a digital object, through direct com-
munication of data with computer (design platform).
So instead of making one mould for each piece, there
is one digital mould, plus data for each piece, that
adjusts the mould for casting (Figure 1). In this way,
the demanding task of fabricating multiple moulds
86 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1
would be shifted to design a digital mould. This
fabrication device could get the data immediately
from design and would facilitate casting a family of
forms by changing some geometrical features (im-
plemented in the design of both mould and pieces),
so the device as adapted to the typology of forms
which is generated in computational design pro-
cess. In order to test this new technique, a proto-
type project, the 2.2 meters high 'Procrystalline Wall',
with more than 400 differentiated concrete cells have
been designed and fabricated.
Figure 1
Digital Mould with
adaptable
geometry which
can communicate
with design
platform through
digital code.
Parallel Design Process
The design process includes designing the mould,
and the wall, simultaneously, both affecting and up-
dating each other. Challenge of the mould devel-
opment was more into solving technical issues (Elec-
tronic, Mechanic, Programing), studying geometri-
cal possibilities, improving performance (to be water-
tight, to maneuver easily, to be precise) and to reach
the point where data transfers seamlessly between
digital platform and machine. Challenge of the wall
design was to demonstrate differentiations, while
meeting the limitations, needs and necessities of the
simultaneously developing digital mould.
Cell geometry is the shared property between
the wall and the mould. While they should be ag-
gregated and geometrically adapted to their specific
positions to build up the wall, each of them should
follow some guidelines to be able to cast by the vari-
ation of the same mould. Cells have been designed
with a kite geometry in their plan, and extruded with
constant height. Among various geometrical param-
Figure 2 the kite wider or longer, yet the geometry would re-
Cell differentiation, main symmetric. As a result, the design of the wall
based on the initial was limited to some trace lines, upon which, cells
state in the middle, would be generated and arranged to fit automati-
Top: Angle change cally (Figure 3).
and Bottom:
Length change. Digital Adaptive Mould
Digital mould was developed as in integral part of
the design process. The aim was to keep mechani-
cal/electrical parts as simple as possible and the cost
of production as minimum as it could be. The oper-
ation of the device was observed through animated
model to make sure all pieces are working seamlessly
together. After modeling, all pieces have been de-
rived (Figure 4), either went through the fabrication
process to be cut, or ordered. Pieces include side
walls of the cells' negative geometry, gears, supports,
flaps, base and also electronics, which were a micro-
controller (an Arduino board), two Servo motors, Se-
rial communication cable and power supply. After as-
sembly, micro-controller was set in direct serial com-
munication with computer, so it could receive its data
from the model in order to run servomotors immedi-
ately. One servo used for the angle variation and an-
other one for the length. The steps of workflow (Fig-
Figure 3 ure 5) comprised of:
Final design of the
wall, where cells 1. Select a cell
being generated 2. Read its Angle/Length data
with differentiated 3. Remap data into the numeric range that is
angles and lengths suitable for servo motors
to fit into each 4. Send the data to the Arduino board to run
other. servo motors
5. Motors would adjust mould to adapt to the
geometry of the selected cell
eters to make variations, two of them have been cho- 6. Mould cavity should be lubricated for casting
sen, in order to make all cells' differentiations: one
was the 'angle' between the first two equal-length In order to work faster, based on the number of
sides, and the other one was the 'length' of the other pieces but limited with the budget, three separate
two equal-length sides (Figure 2). So both changes digital moulds have been made. They were slightly
would happen across the diagonal of symmetry of different from each other because each one of them
the kite geometry, either changing the angle at one was capable of maneuvering for a different range of
end or changing the length at the other end, making values (for angle and length). This has been decided
in order to make their movement more accurate by

FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 87

 Figure 4
Extruded diagram
of mould parts.

Figure 5
Data flow in the
process of
fabrication.

88 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1

 limiting the angular range that each servomotor op-
erates on. So all cells have been categorized based
on their angle/length values (Figures 6 and 7), each
group associated with one of the three moulds (Fig-
ure 8). The process has been carried on by labeling
all the pieces, setting the moulds, and casting pieces
accordingly, letting them get their initial shape for
about 7 minutes, taking them out for drying and cur-
ing process, cleaning the moulds and starting every-
thing again. It took up to 25 minutes for each batch
of three moulds/cells to be set and cast.
Figure 6
Cells with smaller
angle values but
larger length (sharp
types).
Figure 7
Cells with larger
angle values (wide
types)
The concrete mixture that has been used in this
process was reinforced with fibers for extra consis-
tency. Since cells should have remained clean and
sharp at their edges, this fiber reinforcement was
necessary for extra cohesiveness. Chemical admix-
tures have been added to the concrete to reduce the
time of drying, in order to take the pieces out of the
FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 89
mould faster. Since the method of using concrete
was moulding, especially with sharp edges and small
cavities, plasticizers also added to simplify the move-
ment and forming of concrete. Finally, expansion
polymers have been added to the mixture to reduce
the weight of the cells. All material strategies, per-
centage of ingredients in the mixture, and quality of
the output were consulted with experts in order to
have the final product lightweight with sharp, clean
edges (Figure 9).
DISCUSSION
Ideas of using adjustable moulds have been around
for some years, but they did not become widespread.
There are various reasons like cost, feasibility, validity,
and technicality that might describe some obstacles.
This section will broaden the discussion on pros and
cons of the digital mould project for further evalua-
tions. The fact is that studies and observations show
three main concerns: project-device specificity, tech-
nical complexity and procedure difficulty, which are
discussed in this part.
Being 'specific' to one project only, devices that
are made for such non-universal solutions become
economically inefficient. The digital mould of this
project has been made by using simple electron-
ics and low quality parts and pieces to remain cost-
efficient. But it showed the problem of accuracy and
vulnerability in high-demand jobs, because the qual-
ity of its parts is not assured in this instance. It has
been proved that this strategy is affordable while us-
ing non-expensive materials/electronics, but at the
same time it should be considered that such devices
are not industrial, heavy-duty machines, suitable for
high-demand works. They will lose their consistency
after a while, especially when working with a high vis-
cosity material like concrete. However upon conver-
sion into a more industrial-type device, there would
be a consequential increase in cost. Here the evo-
lution from maker-quality device, to an industrial-
grade machine would flaw the current discussion, as
the assumptions are fundamentally different. The
idea of maker-quality moulds might be applicable

for a small-scale project, yet maintenance would be
needed during the work and some room should be
considered for inaccuracies and error proofing.
Issues related to technical complexity are less
problematic today, because of the availability of
open-source knowledge and instructions for similar
works. It is easy to have access to ingredients like
electronic and mechanical parts and also fab-labs to
fabricate pieces, and it is as easy to find instructions
and tutorials to work with, program, assemble and
run them. Although the challenge of expensive fa-
cility is still valid, it should be noticed that affordable
components and machines become more and more
available.
Graphical interfaces and node-based-
programing languages are among the computa-
tional improvements that help to reduce the prob-
lems of procedure difficulty. These tools/services
are helping to facilitate the use of computers, pro-
graming languages, electronics, etc. for non-expert
users (like architects), and for interdisciplinary ap-
plications. This type of work would be really com-
plicated with manual procedures but digitalization
90 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1
Figure 8
Cell distribution
between three
different moulds
based on their
angle / length
range of values.
helped to simplify it for easier implementation. This
means that upon certain research and development
of systems, it could be strategic to implement such
methods in the design schemes of specific goals.
While elaborating on techniques of digital fabri-
cation with concrete, especially the case of adaptive
mould, one should know that choosing any method
of fabrication is a multi-criteria task that needs differ-
ent information to be evaluated in order to come to
a decision. This information are ranging from man-
agerial and authoritative aspects, up to technological
and detailing. All such parameters have certain im-
pacts and could affect the methods of construction.
It is the design-research team's responsibility to con-
sider all possible approaches and select one that best
suits the project's situation.
OUTLOOK: COMPLEXITY IN DESIGN, SIM-
PLICITY IN CONSTRUCTION
The objective of this paper was to use all current pos-
sibilities and technologies available in DIY/Maker do-
mains to see how they could help to develop sim-
ple techniques for fabrication. The budget of each
 of the moulds in this project was less than $80, yet
each of them managed to get more than 130 differ-
ent positions and provided quite accurate results as a
digital fabrication device. While the complex part of
the process has been done in the studio, it was aimed
to make the production simple, clarify and minimize
the interface, and complete the task without experts
during the casting and assembly. The idea is to work
with communities of 'non-specialized people' who
can perform such tasks, in order to build 'specialized
design' products, yet with simple workflows.
Figure 9
Final assembled
'Procrystalline Wall'
project.
FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 91
There are two main lines of research to further
progress this project. The first one would focus on
the geometry of the mould/cell: while keeping it sim-
ple, what types of complexities could be implanted in
the design phase, to get more diverse outputs. This
should be also accompanied by more clarification on
the platform and simplification of the interface, us-
ing data visualization, visual geometry analysis and
so on. The other line of the research would focus
more on the qualities of the material systems (con-
crete/cement, plaster, clay), which were examined in
 the scope of this project but has not been addressed
in this paper.
Although the usage of complex robotic arms,
or high-end additive manufacturing machines, indi-
cates one end of the digital fabrication spectrum,
there would be interesting outputs via DIY fabrica-
tion robots and custom devices at the other end.
There are examples of the methodology of the work,
namely in the ideas of Neil Gershenfeld at MIT's
Media Lab (Gershenfeld 2011), or similar design
approaches by Marta Male Alemany at Fab-Robot
project in IaaC, Barcelona (Male-Alemany and Portell
2014), and many more. These schemes are aiming to
be easily accessible, open-source, relying on commu-
nity work, and targeting public domains (Kuznetsov
and Paulos 2010), so not only showcasing a different
type of operation, but different type of human inter-
action with technology as well. This mixture of dig-
ital with manual would ease the access to complex
design products through simple procedures and de-
vices.
Acknowledgements
The experimental part of this project has been
done with the collaboration of A.Akbari, A.Eslami,
M.Tavafzadeh, H.Panjehpour, K.Kazemian, K.Azari,
A.Zarif, A.Mokaram, P.Heydarian, S.Vaseghi and
A.Iravani at morphogenesism, laboratory of algo-
rithmic architecture. [1] Further continuation of the
studies, review of the related works and expansion of
the discussion are part of the more broader, on-going
PhD research at Singapore University of Technology
and Design.
Khoshnevis, B. 2004, 'Automated construction by con-
tour crafting-related robotics and information tech-
nologies', Automation in Construction, 13, pp. 5-19
Kuznetsov, S. and PAULOS, E. 2010 'Rise of the expert am-
ateur: DIY projects, communities, and cultures', 6th
Nordic Conference on Human-Computer Interaction:
Extending Boundaries, New York, US
Male-Alemany, M. and PORTELL, J. 2014, 'FABbots: Re-
search in Additive Manufacturing for architecture',
in Gramazio, F., Kohler, M. and Langenberg, S. (eds)
2014, Fabricate 2014, gta verlag, Zurich
McGee, W., De Leon, M. P., Willette, A., Brell-Cokcan, S.
and Braumann, J. (eds) 2014, Robotic Fabrication in
Architecture, Art and Design 2014, Springer Interna-
tional Publishing
Menges, A. 2015 'Material Culture, Rethinking Material-
ization through Computation', Taubman College of
Architecture lecture series, Taubman College of Archi-
tecture, U. O. M.
Tenorio, A. 2014, 'The Impact of Parametricism on Ar-
chitecture and Society, interview with Patrik Schu-
macher', on-line: http://www.patrikschumacher.com/
Tibbits, S 2015, 'Challenges and Opportunities', 3D Print-
ing and Additive Manufacturing, 2(4), p. 151
[1] http://morphogenesism.com/project/p1/p1.html

REFERENCES
Gershenfeld, N. 2011, Fab: The Coming Revolution on Your
Desktop-From Personal Computers to Personal Fabri-
cation, Basic Books
Gramazio, F., Kohler, M. and Langenberg, S. (eds) 2014,
Fabricate: Negotiating Design and Making, gta ver-
lag, Zurich
Gramazio, F., Kohler, M. and Willmann, J. 2014, The
robotic touch : how robots change architecture, Park
Books, Zurich

92 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1

Negotiate My Force Flow
Designing With Dynamic Concrete Formwork

Oliver Tessmann1 , Moritz Rumpf2 , Philipp Eisenbach3 ,

Manfred Grohmann4 , Topi Äikäs5
1
KTH Stockholm School of Architecture 2,3,4 University of Kassel School of Archi-
tecture 5 Betoniviidakko Oy
1
oliver.tessmann@arch.kth.se
2,3,4
{rumpf|eisenbach|grohmann}@asl.uni-kassel.de
5
topi.aikas@betoniviidakko.fi

A composite system, made from layers of perforated plywood and latex film,
together with ropes and rubber seals, performs as a flexible concrete formwork.
In our research we investigated whether such a system could yield more than only
one single repetitive concrete form. We sought to reduce the amount of material
consumed by conventional formwork and we conceived formwork as part of the
design process rather than a technical means during construction. We worked as
a team of architects, structural engineers and artists and through the confluence
of computational design, digital fabrication, material simulation and prototyping.

Keywords: Dynamic formwork, concrete, flexible mould

INTRODUCTION tailored textile under tension and its boundary con-

The way we design and build with concrete lacks in-
novation. Resources, energy and architectural poten-
tials are wasted because concrete processing is stuck
in the industrial logic of endless repetition and serial
production. Concrete is treated as a passive material
poured into rigid and massive containers that act as
formwork (Forty 2012, 170).
In our research we challenge the notion of con-
ventional concrete formwork as a massive and rigid
systems that is only capable to producing repetitive
elements. We seek for a formwork system that is not
only flexible but rather dynamic, i.e. it enables cast-
ing of concrete objects with various shapes using one
formwork. We want to overcome the formal limita-
tions of flexible fabric formwork predefined by the
ditions (Manelius 2012, 30).
METHODOLOGY
Our investigation on novel concrete formwork is
based on three major methods:
• Decomposing and carefully exploring the dif-
ferent functions of a formwork in order to
find novel materials or material compositions
for the various functions. (Veenendaal et al.
2014)
• Simulating and physically exploring the forces
at work during the process of becoming.
• Linking designing and making through com-
putation and digital fabrication, with the aim

FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 93

 Figure 1
Concrete prototype
made with dynamic
formwork.

to conceive both formwork and its outcome plored and exceeded the limits of plywood thickness
as a design challenge. and pre-stressed the material with ropes to achieve
strength through curvature. We furthermore sim-
ulated the process of bending with particle-spring
models to quickly test the range of formal opportuni-
Decomposing Formwork
ties provided by the material system without actually
Instead of focusing on a particular form that we want
entering the cumbersome process of physical proto-
to cast, we start with a functional analysis of form-
typing.
work: What are the constituting elements and their
functional dependencies? Which functional require-
Designing with and through formwork
ments - such as withstand the hydrostatic pressure of
We reversed the conventional design process when
liquid concrete or the requirement of the formwork
working with concrete: instead of designing a form
to be watertight - can we extract from this analysis?
and subsequently transcend its ideal geometry into
Can we find new materials for certain elements? Can
concrete through whatever means, we reverse the
we re-program the dependencies?
process for the sake of research in formwork systems
focusing on the question: What are the forms we
Simulating and physically exploring form-
can achieve through the use of our formwork proto-
work
type? What forms could be found when the concrete
Our formwork is supposed to consume less mate-
in its liquid state impacts its forces on the fragile form-
rial. Instead of being massive it should rather balance
work?
the forces at work during casting and curing. We ex-

94 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1

Figure 2
Formwork
components.
DYNAMIC FORMWORK
The dynamic formwork system is composed of two
layers of perforated plywood, latex film, rope, and
rubber seals as outlined above (Figure 2). Each of
these elements deals with one particular function of
a concrete formwork.
Plywood
Planar plywood has a low stiffness while being ca-
pable to bear high loads. Through carefully placed
incisions the material gains even more elasticity so
that bending and twisting can be combined (Fig-
ure 3). Slotted plywood strips gain almost textile-
like properties but perform structurally not only in
tension but also in bending. A wide range of forms
can be achieved through bending, twisting and pre-
FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 95
stressing the strips. Consequently the concrete is
formed into objects with multiple structural capaci-
ties.
Like folded paper their in-plane tensile loads are
activated and create a high stiffness. The bending
increases the effective depth of both the plywood
formwork and the cast concrete object. When grab-
bing a piece of paper we intuitively twist and bend
it and thereby exponentially increase the global mo-
ment of inertia, transforming a weak bending system
into one that carries its loads as a membrane system
(Eisenbach et al. 2013, 205).
Prestressing the plywood strips with ropes sub-
stitutes our hands and allows for differently shaped
configurations of the formwork. Through varying the
location and the tension strength of the ropes the re-

sulting forms change (Figure. 3, 7 showing different
configurations), the formwork becomes dynamic.
Latex film
The porous nature of slotted plywood requires a sec-
ond material layer to tighten the formwork. Latex
film proved most capable to follow the changing
shapes of the plywood strips without creating wrin-
kles in the cast object.
Under the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid con-
crete the latex bulges into the plywood slots but ef-
fortlessly withstands the forces. The material can be
reused for multiple casts, however, silicon-coating
wears off quickly through chemical reactions with
the concrete. While the first concrete objects have a
glossy surface later casts are rather matte. The seal-
ing qualities of the latex are not affected.
Rubber seal
Rubber profiles with rectangular cross-section seal
off the perimeter of the formwork. The latex film is ei-
ther wrapped around the rubber or the different ma-
terials are clamped together. The rubber is able to
follow the bent and twisted forms of the plywood. It
furthermore defines the edge thickness of the con-
crete object.
All elements of the formwork are re-useable and
96 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1
Figure 3
Formwork
assembled and
pre-stressed.
can be re-configured in different shapes. The upper
and the lower layer are either clamped or bolted to-
gether.
DESIGNING FORMWORK
Assembled from the above-described components
we explored the formal capacities of the formwork.
The cast objects are rather results of this exploration
than a priori designed objects.
Perforated plywood with its almost textile-like
behaviour allows for large rotational movement
along the longitudinal axis of the strip. We tested
the twisting shape with different rotational angles. A
wooden frame locks the twisted strips in precise po-
sition.
Bolts between the two plywood layers clamp the
rubber seal, the latex film and the wood together and
form a precisely shaped edge of the concrete object.
However, the freshly cast concrete induces horizon-
tal bulging and reveals imbalance between the forces
at work during the process of becoming. Thus we
dismissed the wooden frame that reduces the formal
flexibility of the plywood to twisting. In the next iter-
ation pre-stressed ropes twist and bend the plywood.
Since ropes can be used to pull their fixing-points to-
gether but not to push them apart they have to be
placed on both sides of the formwork to create alter-
Figure 4
Latex, concrete,
plywood. The
incision pattern is
clearly visible in the
cast object.

Figure 5
Rubber profiles as
flexible boundary
seal.

nating curvature. To bend a strip of plywood along
the short axis, the rope has to be mounted parallel
to the long side and to bend the plywood along the
long axis, parallel to the short side respectively. To
introduce twisting through ropes is a rather challeng-
ing task but can be achieved through diagonal ropes
on both sides.
A computational particle-spring model sup-
ported the investigation of the formal possibilities
through the simulation of the forces acting on the
material system and complemented the physical
testing. Proportions of the digital plywood sheets
could be adjusted and 'digital ropes' were quickly re-
configured. Thus a wide solution space of possible
formwork formats and bent and twisted geometries
could be examined. A crucial aspect is the calibra-
tion of the digital simulation with the physical pro-
totype. Different thicknesses of the plywood as well
as varying incision patterns produce various bend-
ing behaviours that need to be analysed and the sim-
ulation setup has to be adjusted accordingly. The
impact of the hydrostatic pressure of liquid concrete
onto the formwork was neglected in this stage of for-
mal exploration.
Curvature analyses of the digitally generated
shapes are a first indication of their structural capaci-
ties. The physical limitations of the actual perforated
plywood sheets in regards to bending and twisting
radii have to be kept in mind, since the 'digital ply-
wood' does not break. Incorporating the sequence of

FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 97


tensioning of multiple ropes increases the complex-
ity exponentially. The order in which two or more
ropes are pulled is however relevant for the resulting
geometry. The effect the use of our hands - even un-
consciously - has in the physical prototypes cannot
be implement into a digital simulation.
The incision pattern changes the geometrical
properties of the plywood strip: The elements can be
bent into forms impossible to achieve with continu-
ous material. Since the material properties are un-
changed the novel forms cannot be called double-
curved. The slots rather allow for various regions of
different curvature and with it for a global form un-
achievable with non-perforated sheet material. The
curvature changes are negotiated by the small-scale
saddles (Figure 7) between the slots that twist under
the external forces induced by the ropes. Bending led
to additional curvature, which - together with a re-
orientation of the formwork during casting - reduced
the bulging significantly.
Bending the plywood requires a revision of the
edge fixing detail. The strips are congruent as pla-
nar or twisted surfaces and allow for bolting through
congruent holes. When bending, the offset between
the wooden strips that forms the cavity for the con-
crete, leads to two different bending radii and previ-
98 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1
Figure 6
Formwork system
with twistable
plywood lamellas
within a wooden
frame. The
formwork was used
to produce
differently twisted
concrete lamellas.
ously congruent drill holes do not match anymore. A
parametric model would obviously allow for fast re-
verse engineering of this geometrical problem and
provide a precise alignment of holes. However, here
we decided to have slotted holes to maintain the flex-
ibility of the formwork system since every change
of the bending radius required a new alignment of
holes (Figure 9). In one formwork prototype clamps
replace the bolts in a hanging formwork and sim-
plified its reconfiguration. Moreover the clamps fa-
cilitate further minor shifting while the concrete is
poured into the formwork, which was meant to de-
form during casting in this case.
CASTING
While casting, the uncured concrete acts upon the
formwork system through hydrostatic pressure and
quickly reveals every imbalance between the forces
involved. Calibrating the pre-stressing forces to with-
stand the pressure proved to be a challenging task
that could only be tested through prototyping. We
used self-levelling screed to mimic free-flowing and
self-compacting concrete. We needed a material that
flows smoothly into narrow formwork and induces
uniform dissipation of pressure.
Figure 7
Digital simulation
as particle spring
model and physical
prototyping of the
plywood strips
under tension. Both
approaches were
used in parallel to
inform each other.

Figure 8
Strength through
curvature.
Exploration of the
formal potential of
the formwork
systems.

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AS DESIGN CRI-
TERIA
A major criterion in designing any kind of formwork
for concrete elements is the effect of the hydrostatic
pressure. As described within the term, hydrostatic
pressure describes a static load derived from liquids
exerting pressure normal to its contacting surfaces
dependent on the height of the column of liquid
above. The magnitude of that pressure is linearly de-
pendant from the self-weight of the poured liquid;
thus the magnitude of the pressure of concrete is 2,5
times bigger than water pressure.
Complementary to the hydrostatic dead loads
dynamic loads may occur from the casting process,
depending on the pouring height. Since the concrete

FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 99


is casted from the top of any formwork the concrete
drops down a certain amount in a way that move-
ments are happening from the clashing.
A second component of dynamic input may oc-
cur by compacting the concrete, which is dependant
from the choice of concrete mixture and composi-
tion.
Obviously there is a natural contradiction when
developing a flexible formwork: On the one hand a
formwork surface is wanted to be as flexible as possi-
ble to be able to deform its shape; on the other hand a
rigid surface is required to resist the forces originated
from the casting process.
In our research approach we tried to take the ad-
vantage of the concrete pressure as a design criteria
and to take it into account in the form finding process
rather than to spend the effort in stringently working
against the pressure (Figure 10).
CONCRETE OBJECTS
The cast prototypes are invaluable means to identify
the potentials and the shortcomings of the formwork
system. Their surface and overall form clearly incor-
porate and reveal its process of becoming. The inci-
100 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1
Figure 9
Clamping details:
Slotted holes allow
for flexible
adjustment of both
formwork layers
and the edge seal.
Figure 10
Hanging formwork
sagging under the
load of liquid
concrete.
sion pattern reappears as a relief in the concrete. De-
pending on the orientation of the formwork during
casting the hydrostatic pressure reinforces or coun-
teracts the curvature previously induces by tension
ropes. In the hanging formwork (Figure 10) the con-
crete weight leads to increasing curvature, thus the
initial form is exaggerated. The twisted concrete
lamella in contrast suffered from horizontal bulging
of the plywood (Figure 11).
COUNTER PRESSURE
One of the main challenges in the present research
project is the handling of the hydrostatic pressure of
the liquid concrete. It is a distinct effect that the re-
sults of the achieved form completely change when
- for instance - changing the casting direction from
standing to laying.
A promising approach is to work with counter
pressure applied via a non-curing material surround-
ing the formwork. A simple way to resist the static
load from the concrete in its liquid state is the build-
up of a bed of sand below a laying formwork. In
this manner a counter pressure can be achieved from
both sides by placing the formwork in a box and, dur-
Figure 11
Concrete
prototypes derived
from dynamic
formwork systems.
ing the casting process of the concrete element, the
box outside of the formwork is filled up as well.
Such an approach was tested with a formwork
for double curved surfaces, which has a setup simi-
lar to that of the dynamic formwork depicted above.
Only the perforated plywood was substituted with a
woven formwork from strips of plastic sheet material
(PVC-foil with a material thickness of 0.5 mm). Lay-
ers of latex film and rubber seals were applied just as
before. Before casting the formwork was placed in a
box whereupon the gap between the formwork and
the box was filled with sand. The woven formwork
proved to be sound enough to withstand the pres-
sure of the sand. The resulting cast - made from gyp-
sum in this case - validated the conceived procedure.
Other than the perforated plywood, the woven
formwork has only tiny openings between the indi-
vidual strips. Therefore a further test was conducted
using a formwork with no latex film. Here the sand
not only provided the counter pressure necessary,
but it absorbed the minor leakages of liquid gypsum
as well, resulting in a perfect cast without deforma-
tion of the overall geometry and a high surface qual-
FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 101
ity (Figure 12).
CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK
The work presented in the paper is an on-going re-
search project. The preliminary results are rather
seen as the starting point for the subsequent re-
search.
Further materials that act as counter pressure
to the concrete in its liquid state will be tested.
Reversible materials such as wax, soluble non-
hardening mortar or even water are to be considered.
For weaker formworks it will be necessary to study
processes of casting concrete and fill-up material to
counter its pressure simultaneously.
Furthermore the relation between the incision
pattern and the deformation under pressure will be
investigated. First tests have shown that a detailed
understanding of this relationship allows exploiting
the hydrostatic pressure as a design driver in the
pattern generation. Such an approach will benefit
from the integration of hydrostatic pressure as a force
in our computational particle-spring model; another
aspect that we will investigate further.
 Figure 12
Using sand to
counter the
pressure of the
liquid concrete /
gypsum. The
genesis of casts on
the right shows
three differently
deformed results in
the top row and
two non-deformed
casts – with and
without latex film –
Significant enlargement of the geometrical spec- REFERENCES in the bottom row.
trum, and thus a further research prospect, is the de- Eisenbach, P., Vasudevan, R., Grohmann, M., Bollinger,
formation ability of formwork faces not only in bend- K. and Hauser, S. 2013 'Parapluie - Ultra Thin Con-
ing direction but also the extension and contraction crete Shell Made of UHPC by Activating Membrane
Effects', Proceedings of the International Association
in plane direction to allow fully three dimensional
for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2013
manipulations. „BEYOND THE LIMITS OF MAN”
The experiments encourage the team to fur- Forty, A. 2012, Concrete and Culture: A Material History,
ther investigate systems that overcome the notion of Reaktion Books, London
formwork as a massive and heavy means of construc- Manelius, A.-M. 2012, FABRIC FORMWORK Investigations
tion and rather make it a part of the design process. into Formwork Tectonics and Stereogeneity in Archi-
tectural Constructions, Ph.D. Thesis, Royal Academy
of Fine Arts, Copenhagen
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Veenendaal, D., Bezbradica, M., Novák, K. and Block, P.
Supervisors: 2014 'Controlling the geometry and forces of a hy-
brid cable-net and fabric formwork for thin con-
KTH Stockholm: Prof. Oliver Tessmann, Prof. Jonas
crete shells', Proceedings of the IASS-SLTE 2014 Sym-
Runberger. posium "Shells, Membranes and Spatial Structures:
University of Kassel: Prof. Manfred Grohmann, Footprints", Brasilia
Philipp Eisenbach, Moritz Rumpf.
CONSOLIS Finland: Topi Äikäs

Participating Students:
KTH Stockholm: Lison Bader, Natalia Daukszewicz,
Uuf Edgren, Felipe Saul Franco Franco, Mimmi
Gustafsson, Benjamin Onoszko, Francesca Pernigotti
and Michelle Vallomy.
University of Kassel: Adrian Golab, Zijian Han,
Denitsa Koleva, Jannik Kratzenberg, Svenja Krieg, Flo-
rian Reichmann, Witali Suchan and Cynthia Ward.

102 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1

Additive Manufacturing and Value Creation
in Architectural Design, Design Process and End-products

Heidi Turunen1
1
Aalto University
1
http://www.aalto.fi/fi/
1
heidi.turunen@aalto.fi

The objective of this paper is to clarify how value creation can be a part of
architectural design and end-products when using the new emerging technology
of additive manufacturing. Different kinds of values that have emerged from the
research material have been analysed and summarised using selected case
studies of recent building-scale projects. In applying this technique to
architecture, the result can be visually and functionally novel, smarter and more
sustainable buildings or products. A new individually manufactured or
customised architecture can be created to serve different cultural and well-being
needs cost effectively and without any waste. This new production method can
lead to unique joint structures with the use of traditionally produced new or old
building parts to enhance architecture, prevent climate change or aid
environmental issues. However, most research projects and applications done by
commercial companies are at the early stages.

Keywords: Large-scale additive manufacturing, 3D printed architecture, Digital

design, New materials, New production methods

INTRODUCTION advent of this change, many projects sought to prove

In architecture, climate change, environmental is-
sues, digitalization and resource conciseness can be
seen as driving forces for compressing production
and simplifying structures and materials. Utilization
of digital design and manufacturing can be seen as
one realisation of that. One prevailing variation, CNC-
manufacturing, a method that removes material, has
revealed several new possibilities for architects and
designers. The opposite method, which does not
waste material, is called additive manufacturing, and
this has started to spread only in recent years. At the
that this new way of constructing products can cre-
ate added value to the manufacturing process and
production. The benefits of the method have been
predicted to be significant. In contrast, value cre-
ation in architecture and its end-products have not
been researched much. In this paper the term value
is described to mean valuation or usefulness through
an evaluation. The evaluation is always subjected to
time, place and the person who acts as an evaluator.
Value creation can be based on social or economic as-
pects, but in architectural design, values can be seen

FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 103

 also as a guarantee of quality. In architecture, value
creation can be seen as a result of a series of selec-
tions. The selection making can be based on valuing,
such as favouring a high-quality material or empha-
sizing environmental aspects during the design pro-
cess. Value creation, conscious or unconscious, can
be done also through evaluations of appropriate ma-
terial features, such as surface structure, colour, form
or composition. The architect or designer can also in-
clude intangible value-laden properties, such as feel-
ings and individuality (Ashby 2014, 196). With these
choices, an architect or designer can guide the de-
sign process in a certain direction. When the com-
bining of a material and a novel product method is
not yet established, different kinds of value-based as-
pects can be seen as a guide to creating meaningful
and appropriate solutions for the future. In addition,
when presenting the main value aspects clearly, as a
kind of guarantee, the novel practice can be given a
rationale. Quality or innovative thinking have been
found in many current case studies and prototypes.
If additive manufacturing is to become more prof-
itable, it can lead to more innovative visual design
and end-products. Although, additive manufactur-
ing is a very novel method in large scale architec-
tural structures, it might be a realistic way to create
buildings or architectural-related products in the fu-
ture. However, without demand, a conceptual de-
sign and adequate applications, the new manufac-
turing method will not be successful. The focus of
this paper is on presenting different kinds of values
that have arisen from the research material, to cre-
ate understanding of how the production method
can contribute to architecture in future. It is very
clear that the benefits of the architectural possibili-
ties are not yet adequately understood or researched.
An emerging method can be seen as a risk when
thinking of how to adapt the new method to the de-
sign process, or whether the new method will benefit
the construction process enough compared to tradi-
tional methods, or even how additive manufacturing
will change over the years. The investments costs of
starting a new additive manufacturing business with-
104 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1
out examining thoroughly the possibilities of archi-
tectural design and favourable product applications
or purpose-built concepts are huge. The hype is not
enough to maintain the interest of customers. There
have to be other methods, such as value-based re-
search and business that create a long-lasting evolu-
tion of large-scale additive manufacturing.
Objectives, Methods, Data and Theoretical
Framework
The objective of this paper was to find wider
value-laden themes that can be found currently
in architectural-related additive manufacturing
projects. The selection process for the study cases
was centred on the question: how additive manu-
facturing can create added value for architectural
design and end-use applications. The framework for
this research was defined under themes where ar-
chitects can use selection or decision-making as a
tool or method to creating values. Understanding
has been based on comparing the data of projects
which have used additive manufacturing to the cur-
rent situation with more traditional manufacturing
methods. The theoretical framework consists of a
whole chain of design, from the basic elements of
the design process to the finished outcome. Dif-
ferent kinds of printing method or material did not
refine the sampling. The data have been analysed
and structured using a qualitative method, more
specifically, coding the data thematically using in-
terpretation and classifications that generalise the
phenomena under prominent themes. Knowledge
of different kinds of projects and cases constituted
the research material and it was found using the news
groups of additive manufacturing. Publications such
as books on additive manufacturing did not have
enough information, because the subject has only
recently emerged. Non-scientific news groups were
harnessed to find up-to-date material and relevant
research or the design projects of universities and
commercial companies.
BACKGROUND
Additive manufacturing or 3D printing as it is also
called, has been used commercially on a small scale
since the 1980s, when the first commercial 3D printer
was patented by Charles Hull for 3D Systems (Hoskins
2013, 30). Since then the technique was used, for ex-
ample, to speed up product development processes
by providing design teams with prototypes quickly
for evaluation and further development. Today the
technique is used in a great variety of industrial fields
such as medical, automotive and aviation industries
and the scale of the printed object can be from the
nanoscale to quite large structures. Several types
of additive manufacturing techniques have been in-
vented to serve different needs, industrial fields, and
printing materials. The technique is based on three-
dimensional computer data that is then transformed
into a specific format for the printer and objects will
usually be created using computer controlled noz-
zles, layer by layer. Lately the printing technique has
been applied also to a wide variety of projects in the
construction industry. However currently there are
not many building-scale 3D printed products on the
market, just some prototypes and on-going research
projects. Projects differ from each other by material,
product type or printing technique.
Techniques related to construction industry
Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), stereolitography
and robotic arms are the most common addi-
tive manufacturing techniques when large scale
architecture-related objects are printed. Printers are
often custom made for the specific materials.
Materials
Almost all materials, such as concrete, plastic, steel
and wood that have been traditionally used in archi-
tecture are used in large-scale construction industry-
related printing projects. Most of the large-scale
printing projects do not focus on developing envi-
ronmental friendly printing material, though recy-
cled waste material has been used at least in some
cases as a concrete-based printing paste.
FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 105
Large Printers
The size of a printer determines the size of a printed
object. In addition, printers can produce small mod-
ular elements that can then be used to create larger
structures. If large and continuously printed objects
are desired, gantry based or movable printers can be
used, which can continuously manufacture walls or
other large structural elements.
VALUES AND APPLICABILITY IN ARCHI-
TECTURE
In this paper, the question of how additive manu-
facturing can create added value in architecture has
been considered through two different themes. The
first theme describes how added value can be cre-
ated by the selection process for using the basic el-
ements of architecture. The three sub-themes are
aesthetic aspects, the possibilities of the materials
and the design of structures. The second theme is
value creation through end use applications. Value
creation is researched through themes such as new
product properties, novel frameworks of design, new
product fields and applications themes. Each sub-
theme includes case examples that clarify the appli-
cability. The analysis of values considers how the se-
lected case studies contribute to the new production
method. The same cases could be used as examples
also in other themes or sub-themes. The themes also
entail connections, such that value can be created by
combining structures and materials, when designing
functional and novel end-use applications.
VALUE CREATION FOR ARCHITECTURAL
DESIGN
This section presents how the basic elements of de-
sign, in addition to tools used in architectural design
projects, can create added value when additive man-
ufacturing is chosen as a method (also refer to Figure
1).
Aesthetic
In additive manufacturing, it is possible to enlarge
the aesthetic scope. The digital design and manu-

facturing method is flexible when creating complex
forms and variations in the visual elements. Surface
structures, colours, the haptic properties or material
consistencies can be controlled and defined at the
design phase. The surface patterns are not depend-
able on the original structural aesthetic of the mate-
rial and the design can be very precise. Biomimicry,
algorithm-based design or parametric design can be
a source of a new kind of detailed design, where the
scalability of the pattern can be almost unlimited.
106 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1
Figure 1
Two main themes
with the three
sub-themes and the
connections
between them. The
themes emerged
during the research
process.
The case of algorithm-based design. The Digi-
tal Grotesque project (Figure 2) by two architects,
Michael Hansmeyer and Benjamin Dillenburger, illus-
trates a new aesthetic approach. During the design
process, the architects used an algorithm based tech-
nique for generating complicated forms and highly
accurate surface structures. [2]
Material
Almost all traditional raw materials in the construc-
tion industry have been applied somehow in 3D
printed prototypes. The printing material can be also Figure 2
a product itself, designed or developed as a commer- 3D printed Digital
cial material.The benefits of an artificial printing ma- Grotesque project,
terial mixture is that the material features can be con- architects Michael
trolled beforehand and the design can be material Hansmeyer and
driven. A deep understanding of the material fea- Benjamin
tures and physical behaviour opens up new possi- Dillenburger [1].
bilities in product design and architecture. The ad-
justable or controllable qualities of the printing ma-
terials can add extra value to the end products. When
adding smart components directly to the printing
 material, smart materials can be developed. It is also be manufactured using traditional methods. Due to
possible to print on electrically conductive material this, the structures can be an essential part of the de-
or to include printed parts. Nanotechnology can be sign idea and visuality at an early phase. It is possi-
applied to the printing material creating products, ble to design strength simultaneously with architec-
which become, for example, fire resistant, very stiff tural design if using an iterative process of the opti-
or easy to clean. Focusing on the tactile and aesthetic mal form creation. However, the design of structures
aspects of the material can generate added value in go also hand-in-hand with the material development
the end products. In other words, concentrating on and aesthetic aspects.
the design shapes, colours, scents, haptic warmness,
hardness, softness or structure of the material itself
Figure 3
can lead to something unpredictable and novel. Ma-
Cool Brick,
terial development gives possibilities to think of the
Emerging Objects
lifecycle chain of the material starting from the be-
[3].
ginning, from the manufacturing of the raw mate-
rial. Recycling or using recycled printing material
can give added value to end-use applications. Future
possibilities may lie also in renewable, more reusable,
bio-based construction materials. The technical and
functional aspects, such as moisture resistance, in-
sulation abilities, sound insulation, air tightness, fire
resistance and structural stability, are crucial proper-
ties when thinking about architecture-related build-
ing products. The emphasis regarding those features
are on dependable defined product fields and reg-
ulations, legislation, certification and local methods
of using building materials. The material properties
are crucial in terms of the building's lifecycle in the
longer term.
Figure 4
Function of the tile, Case of cooling bricks. The material and structure of
Cool Brick, a specially designed brick (Figure 3, 4) can bind mois-
Emerging Objects ture and due to this, when warm air flows through,
[3]. the brick gets cooler. The idea is based to the Mus-
cateses tradition of cooling their buildings in a very
warm climate by using evaporative cooling. The
sponge-like fine structure of the tile and the large sur-
face area would be difficult to achieve using other
current manufacturing methods, such as traditional
moulding techniques. [3]

Structure
The new manufacturing method in architecture can
be an enabler of novel visuality in design structures,
and can lead to the creation of structures that cannot

FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 107

 Case of varied density. In nature structures are of-
ten optimized and inherently aesthetic. A scaled or
Figure 5
complicated imitation of nature can lead to a very
3D printed concrete
small patterned design, with good strength or even
and variations of
resilient structures. At the MIT Media Lab, the Medi-
density, MIT [4].
ated Matter Group have studied 3D printed concrete
of varying density (Figure 5). [5]

VALUE CREATION FOR END-USE APPLICA-

TIONS
In architecture, additive manufacturing can be
utilised in several types of product development
projects. Nevertheless, due to the current phase of
development, expectations of when the products Figure 6
could be launched will have a different time span Involute wall,
and depends on the target applications. Currently, printed using sand,
most of the projects concentrate on printing just a prototype,
modular element, such as a tile, a building block or designers Virginia
a wall element, creating added value for the existing San Fratello, Ronald
product fields with this new method. In addition, Rael, Emerging
3D printing can be seen as a method of manufac- Objects [6].
turing unique pieces or industrial products that are
not very easy to produce using traditional methods
and where the size of the production line is limiting.
In addition to these, additive manufacturing can, if
successful, frame design in a new way in the future. Figure 7
Seismically resistant
New Product Properties structures, Quake
The new type of production technique can enhance Column, Emerging
the three dimensional abilities of the products in ar- Objects [7].
chitecture. New characters, such as printed func-
tional features, can lead to something unprece-
dented in the construction industry. Novel functions
can be added to the traditional or brand new build-
ing product, for example, products that have been
printed using four dimensional printing. The fourth
dimension is time, when for example the printed
piece will change shape after the material reacts to
an external stimulus. As a result, this can lead to pro-
grammable and movable prints.
Case of functionality in the designed object. An
architect office called Emerging Objects has devel-
oped some prototypes of functional products, such

108 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1

 as the Involute Wall (Figure 6). The curvy forms of the ways of working, and the needs of end-users. Since
surfaces absorb and redirect sounds. The three di- the advent of hi-speed data transfer and the rise of
mensional design creates shades on the wall and the information technology, an architectural design can
structure stays cool on a sunny day. Other wall struc- be global, but resources or manufacturing can still be
tures, the Quake Column (Figure 7), is also optimized local. In additive manufacturing the printing material
three-dimensionally. The tile is designed to be seis- can be produced locally, and even respect local build-
mically resistant, and reacts optimally to movements ing material traditions. The local way to production
during an earth quake. The idea is based on the inter- means that design can once again respect and arise
locking stones of the Inca culture, where tiles were from local traditions, cultures, resources and needs.
allowed to have slight movements, without falling In addition, the manufacturing method can create
apart. [6, 7] new methods for architectural-scale rapid prototyp-
ing or three-dimensional visualisation that strength-
Figure 8 ens and supports the design process.
Low-cost
Case of three-dimensional visualisation. Additive
replacements for
manufacturing has been used in walls to visual-
obtaining an
ize previously destroyed historical decorative parts
impression of the
and recreating already lost visual information. In
original idea of the
Castello di San Martino dall'Argine, Mantova, Italy,
decoration [8].
conservation has been carried out on a missing putti-
figure's head (Figure 8). After generating a 3D im-
age of the head, the missing part was printed three-
dimensionally to obtain an impression of the putti-
figure with the head on. [8]
Figure 9 Case of emergency housing. Instead of moving
Detail of the facade, building parts or element from the factory to the
Anne Pheiffer site, the factory can be seen also as the mobile unit.
Chapel, original There have been many projects that have consid-
design Frank Lloyd ered the question of how additive manufacturing can
Wright. The mould be applied in rebuilding projects in disaster areas.
of the replaced tile An expected added value can be created when low
has been 3D cost and rapidly constructed sheds or buildings are
printed. [10] needed. With the co-operation of other partners,
the University of Nantes and L'institut de Recherche
en Communications et Cybernétique de Nantes be-
gan a research project where emergency houses are
printed in 20-30 minutes apiece. The area of an insu-
New Framework of Design lated shed is 3 m², and the height is 3 meters. [9]
In recent years there have been some visions where
additive manufacturing can be applied to serve daily New product fields and applications
life, ease life after natural disasters, or create cost- As mentioned before, when using this novel pro-
effective living environments for poor areas. The duction method, value can be achieved through the
changing situations of environmental or political is- strengthening of current product lines or through to-
sues affect new standards for living environments, tally new product concepts. In addition, the tech-

FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 109

 nique can be used to produce customised products
or spare parts, joint structures with old products, or
to complete parts for the existing products. The tech-
nique can also be applied to replacing the manufac-
turing techniques of products lines already on the
market. Reasons for doing this can include better
and unique design possibilities, easier manufactur-
ing processes, a need for customisation, or environ-
mental issues related to the printing material or pro-
duction. Additive manufacturing can be seen as a
possible method when the moulds are made for large
structures. The technique has been used extensively
on a smaller scale. Moreover, using design thinking,
totally new products based on new needs can be in-
vented. The novel production method has a great
possibility to create unique joint structures, with tra-
ditionally produced new or old building parts. How-
ever, designing new 3D printed parts to complete
old products that have been manufactured earlier or
that have a more traditional appearance can cause vi-
sual or usability malfunctions. That can be prevented
by design thinking at the early phase. As time goes
by, the 3D-printed products will age and aging will
change how the product is valued, with the value fad-
ing or even growing (Ashby 2009, 66). Design con-
cepts should support the aging of printed structures
or building parts, and replacing a printed part or re-
pairing prints needs to be considered in advance.
Case of replacing a traditional method. In the case
of the restoration of the Annie Pfeiffer Chapel (Fig-
ure 9), additive manufacturing was used because the
old and original artisan skills had disappeared. The
building, dated 1941 and designed by Frank Lloyd
Wright, faced a problem because the tiles were al-
most impossible to reproduce, while traditionally
used methods were too expensive. In addition, not
enough competent artisans were available. The orig-
inal design of the facade consists of 46 different kinds
of tiles, which were originally cast using wooden
moulds. Using 3D-printed moulds, it was possible to
manufacture the facade blocks with ease and at a rea-
sonable cost [10].
110 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1
DISCUSSION
At this moment in history, large-scale additive manu-
facturing industry is concentrated mostly on improv-
ing printers. For this reason, technical challenges re-
strict design thinking, the creative process, and also
visions of 3D printing possibilities. Research and
product development has basically fallen into two
parts. Typically, engineers try to improve the techni-
cal abilities, while groups of designer-architects with
a more creative approach develop end products and
concepts. Most fruitful would be a co-operation be-
tween engineers, designer-architects, and commer-
cial companies that would develop together new 3D
printable product concepts, following a normal real-
life design process. Some examples of co-operation
have however already emerged. Presumably, in fu-
ture the development of printers will be more de-
pendent on future visions and the process will be
more design driven. Design can also be material
driven, when the environmental aspects and mate-
rial selection will give added value to design appli-
cations. Currently the tendency seems to be that al-
most everyone wants to be the first to market. This
eagerness will decrease the quality of printed parts,
with concepts being under-developed and value as-
pects not given sufficient thought. If it is not clear
how value is obtained and how the new technology
is justified, catching up later might be difficult. Value
creation can benefit architectural design by creating
quality and precision in the basic elements of de-
signed objects. The freedom of creating design pat-
terns can be seen, for example, even as a new kind of
craft. Printing will create added value also in designs
where form, functions or shapes are not possible to
manufacture by using traditional methods. Design-
ers can present creative, even intangible feelings or
reminiscences by means of additive manufacturing.
The optimal form of creation of structures can imply
less material, but also form-based imaginative archi-
tecture that is yet implementable. Currently there are
no standards, norms or legislation to define the stiff-
ness of structures, the use of 3D printed products or
to guide 3D-printed construction projects. Calculat-
ing the added value is not yet possible. This broad,
wild and open scene can be seen as an advantage,
while almost anything is still possible and is yet to be
strictly defined. On the other hand, without certified
products, markets are difficult to conquer. There is
a risk for companies in starting a new product line if
the future standardisation is unpredictable. Appro-
priate concepts for architects and the construction
sector need to be clarified, and the possibilities need
to be articulated more precisely. Value-based analy-
sis of architectural design and end-use applications
can lead to the stable use of this new manufacturing
method.
CONCLUSION
Additive manufacturing has great possibilities to en-
hance the quality of architecture and end-products.
The potential is immense, yet the method is not com-
monplace, and research in architecture is still scarce.
To sum, the potential lies in the properties of mate-
riality and the possibilities to design complex forms
and surfaces and to control or adjust different aspect
during the design process. In the early stages, there is
a significant possibility to develop products and find
solutions using a more value-based approach. A flex-
ible manufacturing method can be a source of inspi-
ration as an enabler, and has the potential to create
value through the design process. In future, a de-
sirable research focus in architecture-related additive
manufacturing could be to find new and more sus-
tainable practical solutions and iterations. Additive
manufacturing can also be seen as a fresh way to en-
hance architecture, the materials industry, and the
construction industry, as well as a means to utilise
information technology more efficiently without di-
minishing environmental issues. In the coming years,
the interests of companies, researchers and design-
ers can be expected to work to identify more clearly
what the new trends are and where the real values
lies.
FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 111
REFERENCES
Ashby, M. F. 2009, Materials and the Environment, Eco-
Informed Material Choice., Elsevier Inc.
Ashby, M. and Johnson, K. 2014, Materials and Design,
The Art and Science of Material Selection in Product
Design, Elsevier Ltd.
Hoskins, S. 2013, 3D printing for artists, designers and
makers, Bloomsbury
[1] http://www.digital-grotesque.com/installation_i
mages.html?screenSize=1&color=1#1
[2] http://www.digital-grotesque.com/concept.html?s
creenSize=1&color=1
[3] http://www.emergingobjects.com/project/cool-bri
ck/
[4] http://matter.media.mit.edu/tools/details/3d-p
rinting-of-functionally-graded-materials
[5] http://matter.media.mit.edu/assets/pdf/Publicat
ions_FGRP.pdf
[6] http://www.emergingobjects.com/project/involute
-wall/
[7] http://www.emergingobjects.com/project/quake-
column/
[8] http://www.digitalmeetsculture.net/article/3d-p
rinting-applied-to-cultural-heritage/
[9] http://www.iutnantes.univ-nantes.fr/14355915450
31/0/fiche___actualite/
[10] http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/rebu
ilding-frank-lloyd-wright-classic-3-D-blocks-
180953007/?no-ist
Groove Light
Adding Physical Reality to Virtual Projections Using 3D-printed Lanterns

Shinya Okuda1 , Lin Zhenyi2

1,2
National University of Singapore
1
akiso@nus.edu.sg 2 a0085912@u.nus.edu

How might 21st-century computational technologies enhance lighting

functionality in architecture? The Groove Light provokes relationships between
light and shadow, adding a new dimension to future lighting. A series of
distinctive and complex 3D-printed lanterns, which cast identical patterns of
geometric shadows, creates the optical illusion that they are floating above a
continuous, geometric carpet of shadows. The authors tested this concept in three
steps: 1. 3D printability, 2. a lighting test and 3. interactivity. The paper also
reports the effectiveness of a selective and custom support strategy for printing
overhanging geometries with fused deposition modelling (FDM) 3D printers and
further highlights differences between the computational models and physical
prototypes in the quest for 'point' light sources.

Keywords: Digital Physicality, 3D Printing, Self-supporting Geometry,

Stereographic Projection, Projection Mapping

INTRODUCTION We refer to the 3D-printed lanterns of Segerman and

Jun'ichiro Tanizaki's novel In Praise of Shadows, origi-
nally published in 1933 in Japanese, expresses favour
for obliqueness over brightness as one of the charac-
teristics of Asian culture as opposed to the Western
preference for clarity. Typical Asian lanterns, express-
ing such subtlety with their translucent paper skins,
are often seen as more of a sort of lighting sculp-
ture than functional lighting equipment. Inspired by
the concept, we started to question the rationality
of unconditional brightness in contemporary life. If
lighting is not only a matter of level of illuminance-
the goal at which most current lighting simulation
tools primarily aim-how might 21st-century compu-
tational technologies enhance lighting functionality
in Architecture?
Schleimer [1], who inversely applied a stereographic
projection principle to define their spherical lanterns.
Stereographic projection is an ancient mapping tech-
nique to project a sphere onto a plane; however, we
hypothesized that the lanterns themselves would not
necessarily need to be spherical in order to control
the projection onto a plane from a point light source.
As long as precisely computed light rays intersect
with any kind of lantern geometries, shadow patterns
could be controlled in a more complex and three-
dimensional manner.
GROOVE LIGHT
The Groove Light concept presents provocative rela-
tionships between light and shadow by using precise

FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 113


lighting simulation models in which computational
designs and prototyping processes are instrumen-
tal. We invert the typical projection mapping pro-
cess, which usually projects computed visual images
toward non-planar objects, creating optical illusions.
Instead, we penetrate sculptural lanterns with light
rays toward geometric shadow patterns, which result
in complex porous volumes with a series of groove-
like light cannons. If typical projection mapping aims
to add virtual reality to physical objects, Groove Light
aims to craft physical reality from virtual projections
(Figure 1, Left).
Following several iterations using 3D CAD soft-
ware (Rhino 5), the authors tested the concept over
the following three steps: 1. 3D printability of
overhanging geometries, 2. a lighting test using
high-power point light sources and 3. interactiv-
ity between the geometric shadow patterns and ob-
servers. Instead of using a spherical interface, as in
the case of the stereographic projection, we experi-
mented with several distinctive lantern shapes. We
began with various rotational geometries, such as El-
lipsoid and Cylinder, as it is relatively easy to con-
trol explicitly their degrees of overhang through their
sectional profiles. Subsequently, we also verified the
concept with asymmetric lantern geometries.
We set an identical geometrical shadow pat-
tern for all individual lanterns so that the differences
among the lantern shapes, which are enabled by
computational design and fabrication strategies, be-
114 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1
Figure 1
Left: Groove Light
requires precise
relative spatial
positioning among
light sources,
3D-printed lanterns
and geometric
shadows. Right:
Overall rendering of
the Groove Light
layout. Five
distinctively
complex lanterns
came more striking. Five distinctive lanterns are po- cast precisely the
sitioned at precise distances in order to match their same geometric
peripheral shadow patterns to each other. The over- shadows, creating
all rendering of the layout demonstrates that it cre- the optical illusion
ates the optical illusions that a series of distinctive that they are
lanterns are floating above a continuous, geometric floating above a
carpet of shadows (Figure 1, Right). continuous,
geometric shadow
3D PRINTABILITY carpet.
We demonstrated the Groove Light concept using a
large-scale 3D printer, BigRep One, one of the largest
commercially available Fused Deposition Modelling
(FDM) 3D printers that has output of approximately 1
m3 (Figure 2, Left). The large-scale lanterns not only
frame a public square with geometric shadows but
also simultaneously have their own sculptural pres-
ence.
One of the key challenges of large-scale 3D print-
ing is how to materialize such complex forms in a
cost-effective manner. In Digital Fabrication, we are
no longer designing the form that will ultimately
be produced, but the production process itself (Gra-
mazio and Kohler 2008). As such, we tested the fol-
lowing three steps to design the lanterns and their
3D printability: 1. self-supporting geometries that do
not require additional support (Figure 2, Right); 2. ge-
ometrical shadow patterns that result in fewer over-
hanging elements; and 3. selective custom supports
that require less material than the printer-default au-
Figure 2
Left: Large-scale 3D
printer BigRep One,
with maximum
printing volume of
approximately 1
m3. Right:
3D-printing process
of one of the
Groove Light
lanterns with
controlled
overhanging
geometries.
tomated vertical supports. We took the overhanging constraints not only as
limitation but also as an opportunity to integrate the
Self-supporting geometries fabrication process into our lantern geometries. Ela-
Selected Laser Sintering 3D printing, which can the- dio Dieste took a similar approach in the Church of
oretically print any kind of geometry, is still a rela- Atlantida (Pedreschi 2000), which demonstrates the
tively costly process, with output size confined by the structural integrity of brick-layered walls in its con-
printing powder bed. In contrast, variations of Fused struction process (Figure 3, Left). On the other hand,
Deposition Modelling (FDM) 3D printing are gener- Contour Crafting (Hwang 2004) separated most of the
ally used for large-scale 3D printing experiments in horizontal elements in architecture, such as floors,
architecture, as the cost of printing is lower, and since ceilings and roofs, into prefabricated components in
output size is basically only limited by the machine's order to get around the limitations of 3D-printing
frame size. FDM extrudes various types of filaments overhanging geometries on architectural scales.
layer by layer in a technique similar to brick layer- We conducted experiments to test the maximum
ing. However, the most crucial limitation of FDM is cantilevering angle in our 3D-printing system, as this
its limited ability to print overhanging geometries, maximum is material- and design-specific. We occa-
which may require vast amounts of supporting mate- sionally succeeded in 3D printing up to 60 degrees
rial, just like the scaffolding required to support over- of overhang, which requires sensitive calibrations of
hanging elements during building construction. the print-head and filament-extrusion speeds. How-
Figure 3
Left: Church of
Atlantida by Eladio
Dieste (Pedreschi
2000). FDM 3D
printing is similar to
the brick layering
process. Right:
Lantern’s sectional
profile controls the
maximum degree
of overhang.
(Design: Chua, S.C.
and Chan, L.R.)
FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 115
 Figure 4
Left: Triangular
grid, funnel-shaped
lantern itself
requires 5 kg
material and 70
hours printing time
with additional
custom supports.
(Note: The image is
shown without
supports.) Right:
Square grid lantern
itself requires 2 kg
ever, as the geometries of the Groove Light lanterns tional profile. material and 28
vary, we set our design guideline to the much safer By comparison, the square-grid lantern itself re- hours printing time
maximum of 45 degrees of overhang. Figure 3, Right quires only 1.4kg total weight and 17 hours print- with selective
illustrates how the design guideline defines one of ing time without support, primarily because it has custom support,
the Groove Light lanterns, named Seashell, which is fewer branches. This is just over half the weight of indicated as
generated by rotational geometry and then split hor- the triangular-grid lantern. Additionally, as half the diagonal fillers
izontally into two parts. Each piece-top and bottom- elements are within the overhang limit and thus self- within square grids.
is 3D printed separately. The maximum 45 degrees supported, only selective parts require additional The square grid
of overhang is controlled by its sectional profile. Ad- custom support, resulting in total of only 2 kg weight lantern requires
ditional geometrical complexity is added to the rota- and 28 hours printing time. Overall, the square-grid 60% less material
tional body by carving out grooves for light rays. lantern requires 60% less material and printing time and printing time
than does the triangular-grid one (Figure 4, Right). than the one of
Geometrical shadow patterns triangular grid.
Secondly, we study how geometric shadow patterns Selective custom supports
affect the 3D printability of the lanterns, comparing Most FDM printers automatically generate vertical
triangular and square grids. We used a funnel-shape supports to compensate for their overhanging ge-
lantern of 60 cm height and diameter as a base ge- ometry limitations, often significantly increasing the
ometry and then evaluated the total 3D printing time required amount of printing material and time (Fig-
and weight required to create triangular and square ure 5, Left). As such, we developed a custom sup-
shadow grids. Generally speaking, triangular grids, as port strategy, which enables us to support overhang
in the case of the truss, have better structural rigid- geometries within the sectional profiles of lanterns
ity, requiring thinner overall sectional profiles. We with the smallest possible amount of support (Fig-
computed that the triangular- grid lantern requires ure 5, Right). We studied two properties of custom
2.7Kg weight and 31 hours printing time without sup- supports: thickness and angle. Thinner and steeper
port (Figure 4, Left). However, as the majority of el- angles of support require less material, whereas sup-
ements exceed the limit of 45 degrees of overhang, ports that are too thin or too steep supports may
total printing weight increases to 5 kg and 70 hours not sufficiently hold up overhanging elements. Af-
printing time with additional custom supports (Sim- ter several experimental iterations, we identified that
plify 3D). This easily counteracts the advantage of po- 1.1mm thick, 4.5mm pitched supports minimize the
tential weight reduction from its thinner overall sec- total amount of printing while delivering satisfactory

116 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1

Table 1
FDM 3D printing
time and weight
comparison of four
support strategies
for overhang
geometries.

Figure 5
Left: Generation of
automatic vertical
supports for
overhanging parts
by the default 3D
printing software
(MakerBot Desktop
3.8). Right:
Illustration of
selective custom
support strategy for
FDM 3D printing.
Red-lined elements
require support as quality. These custom supports also follow the over- size of the light-emitting element. However, bigger
they exceed our hang design guidelines, inclined no more than 45 de- light sources produce more light rays, thus tending
overhang design grees. to project rather blurred shadow edges. Computer
guideline, while We use the previously described funnel-shaped, rendering (Rhino 5), by contrast, uses ideal 'point'
green-lined square-grid lantern to test the effectiveness of the fol- light sources that have no dimensions and which can
elements are lowing four support strategies: 1. without support, 2. therefore render crisp shadow patterns. As such, in
self-supported. automatic support, 3. custom support, and 4. selec- designing and selecting intense 'point' light sources,
Blue dotted lines tive custom support. Table 1 compares their printing we need to be mindful of the gap between computa-
indicate selective time and weight. While automated support requires tional models and physical prototypes.
custom support, 10 times more material than the actual lantern itself, Three types of light sources were empirically
which drastically the selective custom support strategy only increased tested. Firstly, a traditional incandescent light bulb
reduce the total total weight 43% to 2 kg (Simplify 3D). merely projected blurred, unrecognizable shadow
amount of patterns, perhaps because its light-emitting wire fil-
supporting material A QUEST FOR 'POINT' LIGHT SOURCE ament has a certain length, generating multiple light
required compared Identifying a suitable light source for the Groove Light rays from supposedly a single origin of light.
to the automatic installation required balancing between the bright- Secondly, we tested a High-intensity Discharge
vertical supports. ness of light and the crispness of shadows. Generally (HID) lamp, a type commonly used for vehicle head-
speaking, lighting power rises in proportion to the lights. The light-emitting part of the HID lamp is
much more compact than that of the incandescent

FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 117

 Figure 6
Left: Full-scale
lighting test with
HID lamp for square
grid shadow. It
creates crisp
shadow patterns,
however the light
source is
unappealingly
bright and
generates excessive
heat. Right: A series
of energy-efficient,
light bulb, which means it is closer to an ideal 'point' speaking, smaller LED chips cast crisper shadow pat-
custom-made LED
light source. The lighting test showed impressively terns, being closer to an ideal 'point' light source;
light prototypes of
intense and crisp shadow patterns; however, the however, their light is considerably dimmer. Though
various power
light source itself is unappealingly bright and gener- the selection of suitable LED chips was not straight-
(15–25W) and size
ates excessive heat. Perhaps the HID lamp is too small forward, after several trials, we concluded that 25W
(10–25mm
for the level of illuminance meant to be projected. It LED chips with 20 mm diameter could achieve suffi-
diameter). LED
also seemed too dangerous to expose such a lamp cient, if not perfect brightness and acceptable, if not
chips are soldered
without its proper casing (Figure 6, Left). flawless crispness of the shadows (Figure 6, Right).
directly onto
Lastly, we tested a Light-emitting Diode (LED)
aluminium heat
chip. Generally speaking, the LED is much more INTERACTIVITY sinks.
energy-efficient than the HID lamp, thus producing Technically speaking, Groove Light comprises three
less heat while still being sufficiently bright to project elements: 1. point light sources, 2. a geomet-
shadow patterns over several meters. However, un- ric shadow pattern and 3. 3D-printed light grooves
like the HID lamp, LED chips glow over certain surface that project the shadow pattern from the point light
areas, resulting in relatively blurred shadow patterns. sources. The project requires precise spatial relation-
In other words, the larger LED chips project brighter ships among those three elements in order to cast
light but less crisp shadow patterns. Conversely the intended shadow patterns. Conversely speaking,

Figure 7
Left: Dynamic
shadow patterns
reflect various
interactions with
the observers.
Right: Illustration of
Pull mechanism.
(Design: Bek, T.K.,
Lim, B.W. and Tan,
Y.T.)

118 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1

Figure 8
Interactions with
the public provoke
relationships
between light and
shadow enhanced
through
computational
design & fabrication
technologies.
(Design Left: Bek,
T.K., Lim, B.W. and
Tan, Y.T. Right: Kui,
H.G., Lee, G.L. and
Wong, W.)

Figure 9
Groove Light at the
international
lighting festival in
Singapore, i Light
Marina Bay 2016,
which attracted
over 700,000
visitors.

FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 119

 any slight deviations in the relationships may drasti- site management; BigRep GmbH for technical sup-
cally change the shadow pattern. We took this fact port and sponsorship; Takeo Sugamata from SWITCH
not as a constraint, but as an opportunity to create for the lighting consultation; and Rapid Prototyping
interactive relationships with prospective observers module participants from the Department of Archi-
(Figure 7, Left). tecture, School of Design and Environment, National
We experimented with three types of interac- University of Singapore for the design and fabrication
tions: 1. pull actions, moving the point light source of the Groove Light project.
vertically away from the 3D-printed lantern (Figure 7,
Right); 2. rotation of the 3D-printed lantern around REFERENCES
a fixed-point light source; and 3. swinging the 3D- Gramazio, F and Kohler, M 2008, Digital Materiality in
printed lanterns to create ephemeral shadow pat- Architecture, Lars Müller Publishers, Baden, Switzer-
terns similar to the surface of water. As a whole, land
the Groove Light shadow patterns dynamically corre- Hwang, D and Khoshnevis, B 2004 'Concrete Wall Fabri-
spond to various degrees of interaction between the cation by Contour Crafting', 21st International Sym-
posium on Automation and Robotics in Construction,
3D-printed lanterns and the observers (Figure 8).
Jeju Island, Korea
Pedreschi, R 2000, Eladio Dieste: The Engineer, Thomas
CONCLUSION Telford, London
The Groove Light project presents a new type of [1] http://www.theguardian.com/science/alexs-advent
ures-in-numberland/2014/oct/30/pumpkin-geomet
sculptural lighting equipment fabricated through
ry-stunning-shadow-sculptures-that-illuminate
advanced computer-aided design and 3D-printing -an-ancient-mathematical-technique
technologies. Technically speaking, Groove Light
could consist of any combination of lantern shapes
and geometric shadow patterns. However, FDM
3D printers have major limitations with overhang-
ing geometry, tending to require disproportionate
amounts of additional support materials. Controlling
overhang elements, choosing square shadow grids
and applying selective custom supports can optimize
the printing time and weight of the lanterns, which
is critical for any large-scale 3D-printing project. A
selective custom support strategy and the lessons
learned from the quest for a 'point' light source could
also be applied to projects on an architectural scale.
The Groove Light project was invited to a show-
case at the renowned international lighting festival
in Singapore, i Light Marina Bay 2016 (Figure 9).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the
following dedicated collaborators: the Urban Rede-
velopment Authority in Singapore and curator Randy
Chan for the invitation to the i Light Marina Bay 2016;
Pico Art International Pte Ltd for the installation and

120 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Design & Application - Volume 1

FABRICATION | Robotics: Design &
Assembling
Building Traditions with Digital Research
Reviewing the Brick Architecture of Raúl Hestnes Ferreira through Robotic
Fabrication

Rui Oliveira1 , Jose Pedro Sousa2

1,2
Faculty of Architecture, University of Porto + DFL/CEAU
1
rui.santosoliveira@gmail.com 2 jsousa@arq.up.pt

Brick construction has a strong tectonic tradition in architecture, being used both
as a structural and as an expressive material. Despite several technological
innovations at the composition and production level, its application still relies on
talented craftsmanship, which has some natural human limitations and has
becoming harder to find in the present days. To overcome this problem, robotic
assembly technologies have been introduced in the field, opening new design and
construction possibilities. In this context, this paper intends to examine their
application but from a different perspective, by examining how they can be used
to connect with the traditions in brick construction. To do so, it presents and
analyses the work of Portuguese architect Raúl Hestnes Ferreira, and develops a
computational design and robotic fabrication research on the topics of corner,
column and dome bricks. The production of a column design at the 1:1 scale
using an automated process serves to reflect on the relevance of new technologies
to innovate in accordance to tradition.

Keywords: Brick Construction, Hestnes Ferreira, Robotic Assembly,

Computational Design, Digital Fabrication

INTRODUCTION effects. More than simply constructing with bricks, ar-

Bricks are a man-made material, which has been used
in architecture since the ancient times of the build-
ing construction history. Over time, the evolution
of its composition and production possibilities, from
crafts to industrial ages, never ceased to stimulate de-
signers to explore not only their structural quality but
also, their aesthetic potential. On his recent book,
William Hall (2015) collects a series of notable build-
ings where architects creatively employed such small
and regular components to achieve unique tectonic
chitects can design with bricks, as Louis Kahn contin-
uously referred to on his lectures and texts (Kahn and
Twombly 2003).
The integration of robotic technologies
Aside with this creative intention, architects had also
to devise ways to communicate and instruct workers
on how to lay down the bricks. Until recently, this has
always been a manual process requiring talented and
dedicated craftsmanship. But in 2005, Gramazio and

FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 123

 Kohler (2007) started to implement robotic technolo-
gies to perform the assembly of brick structures. By
recognizing the human limitations in understanding
and executing intricate brick arrangements that can
be easily conceived with computers, they showed
how robots could be used to expand the design in-
terests into a larger domain of geometric complex-
ity. However, aside with this creativity-oriented ap-
proach, another technology innovation path has also
been followed. The repetitive brick laying procedures
when building regular structures are also an evident
scenario for potential automation. That is the exam-
ple of the Semi-Automated Mason (SAM) robot de-
veloped by the company Construction Robotics (Pet-
ters and Belden 2014), which claims to achieve a high
level of productivity. What is interesting to observe is
the fact that robots are being explored as a solution
for both standard (i.e. repetitive) and non-standard
(i.e. variable) design scenarios.
Rethinking traditions
When new technologies can open new design and
construction opportunities, it becomes also impor-
tant to examine the way they can contribute to re-
think, or update, architectural traditions. In this disci-
pline, technology is not an end but a mean, and only
by working in both research directions it is possible
to understand the whole spectrum of its disciplinary
impact. The work on the Palladian Grammar by Stiny
and Mitchell (1978), the Malagueira houses by Duarte
(2001), or the recent one on the Alberti's treatise by
Kruger (2015), are just a few examples of such interest
in using digital technologies to revise traditions. But
perhaps the most brilliant applied work at this level
has been the one conducted by Mark Burry in the
extension works at the Sagrada Familia in Barcelona,
where both digital design and fabrication tools have
been orchestrated to understand and continue the
legacy of Antoni Gaudí in the present days.
The paper
Following this last trend, this paper summarizes and
extends a Master Thesis (Oliveira 2015), which was
developed in the scope of a larger research project
124 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1
on robotic technologies (Sousa 2015), and introduces
the work of Raúl Hestnes Ferreira, who is a renowned
Portuguese architect who mastered the use of bricks
in his buildings. By studying his work, it describes a
research on using computational design and robotic
technologies to review and extend his design inter-
est on brickwork. By preparing and discussing the
experience with the architect himself, it was possi-
ble to reflect and validate better the relevance of us-
ing such advanced technologies in the current days.
Aside with this goal, this paper also presents a fully
automated system for robotic brick assembly, which
is also another contribution to the field.
THE BRICK ARCHITECTURE OF RAÚL HES-
TNES FERREIRA
Raúl Hestnes Ferreira (b. 1931) is a preeminent fig-
ure of Portuguese contemporary architecture, espe-
cially in the second half of the 20th century. His
very unique style was marked by a strong concern
with the building details (Neves 2002). This interest
derivates from the influence of a life experience in the
United States in the 60's, where he post-graduated at
the University of Pennsylvania and worked for Louis
Khan, and the personal search for incorporating Euro-
pean values. His built work exhibits elementary com-
position methods, based on symmetry, axiality, pro-
portion, basic shapes and historical values, as an ar-
chitectural alternative to Modernism (Tavares 2003).
By carefully realizing the physical properties and lim-
itations of the materials, Raul Hestnes Ferreira looks
for taking the most out of their design potential. This
tectonic approach is noticeable on his brick build-
ings where, aside with the influence from Kahn, he
invokes and reinvents the traditional Portuguese ar-
chitecture (Tavares 2003).
Two reference brick buildings
Among the brick buildings designed by Raúl Hestnes
Ferreira, the Municipal Library in Moita (1986-1997)
and the House of Culture in Beja (1975-1985) were se-
lected as case studies for this research work (Figure 1).
In both buildings, the structural and expressive po-
 tential of bricks were carefully intertwined. In the Mu- brickwork with some elements placed perpendicular
nicipal Library, Hestnes Ferreira employed the mate- to their surface. The structural imposition was thus
rial in several interior and exterior applications. In managed in favor of the tectonic expression that can
specific wall corners and columns the architect care- be visible in the interior.
fully designed the brickwork to deploy original ma-
terial effects. In the House of Culture, Hestnes Fer- Motivations for digital research
reira employed bricks in the construction of domes The work of Hestnes Ferreira provides a rich demon-
as a reference to the traditional brick vault structures stration of a tectonic approach to brick construction.
that can be found in the region. Due the necessity Thinking in regular patterns and using hand drawing,
of defining a thicker base in the domes to support he found the way to translate his design intentions
their own weight, the architect conceived specific and prescribe the corresponding rules for laying the
Figure 1
Brickwork details of
a column and a
corner in the
Municipal Library
building in Moita
(top). One of the
domes in the House
of Culture in Beja
and the detail of its
brickwork, which
was specifically
designed for
structural purposes
(bottom).

FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 125

 bricks. By then, it would be very difficult to explore
more intricate arrangements with the existing repre-
sentational tools. Furthermore, on the construction
side, he started to become concerned with finding
talented craftsmanship to assure the production of
more complex brickwork structures, like the domes
in the House of Culture (Ferreira 2002). Thus, with the
digital technologies available today, it seemed op-
portune to investigate how:
• Computational design tools can support ar-
chitects in the tectonic exploration of brick
structures, by expanding the design space of
geometric possibilities;
• Robotic assembly processes can provide an
efficient mean to assure complex traditional
or novel brick constructions in a moment of
scarce skilled labor.
126 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1
THE DIGITAL RESEARCH
The digital research process unfolded in two sequen-
tial steps: a computational design exploration fol-
lowed by a robotic fabrication experiment.
Computational design research
This work started by looking for the main brickwork
themes found in the reference buildings described
before: the corner, the column and the dome. By
capturing the design intention presented on the ex-
isting constructions, the authors developed a com-
putational design exploration using the software
Rhinoceros and the Grasshopper plugin (Figure 2).
Supported by conversations with the architect
(Oliveira 2015), the methodology followed the initial
codification of the geometric rules, the parametric
generation of alternative solutions, and finally, their
formal verification through the production of 3D
printed models using FDM technology. This digital-
to-material continuity was essential to examine the
Figure 2
Summary of the
computational
design exploration
developed on brick
corners, columns
and domes.
 tectonic quality of the many different generated so- Robotic fabrication research
lutions to study the corner, column and dome situa- The results of the computational design research
tions (Figure 3). were presented to Raúl Hestnes Ferreira who ac-
knowledged the relevance of using such methods to
Figure 3 operate with rule-based design interests. Further-
The parametric more the 3D printed models proved to be an effi-
exploration of cient way to communicate and evaluate non-regular
column designs brick structures. Facing such information, the archi-
using 3D printed tect was invited to select one of the digitally gener-
models to evaluate ated solutions to be robotically fabricated at 1:1 scale.
each solution. The Attracted by the rhythm of its torsion and subtle vari-
same procedures able openings, his selection fell on a twisted column
were followed to design (i.e., the column in the bottom of Figure 3). On
explore corner and his words, "it has a certain complexity in which what
dome designs. one sees from one side is not exactly the same of what is
seen from another side. This piece is very beautiful and
variable (...) I find it simple and complex. It's a good
work." (Oliveira 2015). For this reason, this structure
was named as the "Hestnes" column. A quick ini-
tial experiment trying to manually assemble ceramic
bricks, made clear the difficulty in materializing its
variable geometry conventional means (Figure 4).

Figure 4
Manual assembly
experiment of part
of the Hestnes
Column to realize
the degree of
complexity of its
geometry.

FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 127

 Thus, the development of a robotic assembly
research became relevant to test the physical pro-
duction of the Hestnes column. This research part
was run in the Digital Fabrication Laboratory (DFL)
at the Faculty of Architecture of the University of
Porto (FAUP), using a large size KUKA robot equipped
with a vacuum gripper mounted on it. Due to the
lack of equipment in the laboratory to carry heavy
weights, the ceramic bricks were replaced by the use
of EPS ones, cut in the real size (i.e. 200x120x50mm).
The rest of the fabrication setup included a long tray
to feed the bricks for the picking operations and a
wooden base in the ground for placing them. To al-
low for a complete automated assembly process, an
original system for spraying glue was devised and in-
stalled between the feeding tray and the assembly
base. All fabrication instructions were defined us-
ing the KUKA|prc plugin for Grasshopper, which con-
verted the movement trajectories and speeds, and
the on/off activation of the tools (i.e. gripper and glue
spray) in the KRL language of the robot (Figure 5).
The robotic fabrication of the column unfolded
in two experiments. The first one explored a semi-
128 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1
automated process. After laying one level of bricks,
the robot was paused to allow the manual deposi-
tion of glue on the top of the bricks, before running
the pick and place operation of the next upper level.
This was done in a first moment when the glue spray
system was not yet available. The second experiment
took advantage of the fully automated system, which
consisted in the recursively doing the following steps,
until finish the desired construction (Figure 6):
• pick the brick in the tray by turning the vac-
uum on;
• move it inside of the box and wait for 1 second
to be sprayed with glue from below;
• move outside of the box and place the brick in
the specific position over the base by turning
the vacuum off.
With its 246 bricks and 2.10 meters height, the Hes-
tnes column took 52 minutes to be assembled in the
semi-automated process, and 57 minutes in the fully
automated process, running at 75% of the maximum
speed (Figure 7). Despite this minimal time differ-
ence, the second test avoided the pause for man-
Figure 5
The digital
parametric design
environment that
supported the
design and robotic
fabrication of the
Hestnes column. It
is possible to see
the preview of all
pick and place
trajectories with a
stopping moment
inside the glue
spraying machine.
Figure 6
The key moments
of each robotic
assembly
movement: picking
the brick from the
feeding tray, gluing
its bottom surface
in the spraying
machine, and
placing the brick on
its specific position
in the assembly (top
row). The column
near completion in
the setup at the
DFL, with the glue
spraying machine
on the left.

FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 129

 ual intervention, which made it a safer and human
fatigue-free process. Although this was the only so-
lution that was materialized, it was possible to realize
that any other design variation would require a simi-
lar time to be built by the robot, since it has the same
amount of bricks.
130 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1
CONCLUSION
The research work presented in this paper explored
the possibility to employ robotic fabrication pro-
cesses to revise the traditions of brick architecture.
To do so, the authors studied the built work of Por-
tuguese architect Hestnes Ferreira, and discussed
with him the tectonic interests that guided his brick-
Figure 7
work designs.
Photo of the
By using computational design tools, it was pos-
robotically
sible to encode the rules of the existing solutions and
fabricated Hestnes
generate new alternatives with a higher degree of
Column.
geometric complexity. Without the use such digital
processes, architects would have limited representa-
tion means to think, evaluate and describe certain
tectonic solutions. In continuity with building tra-
ditions, the computational design research revealed
the potential of such technologies in expanding the
creative space of design exploration in the present
times. Facing the design possibilities allowed by
computational design, the lack of talented crafts-
manship opens the door for using robotic technolo-
gies for brick assembly purposes. In the past, Hestnes
Ferreira described and told the workers the simple
rules they had to follow to build the expressive effects
of his brick details. In a similar fashion, the architect
can now assure their design intention by dictating
the assembly rules to the robot with the help of dig-
ital programming. Like in the domes of Casa da Cul-
tura, brickwork design is not only essential for serving
aesthetic purposes but also for achieving structural
efficiency. Thus, brick construction nowadays can
benefit from the use of computational design pro-
cesses to define customised brickwork arrangements
for more complex structural challenges.
Moving to a more generic level, the research
work demonstrates how the articulation of digital de-
sign and fabrication technologies can support an ex-
ceptional design freedom without loss the control
of its materialization. Recalling the 50 minutes that
took to fabricate the Hestnes Column, one can imag-
ine the significant number of columns that could be
robotically built in a single day, independently of
their geometric complexity or variation. The use of
robotic assembly technology seems thus very appro-
priate to suit prefabrication production logics. In the
construction site, and despite some advancements
like the SAM robot mentioned before, it still seems
difficult to be able to explore the flexibility of oper-
ations that can take occur within the controlled and
safe environment of the factory.
Drawing from the experience described in this
paper, future research would look to adjust the labo-
ratory conditions to use real ceramic bricks. Although
this objective does not imply any substantial change
in the actual process, different glue will have to be
incorporated in the system. At the same time, a sen-
sor for measuring the structure during its assembly
should be also considered to allow real-time adjust-
ment of the robotic operations. This research avenue
is a very important one, especially when dealing with
larger structures where the accumulation of small de-
viations that are not anticipated in the computer (e.g.
brick size variations, structural deflection, glue thick-
ness) can become critical in the building process.
Kahn, L. and Twombly, R.C: 2003, Louis Kahn: essential
texts, W.W. Norton
Kruger, M., Duarte, J.P. and Moniz, G.C. (eds) 2015, Joelho
n.5 - Digital Alberti: tradition and innovation, EDARQ,
Coimbra
Neves, J.M. 2002, Raúl Hestnes Ferreira: Projectos 1959-
2002, Edições ASA
Oliveira, R. 2015, Possibilidades de desenho e construção
digital em tijolo a partir da obra de Raúl Hestnes Fer-
reira, Master's Thesis, Faculty of Architecture, Univer-
sity of Porto
Petters, S. and Belden, R. 2014, 'SAM, the robotic brick-
layer', SMART/Dynamics of Masonry, 1(4), pp. 10-14
Sousa, J.P. 2015, Robotic Technologies for Non-Standard
Design and Construction in Architecture, Faculty of Ar-
chitecture, University of Porto, Porto
Stiny, G. and Mitchell, W.J. 1978, 'The Palladian Grammar',
Environment and Planning B, 5, pp. 5-18
Tavares, M.A. 2003, Além da Geometria, Edições Estampa,
Lisbon

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work presented was co-financed by the Euro-
pean Regional Development Fund (ERDF) through
the COMPETE 2020 - Operational Programme Com-
petitiveness and Internationalization (POCI) and na-
tional funds by the FCT under the POCI-01-0145-
FEDER-007744 project, and the previous PTDC/ATP-
AQI/5124/2012 research project. The authors are also
greatful to industrial partner Cerâmica Vle da Gân-
dara and to architect Raúl Hestnes Ferreira.

REFERENCES
Duarte, J.P. 2001, Customizing mass housing: a discursive
grammar for Siza’s Malagueira houses, Ph.D. Thesis,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department
of Architecture
Ferreira, R.H. 2002 'Conhecer o Tijolo para Construir a
Arquitectura', Seminário sobre Paredes de Alvenaria,
Porto, Portugal, pp. 111-132
Gramazio, F. and Kohler, M. 2007, Digital Materiality in Ar-
chitecture, Lars Muller Publishers, Baden
Hall, W. (eds) 2015, Bricks, Phaidon Press Limited, London

FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 131

Biomimetic Robotic Construction Process
An approach for adapting mass irregular-shaped natural materials

Chi-Li Cheng1 , June-Hao Hou2

1,2
National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
1
micky@arch.nctu.edu.tw 2 jhou@arch.nctu.edu.tw

Beaver dams are formed by two main processes. One is that beavers select proper
woods for constructing. The other one is that streams aggregate those woods to
be assembled. Using this approach to construction structure is suitable for
natural environment. In this paper, we attempt to develop a construction process
which is suitable for all-terrain construction robot in the future. This construction
process is inspired by beavers' construction behavior in nature. Beavers select
proper sticks to make the structure stable. We predict that particular properties of
sticks contribute gravity-driven assembly of wood structure. Thus, we implement
the system with machine learning to find proper properties of sticks to improve
selection mechanism of construction process. During this construction process,
3D scanner on robotic arm scans and recognizes sticks on terrain, and then robot
will select proper sticks and place them. After placement, the system will scan
and record the results for learning mechanism.

Keywords: Biomimetic Design, Machine Learning, Natural Material, Point

Cloud Analysis, Robotic Fabrication

INTRODUCTION industrial revolution, having a negative impact on

Contemporary construction process is good enough,
Today's construction projects are characterizing by
short design and build period, increased demands
of quality and low cost. These problems can be
approached by a flexible automation using robots
based on computer assisted planning, engineering
and construction management (Bock 2008). How-
ever, there are some shortcomings. Construction
waste is becoming a serious environmental problem
around the world; This is due to the growing in vol-
ume and complexities of modern economies (Erekpi-
tan et al. 2015). Using natural materials for architec-
tural designs was abandoned during and since the
the environment as a whole [2]. One of the biggest
challenges of natural materials to be used in digital
crafting process is its unevenness and controllability
(Chen and Hou 2016). Therefore, architects usually
give up using natural materials in their design.
Local natural materials
Rivers bring and erode trees into mass driftwood es-
pecially in Taiwan's typhoon season. But, it is difficult
to utilize by conventional industrial process; If we can
make good use of these natural materials instead of
throwing them away, we can save lots of resources
and provide architectural field with new possibilities.

FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 133

 Inspiration from nature
On the Earth we live in, the ecosystem works without
waste. Living creatures develop ways to build shelter
by following the character of natural material. For ex-
ample, termite mounds, bird nests and beaver dams
(see Figure 1b). Beavers especially make good use
of natural materials for large-scale construction. The
biggest scale of beavers' construction is a beavers'
dam located in Wood-Buffalo-NP, north-east Canada
(see Figure 1a). The dam's width reaches 850 me-
ters [3]. This scale is comparable with human being's
construction. Beavers' construction can be general-
ized into three types such as beaver dams, lodges,
and food caches. The amazing scale and variety of
construction is rare in nature. Hence, beavers are re-
garded as an architect in the animal world.
Beavers' construction can even adapt its struc-
ture to hydro-logical environment and surrounding
forest species effects (Janiszewski 2006). The main
structure is composed of woods. Mud, weeds, and
tiny sticks can be used as infill. In fact, the comple-
tion of beavers' construction is attributed merely half
to beavers' construction skills. Self-assembly mech-
anism of materials adapting river force makes half
contribution to the construction (Blersch and Kan-
gas 2014). Both beavers' construction skills accumu-
lated with experiences and self-assembly mechanism
of materials play essential role in the construction. If
those principles of beavers' construction are grasped,
it is possible to make construction robots utilizing lo-
cal resource for full-scale buildings.
Robotics Fascination
In other cases of using natural materials, the Wood-
chip Bran project of AA's team challenges using
branch to construct barn in main structure, they used
optimized algorithm in this process of project for
finding suitable arrangement then employed robotic
arm milling to form the connections solving the de-
sign problem of using branch. Additionally, Robotic
Softness project of ITECH challenged softness mate-
rials to construct woven space improving the pos-
sibility of combining 3D scanner and robotic arm
134 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1
for adapting natural softness materials. Those men-
tioned cases also explore how to use robotic arm
for adapting complex properties of natural material.
Those research involved material and behavior levels
of biomimicry in architecture.
Woodchip Bran project of The Architectural
Association School of Architecture(AA) utilized
irregular-shaped materials to construct the main
structure of a barn[5]. The team used optimized al-
gorithm to figure out a suitable placement. Then,
employed robotic arm milling to form the connec-
tions solving the design problem of using branch.
Additionally, Robotic Softness project of ITECH chal-
lenged softness materials to construct woven space
improving the possibility of combining 3D scanner
and robotic arm for adapting natural softness mate-
rials [6]. Rock Print Project is the first architectural
installation to be built from low-grade granular ma-
terial and constructed by robotic machines. Con-
ceived as an intriguing vertical object, the instal-
lation presents a new category of random packed,
potentially fully reusable, poly-dispersed jammed
structures that can be automatically fabricated in
non-standard shapes [7].
Those mentioned cases also explore how to use
robotic arm for adapting complex properties of nat-
ural material. Those research involved material and
behavior levels of biomimicry in architecture. How-
ever, Robots are still difficult to utilize local resource
and construct without materials processing.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
In this research, we investigate how the robotic
construction utilizing unprocessed natural materials.
The dimensions of beaver's constructions reach hun-
dreds of meters long, as a result, using unprocessed
natural materials as construction materials is a poten-
tial approach for artificial buildings. However, human
beings depend on low technology and conventional
design methodology. This research proposes a solu-
tion to solve the design problems.
The system of biomimetic robotic construction
process is designed to simulate beavers' construc-
Figure 1
A:Largest beaver
Dam in the
world[4].B:Large
beaver
dam[1].C:Beaver[1].

tion, including beavers' construction skills and self-
assembly mechanism of materials. Therefore, the sys-
tem contains two major parts. One part is to arrange
materials placements automatically. The other part
is finding appropriate materials by machine learn-
ing mechanism. This mechanism can judge whether
current materials are suitable. Unlike conventional
industrial process, which involves processing raw
materials, this biomimetic robotic construction pro-
cess can save mass resource by utilizing unprocessed
irregular-shaped natural materials like sticks (see Fig-
ure 2).
SYSTEM DESIGN AND PROTOTYPING
In this research, we investigate two key techniques of
biomimetic robotic construction process. One tech-
nique is to make robotic arm know materials char-
acteristics, including curvature, diameter, and length
through 3D scanner. The robotic arm can also lo-
cate the materials and grip them precisely. The other
technique is to sense the structure stability after plac-
ing materials and activate machine learning mech-
anism. This mechanism will give priority to better
material characteristics when selecting construction
materials (see Figure 3).

Figure 2 Prototyping
Concept The prototype is established on common tools that
development of usually appear on academic and industrial fields.
biomimetic robotic Therefore, it is convenient to be modified by other
construction people. For instance, using 6 degrees of freedom
process. robotic arm (KUKA KR6R700) usually appearing in in-
dustrial production and common parametric design
Figure 3 software (Grasshopper) used in design field as devel-
The robotic arm can opment platform. In the tendency of architects using
also locate the digital design and fabrication, the workflow combin-
materials and grip ing parametric software and robotic fabrication be-
them precisely. came more and more popular, we expect that devel-
oping biomimetic robotic construction process in it
as open source can accelerate this construction pro-
cess practiced in real environment.
As a result, in later versions, the robot fist scans
all materials. Next, every time it places each stick,
it scans all materials again. This revision helps the
robot take instant reaction to environment changes.
Besides, in the beginning, we use computer vision

FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 135

 to recognize the shape of sticks and use gravity sen- Figure 4
sor on gripper to sense the center of gravity of ma- System of
terials. By doing so, we can use physical simulation biomimetic robotic
program to find appropriate placements. However, construction
those methods are failed, because physical simula- process.
tion may optimize construction for fewer, large, or
regular-shaped materials. Nevertheless, in this re-
search, we focus on mass, small, and irregular-shaped
sticks for building structure as beaver lodges. Ac- Figure 5
cording to our experiment, physical simulation is un- The framework of
suitable for mass, small, and irregular-shaped sticks. system.
Gravity is ineffective in small-scale sticks structure but
curvature and length are keys to construct success-
fully. Therefore, we use 3D scanner instead of gravity
sensor to scan sticks because it is useful to analyze
those properties from point cloud data.
The completed version of system generalizes se- Figure 6
ries components from various incidents on Grasshop- Workspace is made
per (GH) for adaption. For example, when construc- of sawdust on a
tion robot perceives structure sway, robot will adopt wood tray.
infill program gripping sawdust from terrain as infill
to strengthen structure (see Figure 4). In this way,
construction robot can adapt various sticks and ter-
rain to improvise a stick structure as beaver lodge.

Components of system
Figure 7
The followings are components in the system of
Robotic arm and
biomimetic robotic construction process (see Figure
gripper assembly.
5).

Natural materials
The natural materials in this research are about 20-
centimeter long and irregular sticks (without any
branches). These sticks are used as scaled-down drift-
wood, which are common natural materials in Tai- Figure 8
wan. Typhoons and rivers erode driftwood into sticks Gripper assembly.
without any branches. If we can make good use of
these natural materials as construction materials in-
stead of throwing them away, we can save lots of re-
sources and provide design field with new possibili-
ties.

136 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1

Figure 9
The robot sense
environment by
Kinect.
Workspace
A workspace simulates complex natural environment
to test the adaption of construction robot. It is made
of sawdust on a wood tray (see Figure 6), the sawdust
terrain is easy to be shaped, as a result, the workspace
can be reused for different rugged terrains. A soft of
sticks will put into the workspace randomly captured
by gripper as construction materials during experi-
ence.
Robotic arm and gripper assembly
The prototype of biomimetic construction robot con-
sists of KUKA kr6r700, KinectV2, and a material-
adaptive gripper (see Figure 7).
This gripper is made of PLA through 3D printer
(see Figure 8). The robot makes good use of PLA's
high flexibility to adapt natural materials' various
sizes. To add friction, abrasive papers are stuck to
the joints of the gripper and materials. The servo
empowers the engaging lever and transform rotation
torque into holding power. Robotic arm's IO controls
Figure 10 the gripper, and send digital information to Arduino.
The Environmental Arduino analyzes digital signals and commands the
sensing component servo on the gripper. The maximum weight for the
captures gripper to lift is 500 g and from 1 mm to 30mm in
geometrical length.
properties.
Environmental sensing
The soft program involves point cloud processing,
geometrical poverties, robotic construction behav-
FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 137
ior, and the component of machine learning. Point
clouds processing first deals with information from
Kinect (see Figure 9).
Firstly, the soft program receives points outside
the tray, and these points will be filtered. However,
there may be some unreasonable points in the filtrate
because Kinect IR points may not be detected, which
causes the errors of point clouds location. The com-
ponent of machine learning can transform received
points into mesh by Delaunay Mesh (an algorithm).
By calculating each mesh area, we can know the ac-
curacy of point distribution. Besides, errors may exist
when the gripper moves back to the observation po-
sition. The component of machine learning can also
solve this problem through measuring the original
position of tray and moving the observed points to
that original position. Then, the component exports
the data and its job is done. (see Figure 9) left is a real
picture, and the right is the scanned data from points
cloud.
The component captures geometrical proper-
ties. These geometrical properties include materi-
als' position, length, curvature, and radius. They are
 Figure 11
A:Terrain analysis.
B:Stability analysis.

Figure 12
Sticks are stacked to
form a structure
step by step during
construction.

obtained from the analysis of point clouds distribu- area is, the more unstable the structure is (see Figure
tion (see Figure 10). Nearby points can be viewed as 11). All geometrical properties will be recorded and
a group. By analyzing whether the groups present analyzed during construction process.
a linear layout, the component can judge if an ob-
served object is a stick. The point clouds data can be Figure 13
further analyzed by Circle Fit (an algorithmic mecha- This process is
nism) to get the object's curvature. Its length comes similar to FDM.
from measuring point clouds distribution centerline,
whereas the radius is calculated from the distance be-
tween centerline and point clouds.
The component also finds a flat area as a proper Figure 14
construction site. By analyzing point clouds, it can A: This gripper can
test the stability of the structure when placing each grip sawdust and
material. For example, through comparing new sticks.B:Sawdust
scanned data (material's actual place) with previous mode.C:stick mode.
scanned data (material's expected place), the compo-
nent can calculate a swept area. The bigger the swept

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 Procedural construction process
The procedural construction process component can
dominate the execution order of other components.
For example, when we first start up the robotic con-
struction behavior component, the robot arm will
move to the observation position and make Kinect
scan point clouds. After scanning, it will wait un-
til the data is analyzed. Then, the construction be-
gins. The component controls robot according to
point cloud analysis. After determining the construc-
tion site through point cloud analysis, the robot will
define a circle to measure a construction range. This
circle is cut into several segments to show directions
and positions for piling the materials. Then, it will
control gripper to grips the materials to a proper
position based on the data from the previous com-
ponent. As the terrain changes and materials keep
being piled, this circle curve will be submerged by
newly scanned point clouds. After each layer is sub-
merged, the new layer will on top of the old curve and
become a new placement of materials. In this way,
sticks are stacked to form a structure step by step (see
Figure 12). The placements will be piled up along the
Z-axis. This process is similar to 3D printer's Fused De-
position Modeling (FDM) (see Figure 13).
In this way, the new placement of materials
will form as the new circle curve exists until the
biomimetic construction robot detects that the struc-
ture is swaying. The robot will offset to narrow the
circle curve's size to keep the structure from swaying
Figure 15
Data recording
component will
record individual
material properties
and stability.
FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 139
until the circle is too small. Then, construction is fin-
ished. It is expected that when the materials are with
high quality, the robot will construct a towering and
tall cylinder, whereas it will be a short and low arch if
the materials are in poor quality. With more experi-
ences, more data can be generalized, and the robot
can make better choice of materials. The structure
will be more solid and the construction can be taller.
Construction types and processes
In natural environment, there are many incidents
happening at any time during construction (For ex-
ample; structure sway, depression, lack of materi-
als), as a result, we implemented the system with
incident response mechanism for adapting complex
construction environment.Considering in natural en-
vironment, beavers use smaller materials as infill to
strengthen structures, the robotic construction be-
havior component provides two selecting modes
such as stick mode and sawdust mode. When the
construction structure is stable, the stick mode is on,
whereas it switches to sawdust mode and grips saw-
dust to strengthen the main structure when the con-
struction structure is unstable (see Figure 14).
Data recording
Data recording component will record the data af-
ter it scans the materials (see Figure 15). Machine
learning component will analyze the correlation be-
tween each material's geometrical features and its
 construction process. Different materials may have Figure 16
different advantages and limitations. As more experi- The learning
ences and data are collected, machine learning com- mechanism is
ponent will help robot select the best material fea- developed based
ture from the database as a model. Whenever new on Spearman Rank
materials are found in the natural environment, the Correlation .
component will choose the material which best fits
the criteria of that model as the material for main
structure.
Figure 17
Machine Learning The system can
System will be executed with machine learning select proper sticks
mechanism and keeping improving stability of as- through evaluation
sembly by choosing appropriate sticks. We predicted of machine learning
that particular properties of sticks (for instance, cur- mechanism.
vature, length and radius) will influence the stability Figure 18
of assembly. Thus the system is designed to find the Proper curvature
best value for assembly by machine learning. The can grab other
method of measuring assembly stability is generat- materials tightly
ing a swept area from predicted place to actual place. and avoid them
The smaller the swept area is, the higher of the as- rolling away when
sembly stability is. Thus, we can analyze correlation CONCLUSION swaying.
between assembly stability and individual material The results in this study indicate that the system
properties. Considering that the correlation between gives priority to materials with 65-centimeter curva-
material properties and assembly stability may be ture radius when selecting materials. The curvature
nonlinear. As a result, we develop the learning mech- plays the most important role in the selecting sec-
anism based on Spearman Rank Correlation in this tion, while length is ranked as second crucial factor
system (see Figure 16). and diameter seems not an essential factor. Proper
At the beginning, the system records several curvature can grab other materials tightly and avoid
data of material properties and assembly stability. them rolling away when swaying(see Figure 18). Be-
Next, the system will define the value of assembly sides, material gaps and infill can be organized well
ability as different scores. Then, it will calculate tem- with proper curvature. Machine learning mechanism
porary appropriate properties for assembly. If the can preclude unsuitable materials and strengthen
current property is closer to temporary appropriate the structure of the dome. As construction expe-
property, the assembly is likely to be more stable. In riences increase, machine learning mechanism has
the algorithm, the temporary appropriate property is made the construction height higher than the first
dynamic may due to data accumulation. Therefore, time(see Figure 19).
machine learning mechanism can find influences of In this research, we focus on how to develop
those material properties (curvature, length and ra- the process for adapting complex environment in-
dius) on assembly stability. The system can select stead of constructing a predefined structure; each
proper sticks through evaluation of machine learning final form in an experiment are unpredicted. Final
mechanism(see Figure 17). form is influenced by context of materials and ter-
rain. In the context, if materials are too short or bent

140 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1

Figure 19
Performance after
training(left is initial
outcome and right
is the performance
after training).

Figure 20
Any variety can
cause structures to
be different.

Figure 21 and terrain is too rugged, it will cause the structure

Imagination of to be failed, the final form might be low or small,
Using natural as a result, the performance of Biomimetic Robotic
material in full-scale Construction Process resemble "form follows natural
architecture. materials". Any variety can cause result to be differ-
ent(see Figure 20).
On the whole, this research attempts to seek a
solution to two issues in architecture. First one is
environmental impact from architecture and second
is architectural impact from automatic, we combine Robot adapting natural materials to reduce resource
these two to develop a Biomimetic Robotic Construc- waste. Adapting natural materials is widespread in
tion Process as a solution; We review architecture in- natural environment, especially beaver construction
dustry bring material and energy waste from large is a paradigm. Through studying beaver construc-
scale production and then propose a Construction tion behavior, the Construction Process combining

FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 141

 new technologies is possible to be achieved. This
research (Biomimetic Robotic Construction Process)
is different from most of digital fabrications because
this Construction Process need not predefined form
for input, the final form is due to materials and terrain
in environment.
We expect biomimetic robotic construction pro-
cess can be used for real construction environment
the after improving reliability, it can be use for full-
scale material (larger stick or driftwood) (see Fig-
ure 21). And therefore, workers are not necessary
to be exposed to danger. Instead, Construction
Robot can be employed on rugged disaster area for
makeshift bridges, embankments and shelters. On
the other hand, in non-disaster area Construction
Robot can be employed for river and landscape im-
provements. After progressing biomimetic construc-
tion robot through newer technology, the updated
robot may be widely used on permanent buildings.
By doing so, this natural material-based biomimetic
construction robot will be able to reduce waste of re-
source from construction in the future, this approach
will allow designer to use unprocessed natural mate-
rials more easily and stimulate the design concept of
"Form Follows Natural Materials"
Polonorum: Silvarum Colendarum Ratio et Industria
Lignaria, Poland, pp. 63-70
Zari, Maibritt Pedersen 2007 'Biomimetic Approaches
to Architectural Design for Increased Sustainability',
Regional Sustainable Building Conference 2007, Auck-
land, New Zealand
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaver_dam
[2] http://www.arct.cam.ac.uk/research/researchgrou
ps/natural-materials-and-structures
[3] http://news.discovery.com/animals/zoo-animals/b
eaver-dam-canada-space.htm
[4] https://www.google.com.tw/maps/place/Largest+be
aver+Dam+in+the+world/@58.271435,-112.254433,
17z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x53b76aac4c14e1b
1:0xf5bd60b121769202!8m2!3d58.271435!4d-112.2
52239
[5] http://designandmake.aaschool.ac.uk/woodchip-ba
rn/
[6] https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/robotic-softness
-behavioural-fabrication-process-woven-ehsan-
baharlou
[7] http://www.selfassemblylab.net/RockPrinting.php

REFERENCES
Blersch, David M and Kangas, Patrick C 2014, 'Signatures
of self-assembly in size distributions of wood mem-
bers in dam structures of Castor canadensis. Global
Ecology and Conservation', ELSEVIER, 2, pp. 204-213
Bock, Thomas (eds) 2008, Robotics and Automation in
Construction, InTech, Rijeka, Coratia
Bunge, Eric and Hoang, Mimi (eds) 2008, Narchitects Eric
Bunge & Mimi Hoang 2000-2008, Damdi
Chen, I-Chin and Hou, June-Hao 2016 'DESIGN WITH
BAMBOO BEND', caadria2016
Erekpitan, Ola-Adisa, Yohanna, C. Sati and Ojonugwa,
Israel I. 2015, 'An Architectural Approach to Solid
Waste Management on Selected Building Construc-
tion Sites in Bauchi Metropholis', International Jour-
nal of Emerging Engineering Research and Technol-
ogy, 3( ), pp. 67-77
Janiszewski, Pawel, Gugolek, Andrzej and Lobanowska,
Anna 2006 'Use of shoreline vegetation by the Eu-
ropean beaver (Castor fiber L.)', Acta Scientiarum

142 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1

Discrete Assembly and Digital Materials in Architecture
Gilles Retsin1
1
Gilles Retsin Architecture
1
gilles.retsin@gmail.com

The paper will discuss two projects which explore the territory of discrete or
digital material organisations in an architectural context. Taking inspiration from
the field of Digital Materials, this paper presents an approach to architectural
design which is fundamentally "digital" - not just in the process but also in its
physical organisation. The use of discrete and digital materials in architecture is
argued for from both an architectonic point of view, as well as from efficiencies
related to automation of construction. Experiments with robotic assembly are
caught between on the one hand the desire to increase speed, and on the other
hand increased complexity. This paper argues that robotic assembly on the scale
of architecture is only feasible and scalable in the context of digital materials and
discrete computation, which has a limited set of connectivity problems. The two
projects are a first attempt to translate the concept of Digital Materials to the
domain of architecture. The result is an architecture which is digital in its
physical organisation. It demonstrates how differentiated, complex and
heterogeneous spaces can be achieved with just serialised, discrete elements.

Keywords: Discrete Computation, Robotic Assembly, mereology, Digital

Materials, Additive Assembly

FROM CONTINUOUS TO DISCRETE the University of East-London.

This paper will discuss two projects which explore the
territory of discrete or digital material organisations
in an architectural context. The projects are practice-
based, and have been developed at Gilles Retsin Ar-
chitecture, a London based architecture and design
practice. They are part of the long term research
agenda of the office, and are partially developed in
collaboration with consulting engineers Price & My-
ers. The work also interfaces with academic teach-
ing into robotic assembly at RC4, a research cluster
at UCL the Bartlett School of Architecture, as well as
with a ongoing research agenda into radical discrete-
ness which has been developed in M.Arch Unit 6 at
Theorist and architect Neil Leach argues that "
while there is clearly a practice of designing that in-
volves the use of digital tools, there is no product as
such that might be described as digital" (Leach 2015).
Digital design and fabrication tools merely allow a
specific type of design to be realised, but they can as
well be used for objects which do not appear "digital"
or "parametric". This critique ties into a contemporary
discussion on the post-digital. The use of digital tools
and techniques has matured to such an extent that
their use is more critically questioned. So what does
it mean for buildings or material organisations to be
digital ? Can material be organised in the same way

FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 143

 as data? Or is there really no such thing as a digital ar-
chitecture? Taking inspiration of Neil Gerschenfelds'
concept of Digital Materials, this paper will present
two projects which are fundamentally "digital" - not
just in their design process but also in their physical
organisation. In line with Mario Carpo's description
of the Second Digital Turn (Carpo 2014), the projects
presented understand computational processes as
fundamentally discrete. The research proposes to
align digital with physical materiel organisation. Ev-
ery bit of digital data is the same bit of data in the
physical world.
Whereas Carpo only talks about discreteness in
the design process, Gerschenfeld's research goes one
step further to also argue for discreteness in fabri-
cation (Ward 2010). Essentially, most current fabri-
cation technologies are analogue processes, despite
the fact that they are computer controlled. These
computer controlled actions mimic human modes
of production, they are essentially mechanised arti-
sanal procedures. An industrial robot for example,
can be understood as a computer controlled version
of a human arm. Techniques such as CNC-milling are
actually based on centuries old artisanal methods,
just as additive manufacturing is a technique com-
monly found in pottery. These analogue techniques
share the property of continuously adding or remov-
ing material - they are continuous fabrication tech-
niques. These tools are computer controlled, but not
"digital". The analogue character of computer con-
trolled fabrication tools logically gave rise to a gen-
eration of architects identifying as digital craftsmen.
These digital craftsmen or makers are essentially not
"digital" - they are mere sculptors using analogue
techniques in a computer environment instead of in
the physical world. Associated with this practice is
also the culture of the artisan: a culture of intuitive,
small-scale, aesthetic practice . In contrast to this is
the Albertian paradigm of the architect as a the anti-
craftsman, in communication with the building site
only through notation and instructions (Carpo 2011).
The projects presented in this paper extend
Carpo's understanding of the Second Digital Turn,
144 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1
by arguing for a discreteness both in the design
and in the physical organisation of an object. There
are not only philosophical reasons to explore this
proposition, but also a series of more pragmatic con-
cerns. Continuous systems have fundamental prob-
lems with transitions of material, require a lot of time
to compute and fabricate, are less adaptive and not
reversible. Moreover, in architecture, it is hard to cal-
culate the cost of continuous systems, as they are not
suited to the increased discrete character of work-
flows such as BIM. Discrete construction systems are
generally dry and prefabricated, which means that
they can be constructed faster and with more preci-
sion (Knaack 2012). With an increased interest in au-
tomation of the construction industry, discrete build-
ing blocks can significantly speed up robotic assem-
bly process (Gerschenfeld et al. 2015). This paper ar-
gues for discrete systems as an efficient method to
design, fabricate, automate and build on the scale of
architecture.
DISCRETENESS AND AUTOMATION
There has been significant research into automation
of the building industry. Moreover, there is a his-
torical relation between architecture and machines
for building. Vitruvius treatise De Architectura , con-
tains one book solely devoted to machines. The
mechanisation and industrialisation of architecture
was of course also a dream of the modernists, and
has recently again gained momentum as a result of
increased access to robotics. The most prolific at-
tempt for automation is probably large scale additive
manufacturing or 3D printing. Key precedents here
are Khoshnevis Contour Crafting process and Enrico
Dini's D-Shape printer. The main interest in automa-
tion of the building industry lies in the promise of in-
creased speed, simplicity and reduced human labour
on the building site. However, the previously men-
tioned attempts have had only a limited impact on
the building industry until now. One of the main con-
straints with large scale additive manufacturing is un-
doubtedly the speed. Robotic assembly processes
should be in principle quicker, as they make use of
larger elements. Advances in process planning and
BIM software allow prefabricated modular assembly
to become an ultra-fast construction method. For
example, the Broad Groups project for a fifty-seven
story skyscraper was assembled in just nineteen days
in Changsha, China. Moreover, assembly-based pro-
cesses have the advantages that the components or
particles for assembly can be composed of multiple
materials. Multi-materiality is a fundamental prob-
lem of additive manufacturing processes. Large-
scale additive manufacturing is almost exclusively
based on a single material. A process which can print
at the same time glass and concrete, is hard to imag-
ine, as both materials have entirely different mate-
rial properties. To produce a complete building, one
would still have to use traditional means of construc-
tion for insulation, windows, finishes, cabling and so
on. Experiments with robotic assembly, and more
specifically, additive robotic assembly, have been un-
dertaken by Gramazio Kohler at the ETH. As Ger-
schenfeld points out, these experiments are caught
between on the one hand increasing speed, and in
the other hand increasing complexity ( Gerschenfeld
et al. 2015). Automation of discrete or digital materi-
als can result in both increased speed and increased
complexity. However, architects seem to be reluctant
to adopt the homogeneous and repetitive lattice-like
structures associated with Digital Materials.
DIGITAL MATERIALS AND DISCRETE FAB-
RICATION
Although projects such as Gramazio Kohler's roboti-
cally assembled brick walls also make use of bricks as
discrete elements (Kohler M et al. 2014), technically
this has to be considered as a continuous project. Ev-
ery brick has a highly varied position, which is inde-
pendent of the geometry of the part. In an analogue
or continuous system, a piece of matter has infinite
connection possibilities, whereas a discrete or digital
system only has a limited number (Ward 2010).
Digital materials are a concept pioneered for me-
chanical engineering by Neil Gerschenfeld at MIT.
A Digital material is a building block with relative
FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 145
local positions which in itself provides geometric
constraints for assembly. No plans or tools are re-
quired as the parts geometrically define the assembly
(Cheung 2012). Digital Materials construct objects
which are discrete in their physical materiel organi-
sation. These structures are reversible: they can be
re-assembled into other types of structures. The con-
cept of digital materials also becomes an interesting
opportunity for computational methods, as the orga-
nization of physical parts is the same as the organi-
zation of the digital data. The part computed digi-
tally is also the part assembled physically. The male-
female composition of digital materials establishes a
binary 0-1 relation between elements. In that sense,
a lego-brick can be understood as a digital material.
(Cheung 2012.) Gerschenfeld sees their applications
in domains as varied as aerospace, building and land-
scape. Gerschenfeld and his team have developed a
number of prototypes of digital materials, most no-
tably the GIK or General Instruction Kit and the Digital
Flexural Materials (Cheung 2012; Ward 2010).
The projects presented in this paper are one of
the first explorations of the concept of "digital ma-
terials" on an architectural scale. Another precedent
is Jose Sanchez' Polyomino research at USC, which
is based on a game-like assembly of discrete parts
(Sanchez 2014). Skylar Tibbits' self-assembling ma-
terials are also understood as digital materials. Archi-
tectural Digital Materials share the basic properties of
the digital materials developed at MIT: they are dis-
crete, have a limited connection possibility with a bi-
nary logic, and relative local positioning.
There are some key-differences with the Dig-
ital Materials proposed by Gerschenfeld. First of
all, architectural digital materials aim for fast assem-
bly, and therefore should be multi-material or multi-
functional. Lattice-like structures like the GIK and
the Digital Flexural Materials would need a significant
amount of cladding to create inhabitable spaces.
Secondly, the proposed architectural digital materi-
als have a much larger scale - meters instead of mil-
limeters. The larger scale allows for a much quicker
assembly, and responds better to the amount of res-
 olution or detail required in day to day living envi-
ronments or spaces. The use of much smaller units
is currently subject of parallel academic research in
Bartlett RC4 , under guidance of the author.
Lastly, as a result of the larger scale of the digital
materials, these also heavily impact the design as a
whole. Every vector set out by a single element has a
significant impact on the space and structure of the
proposed building - in contrast to the smaller scale
elements of non-architectural digital materials. If the
digital material is small enough, then heterogeneity
can be achieved through their assembly - just as a
pixel. In this context, Joris Laarmans' Digital Matter
Table is a good reference. However, as architectural
digital materials are much larger, they need to estab-
lish a precise design agency or bias within the com-
ponent itself. The architect essentially has to embed
a series of design decisions in the part, keeping the fi-
nal building in mind. Digital Materials in mechanical
engineering are generally homogeneous and repeti-
tive, and would as such not satisfy the desire for var-
iegated and heterogeneous spaces - which has been
one of the driving forces behind the digital.
The design method described in this paper is
based on the assembly of cheap, standardized, dis-
crete elements into indeterminate, heterogeneous
and differentiated spaces with a high degree of econ-
omy. The focus is on a minimum degree of cus-
tomization for a maximum of differentiation, detail,
adaptability and economy. The serialisation and
metrology embedded in the pieces allows for effi-
cient robotic automation.
MEREOLOGY
The emphasis on the part or bit re-emphasizes the
discussion of part-to-whole relations . This notion,
which has traditionally been important for architec-
ture, disappeared from the discussions surrounding
the digital as a result of an interest in holistic, contin-
uous tropes such as topology and surface. Mereology
( from the Greek mereo or "part") is the study of the re-
lations between parts and the wholes they construct.
Mereology specifically deals with hierarchies in part-
146 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1
whole relationships - a concept referred to as Meron-
omy or Partonomy (Simmons 2000). Object Oriented
Programming has a mereological character through
its structure of classes and inheritance of classes. Al-
though mereology is an actual scientific study, devel-
oped by the Polish mathematician Lesniewski, it was
initially the work of Levi Bryant which was important
for the development of the projects below. In the
Democracy of Objects, Bryant describes the concept
of "Strange Mereology", as a relation where every part
is in itself a whole which is not reducible to its parts
and where every part is not reducible to the whole
(Bryant 2011). This kind of democratic part to whole
relationships are typical for Object-Oriented philos-
ophy. It can be argued that Architectural part-to-
whole relations are traditionally a non-strange Mere-
ology, which means that the parts are never really au-
tonomous from the whole, but are always reducible
to the whole. They have no existence outside of the
whole. This non-strange mereological character is
typical for top-down design methods, but essentially
also for continuous design in general. To establish
continuity, every part has to be reduced to a deriva-
tion of the whole. A good example of non-strange
mereological structures is parametric surface paneli-
sation. In panelisation, every piece is unique, and de-
rived from a specific location on a surface. The large
differentiation of pieces requires micromanagement
of thousands of components, resulting in excessive
labour and energy in assembly. Gramazio Kohler's
Programmed Wall, previously mentioned, also falls
in this category, as the orientation of every brick is
a result of a continuous parametric function. Every
brick is rotated in a specific position to establish the
overall image of a gradient. This mereological atti-
tude is controversial in relation to the premise of dig-
itally intelligent architecture, which argues for com-
plexity. Often taking inspiration from natural systems
such as swarms, digital architects like to argue for
bottom-up systems where the whole emerges from
part-part interactions. This type of system necessar-
ily requires a democratic interaction of parts and pre-
sumes that every part is actually equal , resulting in
Figure 1 a homogeneous population. From the interaction
Precast Plaster of this homogeneous population, a heterogeneous
Digital Material, whole emerges. The use of the term mereology in
Gilles Retsin the context of the work presented in this paper, is
Architecture. mainly notional and pro-forma, merely stressing the
renewed importance of part-to-whole relationships
and the part itself. At least in the work presented be-
low, it does not directly refer to Lesniewski's philoso-
phy as a scientific framework.

PROJECTS
Two projects, Blokhut (2015) and Diamond Strata
(2016) developed at Gilles Retsin Architecture, start
Figure 2 to explore the potential of digital materials in archi-
Digital model tecture. Both are based on a serialised building block.
indicating serialised The first project, Blokhut , still needs some degree of
versus customised customisation, where Diamond Strata is completely
areas in the Blokhut serialised.
prototype.
Blokhut
The Blokhut (2015) is a study for a villa in the Bel-
gian community of Wetteren. The term "Blokhut" is
a Dutch for Log Cabin - a hut built of whole or split
logs. As a response to budget constraints, and at the
same time a request for a differentiated and highly
articulated space, the project aimed to extensively
use serialised building elements. The Blokhut estab-
lishes a differentiated and adaptive architectural sys-
tem which consists for 90% of serially repeated, dis-
crete, prefabricated concrete elements, and for 10%
of unique, customized elements (Figure 2). To test
Figure 3 the design method, a large-scale prototype of 2 x
Blokhut, prototype 1.5 x 0.3m was developed. It was assembled using
for a villa using more than four thousand pre-cast plaster compo-
discrete assembly. nents, intersecting and joining around a number of
customized, 3D printed zones (Figure 4).

FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 147

 The precast component is designed as an arrow- Figure 4
shaped brick, with a male and female connection Part of the physical
(Figure 1). This arrow-like connection is able to inter- prototype for the
lock two bricks together in a fixed position. This dis- Blokhut, discrete
crete building element can be understood as a digital plaster cast
material: it has a relative local positioning, and the components
design possibilities are defined by the geometry of aggregated on 3D
the element itself. However, the edge of the element printed
has no clear metrology, nor a defined binary con- connections.
nection. This is inconsequential, but allows for some
more continuity in the system which helps absorbing
some of the issues with tolerance. The discrete pieces
in this case are also not reversible, and were joined to-
gether with glue and glass fiber. The tectonic quality Figure 5
and structural behaviour of the Blokhut is rather lim- Combinatorial
ited, and is further improved upon in the next project, logics of the
Diamond Strata. L-Shaped Digital
The Blokhut prototype proves that serial repeti- Materials.
tion of very simple, cheap, prefabricated digital ma-
terials is a feasible and accessible method to achieve
detailed and adaptable forms. The argument shifts
from a system where everything is mass customized,
with a labor intensive assembly process, to a lim-
ited number of intensive, rule-changing customized
zones or glitches and a large number of serially re-
peated, cheap material. The Blokhut can be con-
structed without the need for micro-managing thou-
sands of unique, numbered pieces. Instead, the 3D-
printed components and bricks set out the instruc-
tions for assembly. The assembly is "plan-less" and
"tool-less", as the geometry of the pieces defines the
aggregation.The finished state of the prototype is un-
determined. It can be extended or contracted at any
time. The final geometry is messy, redundant and un-
simplified (Figure 3).

148 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1

Figure 6 Diamond Strata
Combinatorial Diamond Strata (2016) is a further development of
Aggregation of the Blokhut project, but does not require any cus-
L-Shaped Digital tomised pieces . The project brief was a multi-family
Materials. house with three apartments in a rural area close to
Brussels, Belgium (Figure 7).The project is an aggre-
gation of a single, beam-like timber element. In this
case, a hierarchical digital material was used - a dis-
crete building element with multiple different scales
which can cross-connect. The system consists of a
linear and L-shaped element with a lego-like male-
female connection( Figure 5). The elements can con-
nect through sliding joints on the lateral faces of the
piece. The hierarchical system is similar to OcTree op-
timisation, a procedure used in 3D graphics where
space is partitioned with different scales of voxels de-
pendent on the resolution required. Assembly time
Figure 7 can be reduced as the scale of the parts is adaptable
Diamonds (2016) to the resolution desired.
Gilles Retsin Moving on from the rather simple and con-
Architecture. strained digital materials used in the Blokhut, the
elements in Diamonds Strata can act at the same
time as brick, surface, column and beam, which im-
proves structural performance. Increased capabili-
ties for parts to interlock and support neighbouring
parts are developed, introducing patterns of struc-
ture in the system. Two types of pieces are used: an
L-Shaped element and a straight piece. The L-shaped
element allows the system to grow in all directions
(Figure 6). None of the elements have to be cus-
tomised. The beam-like character of the piece allows
for a more efficient and hierarchical structure than in
the Blokhut. Central columns and beam-like patterns
can be developed first, using the large scale of ele-
ments. Afterwards, smaller scale elements are used
to bridge between the structures aggregated in the
first iteration. The digital materials in this case are
made of Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL), with steel
plates for the joints. The fibre direction of the LVL
plates is aligned along the long span of the digital
material. The elements in this case effectively oper-
ate as lego-like pieces, which have to perform effi-
ciently both as column, beam or brick. The inside of

FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 149


the elements is hollow and reserved for services and
cabling.
The resulting building is highly differentiated
and complex, however none of the elements are cus-
tomised (Figure 8). The complexity is based solely on
part-part relations. The parts are not reducible to just
parts of the whole, and as such also have an existence
and relevance outside of the proposal for this multi-
family residence.
6. TOWARDS DISCRETE ASSEMBLY
Robotic assembly is only feasible and scalable in the
context of digital materials and discrete computa-
tion, which has a limited set of connectivity prob-
lems. The high degree of serial repetition in the
projects presented make a robotic assembly pro-
cess more feasible. Parts are organised in a grid or
voxel-like pattern, the connection between elements
is repetitive, and the connection problems them-
selves are always discrete, neighbour-neighbour or
part-part problems. In contrast to projects based
on continuous variation, these projects can be fab-
ricated through very simple, serialised actions. The
150 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1
Figure 8
Diamonds House
(2016) Gilles Retsin
Architecture.
elements' weight has to be limited to 150 kg to be
feasible for assembly with large industrial robots. In
the case of the proposed projects, assembly could be
done with a gantry robot. This gantry robot could as-
semble chunks or parts of the building off-site, which
can then be transported to the site on a normal truck.
The inherent disadvantage of this method is the lack
of scalability: only one gantry robot can be used at
a time. The previously mentioned hierarchical digital
materials used in the Diamonds house take into ac-
count a certain degree of scalability, so a gantry struc-
ture could be feasible in this context. Distributed
robots would become more desirable if the scale of
the elements would be smaller, but bring more con-
straints for the design. Next iterations of work should
look into material efficiencies and structural optimi-
sation. Further research with robotics could test as-
sembly sequences and optimise the proposed ge-
ometries for robotic handling.
This paper presented a series of arguments for
the use of discrete and digital materials in archi-
tecture. This arguments come both from a archi-
tectonic reasoning, as well as from an increased in-
terest in efficiencies associated with automation of
construction. The proposed method was tested on
two case studies for practice-related projects. The
projects presented prove that serial repetition of for-
mally very simple digital materials is able to achieve
complex and articulated designs. The projects pre-
sented articulate a case for a new kind of digital ar-
chitecture - which is physically digital, not just in
the process. This architecture is fundamentally non-
analogue, and non-craft based. It offers a counter-
point to Neil Leachs' argument that there is no such
thing as digital design. It also expands the scope of
the digital beyond its bias against standardisation.

REFERENCES
Bryant, L 2011, The Democracy of Objects, Open Human-
ities Press
Carpo, M 2011, The Alphabet and the Algorithm, MIT
press, Boston
Carpo, M 2014, 'Breaking the Curve', ArtForum, 52(6), pp.
168-173
Cheung, K 2012, Digital Cellular Solids: Reconfigurable
Composite Materials, Ph.D. Thesis, MIT
Gerschenfeld, N, Carney, M, Bennett, B, Calisch, S and
Wilson, S 2015, 'Macrofabrication with Digital Mate-
rials', Architectural Design, 85(5), pp. 122-127
Knaack, U 2012, Prefabricated Systems: Principles of Con-
struction, Birkhauser
Kohler, M, Gramazio, F and Willmann, J 2014, The Robotic
Touch, Park Books, Zurich
Leach, N 2014, 'There Is No Such Thing as Digital Design',
in Gerber, D and Ibanez, M (eds) 2014, Paradigms in
Computing, Evolo, New York
Sanchez, J 2014, 'Post Capitalist Design: Design in the
Age of Access', in Gerber, D and Ibanez, M (eds) 2014,
Paradigms in Computing, Evolo, New York
Simmons, P 2000, Parts: A Study in Ontology, Oxford Uni-
versity Press
Ward, J 2010, Additive Manufacturing of Digital Materials,
Ph.D. Thesis, MIT

FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 151

The Robotic Production of the GRC Panels in the CorkCrete
Arch Project
A stratified strategy for the fabrication of customized molds

José Pedro Sousa1 , Pedro Filipe Martins2

1,2
Faculty of Architecture, University of Porto + DFL/CEAU/FAUP
1,2
{jsousa|pcarvalho}@arq.up.pt

The CorkCrete Arch was an experimental prototype built in the scope of a

research project concerning the use of robotic fabrication technologies for
non-standard solutions in architecture. It combined 2 materials, cork and GRC
into a self-supporting lightweight building system, designed to explore the
integration of different robotic fabrication technologies in one constructive
solution. This paper is focused in providing a detailed description and analysis of
the robotic fabrication process used in the production of the GRC components.
The presented solution integrated robotic milling and hot-wire cutting
technologies with a stratified mold design strategy that allowed for overcoming
the limitations of each and enabled a time and cost efficient production process.

Keywords: Robotic Hot-Wire Cutting, Digital Fabrication, Glass Fiber

Reinforced Concrete, Computational Design, Corkcrete

INTRODUCTION
The CorkCrete Arch was developed as a design-based
research activity concerned with using robotic fab-
rication technologies in the production of a novel
building system. By exploring the combination of
two different materials - cork and Glass-fiber Rein-
forced Concrete (GRC) - the goal was to merge the
sustainable and insulation properties of the first with
the structural efficiency of the second. The result is a
lightweight and performative material system suited
for customized prefabrication and easy on-site instal-
lation.
Objectives
The proposed building system was tested through
the design and construction of an arch structure. Fea-
turing double-curved and textured cork panels com-
bined with ruled-surface GRC elements, its geometry
challenged the use of robotic fabrication technolo-
gies for its production. Since it was not a single ma-
terial installation, like in many actual robotic exper-
iments, the process had to coordinate the different
physical tolerances resulting from employing differ-
ent materials and different fabrication processes, tak-
ing place in different locations (i.e. laboratory, fac-
tory and on-site). Working in collaboration with in-
dustrial partners, from the cork and GRC fields, this
experience envisioned and tested a fabrication strat-

FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 153

 egy with both materials that revealed to be very pro-
ductive and efficient for both areas. While an over-
all design and tectonic description of this project can
be found in a previous text by the authors (Sousa et
al. 2016), the present paper is focused in providing a
detailed description and analysis of the robotic fab-
rication process used in the production of the GRC
components. In order to address the materialization
problems, put forward by the geometry of the panels,
this process explored a novel stratified mold concept,
contributing to the existing state-of-the art in robotic
hot-wire cutting of formwork.  For its understanding
and assessment, this paper describes the traditional
GRC production process and recent technological in-
novations before illustrating the CorkCrete arch GRC
components and the production strategy employed.
THE GRC IN ARCHITECTURE
GRC is a composite material developed in the late
1960s that combines the resistance and binding
properties of a cement matrix, with the tension resis-
tance properties of glass fibers to achieve thin, shell-
like construction elements. The traditional fabrica-
tion processes of GRC panels can be subdivided in
two: premix or sprayed. In the first case, the mate-
rials which compose the GRC are mixed in advance
and cast into a mold, press molded, extruded or slip-
formed. In the second, and most common scenario,
the cement paste and the glass fibre are simultane-
ously sprayed using a two headed nozzle into a mold
(Brookes and Meijs 2008). This procedure is a com-
plex iterative manual process of depositing and com-
pacting the mix of cement paste and fibres, and its
success depends on the skill and judgment of the
workers. A finishing procedure is used, depending on
the necessity of different surface qualities or effects.
Architectural applications
Given that GRC components are thinner and lighter
than precast concrete ones, their main use in archi-
tecture is in cladding applications. One of the first
relevant works with this material can be found in the
Credit Lyonnais building in London built in 1977, in
154 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1
which the architects developed modular elements
for a window frame with curved profiles. However,
since they can assume any shape depending on the
mold, the use of GRC has become an increasingly
popular solution in recent years to address the com-
plex and variable challenges in contemporary archi-
tecture. Built in 2009, the Roca London Gallery de-
signed by Zaha Hadid Architects featured an inte-
rior continuous curved space, built with 272 differ-
ent self-supporting GRC sandwich panels. Despite
the formal versatility of the material, the produc-
tion of different molds defines the main econom-
ical constraint of the system. For instance, in the
Heydar Aliyev Center in Baku, also designed by the
same office, the large-scale application of GRC panels
required a geometric rationalization process to de-
fine and organize the panels into planar, single and
double-curved ones. Despite the exceptional eco-
nomical means involved in this project this simplifi-
cation process had to be considered for its construc-
tion (Bekiroglu 2010).
Technological Innovation
Due to its singular properties and its potential
to match contemporary design interests, many re-
searchers have sought opportunities for innovation
in GRC production over the last 2 decades. In or-
der to overcome geometric, manual production and
economical limitations, this continuous investigation
has been mainly focused in the automation of two
moments: the production of molds and the spraying
procedure.
Regarding the first, the use of Computer Numer-
ically Controlled (CNC) milling processes has been
adopted to fabricate complex shape molds in wood
or foam parts directly from digital models. Although
these subtractive processes are widely available, they
are time-consuming, expensive and produce large
amounts of material waste in the form of dust, which
is critical for reuse purposes. To minimize these is-
sues, other digital fabrication strategies have been
developed, such as Robotic Hot-Wire Cutting (RHWC)
to quickly fabricate molds in EPS for ruled surface-
 based designs with minimal material waste (Feringa The geometric complexity of these design elements
and Søndergaard 2012). was heightened by the necessity of fabricating the
Regarding the automation of the spraying mo- corresponding negative molds for GRC spraying. The
ment, the work in the 90's of Carlos Balaguer and José main fabrication challenge was thus the production
Manuel Pastor Garcia with the Spanish company Dra- of a large-size concave ruled surface mold with vari-
gados y Construcciones (Balaguer et al. 1993) intro- able lateral walls. This kind of geometry requires a
duced the use of robotic spraying processes. Despite customized mold that can not be achieved with a
the advantages that were verified (Peñin et al. 1998), single-run RHWC process, over a single raw material.
its adoption by the industry has not happened yet. In
Figure 1 this summary it is interesting to see how the robotic
The Corkcrete Arch arm seems to play a key role in driving the develop-
3D model with ment of innovative solutions in both moments.
exploded GRC and
cork components.
A STRATIFIED STRATEGY FOR ROBOTIC
FABRICATION OF GRC COMPONENTS
The CorkCrete Arch was specifically designed for pre-
fabrication. With 280cm wide and 260cm height, it
is a composite system built from the assembly of 3
structural GRC elements and 18 cork panels. The ge-
ometry of the CorkCrete arch was driven by two fac-
tors: the catenary curve and the robotic fabrication
technologies. On one hand, the catenary curve was
used to introduce a clear structural principle in the
arch. On the other, robotic fabrication technologies
were used as a design driver to shape the material
surfaces, which for the GRC panels signified an explo-
ration of ruled geometries and their materialization
through robotic hot-wire cutting.
The specific geometry of the 3 GRC panels posed
several challenges. For each one, its interior face was
designed as the intersection of two ruled surfaces
producing an emergent and progressive crease in the
central axis. The exterior face was delimited by two
planar surfaces to connect with the flat bottom sur-
face of the cork panels. The lateral faces of the GRC
panels performs as the structural reinforcement of
the thin panels, and was also designed as a continu-
ous ruled surface, which increases in width from the
base to the apex of the arch (Figure 1).

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 The Stratified Concept
To overcome the challenges mentioned, a strategy
for a stratified process to produce the mold was
developed by taking advantage of the benefits of
robotic hot-wire cutting and addressed its limitations
to produce the necessary mold geometry. RHWC is
generally characterized by its limitation to the pro-
duction of ruled surfaces and its ability to do so with
considerably low fabrication times when compared
to traditional subtractive technologies (i.e. milling)
(Feringa and Søndergaard 2012). Considering the
fabrication of molds in EPS, one of its main advan-
tages is the preservation of excess material when cut-
ting a surface. This feature enables the production of
successive cuts, subdividing a stock block into several
different layers. Applying this notion to formwork de-
sign results in the concept of the "stratified mold". A
subdivision of a mold geometry into several layers,
cut from a single EPS block in a short time span and
assembled into a final mold that couldn't otherwise
be produced with RHWC technology.
Following this concept, the molds for the Corkcrete
Arch GRC panels were subdivided into 3 layers to
be sequentially cut: the bottom surface; the con-
tour layer, creating the lateral structural folds and the
overall boundary geometry of the panels; the top
surface, defining the exterior flat surface of the pan-
els (Figure 2). To overcome size and geometric con-
straints (the size of the available hot-wire and the
concave, intersecting ruled surfaces), each mold was
divided in two halves through their central axis for
fabrication, resulting in six halves for the three GRC
elements.
Robotic Fabrication of the Molds
The RHWC system at the DFL laboratory consists
of a stationary Kuka KR 120 R2700 industrial robot,
mounted with a 100 cm wide hot-wire bow, featur-
ing a 0,25mm thick wire. Simulation and toolpath
generation was done in the Grasshopper plugin for
Rhinoceros, with the Kuka|prc software, developed
by the Association for Robots in Architecture. Us-
ing this setup, the molds were produced from com-
156 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1
binations of 100x50x50cm high-density EPS blocks as
stock material, with the expected seams considered
in the design of the arch elements. The fabrication
routines were composed of four cutting operations
performed sequentially: (a) hot-wire cut to define the
interior surface of the arch and removal of the result-
ing top half; (b) milling of the ruled contour of the
panel with a 20mm diameter bit, in a single pass; (c)
hot-wire cut, defining the planar surfaces for the ex-
terior face of the GRC elements; (d) hot-wire cut of the
EPS core resulting from the previous operations to fit
the interior of the panels (Figure 3). Independently
of surface complexity, each routine was completed
in approximately 10 minutes for all 4 cuts, a relatively
fast process when compared to the necessary hours
of CNC milling to achieve similar finishing quality.
Figure 2
The stratified
concept applied to
the Corkcrete Arch
molds: bottom
surface layer;
contour layer;
sprayed GRC panel;
interior core; outer
layer.
Figure 3
Mold production
process featuring
the four sections for
the center GRC
element: bottom
curved layer,
contour milling, top
flat layer and
interior core
cutting. Completed
mold pieces for the
bottom arch
elements,
illustrating the
mold subdivision.

FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 157

 After the fabrication process, the first and second
mold layers were assembled and glued together,
along with their corresponding halves. Because the
GRC spraying process requires an open mold, the
third layer was not necessary, being only used for
stacking and transportation purposes. Nevertheless,
if necessary, the process could have been further op-
timized to nest more molds in the remaining EPS ma-
terial. At this stage, the robotic fabrication phase
proved to be a straightforward process, clearly adapt-
able for larger production scales, maintaining eco-
nomic viability.
The GRC Production
The production of the GRC panels took place at a pre-
cast facility of the projects' industrial partner, Mota-
158 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1
Engil, S.A.. Minimal work was done on the mold
surfaces and a simple coating of demolding oil was
applied in order to minimize the overall production
time and costs. Before the spraying procedures took
place, a set of metal anchor elements was introduced
in the molds to be embedded in the GRC matrix for
transportation and as fasteners between the 3 arch
elements. The spraying process used a white GRC mix
to make a clear distinction between the two materi-
als and to accentuate the geometric features of the
arch. It consisted of an initial layer of GRC with an av-
erage thickness of 15mm, followed by manual com-
paction. After this step, the EPS cores were placed in-
side the mold and a finishing layer was applied. Em-
bedding the excess EPS cores in the panels added to
the structural stability of the system and created a
Figure 4
GRC production
process: spraying
and EPS core
positioning; center
arch component
after demolding.
 suitable support surface for the cork elements. After
curing for 24 hours, the panels were easily demolded
and shipped inside the used molds.
The robotically produced molds were effortlessly
used in the industrial setting of the precast facility by
the workers.  They proved to be suitable for regular
spraying equipment and operating procedures with-
out adaptations or special knowledge required, vali-
dating its usage in this environment. (Figure 4)
Results and Installation
As expected, the surface quality of the GRC panels
was not completely polished as is the case with tra-
ditional flat steel molds. Nevertheless it had an ac-
ceptable smooth finish. This is due to the poros-
ity of the EPS material which enables the transfer-
ence of its cellular texture the finished surfaces. Also,
faint marks of the hot-wire could be found on the fi-
nal surface which were traced back to vibrations of
the wire during the cutting process. Although unin-
tentional and generally undesired, these textural ele-
ments added an interesting aesthetic layer as finger-
prints of the fabrication process. After the production
of the GRC components and the corresponding cork
panels, the Corkcrete Arch was manually assembled
several times in different settings, without mechani-
cal aid (Figure 5). This demonstrated the lightweight
properties of the system and suggested the feasibil-

Figure 5
Manual assembly
process and
finished arch
structure. A
continuous
geometrical
transition between
ruled surfaces and
the well defined
central crease
reflecting the
precision of the
robotic fabrication
process.

FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 159

 ity of expanding it for larger applications. The assem-
bly stage also confirmed the accuracy of the robotic
fabrication process. Small geometric deviations from
the modeled geometry were found to be well inside
construction tolerances and were absorbed in the
construction joints of the arch system.
CONCLUSION
The research presented in this paper addressed
the problem of producing custom molds for non-
standard GRC components in a composite building
system. To achieve this goal, the authors devised a
stratified strategy that combined the efficiency of hot
wire cutting and milling in one fabrication process.
The produced results revealed the flexibility and
versatility of the use of robots in relation to tradi-
tional CNC systems, by being able to use different
tools and optimize their inherent abilities. The strati-
fied mold strategy proved to be a time, material and
cost-efficient solution for the production of complex
molds when compared to both traditional manual
methods and contemporary milled formwork. The
validation of this solution in an industrial setting pro-
moted the interest of the precast industry in contin-
uing the research into this topic. In this regard, fur-
ther developments will seek other applications of the
stratified mold strategy and address 2 key issues: im-
proving the surface quality of the GRC without incur-
ring in a substantial increase in production time and
optimizing stock material usage.
REFERENCES
Balaguer, C, Rodriguez, FJ, Pastor, JM and Peñin, LF 1993
'Robotized System of GRC Panels for Construction
Industry', Proceedings of the 10th International Sym-
posium on Automation and Robotics in Construction
(ISARC 93),, Houston
Bekiroglu, S 2010 'Assembling Freeform Buildings in Pre-
cast Concrete: Heydar Aliyev Cultural Center by
Zaha Hadid Architects', Reader Symposium, TU Delft
Brookes, AJ and Meijs, M 2008, Cladding of Buildings,
Abingdon: Taylor & Francis
Feringa, J and Søndergaard, A 2012 'Design and Fabrica-
tion of Topologically Optimized Structures', Proceed-
ings of the 30th International Conference on Education
and Research in Computer Aided Architectural Design
in Europe, Prague
Peñin, LF, Balaguer, C, Pastor, JM, Rodriguez, FJ, Barrien-
tos, A and Aracil, R 1998, 'Robotized Spraying of Pre-
fabricated Panels', Robotics & Automation Magazine,
IEEE, 5(3)
Sousa, JP, Martins, P and Varela, P 2016 'The CorkCrete
Arch Project: The Digital Design and Robotic Fabri-
cation of a Novel Building System Made out of Cork
and Glass-Fiber Reinforced Concrete', Proceedings of
the 21st CAADRIA – Computer Aided Architectural De-
sign Research in Asia Conference, University of Mel-
bourne

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank our industrial
partner, Mota-Engil in the production of the GRC
components for the Corkcrete Arch. The work pre-
sented was co-financed by the European Regional
Development Fund (ERDF) through the COMPETE
2020 - Operational Programme for Competitiveness
and Internationalization (POCI) and national funds
by the FCT under the POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007744
project, the previous PTDC/ATP- AQI/5124/2012 re-
search project, and the SFRH/BD/79227/2011 PhD
scholarship.

160 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Design & Assembling - Volume 1

FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative
Design
Calculated Matter
Algorithmic Form-Finding and Robotic Mold-Making

Elif Erdine1 , Alexandros Kallegias2

1,2
Architectural Association (AA) School of Architecture
1,2
{elif.erdine|alexandros.kallegias}@aaschool.ac.uk

The paper addresses a specific method for the production of custom-made,

differentiated moulds for the realization of a complex, doubly-curved wall
element during an international three-week architectural programme,
Architectural Association (AA) Summer DLAB. The research objectives focus on
linking geometry, structure, and robotic fabrication within the material agency of
concrete. Computational workflow comprises the integration of structural
analysis tools and real-time form-finding methods in order to inform global
geometry and structural performance simultaneously. The ability to exchange
information between various simulation, modelling, analysis, and fabrication
software in a seamless fashion is one of the key areas where the creation of
complex form meets with the simplicity of exchanging information throughout
various platforms. The paper links the notions of complexity and simplicity
throughout the design and fabrication processes. The aim to create a complex
geometrical configuration within the simplicity of a single material system,
concrete, presents itself as an opportunity for further discussion and development.

Keywords: robotic fabrication, custom form-work, generative design, structural

analysis, concrete

INTRODUCTION multi-axis freedom of an industrial robot arm, its

The digital era in architecture has witnessed the
production of a vast array of geometrical assem-
blies through computational form-finding methods
in previous decades. With the developments in digi-
tal fabrication, the production and assembly of com-
plex forms has been compromised by the constraints
of selected fabrication techniques. In recent years,
robotic fabrication processes implemented in archi-
tecture have begun to incorporate digital and phys-
ical paradigms in an unparalleled way due to the
speed, precision, and low tolerances (Menges 2013).
This development in turn has fuelled the revival of
complexity found in volumetric assemblies, moving
away from previous standardized / sheet-material
component fabrication (McGee et al. 2013). The
capacity to design and produce volumetric build-
ing components through robotic carving strategies
presents itself as a novel approach where custom-
made moulds can be produced with speed and pre-
cision, allowing for the creation of complex forms

FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 163

 which would not have been possible with standard-
ized building materials and processes (Brell-Cokcan
and Braumann 2010).
This paper presents a specific method for the
production of custom-made, differentiated moulds
for the realization of a complex, doubly-curved wall
element during an international three-week archi-
tectural programme, Architectural Association (AA)
Summer DLAB, which took place during 27 July - 14
August 2015 in AA's London home and Hooke Park
premises. The method engages an industrial robotic
arm mounted with a milling head, the mould material
is medium-density EPS foam, and the final assembly
is produced with fast-setting concrete. The research
objectives focus on linking geometry, structure, and
robotic fabrication within the material agency of con-
crete. In this respect, it aims to link the notions of
complexity and simplicity throughout the design and
fabrication processes. While complexity is generated
throughout computational form-finding techniques,
simplicity lies in how architectural information re-
lating to geometry, analysis, and fabrication can be
seamlessly transferred between various simulation,
modelling, analysis, and fabrication platforms. More-
over, the aim to create a complex geometrical con-
figuration within the simplicity of a single material
system, concrete, presents itself as an opportunity for
further discussion and development.
COMPUTATIONAL WORKFLOW
A research methodology has been structured around
a set of experiments in line with the research objec-
tives. The design brief is to propose, fabricate, and
assemble a one-to-one scale architectural wall ele-
ment from concrete in a forest located in the south
of United Kingdom within a limited time frame, three
weeks. The employment of complex formwork for
concrete structures has the potential to yield mor-
phologically interesting and materially efficient as-
semblies. In the initial stages of design development,
real-time generative form-finding methods have set
the correlations between the computational process
of design with the physical world of fabrication and
164 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1
materiality. Recent developments in robotic fabrica-
tion techniques offer designers with the capacity to
fabricate complex geometrical configurations thanks
to their multi-axis freedom. As such, the major ob-
jective of this case study has been directed towards
the coupling of doubly-curved complex geometrical
assemblies informed by structural analysis and their
realization through robotic milling processes.
Initial form-finding experiments have focused on
the manipulation of a vertical planar geometry to-
wards the creation of varying degrees of curvature
through a range of computational techniques. Key
parameters in this phase have comprised the dis-
tribution of openings and areas of local differenti-
ated curvature values that stem from a global mor-
phology. After preliminary tests conducted in differ-
ent algorithmic platforms, the open-source program-
ming environment Processing (Shiffman 2012) has
been chosen for further exploration for its resilience
and accessibility to create custom-made tools. In
this setup, an agent-based model approach has been
adopted. These computational algorithms simulate
the local interactions of agents in order to evaluate
complex behavioural patterns, which can then be
further developed to manipulate geometrical vari-
ation according to a set of predefined criteria. In
the early tests of the custom tool, an agent-based
system has manipulated a vertical planar geometry
constructed as a mesh, imported from the three-
dimensional modelling software McNeel Rhinoceros.
These digital experiments have been valuable in set-
ting up constraints for the agent system in relation
to the Z-axis coordinate of the agent, the distance
between the agent and the planar mesh, and the
amount of displacement the mesh face can achieve
in relation to its normal vector.
The goal of the second set of computational ex-
periments has been the integration of structural anal-
ysis tools from the outset of design explorations in or-
der to inform global geometry and its structural per-
formance. In this regard, the planar mesh in the pre-
vious experiments has been replaced with a global
geometry which is defined by a straight section at its
 top and an "S-curve" section at its bottom, modelled ture generation. The agent system influences local
in McNeel Rhinoceros, in order to assist in structural mesh curvature throughout the overall form along
performance. This geometry has then been evalu- the force flow lines following flocking and proximity
ated under its self-weight via FEA analyses with the rules. The magnitudes of vectors manipulating the
Grasshopper add-on Karamba as a shell structure [1]. form increase as the agents flock towards the ground
For the analyses, material properties of high-strength plane resulting in greater mesh deformation in the
concrete (C90/105) have been selected. After various bottom areas. As a result, the final mesh geome-
tests with shell depth, a value of 5 cm. has been se- try is characterized by more local curvature and ma-
lected in regard to keeping displacement values at an terial accumulation in the bottom areas compared
optimal level. The output mesh model of Karamba to its relatively straight and thin cross-section at the
has then been connected to the 'ForceFlow' com- top. The differentiation in thickness has been a focus
ponent, a native component of Karamba, which en- for the corresponding physical experiments in order
ables the visualization of force flow lines in a shell in to examine the variation of cross-sectional depth in
the global direction provided. The generation of the conjunction with the proposed fabrication process.
force flow lines has been design-oriented, with the With the resulting tapering effect, the final outcome
aim of achieving wall openings which do not inter- of the simulation has more structural load-bearing
fere with the transfer of loads throughout the global capacity (Figure 2).
geometry. As such, the FEA stage has been con-
cluded with the creation of a 5 cm. deep shell split by ROBOTIC MILLING AND ASSEMBLY PRO-
openings following the direction of force flow within
CESS
the wall (Figure 1).
As it has been described above, the second goal
The next stage in the computational design pro-
of the simulation process has been to test robotic
cess entails the generation of doubly-curved geome-
milling processes with the purpose of experiment-
tries following the initial shell model as an input. The
ing with complex curvatures for form-work building.
purpose of this investigation is two-fold, pertaining
In this respect, the choice of form-work material and
to structural performance and exploration of robotic
robotic milling time have served as major inputs for
milling techniques. The tool in Processing is devel-
the fine-tuning of applied forces in the Processing
oped further as a combination of agent-based simu-
simulation. Computational experiments have been
lation and mesh relaxation techniques with the pur-
simultaneously coupled with scaled fabrication ex-
pose of creating a doubly-curved geometrical aggre-
periments before the final design output. The robotic
gation that increases in density towards the bottom
fabrication processes in the design allow for moving
section of the wall. After the generation of open-
away from a direct design-to-production approach,
ings, the mesh with its corresponding force flow lines
whereby the final outcome is predefined and fabri-
has been imported in Processing for complex curva-
Figure 1
FEA conducted on
preliminary design
in Karamba add-on
for Grasshopper,
followed by the
extraction of force
flow lines and the
generation of
openings on the
wall.

FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 165

 cation solely offers a "means to an end". The tool-
ing path serves as a direct visual connection between
the global geometry and local surface manipulation;
therefore, the robotic end effector plays a crucial role
as a design tool in the generation of localized surface
textures on the global configuration. Several path
milling tools have been tested on scaled physical ex-
periments regarding linear vs. elliptic paths, radius of
tool and fabrication time. Due to the time limitation
pertaining to the fabrication and assembly of the final
prototype, a linear tool path has been chosen to cre-
ate local surface textures with a robotic milling tool
defined by a ball nose of 25 mm. diameter and 250
mm. length.
The material for the form-work has been selected
as medium density (30g/l) fire retardant grade ex-
panded polystyrene (EPS) blocks, as EPS offers a suit-
able compromise between milling time and strength
for form-work construction. Several iterations inves-
tigating the increase of surface area in relation to
milling time have been generated in Processing. The
final output model demonstrated in Figure 2 is the re-
sult of this iterative process, providing a conclusion
that the total amount of milling time would approxi-
mately be 30 hours.
The next stage of design development has in-
volved the creation of the necessary form-work files
166 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1
for robotic simulation followed by the milling pro-
cess. The output mesh generated in Processing is
exported as a text file into McNeel Rhinoceros, be-
coming the negative geometry for the preparation of
form-work. In Rhinoceros, each form-work is created
by taking into consideration material dimensions and
tolerances. The dimension of each EPS block is 200
cm in length, 125 cm in height, and 50 cm in depth,
resulting with the employment of a total of 8 EPS
blocks. As the fabrication and assembly processes
need to have high precision for desired outcomes,
the placement of steel bars connecting the form-
work elements on two sides has been calculated in
Rhinoceros as well. The location of the steel bars fol-
lows the distribution of the openings of the final wall
structure (Figure 3).
The end-effector for the robot serves as a design
means that aids in the generation of surface textures
in the EPS boards. After the completion of the milling
process that lasted 30 hours in total, the areas of con-
tact between the scaffolding and concrete have been
treated with a mixture of silicone and mold releasing
agent in order to assist with the de-molding process
(Figure 4). Accordingly, the EPS foam boards have
been connected and secured with steel bars and ply-
wood panels to enhance their stability. It is impor-
tant to note that the structure is made of a special
Figure 2
Instances of
Processing
simulation
demonstrating the
applied forces to
the input mesh.
Figure 3
The creation of
form-work files for
robotic milling.

concrete mix with fiberglass additives which has en-
abled it to be cast, dried and held strongly in place
in a period of several hours without being limited by
the constraints of applying conventional reinforcing
systems such as rebar. The only location where rebar
has been used in the final fabrication has been along
the foundation of the wall, bearing a depth of 30 cm.
Figure 4
A section of EPS
form-work after it
has been treated
with silicone and
release agent.
Figure 5
Final wall structure,
overall perspective.
As the final structure would be placed outdoors, it
has been crucial that it resists the cold and humid
weather conditions of its environment; therefore,
concrete has been selected as the most suitable ma-
terial for casting. The final concrete mixture is fast-
setting with fiberglass additives thus excluding con-
ventional reinforcing systems such as rebar through-
out the wall element, except along the bottom parts
where it is linked to its foundation. The final assem-
bly stages have involved the casting of fast-setting
concrete in the EPS form-work, followed by the cur-
ing time of approximately 12 hours. With dimensions
of 2.2 meters height, 4 meters width, and a varying
depth of 30 - 250 mm, the final wall assembly has
been developed, fabricated, and assembled in 7 days
(Figure 5).
CONCLUSIONS
While this research has been applied for the realiza-
tion of a wall in the context of the international pro-
gramme, it has future potentials applied on more
complex architectural elements. One of the limita-
tions during the fabrication stage has pertained to
the time constraints to produce the moulds; there-
fore, the tooling path had to be comprised in order
to maintain realistic production times. The modular-
ity of the form-work was a challenge for the concrete
pouring of the entire structure as the final placement
of the form-work pieces caused a thinner space in-
between due to the milling pathways used. However,
due to the precision of the robotic milling the surface
continuity was achieved via specific markings on the
blocks. Due to the increased temperature of the fast-
setting concrete, the EPS blocks were fused with the
thin partition rendering of the latex coating, making
it highly challenging for the demoulding. Together
with the double-curved profile of the wall as well as

FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 167

 the undercuts, the removal of the EPS blocks required
delicate but powerful approach. An ideal formwork
setup would comprise EPS blocks with thicker coat-
ing, larger openings on the wall surface, and wider
profiles at the lower parts of the partition in order to
ensure the consistency in the concrete pouring. The
computational simulations on structural analysis that
showed the distribution of forces proved to be true
in terms of the even distribution of displacements
along the height. As the final prototype resulted in
being critically thinner than initially computed, the
fact that it can hold its own weight acts as a proof of
the successful implementation of physics behaviour,
the material properties of concrete (Figure 6).
The integration of robotic techniques is advan-
tageous due to the capacity to explore volumet-
ric spatial formations as well as to incorporate real-
time feedback for future explorations. The design
and fabrication processes have demonstrated the
strong independence between the digital and phys-
ical paradigms. The computational simulations have
taken real-world constraints into account with the in-
tegration of structural analysis. Digital simulation on
structural analysis proved to be accurate compared
to the final outcome. Throughout the design, fabri-
cation, and assembly processes, the interactive asso-
ciations between different simulation software have
been a key driver in recognizing the ways of inte-
grating architectural criteria with the structural per-
formance of the pavilion. Furthermore, the compar-
ison between the digital simulation of the architec-
tural output and the final output, the pavilion itself,
provides useful information to be considered and
embedded in the future digital simulations. Overall,
the research aims to illustrate the architectural possi-
bilities of using concrete in a non-conventional way
with limited resources and period of time by creating
strong associations between computational design
methodologies and digital fabrication processes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work presented is part of the research under-
taken at AA Summer DLAB Visiting School 2015.
168 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1
We would like to thank our tutoring team and stu-
dents for their great efforts. Summer DLAB 2015:
Tutors - Elif Erdine, Alexandros Kallegias, Daghan
Cam, Angel Lara Moreira, Zeynep Aksoz. Students:
Lorenzo Pellegrini, Jackson Lindsay, Xiaoxiang Li,
Matthew Eng, Angelo Figliola, Nicolo Cernigliaro,
Jos van Roosmalen, Areti Sanoudou-Dramalioti, Ju-
lian Heinen, Mathias Paul Reisigl, Stavroula Kakaletsi,
Pallavi Gupta, Vikas Sharma, Emine Ece Emanetoglu,
Leo Claudius Bieling, Florian Kaiser, Jin Li. Robotic
Setup: Pradeep Devadass.
Figure 6
Final wall structure,
detail displaying
surface textures.
REFERENCES
Brell-Cokcan, S. and Braumann, J. 2010 'A New Paramet-
ric Design Tool for Robot Milling', LIFE in:formation,
On Responsive Information and Variations in Architec-
ture: Proceedings of the 30th Annual Conference of the
Association for Computer Aided Design in Architecture
(ACADIA), pp. 357-363
McGee, A., Feringa, J. and Søndergaard, A. 2013 'Pro-
cesses for an Architecture of Volume: Robotic Hot
Wire Cutting', Rob|Arch 2012: Robotic Fabrication in
Architecture, Art and Design, pp. 62-71
Menges, A. 2013 'Morphospaces of Robotic Fabrication',
Rob|Arch 2012: Robotic Fabrication in Architecture, Art
and Design, pp. 28-47
Shiffman, D. 2012, The Nature of Code: Simulating Natural
Systems with Processing, The Nature of Code
[1] http://www.karamba3d.com/.
Optimization Process Towards Robotic Manufacturing in
Actual Scale
The Implementation of Genetic Algorithms in the Robotic Construction of
Modular Formwork Systems

Odysseas Kontovourkis1 , Panagiota Konatzii2

1,2
Department of Architecture, University of Cyprus
1,2
{kontovourkis.odysseas|konatzii.panagiota}@ucy.ac.cy

The application of optimization processes in architectural design has gained

significant attention among architects and recently has become a driving force
towards more robust, reliable as well as flexible design investigations. Such
application, require handling of multiple parameters, aiming at finding the range
of possible solutions in morphological or topological problems of optimization,
mostly during the design decision-making process and under the influence of
functional, environmental, structural, or other design criteria. This ongoing
research investigation puts forward the hypothesis that optimization processes
might be equally applied during the construction decision-making process where
architectural systems are examined in terms of their ability to be statically
efficient and easily manufactured through the use of robotic machines. This is
important to exist within a bidirectional platform of communication where the
design decision-making will inform decision taken during pre-construction stage
and vise versa. In order to test our hypothesis, two case studies are developed
that implements genetic algorithms to examine the geometric and static behavior
as well as the construction ability of proposed flexible three-dimensional modular
formworks and overall systems for concrete casting, aiming to be robotically
manufactured in actual scale.

Keywords: Optimization process, genetic algorithms, robotic manufacturing,

modular formwork system.

INTRODUCTION topological issues based on a number of criteria.

The implementation of genetic algorithms in archi- Specifically, the process attempts to increase the
tectural design as a multi-objective optimization that number of possible solutions using a feedback loop
occurs during the design decision-making process logic that cyclically iterates between modification
aims to find suitable solutions in morphological or and evaluation of results through the use of genetic

FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 169

 mechanisms of crossover and mutation of a popula-
tion of solutions based on a number of generations.
In this process, the evaluation criteria are represented
as objectives and are used to evaluate the popula-
tion of solutions. In order to produce optimal solu-
tions, at least one or more evaluation criteria are im-
portant to be taken into consideration. These can
be values within a minimum or maximum range de-
rived throughout the digital simulation process. In
the case of multi-objective optimization, the evalua-
tion criteria and the number of possible solutions are
increased dramatically and as a result, mechanisms
such as Pareto front are used to search for solutions
in a multidimensional space.
Among others, these might involve geometrical
and volumetric criteria that are influenced by sound
(Foged et al. 2012), thermal performance (Poblete
and Ignacio 2011), etc. In other examples, with the
assistance of genetic algorithms, a large number of
data related to the natural lighting performance in
relation to the sufficient number of structural mem-
bers and the minimum cost during manufacturing
of a static system are examined (Richardson et al.
2013). Similarly, the implementation of genetic al-
gorithms in construction decision-making process is
found, mostly isolated from the decisions taken dur-
ing the conceptual stage where the morphological
development occurs. In contrasts, examples can only
be found in cases where genetic algorithms are used
to calculate the formation and adjustment of form-
works in already existing designs through the ar-
rangement of slabs and columns. In this case, aim is
to calculate the size and position of formworks in or-
der to minimize cost during construction (Lee et al.
2014) or to optimize shape and layout (Pronk et al.
2013).
On the other hand, the construction of any build-
ing part in actual scale has been largely controlled
by the ability of workers on site who are responsi-
ble to implement design ideas mainly through deci-
sions taken during the construction stage and after
the design is completed. The introduction of robots
in construction industry appears to eliminate or re-
170 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1
solve such issues and in parallel might offer solutions
in cases where time and precision of executed tasks
or heavy-duty works are important to be taken into
account enabling accuracy and hence error elimina-
tion during the process.
Nowadays, robots can be involved and taken
into account throughout the whole manufacturing
workflow, from design to construction. Within this
frame, the standardization of dimensions and con-
struction details of building elements during the de-
sign stage, which aim to automate the process of
manufacturing and the assembly of parts are impor-
tant to be investigated. This can be found in cases
where the systems under construction are character-
ized as adaptable or flexible, aiming to achieve opti-
mized design results based on various criteria. In ac-
cordance with robotic manufacturing, the optimiza-
tion processes and especially the use of genetic algo-
rithms can be applied in research works where stan-
dardization of system's structural members and in-
vestigation of static behavior are examined, leading
towards physical prototyping of results that can be
implemented via robotic mechanisms. In a number
of cases (Søndergaard et al. 2013), the investigation
is concentrated towards the optimization and fabri-
cation of space-frame structures through the digital
design process. Then, the robotic arm is used during
the production and assembly of structural elements
(Søndergaard et al. 2013; Kurilla and Svoboda 2013),
while in other cases a post-optimization procedure of
modules rearrangement is applied to check the fea-
sibility of structure (Kurilla and Svoboda 2013).
The formwork development for concrete cast-
ing is a time consuming procedure, which requires
the assembly but also the disassembly of multiple
components after the concrete is cured. Contem-
porary and advanced methods are developed in or-
der to minimize the time and automate the manu-
facturing steps of concrete structures. More specif-
ically, design examples that require the assistance
of robotic arms to implement unconventional mor-
phologies of concrete construction systems seek to
save time and cost in the manufacturing process. In
 the example of 'Smart Dynamic' system by Gramazio
and Kohler (Kristensen et al. 2013), the investigation
is concentrated towards the formation of columns us-
ing a flexible formwork that is used as an end-effector
mounted on the edge of an industrial robotic arm.
In a continuous process, the formwork is filled with
self-compacting concrete and in short time period
is moved to the next layer to achieve the desired
height of column. In a different approach and specif-
ically in the project 'Mesh molding' (Hack et al. 2014)
the robotic arm is responsible to develop a plastic
mesh using 3D printing principles, which in turn is
used as the formwork and reinforcement for the sub-
sequent concrete filling process. In different mor-
phological cases that include the filling procedure,
the static behavior as well as the time needed for
the development of mesh construction system are
evaluated. Other techniques like in the example by
(Stavric and Kaftan 2012), the robotic arm is respon-
sible to produce a number of formwork units made
of polystyrene using a hot-wire cutter as the end-
Figure 1
Conceptual
framework of the
proposed
methodology.
FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 171
effector tool. The positive and negative parts of form-
work are then assembled in alternative ways formu-
lating the mold system for concrete casting, leading
to the construction of different morphologies.
The embedding of optimization processes and
especially genetic algorithms on the one hand
and robotic manufacturing techniques on the other
hand, presuppose a bidirectional form of communi-
cation between digital design and manufacturing re-
spectively, aiming to find desirable solutions that can
be functionally, statically and morphologically robust
and can be directly implemented in actual scale.
This research hypothesis is examined further in
several case studies including the ongoing work pre-
sented in this paper. In this case, the design and
robotic construction of an optimal concrete wall is in-
vestigated through the simultaneous development
of two cases of flexible modular formwork systems.
The application of an optimization mechanism, in
this case genetic algorithms, aims to allow an in
depth investigation towards morphological and con-
 struction development of flexible modular formwork interrelated and interdependent logic.
systems for concrete casting. Based on a number of Throughout the process of investigation, two
criteria related to the static performance of the con- modular formwork systems are developed that fol-
crete walls, the design of modular systems, the feasi- low respective robotic construction scenarios. The
bility of manufacturing as well as the assembly logic robotic construction criteria play an important role
are examined. in the design of modular formwork, dominating the
manufacturing process as well as the physical results
PROPOSED METHODOLOGY AND RE- obtained during robotic construction in actual scale.
In addition, the robotic construction presupposes
SEARCH DEVELOPMENT
an in depth investigation and construction decision-
The proposed methodology is defined in the form
making in terms of the effective assembly and disas-
of a conceptual framework, describing various activ-
sembly of the modular formwork systems, the struc-
ities that take place in an interrelated manner (Fig-
tural detail of the modular elements, the use of ap-
ure 1). This consists of two basic levels of investi-
propriate end-effector tools, the scale of modular
gation, the digital design and physical construction.
formwork in regard to the dimensions of robotic tools
Within this framework, the design development and
and finally the working environment and logistics re-
assembly logic of the modular formworks is followed
garding the robotic construction in actual scale.
by the overall design and robotically driven physical
Apart from all the above, the digital design pro-
construction of the systems.
cess is also determined by the implementation of ge-
In a preliminary stage, the digital development
netic algorithms, wherein the evaluation of the con-
and configuration of selected modular formworks as
struction systems' static performance is examined
well as the material fill morphology are investigated
and optimized based on the minimum displacement
and optimized against static performance criteria us-
and volume of material fill. Throughout the optimiza-
ing genetic algorithms. The analysis results feed the
tion process, a number of results are derived, that
process of modular formwork design refinement and
consist the pool of possible candidate solutions for
improve the solutions in digital as well as physical
physical construction in actual scale using a number
level, which are determined via robotic construction
of robotic intervention scenarios. As it has been al-
principles. Then, the suggested design of modular
ready mentioned, within the framework of this paper
formworks and assembly as well as disassembly logic
the digital design level of investigation is followed by
are tested in relation to the physical construction per-
the selection of two case studies that are physically
formance of the overall concrete wall systems. In or-
built. This is done in order to test our hypothesis in
der to achieve this, physical prototypes in scale 1:2
an introductory and experimental level as well as to
are produced, examining in parallel potential man-
examine the static behavior of the systems. Also, to
ufacturing drawbacks and obstacles that might oc-
validate the robotic construction criteria applied in
cur during the process. In parallel, through digital
these cases so that effective assembly and disassem-
robotic simulation, the robotic construction proce-
bly procedures of the modular formwork systems can
dure is defined according to the given scenarios. Last
be achieved.
step in this workflow is the execution of robotic con-
struction process in real time, a final stage of develop-
ment that is influenced by previous conceptual and MORPHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT AND
refined design stages, which consists of a number of ASSEMBLY PROCEDURE
necessary cycles of evaluation in the form of feed- In the first case study (case A), the alternation of the
back loops. Actions taken within the digital design system in digital design level is defined by parametric
and physical construction levels are acting within an design exploration and criteria directly related with

172 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1

 the assembly and disassembly of the formwork units of data of the height and width of the construction
(Figure 2). In a preliminary phase, the appropriate system as well as on the thickness variability of the
morphology is selected through a design optimiza- module. By combining the three parameters in dif-
tion process and then, modules are assembled to- ferent ways, a range of possible morphological solu-
gether using an articulated robotic arm, which is re- tions in regard to the development of the system of
sponsible to perform the overall manufacturing pro- formwork can be achieved.
cess. In the second case (case B), the design as well In case A, an identical morphology of module
the robotically driven assembly procedure is inves- based on a folded geometry is used that is repeated
tigated using respective methodological principles and placed horizontally in layers from both sides cre-
(Figure 3). ating an interior space enabled to be filled using
building material, in this case concrete (Figure 2). The
Figure 2 morphology of the case B is the result of a single mod-
Morphology of ule that consists of four side surfaces of which two of
modular formwork them are folded. As a final result, a perforated mas-
system and results sive wall is developed, where the logic of layout as-
of material fill in sembly is performed based on individual units (Fig-
case A. ure 3). In both cases, different combinations of the
above parameters provide different results as regards
the dimensions and volume of the overall construc-
tion system as well as the size and shape of openings.
Figure 3
In physical construction level, the suggested
Morphology of
modular formworks are evaluated against specified
modular formwork
assembly, disassembly and filling procedures, lead-
system and results
ing to the production of the final construction out-
of material fill in
comes. For each case, a respective scenario of man-
case B.
ufacturing process that contains all the above is de-
fined. Regarding the construction scenario of case A,
Figure 4 two embodiments of the system assembly are sug-
Preliminary design gested whereas in the first case the entire formwork
investigation of the system is constructed by the robotic arm through a
end-effector tool for pick-and-place process using a gripper as the end-
each case scenario. effector tool (Figure 4), and then this is filled with
concrete involving human assistance. In the second
case, the system is manufactured and then filled with
concrete using a process of layering, which contains
a simultaneous assembly and filling process in each
row. In this case, the robotic arm is responsible for
the assembly of system, which is filled in a later stage
through human intervention. The process is gradu-
In this preliminary phase of investigation, both ally repeated according to predefined levels of the
morphologies are parametrically defined using the system, leading to the production of a complete wall.
parametric-associative design software Grasshopper For case B, the process is defined through the ap-
[1] (plug-in for Rhino [2]). The interchangeability of plication of a custom end-effector tool (Figure 4) in
geometry in both cases is based on the proliferation

FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 173


the form of a kinetic modular formwork, which, once
is filled with concrete, produces successive concrete
unit components, aiming to develop a single con-
crete wall system at the end of the repeated proce-
dure. The end-effector tool adjusts its morphology
through a number of kinetic behavior mechanisms
that contain rotation in longitudinal axis of formwork
and horizontal movement. For filling and construc-
tion of a single component, the assistance of con-
structors is required.
DESIGN OPTIMIZATION PROCESS
The optimization process is implemented in digital
design level via static performance criteria in order
search for best fitting solutions, leading to results
that will be manufactured in actual scale. Also, this
might initially assess the possible design solutions
as regards the dimensions of modules and hence
the overall dimensions of the system, which subse-
174 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1
Figure 5
Selection of best
solutions (BS) and
design variables for
case A.
Figure 6
Graph of the
average values of
displacement
through
generations for
case A and B.
quently influences manufacturing implementation.
The design optimization process is achieved using
the Octopus software [3] (plug-in for Grasshopper)
based on a number of objectives that includes min-
imum displacement under vertical loads and mini-
mum material volume of the construction system.
The static analysis and the numerical results are ob-
tained using the Millipede software [4] (plug-in for
Grasshopper). This provides a continuously iterated
feedback loop process, where results are statically
evaluated against the morphology of the construc-
tion systems and hence the modular formwork de-
sign.
In this research investigation, the optimization
is defined as multi-objective since the static analysis
and overall evaluation contains not only morpholog-
ical but also static performance objectives, formulat-
ing the overall range of criteria that are interrelated
and interdependent with each other. The Octopus
plug-in, an evolutionary search engine based on ge-
 netic principles, is able to produce and export multi-
tude solutions through the iterative process of gen-
erations. Each displayed solution contains different
combination of variables of design values in order to
achieve minimum objectives. In each generation two
solutions are reproduced to generate a new offspring
and hence new combinations of variables.
Figure 7
Graph of the
distribution of
solutions according
to the objectives of
height and
displacement in the
second run of
optimization for
case A.
Figure 8
Selection of best
solutions (BS) and
design variables for
case B.
In each case, same parameters and objectives are
applied in order to compare and correlate the results
obtained during the optimization process. Initially,
the design variables are based on empirical measure-
ments, involving robotically driven criteria that are
described in previous sections. The thickness val-
ues range from 0.2-0.5m and propagation parame-
ters of units in height and width axes are defined by
integer values range from 2-8. This preliminary para-
FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 175
metric design procedure of experimental settings is
used as the starting point for the optimization pro-
cess, aiming to search for best solutions that can de-
scribe the morphology of construction systems ac-
cording to robotically driven and static performance
criteria. In case A, based on the results obtained dur-
ing a first run of optimization process, it can be ob-
served that over the generations, a number of combi-
nations that contain constant values in terms of thick-
ness and number of units in height axis and variability
in terms of the number of units in width axis are ob-
tained. The increase of dimensions of modules in the
longitudinal axis results reduction of the static dis-
placement performance of the overall construction
system. Figure 5 demonstrates a number of best so-
lutions (BS) together with the values of design vari-
ables. Also, Figure 6 demonstrates the objective val-
ues of displacement and volume, which are gradually
reduced during the evolution of generations. This
shows the tendency of best solutions to reach mini-
mum values, which is also demonstrated through the
Pareto front, distinguishing in parallel the solutions
as dominated and non-dominated. The initial run of
optimization is followed by a second run where an ex-
tra objective is added and rearrangement of variables
is set, showing an alternative and improved method
of investigation leading to new results (Figure 7). In
the next stage, the results derived from the design
optimization process are feed into the robotic con-
struction process to produce the system in physical
actual scale.
In case B, the results shows downward value
trend of the objectives (Figure 8). Also, it can be
observed that values in regard to the thickness and
number of modules in width axis remain fixed, but
values that specify the number of modules in longi-
tudinal axis are differentiated. Based on the best so-
lutions derived from this optimization run, it is con-
cluded that by reducing the number of construction
units in elevation, the static displacement is also min-
imized.

PHYSICAL CONSTRUCTION DRIVEN BY
ROBOTIC PRINCIPLES
The digital design and optimization parts of the pro-
cess influence decisions taken during the investiga-
tion of physical construction, especially in regard to
the development of the modular formworks. The
results and best solutions derived from design op-
timization process are taken into account for both
static performance reasons but mainly for the effec-
tive execution of robotic construction process. In
176 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1
Figure 9
Robotically driven
assembly
procedure for case
A.
physical environment where the assembly and disas-
sembly of formwork modules occur, important fac-
tors that influence robotic construction in various
parts of investigation are also taken into considera-
tion. The aim is to automate the process and solve
drawbacks as well as limitations of modular form-
work design so that this can be effectively executed
during the robotic construction implementation.
For experimental purposes, the scale of modu-
lar formwork assembly is determined by the work-
Figure 10
Robotically driven
assembly
procedure for case
B.
Figure 11
Physical protypes
demonstrate the
modular formwork
assembly logic,
material fill and
posible concrete
structure of case A.

Figure 12
Investigation of
modular formwork
positioning and
material fill in case
B.

ing space of the robotic laboratory and the dimen-
sions of the end-effector tools. Also, due to the lim-
ited movement of robotic arm within the working
cell, the structure is placed in an appropriate position
in order to enable the robotic performance and espe-
cially the assembly and disassembly of modular form-
works. In case A, the dimension of modules is also
influenced by the dimension of gripper so that an ef-
fective pick-and-place procedure can be achieved. In
case B, where a custom end-effector is applied, de-
cisions are taken in regard the design of formwork
that include dimension limits for kinetic behavior and
overall movement of robotic arm.
In both case, the robotic construction behavior is
simulated using the HAL software (Schwartz 2012) [5]
(plug-in for Grasshopper). The simulation is applied
to assess the effectiveness of the concept, confirm-
ing in parallel the design configuration of the pro-
posed modules and systems in regard to the required
movement. Also, possible collision and constrains of
movement of the robot are investigated. As it has
been mentioned, in case A (Figure 9), a pick-and-
place procedure using an industrial end-effector is
used, while in case B (Figure 10) a custom made end-
effector tool is applied, driven by the specific scenario
that requires special positioning of tools in combina-
tion with material fill.
In this stage of investigation, where preliminary
design and construction of both concepts are tested,
physical prototypes in scale 1:2 are produced. In case
A (Figure 11), identical modules are manufactured
and assembled in order to evaluate the static perfor-
mance, the errors occurred during construction pro-
cess as well as the morphological result and aesthet-
ical aspect of the material fill procedure. In case B
(Figure 12), the proposed custom made tool is man-
ufactured and tested in regard to the assembly, ma-
terial fill and disassembly processes. In both cases, as
filling material a perlite mix with cement and water
is used, which results light mass and rapid curing in
short time period.

FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 177

 CONCLUSIONS
The optimization process introduced in this ongoing
work, aims to define the boundaries of feasible so-
lutions and to allow assessment of robotic interven-
tion during different stages of the modular formwork
systems development. In addition, the results ob-
tained might address an innovative design and con-
struction process of folded/porous concrete walls by
minimizing the use of material and hence its cost as
well as the time needed for modular formworks as-
sembly and disassembly. Through the standardiza-
tion and practicality of the process involved, feasible
results might be obtained. Further work will consider
the physical development of the suggested solutions
in actual scale based on the methodology described
in this paper. This presupposes the parallel and in
depth investigation as well as solution-finding in re-
gard to the problems and drawbacks occurred during
the digital design and optimization phases, inform-
ing the physical construction process within a feed-
back loop logic.
REFERENCES
Foged, I.W, Pasold, A, Jensen, M.B and Poulsen, E.S 2012
'Acoustic Environments: Applying evolutionary al-
gorithms for sound based morphogenesis', In Digi-
tal Physicality: Proceedings of the 30th eCAADe Con-
ference, pp. 347-353
Hack, N, Lauer, W, Gramazio, F and Kohler, M 2015 'Mesh
Mould: Robotically fabricated metal meshes as con-
crete formwork and reinforcement', Ferro-11: Pro-
ceedings of the 11th International Symposium on Fer-
rocement and 3rd ICTRC International Conference on
Textile Reinforced Concrete, pp. 347-359
Kristensen, E.L, Gramazio, F, Kohler, M and Langenberg,
S 2013 'Complex Concrete Constructions: Merging
existing casting techniques with digital fabrication',
Open Systems: Proceedings of the 18th International
Conference on Computer-Aided Architectural Design
Research (CAADRIA 2013), Asia, p. 613–622
Kurilla, L and Svoboda, L 2013, 'Geometry Optimization:
Realization of fluid-form structure composed of
spherical components, fabricated by means of com-
puter software and robotic arms', in Brell-Cokcan,
S and Braumann, J (eds) 2013, Robotic Fabrication
in Architecture, Art and Design, Springer Wien New
178 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1
York, Austria, pp. 184-195
Lee, D, Lim, H, Kim, T, Cho, H and Kang, K.I.A 2014
'Formwork Layout Model based on Genetic Algo-
rithm', 31st International Symposium on Automation
and Robotics in Construction and Mining, pp. 474-479
Poblete, B and Ignacio, C 2011 'Evolutionary Strategy to
Design Optimized Architecture, Respecting Fragile
Places', 29th eCAADe Conference Proceedings, Univer-
sity of Ljubljana, Faculty of Architecture, Slovenia,
pp. 293-301
Pronk, A.D.C, Dominicus, M.M.T, von Buelow, P, van Dijck,
S.H.M and van de Koppel, W.J 2013 'Rigidized inflat-
able structures a production method for optimized
structures', Proceedings of the International Associa-
tion for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium:
”BEYOND THE LIMITS OF MAN”, Wroclaw University of
Technology, Poland
Richardson, J.N, Nordenson, G, Laberenne, R, Coelho, R. F
and Adriaenssens, S 2013, 'Flexible optimum design
of a bracing system for façade design using multiob-
jective Genetic Algorithms', Automation in Construc-
tion, 32, p. 80–87
Schwartz,, T 2012, 'HAL', in Brell-Cokcan, S and Brau-
mann, J (eds) 2012, Robotic Fabrication in Architec-
ture, Art and Design, Springer Wien New York, Aus-
tria, pp. 92-101
Stavric, M and Kaftan, M 2012 'Robotic fabrication of
modular formwork for non-standard concrete struc-
tures', In Physical Digitality: Proceedings of the 30th
eCAADe Conference, pp. 431-437
Søndergaard, A, Amir, O and Knauss, M 2013 'Topology
Optimization And Digital Assembly Of Advanced
Space-Frame Structures', Acadia 2013: Adaptive Ar-
chitecture - Proceedings of the 33rd Annual Conference
of the Association for Computer Aided Design in Archi-
tecture (ACADIA), Cambridge, pp. 367-378
[1] http://www.grasshopper3d.com/
[2] https://www.rhino3d.com/
[3] http://www.grasshopper3d.com/group/octopus/
[4] http://www.grasshopper3d.com/group/millipede/
[5] http://www.hal-robotics.com/
AMA - Additive Merged Appliance
Alina Rejepava1 , Mario Haring2 , Anna Gruber3
1,2,3
Graz University of Technology
1,2,3
{rejepava|mario.haring|ann.gruber}@student.tugraz.at

The production of concrete structure components is often a backbreaking process

due to the inconvenient and time-consuming process of producing the formwork.
Depending on the geometry, this can be a very time-consuming activity. A trial
will be made to solve these problems within the manufacturing process using
adapted binder jetting technology. First of all, the research will deal with the
behavior of concrete as well as the bond between the cement paste and the
aggregate. Various additives and grain sizes will be determined to find an
appropriate result. On the other hand, different spray and drop systems will be
analyzed to compare the new method and the common binder jetting setup. After
fabricating some geometrical shapes manually the study is going to be continued
using computer-aided manufacturing.

Keywords: 3D Print , Binder Jetting, Concrete, Robotics, Additive Fabrication

INTRODUCTION
3D printing or additive manufacturing is a process of
making three-dimensional solid objects from a digi-
tal file. Usually they are created by laying down suc-
cessive layers of material until the object is entirely
assembled. Each of these layers can be seen as a
thinly sliced horizontal cross-section of the final ge-
ometry. This technology is presently being used for
a number of different materials. At the moment, a
lot of research is being carried out in the area of 3D
concrete printing. The main questions that need to
be investigated, deal with the process, the materials
and the scale. There are already several documented
projects about the progression of 3D printing tech-
nology. (Bogue 2013)
The main focus of "Concrete Printing" (Lim et al.
2011) is the construction of buildings. One major
topic is how to include reinforcement into the print-
ing process. Once this is possible, it opens the door
to 3D printed, self-supporting, sustainable, free form
architecture.
The founder of "D-Shape" (Dini 2010), Enrico Dini,
implemented a methodology to create structures
and sculpturesin a big scale. He developed a strategy
to produce a monolithic, seamless geometry.
Two scientific works from the ETH Zurich show
that the scope for designing digitally developed
walls is almost limitless. "Digital Grotesque" com-
bines technology and nature in a very novel way
(Mayer 2013). The commonly recurring problem is
the fragility of the material that the structures are
made of. They can only bear their own weight and
no additional loads.
The aim of "AMA - Additive Merged Appliance",
a modified version of the binder jetting process, is
to bind the cement paste with the aggregates and in
this way to produce load-bearing architectural com-
ponents.Due to the application of a binder and sup-
port material it is an economic and ecological manu-
facturing process (Figure 1).

FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 179


EXPECTATIONS
The trials are going to look at the bond between
the cement, the water and the aggregate. Tools for
the robot need to be developed for the computer-
aided manufacturing. One tool needs to be devel-
oped for each material. The computerized control
system should enable adjustable layer height as well
as targeted application of cement paste.
AMA fabrication should be able to adjust the ag-
gregate grain size meaning that the problems of scal-
ing will then be irrelevant. Also, the process should
allow for the accurate placement of cement paste.
This means that the process will be more precise.
METHODS AND RESULTS
A series of experiments were performed to get first
impressions of how binder jetting works.
Water Spray Attempts
The first trials were based on the basic concrete in-
gredients such as water, cement and sand.
1. Rapid-hardening cement was spread over a
small area to testing the method. Water was
sprayed onto the thin layer of cement using
a nebulizer. A second layer of cement was
spread over the first sprayed with water. This
was repeated several times. After the fifth
layer, a roller was used to compact the layers.
In comparison to binder jetting process, the
quick cement substitutes the powder, and the
fluid binder is substituted with water.
2. The main components of the second step
180 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1
Figure 1
Drawing of
common binder
jetting and the
adapted setup.
were rapid-hardening cement, water and
sand. Sand was used in the cement mixture.
The water was then sprinkled onto the ce-
ment mixture to create a 3D shape.
3. Thick layers of rapid-hardening cement were
spread before spraying water on them. This
achieved a smoother surface and enabled the
liquid to fill the small voids between the sand
particles.
4. Plain cement and sand, in a 1:1 ratio, were
mixed and spread before moistening it.
The first experiment showed that it is impossible to
achieve an effective combination of cement and wa-
ter when the water is being sprayed onto the layers
of cement.
The results of the different methods showed that
nothing had been produced that would be usable.
The samples were fragile and horizontally stratified.
The second and third experiments were dissected
and it could be seen that internally the layers were
not totally connected.
Cement Paste
The previous test showed, water is not an effective
binder on its own. A different binder had to be used.
Different combinations of cements with water were
tested to achieve an appropriate cement paste (Fig-
ure 2).
Figure 2
Cement paste tests
using different
aggregates. Sand,
fine aggregate and
coarse gravel
aggregate.
Figure 3 1. In the first tests quartz sand and cement paste
Test object. coarse were layered alternately.
angular aggregate 2. In the second test, fine gravel aggregate was
covered with mixed with sand and covered with cement
cement paste. paste.
3. Thirdly, coarse gravel was used in combina-
tion with the cement paste.

The results were much improved now that cement

paste was being used as the binder. It was difficult
to bind the sand using the cement paste as the pores
between the grains of sand were too small and the
paste could not permeate the first layer of sand. The Workability of the Cement Paste
second test with fine gravel and sand showed a sim- The experiments with the nozzle did not provide sat-
ilar result. The most successful test was the coarse isfying results. This meant the process needed to be
gravel. The cement paste could pass through the changed. The next investigation involved dropping
spaces between the grains of the gravel. Substituting the paste through a funnel that was placed in the cor-
rapid-hardening cement with normal cement made rect position.
no difference to the final appearance. It only speed Therefor investigations were carried out into the
up the drying time and changed the color of the ob- workability of the cement paste. Three different
ject. compositions were tested by dropping them on the
gravel by hand. The different mixtures effected the
Cement Paste Spray appearance of the surfaces. The flow and drop be-
Tests were then carried out to investigate the nec- havior were taken into account and the most appro-
essary features of the nozzle. It showed how accu- priate water cement ratio was selected based on the
rate the nozzle was and what pressure was needed appearance of the test objects.
and the size possible spraying radii of the deposited
cement. A wooden box was produced for the ex- Binder Jetting by Hand
periments. This made sure the grit was laterally re- The next step involved testing a possible binder jet-
strained during the drying phase. The tests were as ting setup for usability. A device consisting of two
follows: wooded boxed, one on top of the other, was used
(Figure 4).
1. Using an air brush and a compressor to spray
Figure 4 the cement paste.
Setup: Top = 2. The second system was a spray painting sys-
printing area, tem from a company called Wagner. This had
Bottom = space for a small nozzle and a large spraying radius.
the loose
These steps delivered important results. The airbrush
aggregate.
compressor was deemed unusable as the pressure
was far to high. The spray painting system was the
more appropriate. One disadvantage is the time fac-
tor (Figure 3). The size of the spray radius also needed
to be reduced as the application area of the cement
The two boxes were separated by two horizontal di-
paste was large and uncontrollable.

FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 181

 aphragms. One is perforated so that the aggregate 3. The mold was removed.
can pass through and the second is not. 4. The void from removing the mold was filled
The new printing process, performed by hand, with sand.
consisted of 3 steps: 5. The mold was put back in the box onto of the
sand layer and cement paste poured into the
1. First, the aggregate was spread on the base mold.
of the top box in a layer which had a defined 6. The mold was removed.
thickness.
2. Second, a mold was placed in the box and
Figure 5
filled with cement paste.
Cross-section of the
3. Finally the mold was removed and the process
test objects: crystal
started again.
quartz sand,
This process was repeated 10 times. The mold was a The test with sand as supporter and angular gravel expanded clay and
little different for each layer. The opening increased as aggregate was successful. The inside of the pyra- coarse grit.
in each layer. This meant that a self supporting object mid was homogeneous mixture of the cement paste
would be produced upside-down. and gravel and the surface was clearly defined by the
Once the cement paste had dried, the solid di- sand particles (Figure 6).
aphragm without perforations was removed. This al-
Figure 6
lowed all of the loose aggregate to fall down through
Pyramid printed
the perforated diaphragm. The upper box was a cas-
upside down -
ing for the printing process and the lower box was
angular grit as
now used to contain the loose aggregate.
linked material and
Different aggregates were tested to see how ef-
sand as supporting
fectively they worked. The first aggregate was a
material
coarse angular gravel with a grit size of 5-8 mm. The
next was crystal quartz sand with a grain size of 3mm
was tested. Another material used was expanded
clay.
The crystal quartz sand provided for a top qual-
ity surface but due to a small particle size which con-
Producing a self supporting object by hand
To test the possibilities of binder jetting a shape
dense the layers, the cement paste could not flow
which had large overhangs was printed (Figure 7).
through it. Both the crystal quartz sand and ex-
For the first samples crystal quartz sand was used as
panded clay samples presented a separated appear-
both supporting and binding bind material. As be-
ance in layers. The test with the chunky grit showed
fore, a layer of aggregate was spears and then the ce-
the best results: The layers were perfectly connected
ment paste poured.
and not visible. The sample appeared to be homoge-
nous (Figure 5). Figure 7
To optimize the surfaces, two different materials "Overhang" -
were then used. The coarse gravel was bonded and defined by a core
the sand was loose. and horizontal
These steps were repeated for each of the molds. elements.
1. The mold was placed in the retaining box.
2. The mold was filled with gravel. The cement paste did not seep through from the

182 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1

 most recently printed layer into the lower layers. The Hollow Cube
aggregate which was not bonded acted as a support A shape was digitally modeled that could show the
material for the next layer. capabilities of the adapted binder jetting process. It
was a simple shape with interesting surfaces. The
Robotics shape focused on testing the limits of the process us-
ing overhanging parts.
Figure 8 The hollow cube was the divided into 8 equal
AMA setup: robots parts. as the writing area was also limited in size. The
with linear print digital model was then sliced using Repetier Host a
head (left) and cap computer slicing software. To be able to test over-
for the cement hangs the digital model was turned upside-down.
paste (right). It needed to be sliced in order to obtain the target
points necessary to define the robots movements.
(Figure 9).

Figure 9
Drawing of the
hollow cube. Using a printing area that is surrounded by casing
a multitude of different shapes are possible. Two
industrial robots, ABB IRB 140s, with different print
heads were applied (Figure 8). One tool was used
for filling up the layer with coarse aggregate. It is a
linear funnel, which leveled the surface of the aggre-
gate. The second print head was a cone shaped fun- The next consideration of the computer-aided fabri-
nel with a small round opening at the bottom. The cation was the automatization of the cement paste
cement paste was filled into the cone where it was supply. This was carried out using a sturdy printer
stored until the locking bar opened and the cement head and a booster pump (Figure 10).
paste could flow out of the tube onto the aggregate.
Figure 10
Tool path with an
alternative printer 1. The exact amount of aggregate for one layer
head. was filled into the casing and Robot 1 leveled
the aggregate.
2. Robot 1 returned to its waiting position.
3. Robot 2 then moved to the correct position
and opened the locking bar and placed the
cement paste where it was needed. DISCUSSION
Although one suitable cement paste mixture has
been found for the relationship between the aggre-
The path of Robot 2 changed for every layer. The gate size some parts of the manufacturing process
thickness of each layer was defined by the size of the still need to be fine tuned.
aggregate. The workability was defined depending The modified binder jetting process is depen-
on the size of the aggregate grain so as to provide dent on the aggregate size, the aggregate shape, the
the perfect bond between the layers. height of the layers and the workability of the cement

FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 183

 paste and all of these parameters have an effect on
the internal bond between the lines of printed ce-
ment paste. Due to high variance in the chosen scale
of the expanded clay and rounded shape of the crys-
tal quartz sand as well as the expanded clay, the inner
structure of the object was non-satisfying. To achieve
a better quality using these materials it is possible to
add aggregates with a larger grain size or more an-
gular aggregate grain. Using the angular aggregate
achieved the best results for the scale of the printing
area that was tested.
The possibility of using different kinds of aggre-
gate and severalgrain sizes makes it possible to pro-
duce smooth surfaces and therefor remove the ne-
cessity for post processing.
Further investigations should include the rela-
tionship between the grain size and the layer height,
the mixture of water-cement with each grain to
achieve a seamless bond between the layers.
The technique of removing the loose aggre-
gate by establishing space below the printing area,
demonstrates a promising approach to reduce the
total fabrication time. However, the success of this
procedure depends on the form of the object. Hori-
zontal surfaces or enclosed regions prevent the ag-
gregate support material from falling away from
the object. When there is a horizontal surface or
an enclosed region, additional automated processes
would have to be developed. It could involve a lift-
ing tool for the finished shapes. As previously known,
the tool path is a continual path which does not have
any breaks in it. To create spaces it is necessary for
the locking bar of the nozzle to be mechanically op-
erated. Also the process of forwarding the cement
paste could be improved.
out using conventional systems including form work.
Because of the loose supporting materials it is possi-
ble to produce nested and twisted elements.
This technology can be used on and in any scale.
The possibilities of using the technology in a prefab-
ricated concrete plant could be a viable application.
This method is not expected to replace traditional
concrete production, it aims to offer more possibili-
ties is regards to the design and realization of mate-
rial efficient objects as well as speed up the produc-
tion process.
REFERENCES
Bogue, R 2013, '3D printing: the dawn of a new era in
manufacturing?', Assembly Automation, 33, pp. 307-
311
Dini, E 2010 'Full-Size Stone 3d Printing', Smart Geometry
Symposium, Barcelona
Lim, S, Buswell, R, Le, T, Wackrow, R, Austin, S, Gibb, A
and Thorpe, T 2011 'Development of a viable con-
crete printing process', Loughborough University In-
stitutional Repository, UK, pp. 665-670
Mayer, H 2013, 'Aus Staub wird Gold', Archithese, 3, pp.
86-87

OUTLOOK
In comparison to other concrete 3D printing pro-
cesses, "Additive Merged Appliance" has demon-
strated great potential in fabricating complex geom-
etry for use as an architectural solution.
For example, modular structures consisting of
overhangs and unique parts can be produced with-

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Generating an Anamorphic Image on a Curved Surface
Utilizing Robotic Fabrication Process
Marko Jovanovic1 , Vesna Stojakovic2 , Bojan Tepavcevic3 ,
Dejan Mitov4 , Ivana Bajsanski5
1,2,3,4,5
Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad
1,2,3,4,5
{markojovanovic|vesna100|tepavcevicb|dejan_mitov|ivana_b}@uns.ac.rs

The integration of industrial robots in the creative art industry has increased in
recent years. Implementing both brick stacking robotic fabrication, following a
curved wall, and generating an image viewed from a single point, by rotating the
bricks around their centres, has yet to be studied. The goal of this research is to
develop a functional, parametric working model and a workflow that ensure easy
manipulation and control of the desired outcome via parameters. This paper
shows a workflow for the automatic generation of anamorphic structures on a
curved wall by utilizing modular brick-like elements. As a result, a code for the
robot controller and the position of the structure during fabrication are provided.

Keywords: anamorphosis, brick lying, robotic fabrication, generative design

INTRODUCTION sign works generated by utilizing a robotic arm have

In the last decade, the implementation of industrial
robots as fabrication tools has presented itself as be-
ing productive, effective and manageable (Keating
2013; Braumann 2013). Therefore, it is important to
consider fabrication type in the early design stages.
This is due to the multipurpose nature of the indus-
trial robot, which is the primary fabrication tool used
for a specific purpose. Robotic arms function by mov-
ing its parts via joints, and the robots are defined as
having specific degrees of freedom, usually 3 to 6. By
utilizing a gripping or suction tool, a robot can uti-
lize a specific modular element, such as a brick-like
module (Yu Nam et al. 2009; Bärtschi et al. 2010;
Bonwetsch et al. 2007), and follow a computational
model to assemble a structure resembling the origi-
nal (Rakovic et al. 2014; Vomhof et al. 2014).
The integration of industrial robots in the cre-
ative art industry has increased in recent years. De-
become part of performance art [1]. As a tool for
fabricating artwork, industrial robots have been used
for generating paintings with an element of ran-
domness (Aguilar & Lipson 2008; Alkhodairy & Pa-
tel 2014). Regarding studies examining the utiliza-
tion of anamorphosis, with shapes on freeform sur-
faces, recent studies have been published on project-
ing vector-based shapes (Di Paola et al 2015). In ad-
dition, research regarding the generation of anamor-
phic sculptures have discussed the question of el-
evating ideas from a 2D image to a 3D sculpture
(Manal 2015). Furthermore, in 2006, Gramazio and
Kohler utilized a raster image as a guideline for brick
rotation following a planar surface in the Gantenbein
Vineyard Façade in Switzerland.
However, implementing both brick-stacking
robotic fabrication, following a curved wall, and gen-
erating an image viewed from a single point, by ro-

FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 185

 Figure 1
a) The brick
tessellation
algorithm applied
to a extruded
surface b) The
extracted brick
center points.

tating the bricks around their centres, has yet to be tion and height of the desired image plane (the plane
studied. The goal of this research is to develop a where the image is formed) and the grayscale image
functional, parametric working model and a work- used as a guide. In this research, a custom-scripted
flow that ensure easy manipulation and control of component for the Grasshopper programming lan-
the desired outcome via parameters. As a result, a guage is used to generate the missing code for the
code for the robot controller and the position of the robot's RAPID programming language. Once the pa-
structure during fabrication are provided. rameters are set, a single text file is generated and
prepared to be implemented into a code for the robot
METHODOLOGY controller. The workflow is explained in the following
This research's starting point is the early implementa- section.
tion of robotic fabrication and its insight into the de- Figure 2
sign process. Here, it is the robotic arm that is utilized The setup of the eye
to place brick-like elements in the form of a curved position, the image
surface. Additionally the bricks are rotated around plane and the
their central axis in order to form an anamorphic initially tessellated
raster image that can be input and this image is user surface before brick
defined. Hence the end result has to comply with the rotation and image
necessities and requirements this fabrication type guideline is
dictates, which is a code for the robot controller - a introduced.
set of instructions that a robot follows and executes.
The main parameters used for defining the anamor-
phic sculpture are: the input surface, to which the
brick-like elements are stacked, the size of the bricks,
the minimal distance between the bricks, their max-
imum and minimal rotations, the height and posi-
tion of the viewer's eye point, the position, orienta-

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 ANAMORPHIC IMAGE ON A CURVED BRICK
STRUCTURE
In order to fabricate the desired anamorphic image as
a curved brick-like structure, the workflow is divided
into three phases. The first phase explains the initial
brick setup following a curved surface and the eye
position for the generation of the anamorphic image.
Based on the eye position, the second phase rotates
the bricks around their central axis in order to pro-
cure adequate anamorphic image generation, where
the bricks are viewed as pixels. Lastly, the structure
is then used to extract the necessary data and tran-
scribe it into a code for the industrial arm to follow.
All the phases are explained in greater detail in the
following subsections.
The Initial Brick Setup
The first phase is the surface reference and parame-
ters setup for the desired outcome. This phase starts
by generating and referencing a single surface in the
Grasshopper programming environment. Here, an
extruded curved shaped is chosen. Once the param-
eters for the brick-like elements are set, including the
length, width and height, the surface is trimmed, if
necessary, to address the brick-fitting tessellation ac-
cordingly (Figure 1a).
The lower horizontal edges of the tessellated el-
Figure 3
a) The first set of
vector, normal
surface vectors; b)
The second set of
vectors, connecting
the brick positions
to the eye point.
FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 187
ements are taken and edge centre points are chosen
for the position of the brick-like elements to come
(Figure 1b). They are defined as C1 , C2 ... Cn , where
n is the total number of bricks in the tessellated sur-
face. Afterwards, the eye-point position, defined as
Ep, has to be set, meaning the place where the viewer
needs to be in order to see the anamorphic image as
a planar image. Next, the image plane, defined as α,
needs to be set, meaning the position, the orienta-
tion in reference to the eye point and the size. The
setup is visible in Figure 2.
Finally, a grayscale image is chosen and input as
a guideline for the brick rotation, which is explained
in the following subsection.
Brick Rotation for the Anamorphic Setup
The brick rotation is carried out in a twofold pro-
cess. The first rotation is done in accordance with
the eye point. The brick-like element centre points,
C1 ,C2 ...Cn , are evaluated according to the surface
they follow and normal vectors, defined as nn , are
extracted as a result (Figure 3a). By connecting these
points to the eye-point position, Ep , another set of
vectors is generated, en (Figure 3b). The angles be-
tween these two sets of vectors are then compared
to the maximum brick rotation angles, set at around
45 degrees. This corresponds to the borderline rota-
 tion angle, while keeping in mind the stability of the
entire structure, as one brick lays on top of the two
below. The values are then remapped as to atone for
the corrections. This step is necessary since this is a
central and not an orthogonal projection and map-
ping process.
The second rotation is carried out in accordance
with the image chosen for the anamorphosis. The al-
gorithm references the gray-scale image as a guide-
line for the brick rotation in reference to the eye
point. The algorithm starts by utilizing the en set
of vectors to generate the lines connecting C1 , C2 ,
...Cn and Ep , respectively. These lines intersect the
image plane and produce a set of points, defined as
I1 , I2 , ...In , as a result. The points have coordinates
in the Cartesian coordinate system. These coordi-
nates cannot be utilized as a reference for the two-
dimensional gray-scale image in this form. Therefore,
the image plane is reparametrized, meaning its do-
main is set as a function of percentage in reference
to the two main surface directions, U and V, ranging
from 0 to 1 and not according to its actual size. The in-
tersecting points are evaluated according to the im-
age plane, and a set of UV coordinate points is gen-
erated. By changing the size of the image plane, the
resulting points are not impacted domain-wise. The
main reason for generating a UV set of coordinates
is to adequately align them to the two-dimensional
planar gray-scale image, where the domain is also
set from 0 to 1. The aligned points on the gray-scale
image reference the colour values which are then
remapped to the desired minimum and maximum ro-
tation values for the brick-like elements. These values
depend on the desired end result, the eye-point posi-
tion and the initial surface chosen as a guideline and
they are empirically determined. Finally, those values
are used on the previously rotated bricks to generate
the desired image. After the bricks are rotated into
place and the anamorphic image visibility is checked
in the 3D environment, it is necessary to prepare the
code for the robot controller.
188 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1
Generating the Code for the Robot Con-
troller
The code for the robot controller consists of two
parts: the 'target' of the bricks in the final anamor-
phic structure and the stacking process. The first part
of the code, the 'target', refers to the position and ori-
entation of the bricks in the anamorphic structure.
They are extracted from the Grasshopper environ-
ment by using a custom script that references the
bricks and generates a code that the robot can in-
terpret. The stacking process is written in Robot Stu-
dio, a software for the offline robotic programming
and robotic arm control. The stacking consists of two
functions or processes: picking up the brick from a
desired position and then placing it in the previously
defined targets defined previously. The final phase
implies taking the generated code for the robot con-
troller, derived from the input parameters previously
described, and using it in RobotStudio software for
controlling the industrial robot. Robot Studio then
utilizes the centre points and orientation of the bricks
from the 'target' code. The robot picks up the brick
from a single position in its vicinity and places it in the
respective points in an iterative manner. In tribute to
Alvar Aalto, who used bricks and masonry as material,
along with curved lines, for the purposes of generat-
ing an anamorphic sculpture, his portrait is chosen.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
First, a desired input surface needs to be generated
and an image for the anamorphosis chosen. In order
to generate an anamorphic structure that is visible
from a single viewpoint, its position has to first corre-
spond to the size and position of the surface guide-
line. Given the narrow field of clear vision in the hu-
man visual cone, around 30 degrees, the eye point
has to be positioned so that the visual cone com-
pletely encloses the input surface. Otherwise, the en-
tirety of the structure is not visible and, hence, the
anamorphosis of the image is lost. In addition, the
image plane has to be enclosed by the cone as well,
or the image will spread beyond the borders of the
input surface.
Figure 4
The grayscale
image as a
guideline (left) and
the final brick
structure according
to the desired
image (right).

Figure 5 the bricks cannot be rotated to adequately suit the

The anamorphic
structure with an
increased number
of bricks and colour
input.
Once these parameters are set, attention must turn
to the choice of brick-like elements. Utilizing a
brick with edges of three different lengths, in this
case 70mm length, 30mm width and 19mm height,
proves to be inadequate, as can be seen in Figure 4.
The bricks cannot rotate fully to atone for the
eye-point position correction angle due to the loss
of stability and the support under each brick: hence,
image. In addition, the bricks in the front can ob-
scure the bricks in the back and produce inaccurate
results. The rest of the wall can occlude bricks de-
pending on the wall's curvature. Therefore, the vis-
ibility of the bricks varies, and the image is simulated
differently. However, if the change of the curvature is
subtle, these variations will not influence the image's
readability.
In order to mitigate this, we used bricks with
edges of only two different lengths (a square brick),
which avoids the rotation issues and, thus, the stabil-
ity issues as well, without impacting the appearance
of the anamorphic image. The number of bricks is
also an important factor. A smaller number of bricks
gives anamorphic structures lower resolution and,
hence, smaller resemblance to the desired image and
vice versa.
Since the bricks form a non-smooth structure,
the overhanging parts of the bricks cast a shadow
on the rest of the structure, which can mitigate the
final image's appearance. In order to avoid these
issues, two nonadjacent, vertical sides of the bricks
are coloured black, while the rest is left white. With
an increased number of bricks and the difference in
colour, the end result (Figure 5) seems much more
realistic than the one in Figure 4b. Even though the
structure is anamorphic, it offers a different experi-

FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 189


ence while moving from one side to the other, not
honouring the viewpoint (Figure 6).
The limitation of using this workflow are exhib-
ited in the distortion and appearance change due to
the use of elongated brick shapes, the lack of sup-
porting area and the instability given the large an-
gle rotations. Also, a lower number of bricks will
produce inadequate results in terms of similarity, be-
tween the anamorphic structure and the desired im-
age. Finally, the surface design and the position of
the eye point can cause the viewing directions to be-
come tangent to the surface generating a smeared
appearance of the image, as seen in the Figure 6c.
Regarding the robotic fabrication application aspect
of this research, the size of the robot and the work-
ing area it can service, limit the size of the structure;
hence, they must be taken into account at the start
of the workflow.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, a workflow for automatic generation of
anamorphic structures is shown: a curved wall gener-
ated by modular brick-like elements. As opposed to
the previous approaches when generating anamor-
phic structures, the fabrication process is automated
by utilizing an industrial robot. Furthermore, the sur-
face, the image is generated on, is curved. The main
characteristic of this structure, is that the end result
190 | eCAADe 34 - FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1
Figure 6
The different
depictions of the
anamorphic
structure outside
the eye point
position.
has a different appearance in reference to the view-
ing. The result can be applied in fabricating various
wall panels, where the expected result is a different
appearance depending on the viewing angle. The
control can be achieved by changing the parame-
ters, (brick size, viewpoint and image plane), along-
side a desired raster image, generating a computa-
tional working model.
This model can be used for further refinement,
utilizing the aforementioned parameters, with an in-
stant result in viewport. Furthermore, the model is
used as a base for generating a code for the robotic
fabrication process. By manipulating a set of param-
eters in the above-mentioned workflow, the design
process is much more fluent and straight forward,
with a clear path from the design phase to the fabri-
cation phase. Limitations of this workflow are the re-
strictions in brick shape, robot working area and the
influence of the wall curvature on the visibility of the
bricks.
Future work will focus on fabricating the desig-
nated structure and comparing the results in real-life
conditions with the ones generated here. Also, the
workflow can use an upgrade in the area of utiliz-
ing elongated brick shapes, with the similar results as
seen here.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT [1] http://motionographer.com/2013/10/01/bot-dolly-
This research was supported by the Serbian Ministry box-interview-and-behind-the-scenes/
of Education and Science (projects no. TR36042 and
III44008) and by Provincial secretariat for science and
technological development.

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Annual Conference of the Association for Computer
Aided Design in Architecture (ACADIA)

FABRICATION | Robotics: Generative Design - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 191

CAAD EDUCATION | Design
Concepts & Strategies
Digital Architectural Composition - 30 years of experience
and experimentation
Aleksander Asanowicz1
1
Bialystok University of Technology
1
asanowicz@gmail.com

In this paper the evolution of architectural composition teaching will be

presented and discussed. The main point of these deliberations is to consider how
digital methods and technologies have influenced the teaching methods and the
understanding of compositional rules/principles by students. Another important
factor which will be analysed, is the difficulties faced by teachers in the
evaluation of students' work. The paper is divided into four parts, each of which
concerns different approaches to architectural composition teaching. In the first
part the historical background of architectural composition teaching is presented.
In the second part traditional teaching methods is described, the third concerns
teaching of digital architectural composition, and the fourth - digital architectural
composition in virtual space. At the end of each section, the advantages and
disadvantages of the discussed methods are presented. These disadvantages were
a stimulus for changes in the teaching process, which was enabled thanks to the
development of digital technologies (software and hardware) during the last 20
years. The last part of the paper will be devoted to the presentation of potential
directions of development of architectural composition teaching methods.Please
write your abstract here by clicking this paragraph.

Keywords: Architectural Composition, digital modelling, Virtual Reality

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Tekhnicheskiye Masterskiye (Higher Art and Tech-

The main problem at the first stage of architec-
tural education is activation of the students' cre-
ative abilities. At this stage the lack of empiric ex-
perience should be compensated by the knowl-
edge of composition principles of spatial forms. This
knowledge creates the basis for all future architec-
tural professionals' activities. This teaching method
was introduced for the first time about 90 years
ago in two great architectural schools - Bauhaus
and VKHUTEMAS (Vysshiye Khudozhestvenno-
nical Studios)). The main goal of both schools was
an integration of all kinds of art and industry, and a
break from old design tradition. Searching for a new
kind of art meant a destruction of the old, formed
new types of problems, and therefore required a new
theory of creation. Kandinsky has written: "Creating
abstract space forms will be very important there-
fore in result the tradition will be destroy. We will see
the new tendencies in architecture. [...] Searching
should start from elementary spatial forms as pyra-

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 195

 mids, cube, and sphere." (Matz 1933, 130)
The new idea of composition teaching belonged
to N. F. Ladovsky, who claimed that teaching should
concentrate on abstract composition themes, with-
out indicating a concrete function. Models were to
be used at all stages of the search for composition
and in the final representation of the task. Thus, the
foundation of a new method of teaching architec-
tural design, which had not been known to the aca-
demic schools previously, was laid out. The princi-
ples of this method of teaching were formulated as
follows: study of composition means and rules of cre-
ating spatial three-dimensional forms for solving ar-
chitectural compositional design tasks; development
of spatial thinking and compositional skills; master-
ing the skill of masking models as one of means used
during the process of architectural designing. The
entire theoretical and methodological material was
presented in 1934 by V.F Krinsky, I.V. Lamtsov and
M.A. Turkus in the book "Elements of architectural
and spatial compositions".
The teaching structure at the Bauhaus was devel-
oped by Walter Gropius in 1922. The central part of it
was the Building. At the start of the studies, students
attended what was called a "preliminary course", in
which they were experimenting with colour, shape
and materials with no specific goals. This approach
was developed by Gropius, who also chose the teach-
ers which was the most influential for the develop-
ment of the Bauhaus's viewpoints. Johannes Itten
was the first person to run the preliminary course in
which he had broken the academic tradition by ask-
ing the students to create spatial forms based on their
own subjective perceptions instead of copying from
models. [1]
TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURAL COMPO-
SITION
"Elements of spatial forms under appropriate combi-
nations, relationships, proportions and rhythms are
a means of expression of the content of the architec-
tural object, including its artistic qualities. In the anal-
ysis of architectural forms, the use of the method of
196 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
abstraction is quite justified." (Krinsky et al. 1968, 5)
Eighty years later P.D. Plowright in his book "Re-
vealing Architectural Design. Methods, Frameworks
and Tools" has written: "The manipulation of form is,
then, a primary aspect of architecture, and one of the
main ways in which discipline is engaged. It is not
the goal, however, but a means to an end." (Plowright
2014, 18.)
Our course of architectural composition was in-
troduced to the curriculum in 1987. It elaborated
on the basis of Bauhaus and VKHUTEMAS. In this
traditional approach to the architectural composi-
tions teaching cardboard models were used. At
the beginning our course of architectural composi-
tion consisted of three abstract composition exer-
cises (façade, solid form, linear composition (walk-
through the space)). According to the VKHUTEMAS
rules, a composition does not have to be similar to
anything that exists in the real world, but it should
be approached as an individual singular action that
completes itself. For each exercise we have elabo-
rated a short description including general remarks
on the activity and its goal.
Façade
The goal is to create a relief composition - a façade
of an object of unspecified purpose. This façade
will only be viewed from the front. The composition
should be arranged on a 30x30 cm field. The viewer
is on horizontal 30x30 cm surface. Perception point
should be marked with a human shape, as its position
determines the size of the façade. The façade may
be built of different types of cuboids. Their size and
number depends on the conception. The elements
may be arranged within the plane in any way. The
only limit concerns the depth of the composition, i.e.
the distance from the furthest element to the compo-
sition plane, which cannot exceed 5 cm. The model
should be monochromatic.
Solid form with specific formal value
The aim of the design is an exploration of a 3-
dimensional space and 3-dimensional volumes in
space, which is one of the most basic and funda-
Figure 1
Examples of
traditional
mock-ups: A –
Façade, B – Solid
form, C – Walk
through.

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 197

 mental architectural activities. Students should de-
sign a solid composition with a specific emotional
value (dynamic, light, massive, monumental). The
composition size should not exceed 30x30x30 cm.
The composition will be viewed from different per-
ception points located around the object. A point
from which, according to the designer, the composi-
tion appears most effective should be specified. Any
cuboid solid can be used to build the form. Their size
and number depend on the conception. To make the
evaluation of the object scale, a human 1,7 cm fig-
ure should be placed on horizontal plane. The model
should be monochromatic.
Linear composition - Passing through an
open space
The goal is to create a Passage through something
important, something that has no beginning or
end. A passage 'Through' and not a way 'From-
To'. Students should anticipate the interlinks be-
tween present, past and future impressions; produce
a space in which things happen and different moods
are created. When applying architectural forms, a
linear composition should be designed within a 0,3-
0,6 km space. The composition will have different
emotional impact. Any geometric forms and various
materials (cardboard, glass, mirrors or metal) can be
used. It is advisable to apply colour. The scale of the
model should be 1:100 on a 30x60 cm board.
The starting point of designing was searching
for the inspiration and preparing the sketches of the
idea. Sketches were discussed and on their basis the
model of the composition was realized. Also, 'no-
function' (the traditional meaning) spaces were cre-
ated. The only function of space was evoking emo-
tions. Forms became more poetic and metaphoric.
(Figure 1)
Issues
The design process of the façade was started by
searching for inspirations, which may help the stu-
dents understand the design problem. As a medium
for searching all students used a sketch. After con-
sultation with teacher they started preparing card-
198 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
board mock-ups. At this stage we observed that
their manual skills were totally insufficient. Mock-ups
were inaccurate and many students claimed that re-
sults looked different than they expected. Due to a
lack of skills students did not want to develop de-
sign variants as they were too time consuming. In the
case of the next exercise (Solid form) the beginning
of the design process was the same, but the mock-
up quality has improved significantly. However, be-
cause the compositions were more complex (they in-
cluded emotional values), the students had trouble
to imagine the real emotional impact of the composi-
tion. This aspect also evoked a biggest discussion be-
tween teachers during the assessment of the works.
Often, it was difficult to assess whether the designs
presented by students using scale mock-ups would
actually be, for example, monumental or massive. In
the last project - Go through - the evaluation has be-
come even more difficult, as it was required to imag-
ine the appearance of the space, which cannot will be
viewed.
DIGITAL ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION
In 1987 R. Schijf (1987) has written that the de-
sign studio took up the central place in architectural
teaching and it should be determined to introduce
CAAD into the design studio. It demands that de-
sign teachers should know of the potential and the
limitations of available computer facilities. At our
school, we introduced digital media to the Architec-
tural Composition course for the first time in 1997,
after many years of experience with teaching tradi-
tional architectural composition. When we decided
to use the new digital media for modelling architec-
tural forms, we wanted to investigate the new possi-
bilities of form creation. The digital course was based
on the same exercises as the traditional course. After
five years of experiments, in 2002, thanks to the in-
tensive usage of computer modelling techniques the
entire course was elaborated. This course included
five groups of exercises: bas-relief (division, rhythm,
façade); solid composition with specific formal; trans-
formation - from a cube to a parallelepiped; walk
Figure 2
Examples of digital
compositions: A –
Façade, B – Solid
form, C – Walk
through.

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 199

 through (desert, valley, and tunnel); walk through
an internal space (space of celebration, contempla-
tion and dynamic space). We have added informa-
tion about required skills and software to the exer-
cise descriptions. In this course we permitted using
any possible geometrical elements and surfaces with
different colour and light. Practically in all exercises
an animation was the obvious element. (Asanowicz
2003.)
The process of designing in both Traditional and
Digital Course proceeded in the same way. The start-
ing point was searching for the inspiration. Each
student presented photos of existing architectural
objects and a text, which explained the reasons of
the choice. Next obvious stage was preparing the
sketches of the idea. Sketches were discussed and
on their basis the model of the composition was real-
ized. As a result, forms designed by students in digital
environment were similar to traditional carton mod-
els. The similarity concerned the degree of façade
complexity. At the same time, we observed that stu-
dents liked to design variants of the form. In these
variants they tried to use different sources of light for
achieving different emotions during process of per-
ception.
We observed larger differences in the process
of creating a solid form. Forms became more com-
plicated: curvilinear planes, surprising transitions
among particular elements appeared, and light was
used in more conscious way. A simple computer ani-
mation allowed for a dynamic search of the best per-
ception points and a better understanding of the vi-
sual frame. At the same time, we observed that better
knowledge of the software allowed students to cre-
ate more and more complex compositions and many
students preferred to design directly in the digital
space without the use of a pencil. They claimed that
they were only able to present their project verbally.
It made the teacher and student co-operation much
more difficult, since the idea traditionally accepted in
the graphic design convention was broken. (Figure 2)
200 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
Issues
Analysis of the possibilities of using computers for
architectural compositions teaching has shown that
using new digital media for modelling architectural
forms gives new possibilities but at the same time
creates new issues. The first is that little knowledge of
software capabilities at the beginning of the learning
process made it difficult for students to achieve the
design goal. The problem that teachers faced were
the difficulties in the evaluation of complex space
compositions as it was really tough to imagine how
the form will look in reality, especially in the case of
the last exercise - walk through linear space.
Usually, architects use sketches at the concep-
tual design stage. In our work the architect's tradi-
tional tools such as a pencil, a sketch block and phys-
ical models are effectively replaced by a computer,
which creates a new way of doing things. For ex-
ample, students applied various materials of differ-
ent transparency and many projects concentrated on
playing with light and not form. As mentioned above,
students created animation which required prepar-
ing some kind of a scenario, determining points of
perception, and defining which places and spaces
were important. Thereby, the perception process
becomes dynamic and the onlooker's emotional en-
gagement increases. It is possible now to convey the
emotional message of the designed spaces more pre-
cisely. This helps to better understand the relations
between composition elements as well as their influ-
ence on emotions. At the same time, in early design
stages, when formal value is sought, computer mod-
elling which can be done almost intuitively. Simple
operations with basic forms enable students to de-
sign architectural sculptures, forms with specific for-
mal value. The level of freedom in designing space by
computer methods differed substantially from tradi-
tional models. Most of the students claimed that the
process of decision making was much more flexible
and as a result more effective.
Figure 3
From traditional
mock-up to Virtual
Reality
presentation.

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 201

 DIGITAL ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION
IN VIRTUAL SPACE
Perception of a traditional composition was limited
by the insufficiency of our imagination. It is ex-
tremely difficult to imagine the space inside a mock-
up, and then evaluate the correctness of the solu-
tions. Even great architects such as K. Melnikov con-
sidered that even the author of the project cannot
predict all. He claimed that what the author of a
project sees and feels cannot be transferred into tra-
ditional means of presentation. The author's idea can
be understood up to a point, only to be perceived
completely in the completed building. His dream
was to see how people will perceive the unusual
form of internal space created by him in his design
of a Columbus monument. It was a trimmed cone,
into which another similar but rotated cone was im-
mersed at the top. K. Melnikov admitted that even he
could not have had imagined what impression this
interior would have on others (Khan-Magomedov
1990).
In our Digital Architectural Composition Course
we decided to use the Oculus as an evaluation tool.
As D. Gann has written in the preface to the J. Whyte
book "Virtual Reality and the Built Environment":
"They make it possible to create virtual prototypes, to
model attributes and to simulate performance char-
acteristics without having to build full-scale mock-
ups. By adding another dimension to the ways in
which space can be configured over time, they com-
plement and enhance the value of using face-to-face
communications and physical models." (Whyte 2002,
7.)
Oculus allows one to enter through the monitor
screen into "the computer world", where an interac-
tion with the forms present there is taking place. It
turns out that apart from these virtual forms, nothing
else exists. Designers and users of this virtual world
receive new experiences of space and new means
of interaction. Virtual Reality eliminated the bound-
aries between the spectator and the space. This cre-
ates the conditions for the perception of the meta-
morphosis of forms, non-physical objects, paradoxi-
202 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
cal images, the reality of the illusion, and above all the
perception of the invisible aspects of our world. The
development of a virtual reality in which interacting
with representations of virtual objects can take place,
allows the use of new perceptual, cognitive and inter-
active capabilities of man.
Students may check the design solutions and de-
cide whether the planned emotional values were re-
flected in the created space. The same also applies to
the teacher who does not have to visualise what the
student imagined designing a space. The evaluation
process becomes more objective, insofar as we can
objectively assess the emotional values. (Figure 3)
Issues
This approach demands additional time for teaching
new software, which is fortunately not difficult. The
problem is rather in hardware part, as this way of pre-
sentation requires powerful computers. The system
requirements were published on the Oculus web-
site. The recommended settings for using the Rift
are as follows: NVIDIA GTX 970 / AMD 290 equivalent
or greater, Intel i5-4590 equivalent or greater, 8GB+
RAM, Compatible HDMI 1.3 video output, 2x USB 3.0
ports, Windows 7 SP1 or newer. Atman Binstock, the
technical director for the Rift, explained why the re-
quirements are as high and has written: "On the raw
rendering costs: a traditional 1080p game at 60Hz re-
quires 124 million shaded pixels per second. In con-
trast, the Rift runs at 2160×1200 at 90Hz split over
dual displays, consuming 233 million pixels per sec-
ond. At the default eye-target scale, the Rift's render-
ing requirements go much higher: around 400 mil-
lion shaded pixels per second. This means that by raw
rendering costs alone, a Virtua; Reality game will re-
quire approximately 3x the GPU power of 1080p ren-
dering." [2]
DIRECT DESIGN
Over the last years, there was a discussion about the
possibility of using Virtual Reality technology as a
design environment where design actions would be
possible. This idea was based on a full immersion of
the architect in the environment projected by them. S/WA/1/16).
Creation and visualization of design solutions follows
directly in virtual space. The architect is within the REFERENCES
projected space, defines a direction of changes and Asanowicz, A 2003 'Architectural Composition in Digital
in an interactive mode realizes these changes, mov- Space', Proceedings of ECAADE 2003, Graz, pp. 587-
ing forms in virtual space. Unfortunately, so far no 590
software offers real-time interaction. Preparing mod- Droste, M 2006, Bauhaus 1919-1933, Taschen
els for CAVE or virtual goggles requires a lot of time Khan-Magomedov, SO 1990, Komstantin Melnikov, Stroy-
izdat, Moscow
and this Virtual Reality model can be used for evalu-
Krinsky, VF et al 1934, Elements of architectural and spa-
ation only. tial compositions, GNTI, Moscow
Matz, I (eds) 1933, Sovetskoe Iskusstwo za 15 let (Soviet Art
CONCLUSION over 15 years), Izogiz, Moscow
Plowright, PD 2014, Revealing Architectural Design. Meth-
Correct learning by students of compositional cat-
ods, Frameworks and Tools, Routledge, NY
egories, formation of creative skills, and in general Schijf, R 1988 'Strategies for CAAD education - the Sin-
mastering basic methods and ways of architectural gapore way', Proceedings CAAD Futures 1988, Eind-
design process is of crucial importance for the devel- hoven, pp. 23-46
opment of their creative abilities. Whyte, J 2002, Virtual Reality and the Built Environment,
Our experience showed that the implementation Architectural Press
[1] http://www.bauhaus.de/en/impressum
of the new computer technologies is very promising.
[2] https://www.oculus.com/en-us/blog/powering-the-
What is more, students prefer to work in a digital en- rift/
vironment. When designing a façade, 17 out of 30
students begun work from a sketch, in Solid form de-
sign 5 students. In the final exercise, only 2 students
were using a pencil as a tool, while 28 designed di-
rectly using a computer. In Virtual Reality students
experienced a better understanding of the scale of
the composition than in traditional manual or digi-
tal modelling. Even a simple model without texture
and shadows provides more information about the
designed space. The only obstacle to the effective
perception seems to be a problem with navigation in
virtual space.
This does not mean that traditional models are
useless. Mock-up is one of the primary ways of devel-
oping spatial imagination, avoiding mistakes when
adjusting the scale of the proposed forms to the size
of the environment and avoiding mistakes or illogi-
cal/impossible to construct spatial forms. Based on
our 20 years of experience, we can conclude that the
best pedagogical effect is achieved by the parallel
use of both techniques.
This research was a part of grant financed by Min-
istry of Science and Higher Education (grant number

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 203

Flying Bricks
Algorithmic Design Studio

Wolfgang E. Lorenz1 , Gabriel Wurzer2

1,2
Vienna University of Technology | Institute of Architectural Sciences | E259.1
Digital Architecture and Planning
1,2
{lorenz|wurzer}@iemar.tuwien.ac.at

The design studio 'Flying Bricks' was held during the summer semester 2015. Its
main objective was to redesign an existing building with the use of facing bricks
algorithmically, utilizing algorithmic thinking and programming as a means for
form generation. The purpose of having students express their designs in terms of
code was to emphasize problem thinking over solution generation, which has
several advantages but also disadvantages which we would like to share in this
paper. Furthermore, we would like to show how our implementation process
worked, so that others can leverage that for their own algorithmic design courses.

Keywords: NetLogo, Digital Design, Bricks, Education

MOTIVATION stantly think about possible implementation of their

In this paper we discuss our experience of teaching
algorithmic thinking during a design studio using a
multi-agent simulation software. Moreover, we will
have a look on how to promote problem thinking
over solution generation.
'Flying bricks - algorithmic design studio' was
held in the summer semester 2015. The objectives
of our course were threefold:
1. We wanted our students to digitally design fa-
cades (or facade elements),
2. to learning algorithmic thinking and
3. to implement their ideas in form of a program
(script).
In a first step, students had to choose an exist-
ing building which would have then to be redesigned
with facing bricks. In that process, they had to con-
ideas with the help of algorithmic methods which we
taught them during the design studio. The actual
programming work happened in NetLogo (Wilensky
1999), a multi-agent simulation which offers a rela-
tively "easy" scripting language plus built-in 3D visu-
alization. Most students had no background in pro-
gramming, and thus we also gave an introductory
workshop on that subject beforehand.
The course was accompanied by the question
how to promote problem thinking over solution gen-
eration, which is still underrepresented in architec-
tural practice. To illustrate that point further, we
wish quote Lawson (2005) who did an experiment
in which students from architecture had to compete
against postgraduate science students. Their task
was to arrange Tetris-like blocks according to some
"hidden" rules which were only known to a computer
which they could ask whether their proposed solu-

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 205

 tion was valid. In doing so, they showed strikingly
different and consistent strategies:
"[...] while the scientists focused their atten-
tion on understanding the underlying rules, the ar-
chitects were obsessed with achieving the desired re-
sult. Thus we might describe the scientists as having a
problem-focused strategy and the architects as having
a solution-focused strategy." (Lawson 2005, 43)
Thus, we can summarize that the problem which
our algorithmic design course tackled was to shift the
students' attention - at the very least to an extent -
from the solution space to the problem space.
EDUCATIONAL METHOD
In the first phase, students analyzed historic build-
ings and innovative brick systems in order to find
new creative application areas. The design of fac-
ing brick facades is a complex issue in architecture.
While facing bricks are still common and an integral
part of architectural form in many countries of the Eu-
ropean Union (compare The Netherlands, Belgium,
Germany, Italy), application in our own country (Aus-
tria) has continuously decreased since the epoch of
historicism. Such a development has been assisted
by the introduction of Exterior Insulation and Finish-
ing System (EIFS). The success of EIFS lies in cheaper
constructions, light weight and thinner walls that re-
sult in an increase of space (and thus in an increase
of revenues). Thus, the first phase of the design stu-
dio was characterized by the understanding of the
brick format, its restrictions and the requirements on
a design regardless of actual implementation. Stu-
dents analyzed important impacts on the algorithm
and on the design, such as the neighbouring build-
ing, the shape of the building itself, the proportion of
the facade, the place and the orientation. "Wiener-
berger AG", a global manufacturer of bricks, acted
as our industrial partner. They let us visit their fac-
tory for clinker and supported us with information
about the technical requirements of brick construc-
tion from the very beginning.
In the second phase, algorithmic methods that
would support the students in their design were
206 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
studied. In that context, the students were faced with
two questions:
1. How well would algorithms provide them
with new perspectives on the problem and
2. to what extend would they be able to gen-
erate alternative solutions with algorithmic
help, in the same fashion that they had done
by hand in their previous design studios.
As they had to find out, there is no overall answer to
these questions. Algorithmic thinking means, above
all, to break down the design process into separately
solvable subareas (Alexander et al. 1977; Alexander
1979). These areas included the overall form on a
broad level, colour schemes on a mid-level and the
brick format itself on a low level.
The third phase was occupied with the final de-
signs. It required exporting the outputs of the stu-
dents' programs for further elaboration in a CAAD
(Computer Aided Architectural Design) tool, plus ren-
dering in a 3D modelling platform. All of these ma-
terials were then combined in presentable format
(slideshow, poster, short paper) in a final step.
Algorithmic design
We made the experience that from the very begin-
ning of the design process students tends to have an
almost finished picture - or at least a sketch - of their
design ready in mind. This picture may change dur-
ing the process of analysis (location and task) and/or
design; however, an interim result is present. Our de-
sign studio 'Flying Bricks' focused on the problem it-
self rather than on the result. The problem was, so to
speak, within the design influencing factors (param-
eters). Thus, rules had to be defined that solve the
problem and influence the result.
The initial problem, to re-design an existing fa-
cade with facing bricks, was, first of all, divided into
solvable sub-problems. In order to bring these sub-
problems to the surface, the main focus was placed
on certain influence factors. 'Site analysis' by Edward
T. White (1983) provides an insight into the numer-
ous factors that influence architectural design. Some
of them were incorporated or expanded by the stu-
dents. The existing building itself was recognized as
initial group of influences, including its geometry (cu-
bic or free form), its proportion, its rhythm (sequence
of openings) and the relation between open and
closed spaces. The neighbouring buildings defined
another group of influences, including the position
of the cornice, zoning (base zone and roof zone), pro-
portion and size of openings (windows and doors).
But also public space served as inspiration, such as
the course of the street. Location and orientation
were also considered as an important group of influ-
ences, including shadowing, protection from street-
noise, wind, permission of outlook and insight, dis-
tance to the street or position above ground level.
Finally, the material used comprised another
group of influences with its own problems (and their
solutions); e.g. the small scale of bricks and the re-
sultant specific need of static load-related arrange-
ment. Bricks laid bonded in a structure not only in-
creases stability and strength but also leads to a var-
ied picture; furthermore, small scale provides flex-
ibility of geometry. In short, size was discovered
to allow different possibilities of brick bonding that
ask for certain rules (minimum overlapping of bricks
for stability). The section about bricks was enlarged
by colour psychology (different possibilities of bricks
colour), the rain security of bricks that makes further
weather protection unnecessary (protection from en-
vironmental influences, such as sun, wind, rain and
their impact on geometry of the composition) and
the extraordinary durability of bricks that provides
benefits in the preservation of buildings.
In summary, the how and why was already
present in the approach of solving the problem,
which influenced the final form. Therefore the def-
inition of design influences was most important. In
short, problem solving was considered to take up in-
fluences to guide towards the solution. This yields
two possibilities for a program:
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 207
1. To generate an optimum; this includes less
material consumption or the claim for the
smallest number of different shaped bricks;
e.g. the Johnson Wax Building by Frank Lloyd
Wright uses over 200 different shapes of bricks
to form the angles and curves of the design
(Levy 2004), and
2. to generate a set of possibilities, from which
the "best" solution can be selected.
We hoped to find new aspects, that otherwise would
not have been discovered or only with increased per-
sonal effort. In summery the design process included
several phases:
• Drawing of the existing facade in a CAAD pro-
gram and obj-export,
• import of the obj-file and voxelization in Net-
Logo,
• application of the own script to laying bricks,
• export of the result as obj-file and import in a
CAAD program and
• further work on the result.
IMPLEMENTATION METHOD
Learning from Lawson (2005) and White (1983) two
questions arises: What if the mentioned influences
are stored as values inside a three-dimensional grid?
And what if this stored information influences the
way of how an object evolves? This kind of, so to say,
information driven design has successfully imple-
mented during a workshop in Bialystok (Wurzer and
Lorenz 2014). The advantage of an agent based pro-
gramming resides in the possibility to control agents
(entities) externally or internally. External controls
comprise the information stored in the grid. This sup-
ports the idea of problem thinking solution. The so-
lution is inherent in the stored information.
 Agent Based Programming
Agent based programming offers the advantage that
results of a simulation can directly provide the infor-
mation comprised in the model (e.g. simulation of
wind, the sun's course and noise dispersion). The re-
sults of these simulations are immediately available
to influence e.g. the path of agents that form a spe-
cific design, leave traces, or, as in our case, simply
place bricks. Agents are, so to speak, seekers, driven
by the places they pass. One could almost say, agent
based programming provides an "all in one solution".
The key issue of our model is how and why
agents move and who controls or influences the
agent on his way from a starting point to its goal. In
the case that the agent does not know its path per se,
we speak of external control. A well defined playing
field (the outer wall of certain dimensions) provides
such a restriction. The agent may be free to walk (ran-
domly) but is thrown back before passing the border
line. In an advanced model the current location tells
the agent where to move next, as in a pinball ma-
chine. Relevant information that affects the path in-
cludes differentiation between solids and openings,
distances to specific points, heights above ground or
shadowing by other buildings.
NetLogo Programming
Since NetLogo is a multi agent programming lan-
guage with integrated modelling environment, it
served as a basis for all of our programming work.
The tool is more than a programming language, since
it offers several useful metaphors that are already in-
built, ready to be used when implementing a design:
Voxel space. NetLogo's virtual world is a 3D reg-
ular grid made of voxels (i.e. cubes), each having an
extensible set of properties (e.g. colour).
Agents can move freely within voxel space. Each
agent also carries an extensible set of properties (e.g.
position, heading shape, colour and type; the latter is
useful for defining different 'flavours' of agents, such
as builder, seeker and so on).
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Writing a program encompasses two steps:
1. Setting up the world (assigning initial colours
to voxels, creating agents) and
2. calling a step function continuously, until
some stopping criterion is satisfied.
The step function is occupied with moving agents
through voxel space, and letting them alter their en-
vironment as they pass through (e.g. laying a brick).
In that piece of the program, they also need to make
use of sensory capabilities - i.e. "What is the colour
of the voxel ahead", in order to decide what action to
perform.
Our design studio was occupied with redesign of
existent building using bricks. Thus, we had to some-
how load these into NetLogo during the setup phase,
in order to have a "substrate" along the facade where
agents could do their (brick-laying) job. In more de-
tail, we imported the 3D geometry as faces made out
of three vertices, which we then subdivided until they
were of voxel size (see left in Figure 1). Then, we sim-
ply asked each voxel to colour itself if it contained a
vertex. The results of that process is shown right in
Figure 1 (for more details, refer to Wurzer 2014).
Figure 1
Principle of
voxelization (left)
and result (right).
It was now the agents' job to lay bricks layer by layer,
moving from one coloured voxel to the next coloured
voxel. In order to get into even more detail, we wish
to briefly present some examples that show how this
was done (see Lorenz and Wurzer 2015 for an in-
depth explanation).
 DISCUSSION OF OUTCOMES
The playing field, as described before, was defined
by the outer walls of a specifically selected building.
In order to import a wall into the world of NetLogo,
two possible ways exists: The wall can be discrete or
continuous. The discrete world, a three-dimensional
grid, is preferable, since a division into voxels offers
the possibility of additional storage of information in
each voxel (which, in turn, influences the path of the
agent or properties of the brick).
Our participants used NetLogo's possibilities for
agent-based programming in different ways. Some
used voxels to store information, which then influ-
enced agent movement along the facade and/or
properties of the built bricks. Other students simply
set bricks in a given wall without reacting to context.
Some projects even went as far as to incorporate ac-
tual simulation within their design. We are now going
to present a few examples in more detail.
Simply set bricks: This first program served as
inspiration. The design emerges exclusively out of
the algorithm itself. The basic idea is to simply offset
bricks in a stretcher bond along a given orthogonal
outer wall of a building. The particular challenge lies
in well defined corners with bricks exactly positioned
one above the other (without any offsets). Therefore,
first of all, a "spy" agent analyses the geometry of the
outer wall. Later, all bricks are arranged smoothly be-
tween the fixed corner bricks (let's call them "refer-
ence" bricks). The "spy" agent also checks if a full brick
or a half brick can be laid at corners and at the edges
of openings. The starting position of a single agent is
Figure 2
‘Simply set bricks’
(a), ‘Viewpoints’
with rotation of
bricks (b) and 'Light
and shadows' (c).
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 209
set automatically and the custom property "offset" of
the agent is set to "right". At each step, the agent de-
termines whether its offset is "right" or "left". In case it
is "right", it tries to place a brick two centimetres to its
right (opposite goes for "left"). If this position is not
coloured, then the agent is beyond the facade and
may not place a brick there. Thus, the offset is set to
its opposite value (left becomes right, right becomes
left) and the process starts again. If this is not possi-
ble either, then the program stops. In all other cases,
the agent moves one step along the voxelized wall,
adjusting its heading if it is necessary to turn (e.g. at
corners). If, after taking a step, it reaches a voxel it has
already visited, it changes its position to one level up.
If there is no coloured voxel there, the agent is be-
yond the facade and stops the program. In all other
cases, the step function is repeated (see Figure 2a for
a result).
Viewpoints: The basic idea of this program was
to create a reference oriented design that reflects cer-
tain viewpoints in a specific combination of headers
and stretchers. At the beginning, the user defines
specific viewpoints from outside the building. The
algorithm then automatically detects four main cor-
ners of the building (referenced diagonal to the four
corners of the NetLogo world). Initially, the facade is
covered with a stretcher bond. Subsequently, previ-
ously defined areas (e.g. above/below windows, lay-
ers with/without openings and n-th layers) are specif-
ically handled: Some stretchers are replaced by ro-
tated headers and offset outward (leading to a pic-
ture similar to a course of diagonal bricks; Figure
 2b). The replacing of bricks starts with a stretcher
followed by a rotated header. The sequence contin-
ues with a stretcher and three headers, two stretchers
and five headers, four stretchers and seven headers
and vica versa. The special feature is that all headers
are oriented to one of the given viewpoints, which
were deemed to be "important". This means that the
design exclusively depends on the geometry of the
building (including openings), the viewpoints and
the given sequence of rotated headers and straight
stretchers. In other words, the layout is exclusively
defined through the rules defined at the very begin-
ning.
Light and shadows: This program based on the
idea to map light and shadow on facades depending
on orientation (and the surrounding environment).
For this purpose direction of light and intensity is
calculated and stored in each voxel. The orienta-
tion of the facade, the height in relation to the street
level and the shading by neighbouring buildings in-
fluences the degree of offset (from one brick to the
next). In other words, roughness depends on expo-
sure. For the sake of simplification, sun-intensities
are summarized in definite ranges of offset. The off-
set of each brick operates like described in "Simply
set bricks" with a maximum displacement of six cen-
timetres (Figure 2c). This example demonstrates how
simulation (of light) and design can take place in one
and the same program. However, technical problems
prevent current realization. Apart from that, the vul-
nerability of the algorithm mainly occurs at corners
with a non-right angle due to imprecise transitions.
210 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
Simulation as input: The reasoning underlying
this approach was the facade's function to protect. In
more detail, areas of higher pollution should be re-
flected by darker colour; furthermore, colour gradu-
ation and different offsets should provide more va-
riety. A simulation of passing cars, leading to pollu-
tion, serves as input for the design. The density is
added up and stored within each voxel of the facade
(together with the maximal distance to the source of
noise). Agents (brick layers) ask for this information
and reacts by altering their colour and their offsets
(Figure 3a-3b). More precisely, colour, on the one
hand, depends on the maximal distance to the source
of noise, classified into three colour spectra. Offset,
on the other hand, depends on intensity, again, clas-
sified into three ranges. In general, displacement is
restricted to two centimetres to keep the maximal
difference between two layers below four centime-
tres (recommended by the manufacturer). In this ex-
ample NetLogo was considered to confer a large ben-
efit in terms of simulation, but also in terms of the
possibility to export colour information.
The urge to turn: The basic idea was to cover
the facade with continuously rotated bricks. Bricks
at corners of the building and of openings serve as
fixed points oriented in 45 degrees to the outside.
All bricks between two corners change their orien-
tation in order to complete a rotation of 90 degrees.
The bond's front view displays a continuous develop-
ment from a rather "smooth" appearance, with the
only structure given by bed and head joints, to a
rougher appearance of strongly protruding bricks at
Figure 3
‘Simulation as
input’ with noise
simulation (a) and
different colouring
of bricks (b), 'The
urge to turn' with
continuously
rotated bricks (c
and d).
 the corners. Despite rotation, bricks of the next layer
have to centrically cover head joints of the layer be-
low. In a first step, a so-called "spy" agent walks along
the facade in order to capture the geometry. This
includes to identify fix points (corners and edges of
openings), to calculate the orientation of the angle
bisector of fix points and to identify successive levels
with abrupt changes of orientation. The latter occurs
above and below edges of openings, when a layer of
continuous rotation between corners meets a layer
with many rotating areas between openings. More-
over, the anchorage is carried out by horizontal con-
soles with straight stretcher bonds. These new layers
influence again the rotation of the brick layers above
and below. Again, all the information is stored in the
voxels and the agent is guided by this information.
The algorithm is designed for rectangular buildings
only. It is an example that reminds us of design intent
(which does not always need context; Figure 3c-3d).
Brick patterns with bonds: An intensive exam-
ination of different bonds led to the idea of this pro-
gram. Patterns or pictures should be projected on
facades, visualized by different structures. The tem-
plate might derive from an image or from the struc-
ture of other facades. Both, the information about
the section of wall (opening or solid) and about the
pattern are stored in the voxel. The agent just reacts
on the information it gets from the current position.
A special challenge is the transition between differ-
ent areas of specific bonds. They may not be abrupt
but continuously. This is solved by creating new in-
termediary bonds (Figure 4a). Additional feature con-
cerns colouring and/or offset of headers.
Figure 4
‘Brick patterns with
bonds’: transition
between bonds (a),
'Chameleon' (b).
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 211
Chameleon: The basic idea was to take up the
bonds of surrounding environment and to colour
and offset bricks depending on their orientation. The
more a facade is oriented to the sun, the lighter the
colour of the brick and the larger the offset (to in-
crease self-shadowing). Both, calculation of the ori-
entation and the setting of a simple header bond
are done automatically. Subsequently, single bricks
are offset depending on the orientation of the fa-
cade (Figure 4b). Bricks at the corner and the edge
of openings are not offset.
DISCUSSION
During the course, scale differences between NetL-
ogo and CAAD programs turned out to cause the
main difficulties. While the latter have a well-defined
longitudinal scale (e.g. meter or centimetre), the
scale of NetLogo is defined by the number of voxels
in x-, y- and z-direction. This is bound up with the fact
that voxelization entails the disadvantage of simplifi-
cation. The original shape is transformed into boxes
of a three-dimensional grid with the resolution de-
fined by the box size. The sizes of the outer wall and
of openings may be distorted (e.g. windows of the
same size may turn into openings of different size).
To increase resolution of the grid means to reduce
the size of the boxes. However, this comprises per-
formance. During the import process parts of the
wall can be imported separately, e.g. parts of the
wall, windows and doors. Each part can be associ-
ated with a different colour of the voxel and a dif-
ferent type (wall or opening). Since overlapping of
 these elements is possible, the order of importation
into NetLogo is important.
The key benefit of NetLogo is the simulation-
based programming itself, since it can be used di-
rectly as source of information (simulation of noise
distribution). Moreover, agents (the placement of
bricks) are directly driven by forces contained in vox-
els (a certain place) and not by the outside. This
opens up possibilities for future research.
Concerning problem thinking over solution gen-
eration it turned out that in most cases students still
have certain results in mind. Sometimes the algo-
rithm was even developed to fit this idea. What was
helpful, on the one hand, was to think about certain
influences and to implement their impact on the de-
sign. To store information in voxels that lead agents
and subsequently set bricks was, on the other hand,
the main aha-experience. We will focus on this aspect
in our future work.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, we have presented our algorithmic de-
sign studio 'Flying Bricks' which had the purpose of
teaching students algorithmic thinking and problem-
oriented thinking through agent-based program-
ming. The context of the design studio was build-
ing with bricks, supported by our industry partner
'Wienerberger AG' who advised on practical ques-
tions in brick construction. Results obtained by our
students show that such an approach is feasible even
when starting from scratch, both programming-wise
as well as in brick technology. We are convinced
that similar lecture formats which let students as-
semble "simple elements" to form "complex shapes"
are didactically advantageous and guarantee a steep
learning curve.
212 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We thank Mr. Staudinger and his team from Wiener-
berger AG who provided insight and expertise. Fur-
thermore, we would like to thank the following stu-
dents, since their contribution is part of this paper: B.
Arendt, M.A. Schiltz, A. Malhotra, B. Hanser, B. Blank-
Landeshammer and N. Jasinski.
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Modeling, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL.
Wurzer, G. 2014, 'Loading Geometry into NetLogo3D', Re-
port for Vienna UT, Digital Architecture and Planning,
Report No. 1, pp. 1-5
Wurzer, G. and Lorenz, W.E. 2014, ''Multi-Agent From
Simulation', Archivolta, 62(2), p. 57
Magnet-based Interactive Kinetic Bricks
Mohammad Kouchaki1 , Mohammadjavad Mahdavinejad2 , Parastoo Zali3 ,
Shahab Ahmadi4
1,2
Faculty of Art and Architecture, Tarbiat Modares University 3 Faculty of Art and
Architecture, Imam Khomeini International University 4 Faculty of Art and Archi-
tecture, Iran University of Science and Technology
1,2
{m.kouchaki|mahdavinejad}@modares.ac.ir
3,4
{paras2.zali|shahab.ahmadi.architect}@gmail.com

Brick has been used in construction since ancient times and has been respected
among other tectonic materials through out the history. Novel technologies
recently have opened new horizons in using brick in architectural design. This
paper investigates innovative implementation of bricks in kinetic architecture.
Kinetic structures usually employ complex and high-cost mechanisms to come
into force and their movements might be limited to some conditions. By the use of
magnet in digital design, this research examines new methods for performing
simple and affordable kinetic structures so as to create interactive relations
between architecture and human being. Magnetic energy is applied in two ways
to move a roof made of brick which is considered a heavy and masonry material.
Consequently, it represents the hidden potentials of magnet as a renewable source
of energy.

Keywords: kinetic architecture, interactive design, parametric design,

Bricklaying, magnet energy

INTRODUCTION to examine their ideas and innovations through de-

Nowadays explosive growth of digital technology
has affected the core of architectural design. Cer-
tainly, digital tools offer new possibilities that were
inconceivable only a few years ago (Picon 2010). This
research arises from a project in design studio of Tar-
biat Modares University (TMU) defined as "Interactive
Transforming Canopy with Particular Reference to
Computational Design Thinking". The canopy seems
to be a pavilion to exhibit cutting-edge technologies
which developed by TMU students, understanding
that, the canopy itself should show high level of inter-
activity. As a result, the design team were challenged
signing the canopy. The coherence between theo-
retical ideas and design to performance process was
the main issue of this experience. The design team
did their best to combine endogenous ideas as well
as indigenous materials with digital technologies in
order to find a way to design a kinetic structure with
heavy and masonry materials like brick. It was an im-
pressive task to bridge local materials (such as brick)
to new shape of interactive atmosphere which was
asked in the design terms of the canopy.

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 213

 INSPIRING BRICKWORKS Cloaked in Bricks
Brick construction counts with a long and rich tradi- Cloaked in Bricks is a residential project designed by
tion in architecture, which can be traced back to the Admun Design & Construction Studio and located in
origins of our civilization and reminds us of soil and Ekbatan, Tehran, Iran. It consisted of a façade design
nature. Because of accessibility and unique features, and lasted from 2013 to 2015. This project is an at-
it has been employed widely in traditional architec- tempt to propose a prototype addressing the current
ture with variety of forms in each place. It was used in issues of residential architecture in its region through
different parts of a building as structure or decoration bridging between old and new, proving how local
in facade. Amazing samples of brick works around materials and patterns can be used in new ways cre-
the world exemplifies our ancestors' progresses in ating an architecture responding to both functional
producing and employing this material. As an exam- requirements and aesthetics.
ple, among Iranian ancient buildings, Zanbil Ziggu-
rat, porch Ctesiphon, Isfahan and Yazd Grand Mosque
Figure 1
and Rabat (Museum of brick work) can be mentioned.
The facade design
Despite the long history of bricks and masonry
of Cloaked in Bricks
in the built environment, they usually include lim-
project.
ited possibilities to be applied in the design. For that
reason, digital technologies can assist in developing
proper methodologies for masonry (Al-Haddad et al.
2011) to meet contemporary design requirements
and integrate new geometric possibilities. As noticed
by Campbell (2005, 13), brick's evolution overtime
has been grounded in two major areas: brickmak-
ing technologies and brickwork techniques. While
Brick appeared to be a proper choice for the façade
the first one sets the physical properties of the mate-
covering since it has always been used as a lo-
rial (i.e. weight, dimensions, resistance, appearance),
cal building material in Iran meeting environmental
the second one defines the space for design cre-
needs while creating numerous aesthetically beau-
ativity and efficiency of masonry constructions. The
tiful textures. The complex form of the façade, lim-
developments in brickwork techniques tend to be
ited construction period and economical conditions
driven by structural and aesthetic goals, supporting
of the project forced the project team to search for
the materialization of magnificent brick walls, arches
a new construction method for implementing the
or vaults, and also ornamental surface effects (Sousa
façade. The appropriate method seemed to be elim-
et al. 2015, 362). By implementation of parametric
inating mortar by punching the bricks (Figure 1). Fi-
design methods various forms can be created. This
nally, parametric design software facilitated the tex-
is what many contemporary designers are looking
ture design process. Despite the complex form of
for. In recent years, some innovative brickworks have
the facade the construction process was easily exe-
been created by designers which opens new hori-
cutable by workers through simple instructions pre-
zons toward adoption of brick in contemporary ar-
pared by employing a system of coding [1]. As a con-
chitecture. It is important to highlight two magni-
temporary praised building, it focused on dancing
cant monuments inspiring the design generators i.e.
brick to show flexibilty of masonry materials.
Cloaked in Bricks and Spris Café.

214 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1

 Spris Cafe
Spris Cafe with 28sqm space, designed by Hooba De-
sign Group is located in Nejatollahi street in center
of Tehran surrounded by Iranian handicrafts shops,
neighboring the building of Iranian handicrafts Or-
ganization. The aim of the project was to renovate
a gift shop and change it to a cafe, considering the
small size of the project and its location the main idea
inspired by the urban context to transform the tradi-
tional elements into an architectural interior space.
Figure 2
The combination of
bricks in Spris Café .
Figure 3
The interior of Spris
Café, facing the
roof.
In designing the spatial diagram, the materiality con-
cept is based on an integrated geometry continues
from outside to inside. The neighboring building, Ira-
nian handicrafts Organization with brick facade, was
the inspiration to use the same material for the cafe.
Concerning the small size of the project, a brick with
5*10*20 dimensions sliced into eight smaller pieces
of 5*5*5 centimeters which one side of the bricks
glazed in turquoise blue color. The terracotta bricks
are also hygienic as they covered with antibacterial
layer (Figure 2).
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 215
One of the main issues of design was creating a vi-
sual variation of the form in a small space. In this
concept, the situation of visitors in relation to the
project is significant in order to understand the form
as they can differently perceive the composition of
colors on the bricks regarding to their position (Fig-
ure 3). The turquoise blue glazed side of the bricks
are facing south shaped with the monolithic geom-
etry of brick laying that was modeled by the 3D di-
agram started from the pavement of the pedestrian
and continues inside of the café [2]. In this case, zoo-
morphic and transitive character of brick, makes spir-
itual space which remind traditional architecture of
Iran.
Case studies show that recent architectural
projects focus on innovative understanding of brick
while lack of movement made them conventional
rather than cutting-edge architecture.
DESIGN TO PERFORMANCE
It is believed that through implementation of para-
metric design, we can create movement and rhythm
in brickworks making it much more dynamic. There-
fore it was assumed that interactive approach to-
ward adoption of brick in architectural design pro-
cess might be pioneer answer to the design question.
The design team had two challenges concerning the
design process:
1. How to create movement in a number of ob-
jects simultaneously?
2. How to create movement in heavy and ma-
sonry materials like bricks?
In order to find an energy efficient source of
movement the design team decided to adopt Mag-
net as a source of energy. Electromagnetic energy
is an extensive renewable resource that has been
underestimated in many fields such as architecture.
We believe that using magnet as a source of en-
ergy will open new approaches and causes huge ef-
fects in future buildings. Additionally, there is a new
approach toward applying magnetic fields in archi-
tecture namely "Magnetic Architecture". The cur-

rent focus of magnetic architecture explores the de-
sign opportunities of a new building process from
phase one: simply using recycled iron-based material
controlled with-in a magnetic field (Diaz and Dubor,
2013). Magnetic architecture might be seen as a po-
tential to increase the flexibility of additive process to
reach the architectural scale.
MECHANISM OF USING MAGNETS
THROUGH KINETIC BRICKS
The idea of moving bricks is based on the interac-
tion between two energies: the electromagnetic en-
ergy of the magnet and the weight of the brick. In
other word, magnet pulls the pieces of bricks up-
ward, while the weight of bricks pulls them to the
ground. Using this interaction between these ener-
gies made the design objective to be focused on the
Roof of the pavilion. Therefore, a specific detail was
needed to hang the pieces of brick from roof, so that
216 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
Figure 4
The prototype
representing the
roof structure in
scale 1:10.
the magnet would absorb them. After all, punching
the brick in minor section and reinforcing them with
some iron-made bars seemed to be an appropriate
solution.
The design was modeled in Rhinoceros
((C)McNeel) with the parametric design plugin
Grasshopper ((C)David Rutten/McNeel). The sur-
face was converted into a series of EPS bricks with
250x100x50mm, which is one of the standard di-
mensions of commercial bricks. In total, the model
comprises 700 bricks placed vertically and ordered in
one level. Firstly, each brick was punched from its mi-
nor section and then a bar inserted and fixed within
it to suspend the brick from the roof. Additionally, a
grid of holes was made within the roof as a base for
bars. The holes were created in the square shape and
also bars were rectangular in order to fit in the holes
and avoid undesirable rotation while moving (Figure
4). The suspended structure of bricks enables them
Figure 5
Moving the magnet
on top of the roof
and rhythm in
bricks.

Figure 6 to move vertically through the holes when a magnet

The algorithm of absorbs them. The length of bars is adjusted in a way
grasshopper plugin that enables bricks to move less than 20cm vertically
related to so as the integration of the roof structure would not
movement of brick be damaged. While the bricks move in a series, they
based on magnet. form some waves in the roof which attracts the user.
At this stage a system was needed to be defined
for generating magnet energy so that it can over-
come the weight of bricks to move them upward.
To produce the required magnetic energy, two ideas
Figure 7 were brought up and examined i.e. Permanent Mov-
3D modeling of roof ing Magnet (Magnetic Field) and Temporary Fixed
structure and 2-axis Magnet (Electromagnetic Field).
robat moving on
1. Permanent Moving Magnet (Magnetic Field).
top of that creating
The first idea is based on using a permanent mag-
rhythm in bricks.
net and moving it (the source of energy) on top
of the brick grid. The iron bars within each brick
would be absorbed by the magnetic energy gen-
erated by the moving magnet, creating a wave in
the different parts of the roof (Figure 5). To actual-
ize this idea, extensive investigates were done and
the results were examined by altering the factors in
Grasshopper model (Figure 6).. Finally, it ended up
with the idea that a 2-axis robot (like Motorizable

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 217

 2-axis X-Y) is needed to receive the commands from
Grasshopper and move on the roof surface based
on those commands. The commands are transferred
to the robot by Ardoino kits. As a result, the robot
moves the magnet attached to it and enables the
bricks to move in a special order (Figure 7).
Linking the robot with Grasshopper gives us the op-
portunity to draw various patterns and move the
whole structure based on that to create those pat-
terns on the bottom view of the roof. Also, we can
equip the pavilion with some sensors to catch the
presence of human in the space and transfer them to
the robot to move based on human movement inside
the pavilion. Consequently, the parametric design of
pavilion leads to an space with which people could
engage in interactive relations.
2. Temporary Fixed Magnet (Electromagnetic
Field). The second idea is based on using an electro-
magnetic grid with fixed components which includes
some temporary magnets located on a regular ba-
sis. Temporary magnet refers to a piece of steel with
some cables turned around it. By exerting an elec-
tric current involving the pieces of steel, they would
transform to magnets and produce electromagnetic
field (Figure 8). As the position of magnets is fixed in
this method, by altering the amount of electric cur-
rent, the amount of voltage is changed and subse-
quently the power of electromagnetic field would be
variable. If we place the magnets in a grid order, they
cover the whole parts of the roof and variability of
electromagnetic field causes the bricks to move ver-
tically and create waves.
218 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
CONCLUSION
The results of the project show that magnetic energy
might play a crucial role in future of kinetic interac-
tive architecture. This research opens a new horizon
in computer-aided design while needs extensive re-
searches and practices to be recognized as a design
and construction method. Implementation of Mag-
net has the following benefits: Figure 8
1. Magnetic energy is a renewable source of en- Temporary magnet
ergy and is generated without damaging the made of steel with
environment. cable around it
2. It reduces the costs of a project during the de- carrying electrical
sign to construction process. As an example, current.
to construct kinetic structures by using mod-
ern technologies high-cost systems is needed,
but using magnets seems to be an affordable
method for creating movement in space, be-
cause the energy generated for moving one
object practically causes several objects to
move.
Endless potential of brick makes it a flexible material
for contemporary architecture. The results of the re-
search emphasized on potential ability on combina-
tion between traditional material and kinetic charac-
ter of contemporary interactive monuments.
REFERENCES
Al-Haddad, T, Gentry, R, Cavieres, A, Carpo, M, Cho,
J, Wagner, L and Zaitsev, A 2010 'Representation
+ Fabrication: Connecting descriptions and arti-
facts in the digital age', Proceedings of 1st Inter-
national Conference on Structures and Architecture
(ICSA), Guimarães, Portugal
Campbell, JWP 2005, História Universal do Tijolo, Calei-
doscópio, Portugal
Diaz, GB and Dubor, A 2013 'Magnetic Architecture: A
New Order In Design', 1st eCAADe Regional Interna-
tional Workshop, Porto, pp. 237-245
Picon, A 2010, Digital Culture in Architecture: An Introduc-
tion for the Design Professions, Birkhäuser Architec-
ture, Basel
Sousa, JP, Varela, PA and Martins, PF 2015 'Between Man-
ual and Robotic Approaches to Brick Construction
in Architecture', Proceedings of eCAADe 2015, Austria,
pp. 361-370
[1] http://architizer.com/projects/cloaked-in-brick
s/
Aesthetics of Decision
Unfolding the design process within a framework of complexity and self-
organization

Alessio Erioli1
1
University of Bologna
1
alessio.erioli@unibo.it

Complexity-grounded paradigms and self-organization based strategies promise

enormous potential when channeled in a design process, but their current stage of
development (while delivering groundbreaking results in recent years) hasn't
significantly impacted yet the widespread architectural practice. Still, the
tendency (in the development of technology and society) is clearly towards an
increase in complexity and distributed intelligence, henceforth it is of primary
importance to adopt a design approach that allows the harnessing of such
potential and convey it in the creation of outcomes that favor a richer and
heterogeneous ecological entanglement. To tap this kind of potential in an
open-ended process requires a design approach that re-defines the distribution of
control, choices and information throughout the whole process (including
materials and fabrication processes).The paper explores the possibility of such
design approach in the territory that links education and research through a
series of Master Thesis developed at the University of Bologna and comparing
them to other case studies developed worldwide.

Keywords: continuity, tectonics, architecture, mereology, multi-agent systems,

theory, robotic fabrication, computation, simulation

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
Complexity is undoubtedly one of the most powerful
paradigms of contemporary age; the idea of emer-
gence and self-organization in particular, that com-
plexity can stem from the interaction and feedback
over time governed by simple rules capable to pro-
duce stable, coherent organizations is of particular
interest for its potential implications in architecture.
Prior to the discoveries that led to the formula-
tion of this paradigm, it was taken for granted that
the role of the designer was that of a mastermind able
to conceive a complete model of the entire project;
an immediate consequence of such condition is that
the highest complexity achievable coincides with the
one conceivable by the mind of the designer. Au-
tomation of simple tasks (the hallmark of the indus-
trial revolution) was only implemented in a linear
fashion without the possibility of feedback, there-
fore precluding any form of endogenous adaptabil-
ity or self-adjustment in the system, strengthening

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 219

 further the divide between design and making first
theorized centuries earlier by Alberti. The design pro-
cess thus sedimented a clearly hierarchical decisional
pattern based on the division of labor where the di-
vide did not only involve design and making, but
branched further the design process itself separat-
ing (save for few remarkable exceptions) conceptual
ideation and constructive thought as two consecu-
tive moments. The technological acceleration and
the evolution of scientific-phylosophical paradigms
usually do not go hand in hand, with the first set-
ting foot first in unknown territory while still carry-
ing the ways of the old ones: the first application of
new technologies almost always happens as an ex-
tension of old paradigms (it happened with concrete
in architecture, or with the desktop and file metaphor
in computers); it takes some time and adaptation be-
fore our mindset is changed by it and starts to envi-
sion the true, inner potential and its consequences.
So the advent of computers in architectural
practices happened as a substitute for the drawing
board first and in the power of calculation slightly
after (again, with few remarkable exceptions, see
[1]). Problem solving oriented processes were early
adopters, due to the inevitable osmotic exchanges
from computer science and reliance on measurable
performance, and contemporary instances already
benefit from agent-based strategies, genetic algo-
rithms and neural networks (since they deal with
measurable performance henceforth naturally evolv-
ing towards greater efficiency through technology
and technique). Still, the tendency (in the develop-
ment of technology and society) is clearly towards an
increase in complexity and distributed intelligence
that, for its own nature, exceeds and transcends any
definition of "optimal" as always context-biased and
resists reduction to accomodate a plurality of func-
tional and communication patterns.
It is of primary importance to adopt a design ap-
proach that allows the harnessing of such potential
and convey it in the creation of outcomes that fa-
vor a richer and heterogeneous ecological entangle-
ment. To tap this kind of potential in an open-ended
220 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
process requires a design approach that re-defines
the distribution of control, choices and information
throughout the whole process (including materials
and fabrication processes).
The work presented in this paper situates itself
after precedents in the use of agency and complex-
ity in architecture such as the work and research by
Kokkugia ([3] and the recent independent develop-
ments both in academia and practice by its respec-
tive founders Roland Snooks and Rob Stuart-Smith),
Jose Sanchez (Plethora Project) and his work with Al-
isa Andrasek at the DRL and the Bartlett (one exem-
plar case: [4]), as well as other numerous other cases
in those and other relevant schools. What all those
cases share in common is an heuristic use of agency
and multi-agent system as a way to embed performa-
tive coherence and navigate it in search of novel and
richer tectonic (spatial-structural, as well as percep-
tual) expressions. The predictive use of multi-agent
systems such as modeling user behavior in architec-
tural spaces is not of interest and while its reliability
in some cases is acknowledged it is also not relevant
in this context.
IMPLEMENTATION
The methods adopted in the theses rely on iterative
computational simulation implemented in several
programming and modeling platforms coupled with
material experimentations and (in most cases) multi-
agent system and robotic fabrication: such phases
are interwoven with and not subsequent to compu-
tational simulation.
Although simulations might well start by try-
ing to reproduce certain processes or behaviors
(using role models from biology/geology/physics/-
chemistry for their inherently elegant complexity)
their potential resides in their endogenous coher-
ence. Once the relations regulating the system are
established so is the metric of the system's output,
despite little or none is known about the final out-
come. They operate in a state of vagueness, driven
by internal logic but open in determination and their
outcomes, being consequence of a coherent set of
operations, are endowed with the property of being
a structure of communication in themselves. Internal
logic is not an overarching imposed principle, gov-
erning form and function from the outside, but an
embedded feature of relations and objects that blos-
som into organized complexity. Logic becomes an
aesthetic operation that cannot be subjected to com-
plete synthesis or axiomatics, it operates in an irre-
ducible complexity. Simulations also do not need to
refer to a role model anymore, moreover their poten-
tial lies exactly in the possibility to explore the un-
known by inventing alternate modes of reality, or hy-
perreality, as Baudrillard (1983) calls it. This capac-
ity of abstraction is very different from the Albertian
notation system that separated conception from re-
alization, freezing all dynamics in the representation
to which material processes should subdue; it is an
abstraction of principles, one that conveys the dis-
tance between the design intent and the artifact at
the level of instructions. Algorithms should then be
considered as actual modes of thought (which ex-
tends Baudrillard's precession of simulacra to the al-
gorithmic world) that symbiotically evolve with us;
more concisely and to reconnect the notion of logic
as aesthetic operation, what we need (in the words
of Shaviro) is "an aesthetic of decision" in a frame-
work of self-organization and emergence [2]. The ex-
pression touches a very important part of the design
process that has to do with authorship, intentionality
and the possibility, in the particular case of genera-
tive design, to drive self-organizing system in order
to better explore and harness their undisclosed po-
tential. According to Roland Snooks (2012) author-
ship in generative design can be traced in the pattern
of two contrasting kinds of decisions: criteria (which
frame the possible realm of the output and are inher-
ently stable) and procedure (which regards the con-
dition of operation, therefore is inherently specula-
tive and processual); simulations enable the possibil-
ity of emergent outcomes through the interaction of
design procedures.
There is then a shift from the explicit design of
form and organization towards the choreographing
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 221
of intensive processes of formation through the de-
sign of the material and geometry behaviors regu-
lating them. The architect programs the decisional
pattern shared by the individual agents and makes
decisions on the shape and topology of their body
(thus defining their affordances) as well as their sen-
sorium, the range of accessible and processable data
and its form (i.e. reading solar radiation in form of
vertex colors on a 0-255 value range, or a gener-
ated data field not necessarily connected to a par-
ticular physical variable). Global form, collective
behavior and tectonics emerge from their interac-
tion over space and time. There are two important
points that should again be stressed: the environ-
ment is designed (when constraints are chosen and
data to be read is organized) and the designer is
a player in a more extended ecology involving ma-
chines (analog, digital or biological) that operates
not only through human-machine dialog but also
by machine-to-machine communication or "the cor-
relation of technical beings among themselves" (Si-
mondon 1958, 181). Ontologically speaking, the rela-
tion between code and being is perpetual: differently
from the Deleuzian diagram/assembly where the for-
mer only provides a topological scheme for the lat-
ter but ceases to operate once the latter is formed,
the code continues to inform and operate on beings
as they mutually interact and alter their own code
(Spuybroek 2008).
This approach to computational simulation pro-
motes an alternative understanding of control and
interaction between top-down and bottom-up pro-
cesses, without giving in to the easy production of
highly ephemeral systems that champion random ac-
cidents nor reduce its exploration to the safe haven of
algorithms with stable indexical relations to their for-
mal results. While computational design has straight-
forward advantages in the automatization of pro-
cesses and designing the structural and organiza-
tional aspects of a project, if our intention is to har-
ness the inherent potential of non-linear complex
systems it is not enough to simply apply a picture of
complexity to essentially modern objects; complex
 systems are equally adept at engaging with form, as
the emergence of form can be understood as the or-
ganization of matter itself.
CASE STUDIES
It is the case of Oxymoron (Figure 1), a thesis project
where Topology Optimization (usually employed as a
reduction device to optimize structure in given con-
ditions) is used for its inherent rationality in comput-
ing form according to stress distribution patterns as a
mean to explore opulence and a richer spatial expres-
sion. The iterative exploration of non-reductive con-
straints patterns (for which the condition to respect
stress-response criteria was necessary but far from
sufficient) in the design of a tower for Shanghai was
a key factor in maximizing the spatial expression and
transcend the typical bone-like structural figuration
of Topology Optimization algorithms. Iterative sub-
division of simple triangular façade elements in rela-
tion to the distribution of stress patterns reinforces
and further articulates the visual heterogeneity and
complexity.
In other cases, systems are modeled around
object-oriented strategies, extending the classical
multi-agent system model theorized by Reynolds
(1987) and comprised of the basic local rules of flock-
ing (direct communication between agents by cohe-
sion, separation and alignment) with the stigmergic
model (an indirect communication protocol that oc-
curs through the environment) based on the theo-
retical premises in Jones (2010) and occasionally cus-
tom made rules for direct/indirect interaction, with or
through the environment. Interaction between dif-
ferent agent "species" can be of collaborative or com-
petitive nature; the latter provides the conditions to
strengthen and stabilize the former.
Environmental perturbations do not alter di-
rectly and/or proportionally the morphology of the
system but affect the agents behavior, which pat-
tern of propagation through the system is not an in-
dexical image of the perturbation field. The envi-
ronment itself is coded as an anti-object, (Repenning
2006) an active part of the simulation that carries
222 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
and computes multiple discreet information in each
of its voxel cells, doing most of the heavy-lifting in
the computational process. It acts as common sub-
strate for data exchange through which the multi-
agent systems is communicating by reading/writing.
The information in the environment is then encoded
as data map in the voxel field, selectively accessible
by the agents in 3 possible ways: data retrieval from
the nearest cell, value interpolation from n nearest
cells (with different degrees of anisotropy), direct cal-
culation from the field general formula.
This common setup is then implemented (with
significant differences) in three more case studies:
The Red Queen Hypothesis, Ari3dne and Home-
orhetic Assembles. In all of them the decisional
pattern is twofold: on one side the definition of
environmental constraints and conditions (i.e. a
"pheromone" gradient that induces anisotropic be-
havior) as well as specific interaction rules, the out-
put evaluation and refinement of initial conditions
on the other. Changes in these initial conditions do
not lead to a proportional response but a non-linear
propagation and feedback that might result in a het-
erogeneously densified phylogeny in terms of sys-
tem expression (highly volatile variations may occur
in narrow parameter spaces whereas large subdo-
mains might show a "flat" variation landscape). Func-
tional performative criteria as well as unapologeti-
cally aesthetic reason can drive the selection pattern
that then feeds back into the algorithm in an increas-
ingly serrated and convergent exchange. These sys-
tems' internal logics provide solid coherence and the
mapping of function onto form does not precede the
project development not privilege specific relations
over equally possible alternatives in an open spec-
trum.
In The Red Queen Hypothesis (Figure 2), the
competitive behaviors of two different sets of agents
fighting for resources fosters the generation of an in-
terlocking spatial negotiation that reaches homeo-
static stability over time. The strategy is applied at
the scale of tectonic development of a structural skin.
Figure 1
Oxymoron - thesis
project by Luca
Pedrielli - advisor
Alessio Erioli -
co-advisor Giovanni
Castellazzi.

Figure 2
The Red Queen
Hypothesis - thesis
project by Paolo
Alborghetti -
advisor: Alessio
Erioli.

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 223

 Figure 3
Ari3dne - Thesis
Project by Daniele
Colombati - advisor:
Alessio Erioli -
co-advisor: Gabriele
Evangelisti.

224 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1

Figure 4
Homeorhetic
Assemblies - Thesis
project by Roberto
Monesi - advisor:
Alessio Erioli -
Co-advisor: Paolo
Alborghetti.

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 225

 Figure 5
Swarm
Constructability -
Thesis project by
Michele Semeghini
- Advisor: Alessio
Erioli - Co-advisors:
Martino Colonna,
Massimiliano
Cicorella.

226 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1

Ari3dne (Figure 3) aims to embed constructor agents
as part of the architecture, mutuating its tectonic ex-
pression from the ridged web formation process of
the Euplectella Aspergillum; the agent have the ca-
pacity to read and write situated data in the environ-
ment and on the built material organization and op-
erate both as constructors or destructors according
to seasonal, use and circulation pattern variations. As
a result, the project blurs the traditional boundary
between construction and maintenance process as
well as challenges the notion of a fixed object with
a "final" configuration while retaining as strong iden-
tity and presence.
Homeorhetic assemblies (Figure 4) incorporates
the dynamics of beehive formation and simulates the
evolution of material viscosity and its hardening over
time while constructor agents perform a stigmergy-
based deposition in a data-rich environment.
In both cases assemblies are dynamic and
strongly redundant as they perform a variety of func-
tions and exhibit several possible affordances that
transcend the mere structural capacity.In the sim-
ulations that involve constructor agents, their be-
havior is conceived with specific constraints and op-
erations tied to a machine (such as a robotic arm,
3D printers, etc.), its body topology and capacities,
and a material system. Thus, the relation with fab-
rication and material goes both ways: simulations
talk directly to machines as constructor agents (di-
rectly writing machine code as output) and physi-
cal outcomes and simulations are precious sources
of information that then feedback into the simula-
tion programming as design constraint and param-
eters (body size and movement constraints, material
behavior).
These principles constitute the foundation of an-
other thesis project, Swarm Constructability (Figure
5). Here the research spanned low-cost robotic con-
struction, material system and behavioral program-
ming. In order to better detect the potential emer-
gence of self-organizing properties and artefact qual-
ities as a result of the system interaction and not of
the individual unit sophistication, the behaviour of
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 227
the single robot has been reduced to the bare min-
imum of movement (upside down thanks to mag-
netic wheels so to not interfere with the deposition),
avoidance, signal emission and detection, stigmergy-
based steering. The key parameter affecting how
the others play out is the minimization of energy
consumption for the single unit: the chosen ma-
terial works at room temperature, allowing to use
for movement also the energy otherwise required to
keep it above the state change threshold. The peers
coordinate with each other and choose when pour-
ing material through a signal deposited in the envi-
ronment (light stored and slowly released by a sensi-
tive coating in this case).
DISCUSSION
The desire to talk to machines is not merely driven
by a necessity to optimize a design to production
pipeline; rather, it is directed towards "the devel-
opment of reciprocity between designing and mak-
ing" (Maxwell and Pigram, 2012). Matter itself can
produce tectonics, as it is able to process informa-
tion and spatially organize as a consequence of those
processes; material qualities are also translated into
properties of the interacting elements within the sim-
ulation; as system behaviors, they become rules for
the emergence of form as a consequence of material
arrangement which cannot be included in the sim-
ulations. In the iteration among simulation, agency,
constructive behavior and material effects, the aes-
thetics of choice implemented by the designer af-
fects the trajectory and convergence of the design
process in ways that aim to challenge the established
linear conception-realization sequence. While the
intentionality and subjective contributions can be
traced as the pattern of choices and how these are
distributed into the process, the non-linear nature of
the process itself (and thus the impossibility of es-
tablishing clear cause-effect predictive relations on a
global scale) leaves authoriality as an open question.
 REFERENCES
Baudrillard, J 1983, Simulations, Semiotext(e), New York
Jones, J 2010, 'Characteristics of pattern formation and
evolution in approximations of physarum transport
networks', Artificial life, 16(2), pp. 127-153
Maxwell, I and Pigram, D 2012, 'In the Cause of Archi-
tecture: Transversing Design and Making', in David-
son, C and Roche, F (eds) 2012, Log n. 25: Re-
claim Resi[lience]stance//……R2, Anyone Corpora-
tion, New York, pp. 31-40
Repenning, A 2006 'Collaborative diffusion: program-
ming antiobjects', Proceedings of OOPSLA '06 Com-
panion to the 21st ACM SIGPLAN symposium on
Object-oriented programming systems, languages,
and applications, pp. 574-585
Reynolds, C 1987, 'Flocks, Herds, and Schools: A
Distributed Behavioral Model', Computer Graphics,
21(4), pp. 25-34
Simondon, G 1958; repr 1989, Du modes d'existence des
objets techniques, Aubier, Paris
Snooks, R 2012, 'Volatile Formation', in Davidson,
C and Roche, F (eds) 2012, Log n. 25: Re-
claim Resi[lience]stance//……R2, Anyone Corpora-
tion, New York, pp. 55-62
Spuybroek, L 2008, The Architecture of Continuity, V2_-
Publishing, Rotterdam
[1] http://www.danieldavis.com/a-history-of-paramet
ric/
[2] http://www.shaviro.com/Blog/?p=756
[3] http://kokkugia.com/
[4] http://drl.aaschool.ac.uk/portfolio/plugin/

228 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1

Complexity and Simplicity
Tensions in teaching computation to large numbers of architecture students

A. Benjamin Spaeth1 , Theodoros Dounas2 , Joachim Kieferle3

1
Cardiff University 2 Xi'an Jiaotong Liverpool University 3 Hochschule RheinMain
1
spaetha@cardiff.ac.uk 2 theodoros.dounas@xjtlu.edu.cn
3
joachim.kieferle@hs-rm.de

This paper describes the challenges and approaches to introduce computational

thinking to a large and diverse group of architecture students during an
international workshop with 300 students from different cultural backgrounds and
educational levels, also integrating a diverse group of tutors whose computational
expertise varied extremely. The approach suggested articulating a design task
which enforced computational thinking but enabled different levels of engagement
with the computer as a tool. Hypothetically this would allow all participants to
engage with the computational thinking agenda regardless their computational
affinity even whilst applying analogue methods. Besides the intercultural
experience the workshop was successful in exposing a large group of students and
tutors to the concepts of computational design whilst accommodating different
learning preferences and engagement with the computer as a device.

Keywords: Computation Education, CAAD, Large Cohorts, Computational

Strategies

INTRODUCTION thinking and computational exploration within the

The paper presents the methods and results of a com-
putation and architecture international workshop in
collaboration with Hochschule RheinMain, Germany
and Xi'an Jiaotong Liverpool University located in
China. The workshop took place in Suzhou, one of
the biggest and fastest developing urbanisation ar-
eas in China in last 15 years, where the question of
fast and temporary urbanisation is immanent to pro-
vide living space for the thousands of migrant con-
struction workers building up the permanent settle-
ments. The number of students taking part in the
workshop was large, numbering 300, creating an ad-
ditional challenge to the delivery of computational
workshop for and by the students and faculty. The
workshop was a one week design exercise where stu-
dents from different years and levels of the two differ-
ent schools from Germany and China participated in
vertically integrated group.
TEACHING COMPUTATION
Teaching computation in Architecture is challeng-
ing. It seems that everyone is expecting some fail-
ure and some success in project based teaching in
Architecture, more so in CAAD (Brown 2002). CAD
teaching has developed from a learned skill-based

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 229

 approach where the target was the emulation of
the productive capacities of a drafting department
of an architecture office, with few enlightened ed-
ucators driving towards the design rather than the
drawing fraction of CAAD. (Clayton et al 1999) Com-
putation has been used in various supporting roles
in architectural courses, from straightforward archi-
tectural design studio graphics and representation
(Iwamoto 2004) to structures, construction, technol-
ogy and any other technical aids. The major chal-
lenge in CAD teaching has been identified as to move
from the application of a digital tool employing inef-
ficient routines to a deeper understanding of com-
putation and the inherit core strategies. In archi-
tecture this seems to be significantly different since
architects are very likely to apply the "production
bias" which detains them from getting deeper into a
subject than needed for the job to be done (Senske
2014). At the same time CAAD instructors have de-
veloped a variety of strategies to assist students to
understand and acquire CAAD skills and deeper un-
derstanding of computation in architecture. These
strategies range from a fundamental position where
CAAD is buttressing architectural composition (Flem-
ming 1989) to reflections of a linguistic nature (Cicog-
nani 2000, Cheng 1997); from technology being the
driver (Bechthold 2007) to software seen as an envi-
ronment constructed for an ease of understanding by
novices (Gannon et al 2014); from CAAD as a driver for
energy performance analysis (Dvorak 1988) and from
integrating CAAD courses vertically in the curricu-
lum (Bollinger 1987) to offering CAAD as a separate
form of architectural design. For many CAAD courses
there has been a chronic time-lag between the de-
velopment of a method or tool and its introduction
into the curriculum- (Clayton et al 1999). Apart from
the variety of responses this last point effectively ar-
gues for the alignment of CAAD research with teach-
ing it in the classroom, in the hope that such cross-
pollination would also allow optimisation of the state
of the art in skills of architectural graduates. This
notion will also hopefully advance the CAAD profes-
sional practice. However there are very few studies
230 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
in the literature focusing on what exactly students
learn through courses in computation in architecture
schools worldwide (Hemsath 2010, Senske 2014).
The educational workshop presented here is to
introduce computational thinking and designing at
the core of the curriculum, the design studio. The stu-
dio was organised as a vertical studio including the
entire first and second year students of the hosting
institution as well as all their tutors. The tutors in-
volved in the workshop though were in the majority
not computational literate which put an additional
challenge to the pedagogical concept. Avoiding to
be caught in an ideological clash with the 'analogue'
mode of teaching which most of the participating
staff was used to, the computational and paramet-
rical thinking was introduced rather through man-
ual and analogue means than through using com-
puters. This challenge was approached by shaping
and restricting the design exercise as to computa-
tional thinking and means are almost impossible to
avoid. Computational thinking was required to set up
a flexible urbanisation system from containers which
could adapt to diverse situations by identifying and
including recurrent parameters into the design sys-
tem. The brief required students to develop a com-
putational approach not by using computers or soft-
ware but by developing a computational and para-
metric concept which was immanent to the design
brief by its given boundary conditions and the avail-
able variables.
Large Group Teaching
This workshop was conceived to introduce not only a
small group of selected students with an already ex-
isting particular interest in architectural computation
but to reach as many students as possible to intro-
duce them to computational thinking in architecture
and to rise their awareness of its potential, its appli-
cation to design where students might have not ex-
pected it and to degrade students potential reserva-
tions against architectural computation.
Facing the large amount of students, numbering
around 300, along with a diverse educational level,
or lack thereof in computational tools amongst stu-
dents and tutors it was a challenge to set up a ro-
bust enough design task which demanded for com-
putation related thinking but was not only based on
the use of computer or software so as also computer
averse staff could tutor a student group. The work-
shop had tutorial groups of 20-25 students with one
tutor guiding each group. In each group teams of
five or four were created, each one having to de-
velop one project responding to the brief and using
computational concepts and tools. We had about
12 tutorial groups formed, with only about half be-
ing versatile in classic CAD tools and only three tu-
tors being educated in the advanced use of compu-
tational tools. Therefore the container was conceived
as to act as an invisible unit of computation, where
the creation of diverse grammars and syntaxes would
emerge from the experimentation with this compu-
tational unit within the set boundary conditions even
without using the computer to model the systematic
and algorithmic thinking.
The Brief
The brief asked students to develop a small city hous-
ing 2000 people across a water way between Suzhou
and the town of Zhou Zhuang, in China which locates
in one of the fastest and largest Chinese urban de-
velopments at the moment. With a reference to his-
toric urban developments along the main rivers and
canals in China and by identifying the water ways
as efficient means of transportations one of the de-
termining boundary conditions was to develop the
settlement along the great canal between the two
permanent settlements. The second determining
boundary condition was the given size of standard
overseas containers and the immanent variations of
stacking them. Furthermore it was determined that
the containers are shipped by the floating barges
only and can only be set by a specific container crane
mounted on the barges. The ship, used for container
distribution, was assumed that it could place a con-
tainer no further or higher than 4 lengths of a con-
tainer from the bank of the canal, and no more than
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 231
10 lengths across the axis. The crane was deemed ex-
ceptionally high and could place up to six contain-
ers in height. The stakeholders are people of high
mobility in the Chinese urban context (migrant work-
ers, students, early career professionals, freelancers
or similar occupants). The mix and the needs of the
occupants are part of the variables students had to
define in setting up their parametric system. Also
the different topologies which could be found along-
side the canal needed to be included into the algo-
rithm. The utilisation of a modular system consisting
of containers was a means to support students' focus
on computational thinking since the containers of-
fer natural points of connection and embedded con-
straints. They are units that facilitate bottom up de-
sign concepts but at the same time they are architec-
tonic through their inherently specific physical con-
straints and possibilities by design.
The high level strategy in developing an urban
settlement should be inherently three dimensional
and allow for the connection to the plots/sites of
neighbouring teams. So the teams should agree on
and share their specific boundary conditions of their
developed concept.
Strategies and Computational Tools Em-
ployed
We provided to all students introductory sessions to
the computational tools and made the tools as sim-
ple to use as possible. The computational platform
selected for the workshop was Rhino with Grasshop-
per. The faculty prepared parametric definitions on
grasshopper using separately cellular automata and
L-systems, which allowed the students to design us-
ing prescribed definitions. We used the rabbit plug-
in to be able to encapsulate high level computa-
tion on cellular automata in simple parametric de-
cisions. The parametric definitions were well docu-
mented and sufficiently transparent so that the stu-
dents would be able to employ them and under-
stand the ramifications of their decisions in changing
strategies or changing parameters. At the same time
the code was accessible enough for students to inter-

vene on a more fundamental level if applicable. At
the beginning of the workshop an instructional ses-
sion on using the parametric definitions was given to
the students in groups of about 50, repeating the ses-
sion 6 times. Essentially the tools were templates that
the students could use. They could stay within the
confines and constraints of the template or as some
did tweak and explore more outside the frameworks
we provided.
RESULTS
The project 'Floating City' (Figure 1) employed not
only the computational tools provided by the teach-
ing team but the students also developed their own
narrative of a floating city and a container gram-
mar. It was noted that the grammar works on two
scales, in assembling the containers into islands as
autonomous entities and on a second level into as-
sembling these islands into a city as a larger com-
232 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
Figure 1
'Floating City'.
munity. Students demonstrated the use of compu-
tational thinking on an internal level organising the
islands as independent entities with the internal rule
set applied to the elements and on an external level
where they identified interdependencies between
the autonomous islands and the environment artic-
ulated into a parametric system to be applied to dif-
ferent situations. Architectonically the work was also
successful in terms of completeness and aesthetics.
The students of the 'Circular High Mobility City'
(Figure 2) approached the task by introducing a
twofold zoning with a commercial zone facing the
land side and the residential zone facing the canal.
This provided a systematic different urban quality
to the different zones, introduced a public space
between the zones and allowed for different pat-
terns within the two zones to emerge. Although the
project was presented as a closed ellipse the poten-
tial to be populated along the canal in different ex-
tensions is self-evident.
 The project 'Floating City 2' (Figure 3) is a representa-
tive of a grid like approach. Although the computa-
tional approach would allow for overcoming a grid in
favour of a flexible system of relational objects this
group of students approached the task by deploy-
ing a topologically flexible grid onto the project site.
Determining service points and circulation routes the
grid is then populated respectively with containers.
Figure 2
'Circular High
Mobility City'.
Having started from implementing and adapting
the provided L-system, combining it with the historic
quadratic elementary form of the Chinese traditional
city the group also ended up in a grid system (Figure
4). They conceived their grid as a rail system, where
the containers can be arranged according to occupa-
tional needs. However the automated mechanism is
supposed to fill the grid in the one or the other way

Figure 3
'Floating City 2'.
Flexible grid with
parameterised
container
deployment.

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 233

 Figure 4
Rigid grid with
flexible container
deployment
controlled by user.

234 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1

Figure 5
'Nest City'. Two
overlapping system
patterns.

the basic principle remains the grid. This system here
was conceived as an adaptable and controlled sys-
tem within the rigid grid, whereas the before men-
tioned grid was adaptable to the found topology.
Figure 6
'Nest City'.
Inspired by the perforation of karst formations and
anthills a student group developed a linear pattern
which took into account daylight, topographic con-
ditions, functional aspects as well as density consid-
erations (Figures 5, 6). Based on a closed block defini-
tion the group loosened the block structure to aerate
it but also extended it into a basically infinite ribbon
that could be knitted along the canal. The repetitive
pattern includes a conscious and also repetitive dis-
ruption formed by central public services. In terms
of computational thinking this represents an inter-
esting approach since the continuity is the standard
case and the disruption is the exception which takes
a deeper understanding since a continuous pattern
needs to be overlapped with a second layer defining
the disruptions.

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 235

 CONCLUSION
The projects presented in the final presentation were
of a great diversity and reflected students' outstand-
ing engagement with the task. Despite the large
number of students and the assumingly neutral
interest to computational methods in architecture
amongst the majority of the students and tutors the
engagement with the design task but also with the
implicit computational agenda was on a high level.
Although it was difficult to control the groups and
in particular the tutors' interpretation of the design
task the assignment was robust enough to engage all
groups into a systematic and algorithmic approach,
at least in a wider sense. Due to the container as
a computational unit and the set boundary condi-
tions most of the groups engaged with the intended
computational agenda. The consciousness of the
agenda amongst the students may vary but we re-
ceived feedback from students that explicitly referred
to the workshop and how it was inspiring for a regular
housing studio in the course of their studies.
The simplicity of the interface of the computa-
tional agenda to the participating students and tu-
tors facilitated the engagement of the large majority
of participants, students as well as tutors. The level
of complexity behind the computational agenda was
to be uncovered by the groups themselves; on an in-
tellectual level as well as on the level of engagement
with the computational tools provided.
On a next workshop we hope that we can use the
massive number of students as 'live design agents'
to solve architectonic problems. Instead of pro-
gramming computer agents we can use the inte-
grated power of human and analogue computing to
attempt complicated solutions to design problems.
This of course can only happen if we still employ the
same strategy as here: common computational tem-
plates, where the common platform is an advantage
leading to diverse solutions rather than a disadvan-
tage constraining the participants.
236 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
REFERENCES
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Parametric Design and Interactivity.', Predicting the
future, Frankfurt/Main, pp. 767-775
Bollinger, E 1987 'The New Studio: CAD and the Work-
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Aided Architectural Design', 20th eCAADe Conference
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Cheng, NYw 1997 'Teaching CAD with Language Learn-
ing Methods', Acadia 97, Cincinnati, OH
Cicognani, A 2010, 'Boxing architecture', Digital Creativ-
ity, 11(3), pp. 190-192
Clayton, MJ 1999 'Stumbling, Backtracking, and
Leapfrogging: Two Decades of Introductory Archi-
tectural Computing', Architectural computing from
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Flemming, U 1990 'Syntactic Structures in Architecture:
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chitectural Design Research in Asia, pp. 801-810
Hemsath, TL 2010 'Searching for Innovation Through
Teaching Digital Fabrication', Future cities, Z\"urich,
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Iwamoto, L 2004, 'Translations: Fabricating Space', Jour-
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Linking Computational Thinking and Digital Craft',
Proceedings of the 19th International Conference
on Computer-Aided Architectural Design Research in
Asia, pp. 831-840
From Designing Buildings from Systems to Designing
Systems for Buildings
Heike Matcha1
1
Aachen School of Architecture
1
Matcha@fh-aachen.de

We study the novel possibilities computer aided design and production open up
for the design of building systems. Such systems today can, via individualized
mass production, consist of a larger number and more complex parts than
previously and therefore be assembled into more complex wholes. This opens up
the possibility of designing specialized systems specifically for single buildings.
The common order of starting with a building system and designing a building
using this system can be reversed to designing a building first and then
developing a system specifically for that building. We present and discuss
research that incorporates students design projects into research work and fosters
links between research and teaching.

Keywords: Building Systems, Parametric Design, Parametric Modelling,

Structuralist Architecture

Systems not only allow us to think in an orderly fash-
ion, following a certain plan, but to be able think at all.
Georg Christoph Lichtenberg, 1776
Introduction and Background: Monotony
vs. Variety in Systematization
Every building has to be assembled from parts that
can be handled and transported. And bearing the
advent of large-scale on-site 3D printing or compa-
rable building technologies, the assembly of build-
ings from individual components (i.e. bricks, pan-
els, beams, girders) will remain an integral part of
architectural production. More generally speaking,
building designs have to be subdivided into com-
ponents that can be produced, transported and as-
sembled. The more those components are related to
one another, the better, because production, trans-
port, handling and assembling is simplified by reg-
ularities and made more difficult by irregularities or
differences between the parts or components. So in
a way, all building is systematic building and always
has been - starting from simple stone huts where
the individual stones are selected for similarity to
straw huts where the strands of straw are as equal
as possible, via the pyramids assembled from simi-
lar stones. The question is not whether a building is
systematic, but how much. In modern architecture,
much design started from industrialized production
methods, idealizing Henry Ford's automobile con-
veyor belts. Such Fordist mass production, though,
resulted in extremely regular, even monotone struc-
tures, because only parts equal to one another could
be produced. Systematizing production and there-
fore design meant minimizing variety, thereby maxi-
mizing monotony and anonymity. This, we propose,
was and is an important reason for the public dis-

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 237

 missal of much of modern architecture. As the ad-
vent of computer aided construction and production
today allows for the cost-neutral mass production of
variety, building systems can be seen in a new light:
systems can be much more complex, and therefore
monotony and anonymity avoided in favour of diver-
sity. We see the mass production of diversity in ar-
chitecture as a desirably goal because it can bring ar-
chitecture closer to the diversity found in the natural
environments (and to some extent, medieval town-
scapes) humans have evolved to feel comfortable
in. (Matcha 2015, Matcha and Barczik 2009, Matcha
2010, Matcha and Karzel 2013.)
238 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
Buildings from Systems or Systems for
Buildings ?
The possible conception and production of complex
building systems allows to reverse the relationship
between direction and design that has been preva-
lent in modern architecture (and still is in much of
current architectural production): the systems are de-
veloped first, aiming for greatest versatility, and ar-
chitects design their buildings using those systems.
The most famous example of such a building proba-
bly is the Mero Construction System. This procedure
has monotony inscribed in its core: through the avail-
ability of only one or merely a few types of compo-
nents. Today though, this 'classical' way can be re-
Figure 1
Designing with
Systems:
Experimental
preliminary student
studies, Aachen
School of
Architecture.
 versed. A system may be derived from a building de-
sign. This would have been non-sensical under the
paradigm of fordist mass production where the eco-
nomic goal was to reduce the number of parts as
much as possible. When variance can be mass pro-
duced, the parts can be different, and the systems
more complex and therefore individualized to a spe-
cific design project. Furthermore, instead of one sys-
tem having to be able to generate different types of
buildings (e.g. housing, schools, administrations), a
system may now be devised for ones specific build-
ing only. Even if every part is different, and only used
once, for just one building, the production would still
be cost-neutral in comparison to the 'classical' sys-
tems of identical parts due to the benefits of cus-
tomized mass production as long as the parts are re-
lated like relatives in a family. Instead of designing
buildings from systems, we can now design systems
for buildings.
Research project Overview
We study these novel systematization possibilities
through a series of hypothetical student design
projects. Building designs of varying complexity are
developed and then studied for possible segmenta-
tion into parts. In order to be able to be produced, the
parts need to be related to one another, like mem-
bers of a family. Such relationships can be devised via
parametric variation. Students are therefore familiar-
ized with parametric design concepts, tools and tech-
nologies. The back-and-forth between systems and
buildings is studied in both directions. Different com-
plexities and sizes of parts are studied together with
different means of connecting them. Assembly and
modular building systems from the 1960s and 1970s,
when many projects attempted to stretch the possi-
bilities of mass production to the limits, are studied
together with possibilities to extend them for more
variability.

Figure 2 A closer look at the research project and the

Designing with incorporation of student projects
Systems: The course consists of two parts, the first of which
Experimental has three lines of study running in parallel: First: be-
student studies for coming acquainted with parametric CAD tools. We
lamp designs, give an overview and choose to work with Rhino
Aachen School of and Grasshopper as they are widely used and easily
Architecture. contain the functionality we require. Second: Ana-
lyzing existing buildings for which building systems
have been used. The students understand how the
Figure 3 systems work, how the have been used and which
Experimental shortcomings they have - mostly, with 'classical', non-
pavilion design, customized systems, the architects striving to escape
Physical and Digital monotony, thereby working against an aspect that
Models, Student lies in the systems' principle. Third: Playfully creat-
Project by Markus ing a simple design from a readily available simple,
Schöps and Ramon even primitive, building system: matches (Figures
Pardo Vaquez . 1 and 2). The students experience the possibilities
Aachen School of and restrictions of a tightly constraining building sys-
Architecture. tem literally at first hand. For us, it is very important
that the students work in several media in parallel.
Using their hands to immediately create something
physical facilitates a much richer understanding than

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 239

 purely mediated work. Especially the spatial possibil- of building. Apart from versatility with current design
ities are - as a matter of course, perhaps - much easier tools, conceptual understanding and a reversal of the
to explore in a three-dimensional medium (physical direction of thought are necessary.
models) than in a multi-dimensional medium (CAD)
that is, however, forced through a two-dimensional Figure 4
means of representation (computer screens). Experimental
The second part of the course consists of the de- pavilion design,
sign of a simple pavilion (Fgures 3-5). It should be sit- Physical and Digital
uated near our architecture faculty's buildings, con- Models, Student
tain a summer café and multifunctional gathering Project by Zeinab
space for students and visitors and serve as a physical Shehin and Jasmin
display for the ongoings with the faculty. This design Wilkens, Aachen
should consist of individual components that are var- School of
ied, and these variations should be systematized. The Architecture.
students are to start with a geometrical shape that
Figure 5
fulfills the desired functions and then develop a sys-
Experimental
tem for the components. In order to be able to fo-
pavilion design,
cus on working on and with the systems, we restrict
Physical Models
the building's functionality to that of an enclosure, a
showing
shell, without the need for internally separated indi-
parametrized
vidual rooms. In the design of the pavilions the stu-
system component
dents employ their newly learned skills in parametric
and advanced geometrical modelling and work back
REFERENCES and whole
Buri, B. and Weinand, Y. 2008 'Origami - Folded Plate assembly, Student
and forth between building design and systems de- Structure, Architecture', Proceedings of the 10th Project by Hanieh
sign. Eventually, the designs are build in medium- World Conference on Timber Engineering, Miyazaki Erden and Hanieh
scale physical models, and CAM methods used. Engel, H. 1997, Tragsysteme I Structure Systems, Gerd
Hatje, Ostfildern Yousefipak, Aachen
Outlook Iwamoto, L. 2009, Digital Fabrications - Architectural And School of
In the future, we aim to extend the work in two spec- Material Techniques, Princeton Architectural Press, Architecture.
New York
tra: Firstly the size and performance of the individ-
Matcha, H. 2015 'Parametrized Systems: Conceiving of
ual building components. So far, they are merely able Buildings as Assemblies of Varied Parts', Proceedings
to be assembled into two-dimensional enclosures of of eCAADe 2015, Vienna
one specific size and use. We want the systems to Matcha, H. and Barczik, G. 2009, 'Productive Processes', in
create more than one shape, more than one size of Agkathidis, A. (eds) 2009, Modular Structures in De-
enclosure that can contain more than one type of sign and Architecture, BIS Publishers
Matcha, H. 2010, 'Regelbasierte Planung - Parametrik',
function. Secondly, we want to study the possibili-
in Hauschild, M. and Karzel, R. (eds) 2010, Detail
ties of systems where the components already con- Praxis: Digitale Prozesse, Institut für Internationale
tain functional space. Larger-scale CAM methods like Architektur-Dokumentation
printers or robots for example weaving a material al- Matcha, H. and Karzel, R. 2013, 'Lehre als Praxis als
low for this. Our overall goal is to free the producers Forschung: 1:1 Entwicklung von Messeständen
of architecture from the mental constraints of fordist unter Einsatz parametrisierter Software und com-
putergesteuerter Herstellung', in Pahl, K.A. (eds)
mass production and the restrictions of pre-existing
2013, ECHT?! Zum Bezug von Praxis und Lehre in der
building systems without increasing the actual cost Architekturausbildung, TUDpress

240 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1

Ubiquitous Digital Repositories In the Design Studio
A Case study

Theodoros Dounas1 , Benjamin Spaeth2

1
Xian Jiaotong Liverpool University 2 Cardiff University
1
theodoros.dounas@xjtlu.edu.cn 2 SpaethA@cardiff.ac.uk

The paper investigates the usability and effect of a ubiquitous digital repository in
the architectural design process. Acknowledging the post-digital era where
students work with diverse media either digital or analogue, the project explores
the suitability of a digital log in augmenting conceptual thinking, feedback
provision and intellectual exchange by means of a studio in an architectural
undergraduate course. Students integrate a digital log into their workflow
resolving a design task of an architectural studio. A server-based repository
serves as students' individual archive as well as a share-point for peer-students'
informal exchange and tutors' feedback. The conclusion of the study is that
sketching and organization habits from the analog media the students have
learned persist even with a more digitally inclined generation. The use of digital
tools that obliterate the analog-digital division, holding the best of both worlds
are still subject to the constraints of timely introduction in the curriculum,
cultural resistance in terms of organization of a project and more so void of
experimentation in their use by students.

Keywords: digital repositories, Design Studio, hybrid media

INTRODUCTION in the project. The students were assigned a typical

The main goal of the case study was to examine the
effect of a ubiguitous digital log to record feedback
during design studio tutorials plus the experimen-
tation on digital sketching as a generative systems
during design production. The paper presents the
first part only of the case study concerning the use
of the system as a digital log. The case study took
place in Xian Jiaotong Liverpool University in the de-
partment of Architecture in the final year of the BEng
architecture programme. Two groups of 9 architec-
ture students at undergraduate level 3 participated
studio project representing the final year project of
their bachelor degree. The design tasks were generic
and formed exclusively a vehicle to conduct the pre-
sented research; one studio explores solutions for
a futuristic museum in 2050 concerned with contri-
butions of foreign and migrant workers to the lo-
cal society and the second studio develops propos-
als for a community and surf centre at the Australian
coast. The students were encouraged to integrate
the portable tablet and the ubiquitous digital repos-
itory into their design work. Students were not given

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 241

 special advice how to use the tablet and the reposi-
tory, but certainly were introduced into the general
functionalities. The digital repository (EvernoteTM)
and tablet (Apple iPad AirTM), were used as students'
design log during the whole process, offer multiple
functions, such as original content creation, organi-
sation features, document annotation and informa-
tion sharing opportunities. Apart from the students
also the two tutors supervising are equally equipped
with a tablet, pen and access to the ubiquitous repos-
itory for each student. The platform was able to
record all sketching data, whether performed of the
tablet or not, original image files, recording of con-
versations, video and photographs of models etc.
As such it was able to capture all possible informa-
tion and feedback loops during tutorials with the stu-
dents.
BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT
Studio/Learning design through digital sketching
has been well documented (Cheng 2005). Digital
sketching is a production tool already established in
other disciplines like animation or graphic design,
however architects continue to use analogue tools
in their education studio mostly because of the in-
herent conservatism of studio education, reproduc-
ing models of the late 19th-early 20th century. Ca-
pable architecture educators focus more on their stu-
dents' capacity to think rather than merely being pro-
ductive in a digital environment, as some times is re-
quired for example in the profession. This makes the
architecture studio an educational setting hostage to
the skills that students learn on their own, at times
enabling learning or at times constraining it within
the confines of specific software. Sketching however
is an interface that most students know and develop
within their education, while tutors persist in provid-
ing formative visual feedback using sketches. Sketch-
ing, even of questionable aesthetics or skill, provides
an immediate interface to express thoughts and con-
cepts in architecture, making it ideal as the platform
of communication in the tutor-student relationship.
Digital tools, from journals to CAD provide struc-
242 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
ture, organisation, plus the potential for augment-
ing a user's capacity to think via generative processes.
Thus the project proposes to augment formative vi-
sual feedback to the students but also introduce gen-
erative processes through an interface that is more
accessible than classic cad systems. Researchers in
the past have conducted protocol studies (Abdel-
mohsen et al. 2007), studies in automated under-
standing of design drawings (Achten 2005) Stud-
ied drawing sequences to deconstruct the manner
in which architects draw, (Cheng 2005) and earlier
have tested CAD platforms as a means for architec-
ture 'sketching', leading to a distinction between cre-
ative & productive sketching and 're-creative or re-
productive' sketching (Daru 1991) The innovation in
this case does not lie in the employ of digital tools
per se (Hannibal et al. 2004), but in situating the
digital sketching in an orchestrating role, early in ar-
chitectural production where both teacher and stu-
dent use it formatively. As such the current paper
presents the results of the ubiquitous digital repos-
itory side of the project rather than the mechanics,
learning and output of digital sketching per se. To our
knowledge from literature the integrative approach
to digital sketching has not been attempted before
and has the potential to provide innovative, new, in-
sights into studio education. We take the position
that the analogue-digital threshold is no longer clear
in our era in both architectural design and education
(Martens et al. 2006). The students and practitioners
of architecture are employing hybrid blended media
from the beginning to the end of a project in the anal-
ysis, composition, generative and production phases.
Digital repository and log
The main platform that we tested in the project is
EvernoteTM, as a 'capture everything' repository of
the design studio. Examining sketching as an or-
ganization and production tool, we equipped the
students also with Ipad tablets and pressure sensi-
tive pens from Wacom. The tablets were not essen-
tial for input as all other devices compatible with
Evernote were used such as mobile phones, desk-
top and laptop computers etc. The inclusion of
hand drawing was one notable feature in the sense
that students could either take high resolution pho-
tographs of their sketches or scan their hand drawn
sketches an upload into Evernote. An external ser-
vice provider hosting unlimited space for clients' use
provides the server based digital log. The tablets
have a client software package (EvernoteTM 5.8.8.x)
installed. The client is integrated into other software
packages on the tablet thus information and docu-
ments processed in other applications can be trans-
ferred, stored and edited within the digital design
log. The server-client system can handle all types of
media such as pictures, text documents, audio and
video recordings. The Evernote clients provide direct
annotation opportunities to text or picture/image
documents. Pictures from the camera i.e. can be di-
rectly transferred to Evernote and edited and shared
within the application. Evernote can also directly
process screen shots and webcam captures. The soft-
ware also offers organisation opportunities to struc-
ture project information and design processes. Notes
can be titled and assigned to subject areas. Students
also can tag specific items with different tags. The
graphic interface allows filtering and organising the
information according to the multilevel structure ap-
plied to the project and its related notes respectively.
A chat room allows students and tutors to discuss up-
loaded notes online. Sophisticated sharing options
enable students and tutors to control accessibility for
notes and chats individually. Students were offered a
general introduction to the system to understand the
working principles and potentials of the proposed
systems. Students were not advised specifically how
to use the system since students developing individ-
ually different approaches and uses of the system is a
major objective of the research. Therefore only a gen-
eral introduction to the functionalities of the system
was given.
HYPOTHESIS
At the beginning of the project we made a series of
hypotheses which the project and its methods were
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 243
based on. The first hypothesis we developed was that
the amount of digital sketching would increase with
the availability of the tablet and the ubiquitous digi-
tal repository. We also as a second hypothesis spec-
ulated that the students of this generation are digital
natives so they would integrate not only the tablet
but also other digital devices at their hands such as
mobile phones. Furthermore we assumed that the
students are handy in the integral use of different
types of media and their hybridisation. As a conse-
quence of the ubiquitous availability of information
and the unlimited opportunity of collecting informa-
tion, inspiration and feedback we assumed that stu-
dents will take advantage by increased frequency of
feedback requests and shared work in progress, in
peer groups. The possibilities in organising informa-
tion on different levels and the implicit opportunities
to structure the design process explicitly in different
ways suggest that this might have impact on the de-
sign process or on the awareness of the non-linear
nature of design processes. In essence we hypothe-
sised that we would see many different modes of use
of digital sketching and many different models of or-
ganising information and output in the design stu-
dio.
RESEARCH METHOD
The method we used for validation was a triangula-
tion method from the experience and opinion of the
students participating in the project, the grounded
observation of the tutors through the project and
the evaluation of the full data set produced through
the project. 'Methods triangulation' (Perone et al.
2003) refers to employing different qualitative and
quantitative research methods so that the hypoth-
esis is examined from multiple vantage points and
dimensions. The purpose in using a methodolog-
ical triangulation to examine the hypothesis is to
compensate and overcome the weaknesses inher-
ent in each single social qualitative method of re-
search. (Maginn 2008) It also leads to more reliable
research findings in social sciences as triangulation
allows for the design of a multifaceted, cross vali-
 dated research project (Carey 2009). This entails a
combination of qualitative and quantitative meth-
ods. The first method was based on running a de-
tailed questionnaire through the 18 participants in
the project. (Maginn 2008). The second method was
based on grounded observations of the researchers
during the tutorials and the development of the fi-
nal year project using the platform (Carey 2009). The
third method was based on the quantitative and
qualitative validation of the first two methods, but
due to space constraints is only present as sum-
marised evaluations in the discussion. It is essen-
tially an examination of the artefacts produced by the
students in terms of qualitative classification of their
work, verification of their understanding of the use
of the platform by looking into the combined results
of their project work and the sketching feedback, the
measurement of frequency of commit logs in terms
of the devices used etc.
STUDENT FEEDBACK
Retrospectively students are asked to reflect on their
experience and on the impact of the proposed
approach to their design approach and sketching
habits. The questionnaire was completed by 18 stu-
dents (100% of the participants). The online ques-
tionnaire included 17 questions. Qualitative ques-
tions are set with ratings from 1 to 5, where the rat-
ing always is qualified with a description respectively.
All quantitative questions are followed up with a field
for qualitative specifications on the qualitative ques-
tion. Figure 1 presents the answers to the first ques-
tion, on what kind of log method the students used
before they participated in this study.
All students reported that their previous studio
was predominately organised by a physical sketch
book where students either bound loose collections
of paper or directly sketched into the book. On the
question what role sketching plays in the design pro-
cess, without distinction between digital or manual
sketching, most students underline the importance
of sketching in design. (Figure 2)
The importance of sketching in early conceptual
244 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
design stages is rated with an average of 4.1. Qual-
itative comments reveal sketching to be mostly un-
derstood as a tool of communication. Most students
emphasise the importance of sketches to make ideas
or processes explicit to others; in particular to share
their work with tutors. Some also understand sketch-
ing as a way to structure design thinking in partic-
ular and design processes in general for their own
purposes. Few students relate their sketching with
inspiration. Four students explicitly refer to sketch-
ing as a mean to keep record of their design ideas.
In reflection of how this communicative aspect of
sketching was captured into evernote according to
the students, figure 3 shows that the main uses were
to maintain a feedback loop with the tutor and but
also as a repository of all files.
9 students used the Evernote log as a diary where
the design process and tutor feedback was organised
continuously time based. 5 students organised their
log not according to timelines but implemented dis-
tinct design ideas as the underlying organisational
structure. The remaining 4 students were not ex-
plicit in their reflection on their organisational use
of the digital repository.On the comparison between
the organisational model of digital repository and
process to the common manual approach students
referred more to the difference in the nature of the
materials rather the organisational model. However
students appreciated the feasibility and ubiquitous
availability of the produced material if included in the
digital repository. Others emphasise again the qual-
ity of the repository as a means of communication.
Few reflected on the repository as a means to ease
exploration of "fragmented design ideas" which may
be lost in a physical archive, as it can be seen in figure
4.
Physical work was mostly included into the
repository through photographs or scans. Only one
student reported on editing and working actively
with the scans and photographs retrospectively the
upload. One student seems to completely omit the
use of physical models and reports that all his work
was only created digitally. In general the students
Figure 1
Dominating log
method used
before the case
study.

have not identified a significant difference in their
organisational model applied in previous physical
repository to the now digital one. All emphasise
again the ubiquitous and non-physical character of
the repository enabling easy transport and availabil-
ity of the design material. All students have com-
plemented the tablet software selection according
to their needs. Seven students explicitly report that
they have use the tablet for reading and therefore
installed software accordingly. All students have in-
stalled software to ease sketching on the pad. Some
have several applications other just went with the
recommended one. 5 students admitted that they
have installed also software for entertainment or per-
sonal use. Only 2 students have installed technical
drawing software packages and only 1 person report
on mind map software to support the structuring and
organisation of ideas and thoughts. Almost two third

Figure 2
The role of
sketching and
drawing in the
design process.

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 245


of the students (11) used the repository also for self-
organising purposes such as to-do-lists, reminders or
timetables. 4 students even reported to use the dig-
ital repository not at all for self-organisation. The re-
maining 4 made use of the self-organising capacities
only occasionally or seldom. On a scale from 1 to 5
("not helpful at all" to "extremely helpful") the aver-
age rating for the helpfulness of the proposed to the
design process was established at 4 ("very helpful").
Qualified comments on this question again empha-
sise the feasibility and all time availability of the cre-
ated material. Students who didn't rate high on the
helpfulness unfortunately weren't able to articulate
the shortcomings in a qualified way. Also sometimes
qualitative comments are not or not completely in
accordance to the qualitative numerical rating. An
overall overview of how physical design utput was in-
cluded into Evernote is presented in Figure 5.
TUTORIALS OBSERVATION
As reported by most of the students in the ques-
tionnaire the digital archive was foremost used as to
share their work in progress with the tutors. It was
evident from discussions, the tutorial work, and con-
firmed by the questionnaires that students very often
uploaded their work imminently before the tutorial
246 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
Figure 3
How students used
Evernote.
would take place. These uploads where mostly pa-
per sketches or photographs of models. Very seldom
the sketches or photographs were worked over in the
digital sketching application. We could also observe
that, despite the students' contrary confirmation in
the questionnaires, students had difficulties to actu-
ally orient well in their repository. We have observed
that in most cases the students had such difficulties
because of missing organisational structure where
tags, titles and subject assignments were not used.
A restricting factor in the whole process was indeed
the internet connection. Since the sketches drawings
and pictures demand a minimum level of quality an
immediate upload and editing process was mostly
not possible. Only students who were well prepared
in advance, uploading their material constantly and
not just immediately before the tutorial could ben-
efit from direct comments, annotations and correc-
tions in the digital repository. Where digital interac-
tion was not possible, tutorials took place in a usual
way on paper and the output was retroactively then
scanned and fed into Evernote. This interruption in
the process and the reluctance of some students to
actually continuously use the repository as a working
platform concluded in some cases in a fragmented
record of works and feedback. The use of the tablet
Figure 4
Modes of
organisation in
Evernote.

Figure 5
How was physical
design output
included into
Evernote.

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 247

 as the main means in and the basis for tutorials in-
deed needed some time for adaption not only for the
students but also for the tutors. Doubtlessly the dig-
ital repository represented a great advance in moni-
toring students' progress, when upload was actually
conducted. And the absence of uploads was in most
cases also a helpful indicator for students facing chal-
lenges and obstacles in their design advances. In the
face to face tutorials we observed that student and
tutors equally referred not only to the digital and digi-
tised material but also and constantly to the physical
representations, making jumps between the digital
and the physical.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
We started the project with high hopes that the tools
were now in place to develop completely digital pro-
cesses in the architectural education studio. How-
ever the students were also too entrenched in modes
of operation and organization of production suited
in analogue processes. This created the situation
where a percentage of the students experimented in
some areas of content creation and feedback, some
others in making efforts to incorporate a linear as-
pect of organization or a folder like organization in
their projects. None made a totally effective use of
the software in a manner that took advantage of the
complete potential of the platform: For example us-
ing links between notes to organize relevant ideas
and sketches rather than folders, to create a tagging
system that then would rely on search to find exter-
nal references and relevant sketches or images. Al-
though we expected this generation, as digital na-
tives and familiar with touch interfaces and mobile
devices from an early age on, to grasp intuitively the
potential of an ubiquitous platform, and to engage
and create novel pipelines of information and organi-
zation in the studio, the students remained in a kind
of traditional studio behaviour. This effectively com-
municates that habits are entrenched from early on
in the design studio and are difficult to shift, thus
suggesting that the introduction of afore described
methods in the design studio would be most effec-
248 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
tive if introduced early and en mass in architectural
education. On the other hand the experiment did
show that the students responded positively when
provided with a repository and documentation sys-
tem that captures all information in their design pro-
cess. Even if they did not experiment extensively they
found the fact that no information was lost, even go-
ing back to discarded sketches that otherwise would
be lost during the design development, an occur-
rence that was rarely happening in the past. We
also found that since the students worked individu-
ally and not in teams peer feedback was not picked
up within the system, but relied in classic fashion in
verbal feedback between the students. One other as-
pect where the students did not take advantage of
the features the platform offers is exactly the record-
ing of voice and sound. As such there are almost
no sound recordings of tutorials or discussions in the
repositories. The provision of feedback stayed within
the institutionalized tutorial system, where 60% of
the students prepared their work right before the tu-
torials rather than in a continuous fashion. However
the remaining 40% who did take advantage of a con-
stant feedback loop provided by the digital reposi-
tory system considered this an advantage as they re-
ceived more continuous feedback and were not re-
liant only on the contact time. Another positive of
the system is that the tutor has the ability to overview
the whole production of the student, and situations
where the student falsely hides information thinking
they are not important are avoided. In the same vein,
students commented positively on creating their fi-
nal presentation by having a consistent format and
archive for all of their work, as it was already digi-
tized and ready to be placed into production. Further
afield we do see the value of an 'always on, always
accessible' digital design repository and it would be
great if we could use one with even more capacity
and capability in integration. Some ironically could
call this a BIM however BIM products do not currently
have the directness, ease of use and lightness of a
note taking system like Evernote. Concluding the
observations the advance of ubiquitous and mobile
digital devices in our everyday lives do not allow to
assume their use in the professional or educational
environment. Even when the hardware is provided
there seems to be a certain hesitation to use these
technologies i.e. in the design studio. Whether this
is due to already established habits and design rou-
tines or whether the methods are considered inferior
to the established methods could not be uncovered
in this study. Yet the fact that although the digital
devices were used but only to emulate traditional de-
sign methods to a digital media demonstrated the ur-
gent need to integrate a professional use of ubiqui-
tous media and tools into the design teaching.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to acknowledge the Teaching Devel-
opment Fund at Xian Jiaotong Liverpool University
and colleagues at the Academic Enhancement Of-
fice for supporting the project 'Digital Sketching as
a Generative System' that this paper is based on.
We would also like to acknowledge the support of
our colleagues Austin Williams and Marian Macken
for providing critical comments and support on this
work. The project 'Digital Sketching as a Generative
System' was recognised by Xian Jiaotong Liverpool
University with the 'Most Innovative Teaching Prac-
tice Award 2014-2015' after it was nominated by the
students.
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CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools
Computational Thinking and the Architectural Curriculum
Simple to Complex or Complex to Simple?

Guzden Varinlioglu1 , Suheyla Muge Halici2 , Sema Alacam3

1
Izmir University of Economics 2,3 Istanbul Technical University
1,3
{guzdenv|semosphere}@gmail.com 2 smhalici@hotmail.com

Recent trends in architectural education and practice have encouraged the use of
computational tools and methods for solving complex design problems. Newer
technology can augment the design process by applying progressively
more-advanced computational tools. However, the complex nature of these tools
can lead to students getting lost at the skill-building stage, they can become
trapped in computational design terminology, leading to designs of limited spatial
quality. This paper introduces a pilot study from Izmir University of Economics
(IUE) for the integration of computational design technology in the
undergraduate architectural curricula, based on a workshop series using a
top-down teaching strategy.

Keywords: Basic design, learning outcomes, keyword analysis, visual scripting

environment (VSE)

INTRODUCTION and Yazar (2007) present a graduate course entitled

With the widespread use of digital media, the inte-
gration of digital tools with architectural education
and discourse is a common topic for design educa-
tors. Open-source parametric and algorithmic design
tools are pushing the architectural design process by
challenging traditional pedagogical methods. Sev-
eral studies have been conducted in search of the
extents and methods by which digital tools are inte-
grated to the architectural curriculum. Oxman (2008)
presented an experimental design research studio on
"the exploration of digital architectural concepts" as
a pedagogical framework for educating the digital
architect. Ozkar (2007) offers a design teaching ap-
proach of "learning by doing" by integrating the no-
tions of design thinking and computing to the first
year of architectural design education. Colakoglu
"Designing the Design" focusing on computational
thinking and the new emerging language and meth-
ods of design. However, few studies display the out-
come of student learning via digital design and fabri-
cation courses which focus on the junior years of ar-
chitectural design education. Early interaction with
digital tools in the early stages of architectural cur-
ricula can serve to shape the remainder of the edu-
cation. To evaluate the computational approach for
foundational and architectural design education, this
paper aims to make a discourse analysis based on
the interrelations between the process and the out-
come of innovative student work from a workshop
series for first year basic design and architectural de-
sign students at Izmir University of Economics (IUE).

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 253

 OBJECTIVES AND METHODS
For several decades, design schools have incorpo-
rated CAD with design studio and non-studio sub-
jects (Mark et al. 2001). Some schools introduce
digital technology within isolated courses in order
to computerize drafting skills, while others integrate
computation to design studios. Kvan et al. (2004)
identify four levels of digital media interaction in
design curricula: general computer use, application
of digital media, engagement of design computa-
tion, and advanced exploration of design theory and
methods. Concerning these levels of interaction
with digital media, case studies at several universi-
ties for graduate (Schieck 2008) and undergraduate
programs (Duarte et al. 2012) expound the teach-
ing strategies and their merits. In Duarte, Celani
and Pupo's article, a comparison of two universities
with alternative methods for the integration of dig-
ital tools in design education display which strat-
egy to follow while changing the architectural cur-
riculum. Referring to Duarte's two examples, he de-
fines a discrete studio model with an updated com-
puter curriculum versus the traditional curricula with
a bottom-up approach. However, it is not clear
how the basic structures of design curricula need to
change in order to effectively incorporate state-of-
the-art technologies.
How do we allow for transformations that
would satisfy current advances in digital technolo-
gies within an established curriculum? One school of
thought is that such additions be piled-on towards
the end, when the basics of the traditional curricu-
lum have been covered thoroughly; the logic being
that students are sufficiently equipped in traditional
design methods to begin applying advanced digital
tools. More and more however, as these technologi-
cal advances are constantly being further developed,
we find students struggling to comprehend, never-
mind execute, the surrounding language. It would
appear, regardless of the connectivity between ar-
chitectural design and its digital methods, that the
skills of one are in fact rather remote from those of
the other.
254 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1
With this in mind, we explored two directions of skill
learning: top-down and bottom-up. As defined in
Sun et al. (2001), top-down learning goes from ex-
plicit to implicit knowledge, while bottom-up learn-
ing is the opposite; going from implicit to explicit
knowledge. In our case we wanted to explore the in-
teractions between the two types of learning, partic-
ularly in terms of one type giving rise to the other.
As part of an internal review of teaching practices
within the architectural department of IUE, we im-
plemented a set of intensive one-day workshops for
digital design, requiring no prior knowledge of soft-
ware language. For the first workshop, we posed
a simple first-year design problem to be solved by
relatively complex digital means including the digi-
tal fabrication of each model. Not only did the end
results prove more than satisfactory, the students
themselves quickly lost their initial nervousness and
reported enjoying the tasks.
BACKGROUND
The Faculty of Fine Arts and Design at IUE has a
first year curriculum based on an interdisciplinary
studio set-up for all departments; fashion, architec-
ture, interior architecture, industrial design, and vi-
sual communication design. Students in the first year
of their design education will experiment with mate-
rials and tools for the first time as, in Turkish educa-
tion, there are no basic design classes prior to univer-
sity. The design studio is at the core of architectural
education, where students are given design prob-
lems which have to be solved holistically through
background research and explorations in two and
three dimensional media. In the basic design curricu-
lum, shapes, forms, materials and tools are abstract
rather than referring to professional conventions. Ba-
sic design courses explore abstract formal composi-
tion, while technical courses emphasize new mate-
rials and processes as inspiration for innovative ar-
chitectural forms and structures. Independent from
professional disciplines, the curriculum is based on
teaching the designerly way of thinking. This peda-
gogy "learning by doing" is based on hands-on expe-
rience for deeper understanding of creative skills and
designerly knowing (Cross 2001).
Learning by doing, or experiential learning, is a
pedagogy based on hands-on experience rather than
uniform second-hand lectures to form a creative indi-
vidual (Ozkar 2007). Ozkar's pedagogical framework,
based on the Middle East Technical University (METU)
basic design program, describes the pedagogy that
we follow in IUE. Following Bauhaus pedagogical ap-
proaches developed by Walter Gropius in 1922, the
first year of basic training in the Art and Design Studio
FFD 101/102, students experiment with color, shape
and materials, with no specific functional or spatial
requirements (Kvan et al. 2004). Running parallel
with this studio class, another studio approach is In-
troduction to Architecture (ARCH 101/102) which fol-
lows the Ecole des Beaux Arts approach. Often, stu-
dents are given a group of precedent buildings to
analyze through plans, sections, and elevations from
which they are expected to build scale models. The
students learn from precedents, not only evaluated
by skills and mastery of representation tools, but also
by articulating the formal, spatial, and material con-
tent of architectural ideas. In FFD 101/102, students
are encouraged to produce their own creative de-
signs based on their subjective perceptions, as op-
posed to ARCH 101/102, where students draw inspi-
ration from existing designers and architects.
In terms of course schedule and credits, the em-
phasis is placed on FFD 101/102. A deeper insight
to "learning by doing" will help us to explore the
teaching strategy in our university. A design studio
is an atelier "environment where students test out
theories, ideas, materials, constructions, and similar
productions, as part of their design process" (Ozkar
2007). Directly introducing tools and materials, this
pedagogical model aspires to develop the craft that
a designer needs by testing visual and spatial quali-
ties. Following the discrete model curriculum, tradi-
tional design tools such as technical drawing, card-
board modeling and free-hand sketching, are intro-
duced to students in separate first-year classes which
enable them to work on basic design tasks. Due
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 255
to the emphasis on interdisciplinarity and transdis-
ciplinarity for first year, the second year design stu-
dio focuses on spatial relations, functional require-
ments and structural integrity, on a more architec-
tural design language. Following the same Bauhaus
pedagogical methodology, second year gradually in-
troduces the architectural thinking. However, digital
tools are rarely introduced in the studio classes, but
rather as separate supportive courses.
To date, computational thinking is not fully in-
tegrated to the curricula. The interdisciplinary ap-
proach has brought interactive pedagogical teach-
ing methods and a need for independent profes-
sional classes for each discipline leading inevitably
to a discrete studio model. This pedagogical model
brought the disadvantage of CAD/CAM courses be-
ing conducted independently of the main design stu-
dio, leaving computing as an add-on. A good ex-
ample would be the FFD Computer Aided Techni-
cal Drawing course which teaches technical drawing
skills to students via computer. Based on student
evaluation of the separate first year CAD classes and
observations made in their second-year architectural
design studio, we decided to search for ways of in-
tegrating CAD/CAM tools into the design studio. To
avoid the disadvantages of the discrete studio model,
computational design tools and methods were ap-
plied in one-day workshops.
WORKSHOPS
The first-year workshop "magnetospheric(de) forma-
tions" was conducted as a single unit basic design
studio curriculum for all design students (Varinlioglu
et al. 2015). The challenge was to offer the same
complex computational design problem to all stu-
dents, having no prior experience in VSE or with
digital fabrication. For this workshop, we explored
cyclic relations among the computational definitions
of magnetic force, their applications to the form find-
ing process, and the fabrication of digital models by
laser cutter. Given the simple design scenario of an
outdoor park, students were asked to design a chil-
dren's playground by deconstructing and exploring

the holistic algorithm of a magnetic field. With a
scenario borrowed from the more complex gradu-
ate level, we introduced the definition of magnetic
behavior with few contextual requirements or er-
gonomic concerns, within the Grasshopper VSE. Pre-
cooked Grasshopper definitions and the given de-
sign task allowed students to explore computational
analytical thinking and designing methods, while
pushing them to experiment with forms by changing
parameters. The workshop would only accept digital
fabrications created with the CAD/CAM tools avail-
able in the modeling lab. These constraints allowed
students to focus on exploring iterations of the free-
form design, while introducing a level of freedom as
the craft of model making would be augmented by
the CAD/CAM tools (Figure 1).
The second-year workshop "VERTICalgorithm"
256 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1
Figure 1
Process of student
work from the first
workshop.
continued with parametric modeling as an augmen-
tation of the first workshop. This intensive one
day workshop focused on altering part of the Izmir
cityscape, the silhouette of the historical "Asansor"
region. This site is well-known for its urban elevator, a
functional historical structure that connects two lev-
els of the city. Today, besides functional usage, the
Asansor also serves as a touristic destination, but the
bare cliff still remains as a background to the site. The
objective of this study was to design vertical circu-
lation elements in urban scale and to decide on the
level of intrusion with respect to topography, land-
scape, urbanscape and historical cityscape (Figure 2).
For this workshop, requiring a little experience
in VSE's and digital fabrication tools, students were
given a slightly more complex design problem. Us-
ing the same VSE as for the first workshop, the fo-
Figure 2
Design and
fabrication process
from the second
workshop.
 cus was on making renovations to the vertical back-
drop of the historical region. In contrast to the first
workshop, students had to deal with a given topog-
raphy within an urban context related to their ar-
chitectural design studio project. Borrowed from a
graduate level computational design studio, five key-
words were given for this second workshop: force
(magnetism), seed, fold, parasite, and melt. The pre-
cooked Grasshopper definitions were given for three
keywords (force, melt and parasite), while the rest of
the groups searched and created their own VSE defi-
nitions. Besides five compulsory keywords from com-
putational design, we mentioned additional archi-
tectural/design keywords to help students develop
initial design ideas. These keywords were paired with
similar keywords from computational design termi-
nology, as in: cityscape/urban context, architectonic-
s/form, swarm behavior/pedestrian movement (Fig-
ure 3).
INSTRUMENTS
To observe the level of students' learning, data was
collected on their final products by four methods:
• Observing students' work process
• Completing questionnaires after students' fi-
nal presentations
• Conducting informal interviews with partici-
pants at the end of the desk critique
• Having jury members evaluate students work
Figure 3
Keyword analysis
matrix based on the
questionnaire of
the second
workshop.
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 257
The goal of the questionnaire was to emphasize dis-
course analysis based on keywords. We asked par-
ticipants to evaluate all eleven team projects based
on the presentation boards shared on the workshop
blog. The presentation boards included hand-drawn
sketches and models, the initial grasshopper defini-
tions, and the final CAD/CAM models which were
superimposed on a physical model of the histori-
cal landscape. In addition, open-ended questions
were included in order to reveal patterns of the stu-
dents' learning experience, as based on the key-
words. The students were then asked to analyze
their own work, as well as each-others work with
these given keywords. Further questions focused
on analyzing the work through basic-design versus
architectural-design terminology. The jury evalua-
tion of students' work included four dimensions of
the aesthetic, functional, environmental and compu-
tational aspects.
RESULTS
The expected result of the first workshop was to
equip students with analytic thinking through CAD/-
CAM tools, without colliding with their design skills.
This was achieved by a top-down teaching approach
for computer tools and a bottom-up approach in de-
signerly thinking. Simple design problems with few
constraints allowed students to concentrate on the
skill building process. The second workshop concen-
trated on design thinking with relatively complex de-
sign problems. Thus, from complex to simple, the VSE
allows the flexibility of dealing with more complex

design problems in second year.
Figure 4 shows the pre-cooked Grasshopper def-
inition given to two different groups. The first group
(group 1 "blocks" in Figure 3) researched various al-
ternatives within the same pre-cooked definition,
while the second group (group 5 "experience" in Fig-
ure 3) used minimum modification to this definition
by simply changing parameters and focusing on the
digital fabrication outcome. As a result, the first
group augmented the definition to a more spatial
level within the urban context, but had difficulty in
the digital fabrication stage. The second group tar-
geted the outcome much faster but ended up with
poor spatial quality. Based on the learning outcomes
of the second workshop, the variety of the keywords
given lead to free-form exploration of design ideas,
however creates no spatial diversity.
Later, the questionnaire proved that the first
group with little modification was a stronger exam-
ple of targeting the keyword as the reviewer students
258 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1
Figure 4
Two model
outcomes
generated from the
same pre-cooked
definition.
could accurately infer that they used the keyword
"force". The second group, resulted in an evolution to
the pre-cooked definition, and the reviewer students
were unable to say that they used the keyword force.
A further analysis was based on two keywords refer-
ring to the same concept, from basic design termi-
nology and complex computational thinking respec-
tively. As expected, students were seen to use famil-
iar terminology rather than those newly learned or
implemented from the workshops. In all, the tech-
nology helped produce fairly good computational re-
sults even if, at this initial stage, some students were
using the tools without appearing to build a great
deal upon the architectural discourse.
CONCLUSION
By means of a series of one-day intensive workshops,
without prior training, groups were introduced to
the basic concepts of parametric design thinking and
CAD/CAM tools. These groups then had the opportu-
nity to apply this knowledge to developing solutions
for the design problems posed. Having neither the
architectural nor computational experience to solve
design problems independently, the combination of
newly acquired skills was applied to great effect and
satisfactory solutions were created from this bottom-
up approach. However, when asked to choose from
more than one computational design keyword, they
struggled to develop their architectural design so-
lutions or to fabricate good physical models. Thus,
starting designs from single keywords and VSE defini-
tions resulted in more competitive and creative out-
comes during the design process. In that sense, we
propose to integrate the bottom-up approach which
proved so successful in the first workshop into our fu-
ture curriculum.
Looking towards the future, we aim to continue
with these workshops alongside the normal architec-
tural curriculum in an effort to ease computational
design methods into the everyday thinking of stu-
dents. To this end we are updating our curriculum to
include digital design classes at a basic design level.
Our initial effort of including computational thinking
into the architectural curriculum was through an up-
date in the computer aided classes, run separately
from the design studio. Within our curriculum, an
initial stage which includes computational tools to
first year students is achieved by the FFD Computer
Aided Technical Drawing course. As the name im-
plies, the course is intended to begin technical draw-
ing via computer. Besides design classes, this format
initiates the process of building computational skills.
By using a basic emerging form and by following the
parametric modeling and technical drawing tech-
niques, we experimented with inter-representational
tools of modeling, VSE, coding and representation
tools in the digital environment. Based on the learn-
ing outcomes of the students, a simple design prob-
lem was shown to help students explore computa-
tional thinking. In the coming years, a more thorough
analysis on students' learning outcomes will be re-
peated with this sample group of students until their
graduation.
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 259
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank, Bahar Durmaz, head of the
department and the design studio / CAD instructors,
Burkay Pasin, Ozgur Genca, Hugh Clarke, Lale Basarir,
Burcu Kor, Filiz Keyder Ozkan, Ozge Hazer, Ethem
Gurer.
REFERENCES
Colakoglu, B and Yazar, T 2007, 'An Innovative Design Ed-
ucation Approach: Computational Design teaching
for Architecture', METU Journal of Architecture, 24(2),
pp. 159-162
Cross, N 2001, 'Designerly Way of Knowing: Design Disci-
pline versus Design Science', Design Issues, 17(3), pp.
49-55
Duarte, J P, Celani, G and Pupo, R 2012, 'Inserting Com-
putational Technologies in Architectural Curricula',
in Gu, N and Wang, X (eds) 2012, Computational De-
sign Methods and Technologies: Applications in CAD,
CAM and CAE Education: Applications in CAD, CAM
and CAE Education, IGI Global, pp. 390-411
Kvan, T, Oxman, R and Martens, B 2004, 'Ditch-
ing the Dinosaur: Redefining the Role
of Digital Media in Education', Interna-
tional Journal of Design Computing, 7, p.
http://www.arch.virginia.edu/arch541/dinosaur.html
Mark, E, Martens, B and Oxman, R 2001 'The Ideal Com-
puter Curriculum', 19th ECAADe Conference Proceed-
ings, pp. 168-175
Oxman, R 2008, 'Digital Architecture as a Challenge for
Design Pedagogy: Theory, Knowledge, Models and
Medium', Design Studies, 29(2), pp. 99-120
Ozkar, M 2007 'Learning by Doing in the Age of Design
Computation', Computer-Aided Architectural Design
Futures (CAADFutures), pp. 99-112
Schieck, A F 2008 'Exploring Architectural Education in
the Digital Age: Learning, Reflection and Fexion',
26th ECAADe Conference Proceedings, pp. 861-870
Sun, R, Merrill, E and Peterson, T 2001, 'From Implicit
Skills to Explicit Knowledge: a Bottom-up Model of
Skill Learning', Cognitive Science, 25(2), pp. 203-244
Varinlioglu, G, Halici, S M and Alacam, S 2015 'Computa-
tional Approaches for Basic Design Education: Ped-
agogical Notes Based on an Intense Student Work-
shop', 19th SIGRADI Conference Proceedings, pp. 576-
580
Teaching Programming and Urban Complexity to
Architecture Students
Lukas Treyer1 , Daniel Zünd2
1,2
Chair of Information Architecture, ETH Zürich
1,2
http://ia.arch.ethz.ch
1,2
{treyer|zuend}@arch.ethz.ch

In this paper we present a framework that allows to introduce architecture

students to agent-based simulations in the context of urban planning. It provides
them with an understanding of how such simulations work by instructing them to
learn how to program and develop an agent on their own. Along with the
framework we explain our didactic concept of teaching
complexity-science-methods to students from other fields such as architecture. In
the discussion we report on that theory and practise should be alternated at very
short intervals. Additionally we emphasize the importance to teach a good
understanding of the capabilities of modelling and simulation tools, since
uneducated students tend to trust them too blindly.

Keywords: Programming, Crowd Dynamics, Urban Planning

INTRODUCTION ulation reflect, amongst others, visitors of the festival

Urban planning is a task dealing with many uncer-
tainties (Mustafa et al. 2015). It is hard to predict the
impact of decisions and the consequences of deci-
sions made. With modern technology, it is possible
to use the increasing computing power to reduce un-
certainties and to better understand the urban sys-
tem of interest.
This paper introduces a course held to architec-
ture students from different semesters and with dif-
ferent backgrounds. The aim of the course is to intro-
duce the students to simulations and give them in-
sights into how simulations can improve the urban
design process, but also rising awareness of the dis-
advantages of simulations. To be able to run the sim-
ulations on a student's computer we limit the scope
of the urban planning perimeter to the area of a latin
music festival in Zürich. The agents in the crowd sim-
with different needs.
In the course of the lecture series, students learn
how to use an agent-based modelling and simulation
framework, and all the tools that are needed to use
it. This means that students first are taught the pro-
gramming language that is later used in the agent-
based framework. Later in the lecture series, basic
concepts of complexity science are taught and the
change of perspective, introduced by it, is explained.
In the last part of the lecture series, the students have
to implement their own agent.
The implemented agents are finally run in the
framework and compared against each other. To mo-
tivate the students to invest some time into their im-
plementation, the simulation framework is set up in
a way that it is possible to directly compare the dif-
ferent implementations of the students. This is used

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 261

 to run a competition with all agents in one simula-
tion. The students with the strongest, longest living
agents receive a price.
DIDACTIC CONCEPT
In this section we describe the structure of the
course and explain the interplay between the three
main parts "programming for beginners", "design of
the festival layout", and "simulating complexity with
agents". The course breaks down into ten lessons,
four of which dedicated to the introduction of pro-
gramming for beginners, two to the design of the fes-
tival layout, three to the agent programming and one
to a final presentation.
The course addresses architecture students as an
addition to their regular design courses. It focuses
strongly on the programming rather than the de-
sign aspect. Nevertheless, we conceive it as impor-
tant that the course includes a short design exercise
to relate the simulation tools to traditional planning
methods. Also, this exercise introduces the few stu-
dents from other disciplines such as Mechanical En-
gineering and Integrated Building Systems to basic
concepts of architecture and design.
Programming For Beginners
We start the introduction to programming by point-
ing out the different way of how programming tasks
are tackled, compared to the traditional way archi-
tects cope with a task. By comparing computer sci-
ence with architecture we implicitly mention the de-
bate on the relation of design and science (Cross,
2001) in the sense that computer science emerged
out of physical / mathematical science as an engi-
neering discipline while architecture in the 20th cen-
tury gradually got more and more backed by en-
gineering sciences such as civil engineering. This
means that both disciplines require a domain knowl-
edge in order to design (software or buildings). For
the beginners in the course, we think it is important
to mention, that the skills they learn are not suffi-
cient to do software design. Yet they start to learn
the art of programming, the craftsmanship of com-
262 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1
puter science, comparable to drawing plans in archi-
tecture; even though way less expressive when com-
paring the immediate media "code" and "drawing".
So we need to prepare the architects to deal with a
textual representation of a language that is by far less
expressive than a spoken language or the graphical
language they know from architectural drawings and
that on top of that depends on many very strict syn-
tactical rules.
After explaining the building process in pro-
gramming, its concepts are introduced by focusing
on the key aspects "data types", "control structures",
"grammar rules". The taught programming language
is Processing/Java [1] and the students are also in-
troduced to Eclipse [2] in the first interactive step-
by-step exercise. In the second lesson we provide
an alternative approach. Having heard about the
concepts that are key to the flow of a program, stu-
dents are presented the syntactical elements: a list
of keywords and operators, an introduction to blocks
and statements and an explanation of the meaning
of selected characters and keywords such as ":" and
"class". The third lesson introduces object oriented
programming concepts since we heavily depend on
it using the simulation framework later in the course.
The third exercise accompanying this lesson asks stu-
dents to animate an object in the Processing frame-
work. The fourth lesson on programming introduces
the simulation framework, its structure and how to
use it in the course. In the sequence of the course this
is actually the fifth lesson with the fourth lesson giv-
ing an introductory overview on simulation methods
and complexity science.
Simulating Complexity With Agents
Before introducing the simulation framework, which
is later used in the course, students are introduced to
modelling, simulation, and complexity science. The
goal is that the students start to understand how sim-
ulations work, and how to interpret and use them in
urban planning. A key aspect of this part is to en-
courage a critical attitude towards computational ur-
ban simulation methods and make students aware
of what complex simulations are able of and what
not - similar to weather forecasts. They are taught
to treat simulations like sketches: imperfect images
that communicate an idea. And we raise the aware-
ness of the verification problem of simulation mod-
els. Thus they learn how to interpret the results of a
simulation and not just blindly trust the computer. It
became clear during the design exercise, that this is
a crucial part, when teaching modelling and simula-
tion to laypeople. This crucial part of educating ar-
chitectural students and introducing them to digital
simulation tools is further discussed in the discussion
section.
The last part of the course consists of implement-
ing agents for the agent-based simulation. Each stu-
dent has to implement his own agent. Implicitly it
should become apparent that they develop an agent
not as close to a real person as possible but an agent
that deals with the constraints set by the framework
in the most efficient way.
Design of a Festival Layout
To introduce the usefulness of modelling and simu-
lation to support design and planning task, students
have to plan the festival in a traditional way. The stu-
dents have to place 20 drink stands, 20 food stands, 8
toilets, 3 music stages as if they would in urban plan-
ning when defining land use zones. Additionally, the
students are divided into four groups, each of them
trying to optimize the festival layout according to one
of the following criteria: (i) flow of people; (ii) over-
all profit of all stands; (iii) number of happy people;
(iv) security. As not only architects may attend the
course and since the design task is very simplified,
the design can be visualized using office tools such
as MS PowerPoint or a scanned hand-drawn sketch; it
does not need to be a precise drawing. The designs
are then presented by explaining why they think their
design fulfills the assigned criteria best. The idea
of this exercise is to relate the traditional planning
methods to the subsequent task of programming an
agent that is competing against other agents in the
given simulation framework. As it turned out during
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 263
the course and as discussed in the discussion section
this exercise is also a valuable test for the critical atti-
tude we hope to induce earlier in the course.
SIMULATION FRAMEWORK
In this section we introduce the agent-based frame-
work for crowd simulations that was specifically im-
plemented for this course. We are aware that already
many agent-based modelling frameworks exist [4]
that simulate crowds, but we decided against using
an existing one for several reasons.
The main reasons to implement our own agent-
based framework are due to its educational pur-
poses. With our own implementation we are able
to show and explain the students important con-
cepts of software architecture, without the overhead
of already existing implementations in terms of num-
ber of classes and configuration files. The simplicity
of the framework and the number of lines of code
gives the students a chance to understand the whole
framework, and motivates them to do so. The frame-
work was implemented using Java/Eclipse [2] with
the Proclipsing plugin [3], using Processing [1] as the
visualization library.
Software Architecture
The architecture of the framework is implemented
to directly reflect important concepts of Object Ori-
ented Programming (OOP). Because the course did
not require any prerequisites from the student, the
focus was mainly on inheritance and polymorphism,
which we understand as the two most important
concepts of OOP. If the festival visitors are not
counted, the whole framework consist of 15 classes,
divided into three packages: the geometry package,
which contains all the classes that are directly related
to geometry; the agents package, which contains all
the different types of agents that are used in the sim-
ulations; and the main package, which only contains
the main class.
The main class sets up the whole program and
implements the functions that are needed for pro-
cessing, such as the setup and the draw methods,
 which set up the visualisation window and draw the Figure 1
state of the simulation, respectively. Pseudocode of the
The agents of the simulation are all implemented behavior of festival
within the agents package. The implementation of visitors.
the simulation is such, that all entities that are present
in the simulation are agents, i.e. the wall elements
(Walls), the entities that provide the needs (Needs),
and the visitor of the festival (Visitors). The base class
for all the agents in the simulation is the Agent class.
It defines the basic functions that all the agents in the
framework must implement.
The Walls are agents that are immobile and they
only limit the liberty of action of the Visitors. They are
used in the simulation to imitate the street canyons
and force the visitors to stay within them. The Needs
are agents that are immobile too, but have the capa-
bility to serve certain types of needs the visitors have, The direction the visitors walk during the simulation
and, in the here described version of the framework, is calculated with a simplified version of the social
represent drink stalls, food stalls, music stages, and force model (Helbing and Molnár, 1995). We drop
toilets. The Visitors represent the people that visit the most of the terms and use only the ones that are
festival and are the only mobile agents. They have needed to calculate the before described behavior.
the four needs which are served by the four Needs Each agent i has to solve the following system of
agent type. The needs have to be fulfilled within equations to know his new direction of walking, thus
a certain time, otherwise they will leave the festival his location after the next step:
again. d~xi (t)
= ~vi (t) (1)
dt
Simulation Dynamics d~vi (t) ∑
The framework we implemented models in the micro =F ~l + ~a
F (2)
j
dt
level. This means that every agent is simulated atom- (j6=qi)
ically. We do not assume any social interaction be- where ~ xi is the location of agent i at time t, ~vi the
tween the agents, they are only self-serving and try ~l the force that pulls the agent towards his
velocity, F
to fulfill their needs. When the agents enter the fes- desired location, and F ~ a the force that repels one
j
tival, they choose the location they want to go and agent from another. F ~ a models the mass of the
j
then walk into the goals direction until they reach it. agents and ensures that they cannot walk through
Only then they choose a new location, to which then each other, but are compressible. This is an impor-
they walk . This process is repeated until one of the tant property for crowd simulations.
needs can not be fulfilled in a certain time. The ba- Figure 2 depicts the landscape of what a visitors
sic algorithm of the visitors is depicted in Figure 1. sees if he wants to go to the center of the bottom
The variables that are initialised at the beginning de- left edge. Ten other agents are present in the square
scribe the happiness score of the agents with the four (peaks) and four needs providers (hills). The layper-
needs. At the beginning they are satisfied with all son can read the image as if the agent was a mar- ble
the needs, but they slowly decrease as the simulation put at any location on the square, and gravity pulls
progresses. on it until it reaches an exit.

264 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1

Figure 2
The forces
expressed by
potentials in a
square with ten
visitors (peaks) and
four needs
suppliers (hills).
Figure 3
Section of the
festival, with the
walking graph for
the agents
visualised. The
numbers are the
identification
numbers of the
vertices and the
The problem that arises with the above described
lines between them
method is when the geometry gets more compli-
the vertices of the
cated. The festival addressed in the lecture, is not
graph.
only on one square but consists of two squares and
several streets that connect them. If the agents
would walk only according to equations 1 and 2 they
would get stuck in corners. To circumvent this prob-
lem, we implement the agents in such a way that they
don't walk directly to their desired location. They
rather walk along a graph that guides them through
the streets, i.e. the graph is set in such a way, that
it is always possible to directly walk from one ver-
tex to another, without hitting a wall. After choos-
ing a new location yet before starting to walk they
calculate the shortest path from their current loca-
tion along this graph, and then go from one vertex
to another, until they reach the desired location. To
prevent that agents walk to not needed vertices, we
additionally implemented an algorithm that removes
vertices on the path if they are not needed. For exam-
ple in Figure 3, if an agent is at a location close to ver-
tex 27 and chooses to go to vertex 29, the agent is di-
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 265
rectly attracted by vertex 29, without going through
vertex 28. The reason to have this is twofold. First
it gives the agents more degrees of freedom when
they walk on the streets, because they are not at-
tracted by too close vertices and thus are more agile.
The second reason is that if the agents walk strictly
along the graph, also within squares, it can happen
that they walk around their final destination or along
walls. This can happen when the closest vertex to a
final destination is not directly on the shortest path
to it, in an Euclidean sense.
Analysis Methods
To teach the students the value of simulation, we
implemented some basic analysis methods into the
framework. The framework allows to have real-time
feedback on how dense the crowd is at any point in
the festival, visualizes the locations of where visitors
decided to leave the festival again, counts the num-
ber of customers served at each service provider, and
visualises the walking paths the agents took.
To get an overview on festival security it is im-
portant to visualize congestions. It allows to plan
in advance and understand the possible risks a lay-
out of the festival has. To understand the locations
which do no serve the visitors good enough, we im-
plemented a visualisation of the locations of where
people decided to leave the festival. It helps the plan-
ners of the festival to identify the locations where vis-
itors are not satisfied anymore, be it by the lack of
needs providers or due to congestion.
The third visualisation the frameworks provides
is the walking paths of all the locations all the agents
have been to. This visualisation technique gives the
planners an idea of where people walk and highlights
high frequented paths and streets. The last visuali-
sation method depicts the number of customers the
need providers served. It is of high interest for the fes-
tival organiser to know the frequency of customers
for one location, for economic reasons. It allows them
to estimate the rent prices for the locations.
 EVALUATION Figure 4
For the evaluation of the course we asked the stu- Box plots of the
dents to answer a questionnaire. It consists of 33 seven discussed
questions, out of which 16 are standard questions questions showing
taken from our university's official course evaluation all survey
survey. If not otherwise stated the questions are an- participants.
swered using a scale from 1 to 5, where 1 means to-
tal disagreement and 5 total agreement. Out of the
34 students 14 participated in the survey. The sur-
vey was con- ducted 5 months after the end of the
course. Out of the 17 specific questions we show the
results of the following 7 in Figure 4. As shown by the
answers to D3 students had heterogeneous previous
knowledge. Also, five of the 14 survey participants Figure 5
where no architecture students. In addition to Figure Box plots of the
4 we show the results categorized by beginners/no seven discussed
beginners in Figure 5 and Figure 6. All the beginners questions showing
where architecture students. the answers of the
The results of the questions concerning the qual- seven students who
ity of the course, its hand-outs and its teachers can be took another
summarized as rather good. Hence any bad results programming class
regarding the teaching goal correlate with the course before.
design rather than its execution.
• D2 Did you profit from the Q&A sessions after
each lecture?
• D3 Did you take another programming course
before this one? (1 = no, 2 - 4 programming
was involved a bit or you didn't finish the Figure 6
course, 5 = yes) Box plots of the
• D4 Can you imagine to use the learned pro- seven discussed
gramming skills in another project in the fu- questions showing
ture? the answer of the
• D5 Do you conceive programming more like a seven beginners.
language or more like mathematics? (1 = lan-
guage, 5 = mathematics)
• D7 How would you rate your skills when con-
fronted with a new programming task such as
editing a webpage or filter data in a csv/excel
file?
• D14 Are you able to solve programming prob-
lems by yourself / by searching in the internet?
• D15 Do you prefer to learn programming by
understanding the concepts underneath or
by trying out and follow syntactical rules?

266 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1

DISCUSSION
This lecture series tries to reach the challenging goal
of combining three different topics into one story-
line. By conducting the course in fall 2015 we found
a few details worth discussing.
Generally, the students were very motivated
throughout the course. Which can be seen in the
number of drop-outs during the semester. By expe-
rience, about fifty percent of students do not finish
courses that are teaching programming. In the case
of this course, the fraction of people finishing the lec-
ture series was above 75%.
Nevertheless, during the course of the lecture se-
ries, it became clear, that our strong division of fun-
damental concepts of programming and the syntac-
tical form in Java code is not the best approach for
beginning programmers. As Aguiar and Gonçalves
stated in 2015 (Aguiar and Gonçalves, 2015), the two
should be introduced to early programmers more in
connection to each other, so that the theoretical con-
cepts can immediately be tested and hopefully bet-
ter understood. This also complies with Lahtinen
et al. (Lahtinen, Mutka, Järvinen, 2005) finding that
students perceive programming structures and lan-
guage syntax equally hard to learn.
It is also shown by answers D5 and D15 (see Fig-
ure 4), that the alternation between a focus on funda-
mental concepts of programming and a focus on its
pure syntactical rules is appreciated by a heteroge-
neous group of students. While beginners prefer to
hear about concepts as shown in Figure 6, more ad-
vanced students prefer to learn the syntax first, see
Figure 5. Yet, the division of a lesson into one hour
lecture and one hour solving the exercise in an inter-
active Q+A session was highly appreciated by both of
the groups as indicated by D2.
The main goal of teaching programming to ar-
chitects must be considered as failed since the an-
swers to D7 and D14 are very low among beginners,
see Figure 6.
A special finding we would like to highlight are
the results of the design exercise. We clearly stated,
that the students should justify their design argu-
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 267
mentatively, in a qualitative way. Even though the
categories do align with the values calculated by
the simulation framework, we thought the students
would understand that they should find qualitative
arguments for their layout, that in the best case
would not be covered by the values calculated by the
framework. Nevertheless, when doing the exercise
almost all the students ran the simulation they were
introduced a lesson before, and then stated that they
chose the layout, because it produced the best simu-
lation results. This shows that, even thought we dis-
cussed the significance of this kind of simulations in
an earlier lecture and pointed out that they should
design the layout in a traditional way, the students
still used the simulation to justify it.
CONCLUSION
The lecture series, introduced in this paper, offers a
way to introduce architecture students to complex-
ity science, programming, modelling and simulation.
We were able to keep the students interested in the
topic, until the end, even though it was an elective
course.
The evaluation of the course shows that not all
goals of the lecture series were met. Students with an
already basic knowledge in programming were able
to strengthen their skills. For students with no prior
knowledge in programming, the course seemed to
be too difficult, even though most of them were able
to solve all the exercises without any help from the
assistants.
The didactic concepts, in its general form, was
able to lead most of the students to the goal of under-
standing basic concepts of complexity science, pro-
gramming, modelling and simulation; with the need
for only few adaptations.
REFERENCES
Aguiar, R and Gonçalves, A 2015 'Programming for Archi-
tecture: The Students’ Point of View', Proceedings of
the eCAADe Conference, pp. 159-168
Cross, N.C. 2001, 'Designerly ways of knowing: de-
sign discipline versus design science.', Design Issues,
17(3), pp. 49-55
 Helbing, D and Molnár, P 1995, 'Social force model for
pedestrian dynamics', Phys. Rev. E, 51, pp. 4282-
4286
Lahtinen, E, Ala-Mutka, K and Järvinen, HM 2005 'A
study of the difficulties of novice programmers', ACM
SIGCSE Bulletin, pp. 14-18
Mustafa, E.S., Mohamed, A.M., Saadi, I.S., Cools, M.C. and
Teller, J.T. 2015 'Modelling Uncertainties in Long-
Term Predictions of Urban Growth: A Coupled Cellu-
lar Automata and Agent-Based Approach', Proceed-
ings of CUPUM 2015, p. 18
[1] https://processing.org
[2] http://www.eclipse.org
[3] https://github.com/ybakos/proclipsing
[4] https://www.openabm.org/page/
modeling-platforms

268 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1

Experience in CAAD Education Using a MOOC System
Ádám Tamás Kovács1 , Mihály Szoboszlai2
1,2
Budapest University of Technology and Economics
1,2
{kovacsadam|szoboszlai}@arch.bme.hu

This paper describes some of the challenges of using a Massive Open Online
Course (MOOC) framework system with a variety of digital content. Situated in
the 'efficiency' paradigm of digital design methods and Computer Aided
Architectural Design (CAAD) education, we allow participants to set their own
schedules, meet demands that are appropriate for their abilities, and determine
their own path. The content within this framework motivates students through
life-like tasks and examples. This paper shares our experiences in CAAD
education through a course curriculum developed by applying a variety of digital
content. We have focused on resolving the problem of inefficient teaching of
CAAD systems by developing a blended learning curriculum.

Keywords: CAAD, education, b-learning, MOOC, curriculum analytics,

mind-map

INTRODUCTION
In ancient Greece, pedagogues and tutors dealt with
only a few students, so they could tailor the schedule,
the difficulty, and the focus of the curriculum to the
students. This fully personalized education allowed
the students to return to a topic which was not clear
enough and deal with it until it was completely un-
derstood. With the spread of public education, teach-
ers began to handle 20-30 students, which precluded
personalized education. The only goal could be to
reach as high a percentage of the class as possible
through knowledge transfer. This meant that those
who were less talented, as well as those who were
above average, were left on their own. Another dif-
ficulty arises in the university setting - namely, that
members of a class come from vastly different back-
grounds, so even fewer students can be reached effi-
ciently by teaching, since they cannot all understand
at once. In practice, the instructor shows something
that one part of the class can follow, another part can-
not and falls behind, while the rest become bored.
Moreover, this absurd situation cannot be solved by
traditional means, since we cannot place a teacher
beside every student.
With the latest technology, we are able to resolve
this problem by developing blended learning - that is
to say, b-learning curriculum which may be the next
stage in engineering education after getting to Com-
puter Aided Design from pure geometry. (Szobos-
zlai et al. 2015) With a Massive Open Online Course
(MOOC) frame system and with a variety of digital
content (such as educational videos, tests, and other
interactive content), we can allow all participants to
set their own schedules, to meet challenges that are
appropriate for their abilities, and to determine their
own focus. This content motivates students through
life-like tasks and examples. If the knowledge we
teach is too abstract, or if its practical value is unclear
for students, then only extrinsic motivation can urge
them to score more points or achieve better grades.

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 269

 This is less effective than stimulating their inner mo-
tivation to work for their own benefit.
To introduce our new curriculum, which could
be applied to basically any CAD or CAAD course, we
chose "Digital Concept Planning" in the course group
of "Applied Informatics for Architects", where we use
Trimble SketchUp. The reason of our choice is that
this is the course which students usually encounter
first, so they are fresh subjects who have not acquired
any bad habits by learning such applications in the
past.
THE OPERATION OF THE FRAME SYSTEM
We wanted to use an existing MOOC platform, thus
we made a research and it turns out there are several
platforms on the market that one can use [2]. In or-
der to choose one, our main criteria were free usage,
interactive and audiovisual content support, user
friendly interface, and intense personalization. As a
result, we launched our course in Open learning [1].
There are several features which facilitate putting the
entire curriculum into an easy-to-understand struc-
ture, and this provides a quite good site to organize
and manage the course.
The curriculum has its menu page, where the stu-
dents can see all the lessons with their scheduled
dates. One can only access the lesson content after
its scheduled date. It is important to have the op-
portunity to share different types of content, from
the traditional types to the latest interactive ones -
e.g., videos, animated GIFs, Prezi presentations [3],
Cl3ver 3D presentations [4], etc. Several different
types of tests can be integrated into the curriculum,
which while makes the exams more interesting and
also makes correcting them faster. It is good to visu-
alize the requirements of the whole semester or the
lesson. That way, students always know where they
are at the moment and what they have to accom-
plish. The opportunity for diverse content also sup-
ports this purpose.
Under-the-hood management of curriculum has
a very user-friendly visual content editor which can
be edited by those who have permission to do so.
270 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1
This is an advantage, because this way the educators
do not have to know coding, and if someone drops
out for whatever reason, one can be more easily sub-
stituted. From another standpoint, less energy is nec-
essary for getting use to the system.
In a proper educational frame system, communica-
tion plays a great role. In Openlearning system, the
three layers of information exchange are supported:
student-student, student-teacher, all of the students-
teacher. On the main page, there is a news session,
where we can share all the course news with all of
the students simultaneously, for instance, if there is
a test in sight or a deadline coming. They get email
notification when we make an announcement. Stu-
dents can talk to each other or the teachers via instant
message. Hence, if they have a brief question, we can
answer them immediately. They can also use the fo-
rum, which works as a Q&A session, where students
can help each other. Meanwhile, teachers can view
the conversation as well and can correct information,
if needed. This system works much better than com-
municating via emails, because usually students have
similar problems, so we do not have to answer the
same mail several times.
Figure 1
Heat-map of the
curriculum
webpage
It also has a built-in analytics system, which can be
used to see how students use the contents. Thus, we
can change it accordingly for the next semester. First
of all, we can check every student's account and see
which course content he watched or what activities
he has performed. In this manner, we can communi-
cate with him in time and possibly prevent a falling
behind or a dropping out. Secondly, we can follow
 how many people clicked on each page and what
was the average time spent there. This way, we can
tell which content was more useful or harder to un-
derstand and can make corrections for next semester.
Thirdly, we can make a heat-map (Figure 1) analy-
sis for every page, which shows us where users have
clicked while on each one. Finally, we supplement
these by making personal surveys to measure the
subjective part of education efficiency. From first to
last, these are the techniques which give us a strong
base for curriculum measurement and development.
A STRUCTURE OF A LESSON
First, we review the knowledge that we already know
and introduce the new knowledge needed in order to
solve our "life-like situation" in the lesson. This latter
material is demonstrated through smaller tasks and
problems. This is the "sandbox stage", when students
can experiment with the tools, try all of the functions,
and get acquainted with the limits.
Once we have acquired the necessary knowl-
edge, the next stage is to solve the situation chal-
lenges. We believe in learning by doing, because
what students do and find out on their own lasts
longer and is embedded deeper in their minds, so
this second half of the lesson is an individual part.
Figure 2
Modeling strategy
mind-map
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 271
Every lesson is based upon an interesting "life-like
situation". For example: We are attending a summer
workshop at an architect studio which has won a com-
petition concerning the bus stops in Budapest. First, we
have to model the bus stop according to the preliminary
standard plans; then, we have to adapt it to different
site situations. (Figure 2) We practically simulate an
office environment. That way, the students are mo-
tivated and remain focused on the curriculum, be-
cause they see the practical value of the information
we teach throughout the semester.
After giving the task, we do not leave the stu-
dents on their own to complete the job; instead,
we have introduced the "strategy planning phase".
When they see a problem which they think is unsolv-
able, it is usually because they see it as a huge com-
plex mass, and they cannot get a grip on it. They have
to break apart the problem into smaller pieces that
they can deal with one by one, thus executing the so-
lution step by step.
In practice, we give some time to think about
the problem, analyze the materials, and identify the
model parts and their relations. We encourage them
to visualize it on paper using the mind-map tech-
nique, so it will help them understand the whole
modeling process better. (Zampetakis et al. 2007)
 When the time is up, we show our mind-map ver-
sion of the modeling strategy (Figure 3). We discuss it
out loud, so students can compare the two versions.
They can refer back to this at any point during the les-
son if they cannot determine the next step. Finally,
they begin working on their own, at their own speed.
Video tutorials are widely used in many fields of ed-
ucation. When one would like to explain a complex
process with many steps, the length of the tutorial
will exceed the watching tolerance of many students.
If they track an explanation - say, in 30 minutes - stu-
dents will speed up the video. They will try to jump
to the portion of the long content which they seek.
Sometimes it is hard to find the most relevant part
of an explanation. The user jumps back and forth to
stop at the required detail. Using video tutorial in our
project, we have introduced a so-called "smart video
directory" system (Figure 4). We list the entry points
with time code, practically labeling these indicators.
This way, re-playing certain parts of the whole expla-
nation of a procedure can be accomplished quickly.
The effectiveness of using these tutorial videos has
increased. In practice, if someone is stuck on a given
step, the student does not have to watch the full
video. Simply by clicking on the title of the step, stu-
dents can jump ahead to that point in the time code.
At the end, we summarize what was learned in
the session and preview the topic for the next lesson
to stimulate interest beforehand.
272 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1
In 2016, authoritarian education seems out-dated
in our case. The CAD/CAAD softwares are becom-
ing increasingly complex. They have so many func-
tions and keep constantly changing with each new
version. It is hard to catch up with it, and that is
why sometimes, when students investigate a prob-
lem, they delve into it so deeply that their knowl-
edge outlasts the teacher's. Hence, the teacher is no Figure 3
longer necessarily the greatest expert in the class- Life-like situation
room. Nonetheless, he knows how to handle prob-
lems, where to get the required information, and can
tell if students use the tools in the most professional
and optimal way. Consequently, the role of teacher
has changed from being the one who has exact an-
swers for everything, to being rather a moderator Figure 4
of problem-solving. That is why during the individ- Smart video
ual life-like situation stage, in addition to answering directory
questions, the tutor also observes, evaluating how
professionally and how efficiently the students work
and correcting them accordingly.
RESULTS AND EXPERIENCES
If we want to edit a hard-hitting curriculum, we have
to build it the way software development works. As
an article in WIRED magazine explains "We live in a
beta world." [5] which is true in our case as well. It
is an iteration process through versions which makes
the curriculum better and better. That is why we have
to get feedback constantly, which is now possible.
Users and teachers are connected, not only in class-
rooms, but virtually after lessons as well.
We had 137 students complete the course with
the new curriculum over 2 semesters. There was a
survey taken, which was filled out by 75 students,
where they could evaluate and tell us their opinion.
We find that the content was a success, substantiated
by the fact that students gave it 4.7 points out of 5.
As for the usefulness of the frame system, they gave
it 4.4 points. Over the course of the semester, they
seemed to welcome this curriculum development.
When we introduced the strategic planning
stage at the first lesson, the students were surprised.
They looked confused as to why they could not open
 the software and begin the task. Instead, they had
to put the computer aside and plan the entire exe-
cution process. Later, they became used to it and
understood the reason. It strengthened their visual
thinking, and the learning process became more ef-
ficient. When asked if they thought this strategy was
useful, all of the students answered in the affirmative
both semesters.
We wanted to know how much they would use
the video tutorials. When asked, 75% of students
replied that they did use them. Nonetheless, that did
not mean that everybody watched every video. Ac-
cording to our analysis, 60 people out of 137 watched
each video for a shorter or longer period of time on
average. With an audience-retention analytics tool
(Figure 5), we can see on a diagram how many times
each video frame has been played, compared to the
number of those who started to watch the tutorial.
This diagram, as we can see, has many peaks, and it is
very uneven.
From these facts, we conclude that students do
not approach the situation task by watching the full
video and following it step by step; rather, they only
use it if they get stuck with a step. I find this very pos-
itive, because they use their problem-solving skills
better. Instead of mechanically following the steps
demonstrated by the tutor, they figure them out
on their own. What they accomplish by themselves
leaves a more lasting impression, so the acquired
knowledge will be more effective in the long term.
On the other hand, those who are not self-confident
Figure 5
Audience-retention
diagram of a
tutorial video
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 273
or who make slower progress followed the video tu-
torial from the start in the classroom as well. This
is a positive development, because they are usually
afraid of asking questions and are capable of getting
stuck on a small problem. In this case, however, they
can move on more easily and experience more suc-
cess.
Students also took advantage of the various
means of communication; they commented and sent
instant messages. Hopefully, though, we will im-
prove these numbers in future semesters. As one stu-
dent expressed it nicely, "I think we are not used to
such a system at the university, and that is why we did
not use this opportunity as much as we could." Another
student opinion was that the whole faculty should
use the same frame system, because it is not efficient
to log in and follow courses on different platforms.
KEY RESOURCES
While discussing the multiple benefits of MOOC in
architectural education, Martijn Stellingwerff (2015)
notes that creating such curriculum content de-
mands plenty of effort. First of all, all the stake-
holders must understand the MOOC frame system,
and all faculty members need to be motivated to use
it.
The course content has to be re-thought as well,
and the variety of content needs to be edited - for
example, texts, illustrations, tests, video recordings,
and other interactive content. Of these, video con-
tent creation is very challenging. The audience has
 to concentrate hard on listening to new information
while watching the video tutorial. If the audio-visual
content is lacking in quality, it tires and distracts
them. It is the same case in an auditorium where
the acoustics or the projector is not good enough,
and people can only listen for the first 5 -10 min-
utes before growing tired and giving up. This makes
the learning process less efficient at the end of the
day, so we have to strive for quality in ways that
require plenty of professional and expensive equip-
ment (cameras, lights, tripods, microphones), a room
suitable for recording, and people capable of using
the equipment and editing videos as necessary.
After the curriculum content has been com-
pleted, we are still not finished, because maintaining
the system is just as important. Such a system must
live, and that life must be sustained, which demands
time and effort. It obliges us to be in constant con-
tact with students, answering incoming questions,
following their progress, and holding their attention.
In order to manage this increased amount work, we
introduced "student tutors." The students who supply
correct answers to other students' questions in the
forum become "student tutors." This is mutually ad-
vantageous for everybody, because the student who
asks gets a correct answer, so he learns. The student
tutor develops a deeper understanding of the topic
while teaching, and the teacher can conserve his en-
ergy, investing it in curriculum development, for in-
stance.
274 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1
CONCLUSION
Based on our experiment, developing the curriculum
in such a way is worthwhile. The benefits are appre-
ciable, already in the short term. Moreover, it makes
the learning process more efficient, enhancing the
reputation of the faculty and the university as well.
It improves the students' respect for the institution,
since it employs the latest and most developed tech-
nology to serve them.
One glowing example of this is the Delft University
of Technology, where a brand new faculty was estab-
lished to create MOOC content as well, in a separate
building especially built for that purpose. How can
we achieve such results within the framework of a tra-
ditional education system? We believe it is attainable
in small steps. Therefore, we have begun to establish
and experience this system slowly but surely, in order
to arrive at the most efficient mode of operation.
REFERENCES
Stellingwerff, M. 2015 'The MOOC-ability of Design Edu-
cation', Proceedings of eCAADe 2015, Vienna, pp. 57-
60
Szoboszlai, M. and Kovács, Á.T. 2015 'Development
of Computer-based Visual Demonstrations in Engi-
neering Education', Studies of the University of Zilina
2015, pp. 75-80
Zampetakis, LA., Tsironis, L. and Moustakis, V. 2007, 'Cre-
ativity development in engineering education: the
case of mind mapping', Journal of Management De-
velopment, 26(4), pp. 370-380
[1] http://www.openlearning.com
[2] http://www.moocs.co/Higher_Education_
MOOCs.html
[3] http://www.prezi.com
[4] https://www.cl3ver.com/
[5] http://www.wired.com/2013/04/beta/
Dynamic Light as a Transformational Tool in Computer-
aided Design
Ellen Kathrine Hansen1 , Michael Finbarr Mullins2 ,
Georgios Triantafyllidis3
1,2,3
Aalborg University
1,2,3
{ekh|mullins|gt}@create.aau.dk

New lighting technologies may fulfill a need for holistic design methods by
offering opportunities for both architects and engineers to apply methods and
knowledge from media technology that combine daylight and interactive light, in
order to complement and deepen an understanding of context. The framework
combines daylight and interactive light and includes human needs analysis,
spatial understanding, qualitative analysis, qualitative tests and visual
assessments. A transdisciplinary model termed the "Architectural Experiment" is
applied in a specific case by combining serial, parallel and iterative processes
which include contextual analysis, architectural design, simulation, C++
programming, implementation of the dynamic smart-film diffuser, programming
of voltage ranges on Arduino boards, rapid prototype construction and lighting
technology.

Keywords: Design Tools, CAAD Education, Design Concepts , Lighting Design

INTRODUCTION the built environment, which can be applied to meet

New lighting technologies may fulfill a need for holis-
tic design methods by offering opportunities for
both architects and engineers to apply methods and
knowledge from media technology that combine
daylight and interactive light, in order to comple-
ment and deepen an understanding of context. The
framework combines daylight and interactive light
and includes human needs analysis, spatial under-
standing, qualitative analysis, qualitative tests, visual
assessments,
Architecture and lighting technology has under-
gone a revolution in recent years, as new sensor tech-
nologies and computational skills enable 'intelligent
materials', interactive control of light, energy-saving
measures and new LED technology to be applied in
human biological, psychological and physiological
needs. The implementation of these technologies
transforms the functional split between engineers,
technologists and architects into a complex transdis-
ciplinary design process (Hansen 2014).
A criterion for success of this endeavor will be, as
Nobel Prize laureate Herbert Simon wrote of complex
systems, that a large numbers of parts interacting in
a non-simple way are resolved so that the whole is
more than the sum of its parts. Simon distinguished
between two modes of apprehending structure: be-
tween the world "as sensed" (or description of state
and the criteria for identifying objects) and the world
"as acted upon" (the description of process and the
means for producing or generating objects having

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 275

 the desired characteristics) (Simon 1962). The task
then is to employ a sequence of processes and tools
that support each other and lead to innovative de-
sign solutions based on a theoretical model of 'state'.
Simon's theories may have relevance to complex sys-
tems encountered in architecture, however, where
he expected complex systems to be hierarchies in a
world in which complexity evolves from the interplay
of single elements, the goal here is to achieve a re-
solved design of integrated simplicity, which evolves
from an initial state of complex diversity.
Towards the end of testing this relevance, there is
a need to develop mixed research and design meth-
ods, where computer aided design tools used in
physical and virtual experiments assist the transdis-
ciplinary design process. To study this in practice, it
can be instructive to focus more narrowly on a single
aspect of architectural intervention. This paper takes
lighting as the specific focal aspect.
Toward describing and developing such meth-
ods, this paper focuses on the potential of lighting to
act as a primary means of renovating and transform-
ing architectural environments. In this regard, light
as a transformational design tool is perhaps one of
the most non-destructive, reversible and gentle ways
to transform and redefine architecture and spaces
(Magnusson et al. 2015). The case studied is a partic-
ular urban and architectural challenge represented
by an urban church building, which had fallen into
disuse. The building was acquired by a private buyer,
who sought innovative ideas for its transformation.
The process to integrate digital tools and com-
bine architecture, lighting engineering and media
technology builds on a trans-disciplinary model pre-
viously developed in the context of 'smart homes'
(Hansen 2013) and presented as the "Architectural
Experiment" (Hansen 2014). This paper will docu-
ment and analyse the application of this process from
a graduate student group project, dealing with inte-
grating computer-aided design and new technolo-
gies to transform an architectural context through
light. The work was carried out at a lighting de-
sign programme at Aalborg University in Copen-
276 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1
hagen, Denmark, which draws on knowledge and
skills within architecture, lighting engineering and
media technology, in teams of researchers, the light-
ing industry and graduate students of lighting design
(see [1] ).
The model is applied in a pedagogical curricu-
lum, in the context of multi-level learning competen-
cies.
METHOD
The initial statement of the "Architectural Experi-
ment" is a theoretical proposition of how to design
with light as a multi-dimensional design element,
by integrating scientific, technical and creative ap-
proaches to light in 5 domains. It proposes that dis-
tinct qualitative and quantitative criteria and meth-
ods from different disciplinary traditions can be in-
tegrated successfully, despite disparate technical/-
scientific, social scientific and art/humanities back-
grounds (see Figure 1).
Figure 1
Model for the
Architectural
Experiment.
The case study method is useful to investigate con-
textual conditions pertaining to the phenomenon of
study, in this instance the processes employed in ap-
plication of the transdisciplinary model. Based on
this theoretical proposition, briefly described in the
preceding sections, the method relies on multiple
sources of evidence, drawn from a single case (Yin
1994).
 The findings from the case study can then be com- multaneous variety of transparent to translucent to
pared to the initial proposition in order to refine the opaque.
theory, for use in future applications.
Figure 2
Three phases and
illustrative light
CASE: THE ABSALON CHURCH: COMPUTER-
settings were AIDED DESIGN OF DYNAMIC LIGHTING
defined (Source: Objectives and research questions
Magnusson et al. The intention of the project is to transform a city
2015). church building, situated in an older, dense, hous-
ing area close to the city centre of Copenhagen, from
its traditional religious functions to a more dynamic,
contemporary and multifunctional space, using light
as the main design element. The initial question
asked in this context is therefore 'how light can trans-
form the interior space of the de-sanctified church to
meet needs of the local community for new activities'.
Drawing on knowledge and skills within architecture,
lighting engineering and media technology, gradu-
ate students of lighting design teamed up to provide
a design solution for a non-religious space, where fo-
cus is on an essentially neutral ceremonial volume.
The needs for a non-religious ceremony were sought
initially by proposing a dynamic, programmable vi-
sual spatial layering, adjustable from the start to the
end of the ceremony.
By defining and combining the concepts of
emotion/mood/atmosphere and light effects, three
phases and illustrative light elements were defined:
1. light from pendants hanging from the ceiling, 2.
highlights in the centre of the space and 3. poly-
mer dispersed liquid crystal (PDLC) (Baetens 2010)
sheathing placed in front of the windows and walls,
thereby allowing dynamic diffusing of daylight and
artificial light. Using these lighting elements, three The process of designing with dynamic
phases of the ceremony, arriving, transition and de- lighting
parting, are illustrated (see Figure 2). The design process will be described using in terms
The diffuser was constructed of a middle layer used by the "Architectural Experiment" model.
of PDLC, surrounded on each side by a transparent Step 1: Transfer. Knowledge from different disci-
conductive layer for the purpose of applying voltage, plines is collected, transferred, reviewed and coded
with an outer-most layer of non-conductive isolating into a common language to define a common prob-
material (see Figure 3). To slow the perceived trans- lem statement for the design.
formation of the material, the diffuser was built up of The very first step was to define a common imag-
independent triangular components, enabling a si- inative research question starting by asking "Why is

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 277

 Figure 3
The diffuser was
constructed of a
middle layer of
PDLC, surrounded
on each side by a
transparent
conductive layer for
the purpose of
applying voltage,
with an outer-most
layer of
non-conductive
isolating material
(Source:
Magnusson et al.
2015).
a church for sale?" Collecting knowledge on peo- the large windows give the room unique features and
ples need for at ceremonial space and not a religious allow much daylight to enter. The space presented
space led to the imaginative research question: What an unique and solemn atmosphere.
if a now defunct church could be transformed into a
neutral ceremonial space, satisfying new ceremonial Figure 4
needs in our society? Design elements for
Knowledge on transformation and societal satisfying
needs, religion, neutrality, similar projects, and stake- ceremonial needs
holders was collected to define the overall problem of society, through
statement and the three success criteria. A reflec- the use of light
tion on transformation, heritage and light was made (Source:
through literature survey. This knowledge was used Magnusson et al.
to define the differences between the light in a typi- 2015).
cal church and a religion-neutral ceremonial space.
This led to the problem statement (see Figure
4): Can we transform a religious space into a religion
neutral ceremonial space, satisfying new ceremonial
needs of our society, through the use of light?
1. Using light to achieve a new religiously unbi-
ased identity.
2. Ensuring that the ceremonial contents and
functions are supported and facilitated by the
lighting design.
3. Ensuring that neutrality does not compromise
the solemnity required of a ceremonial space.
Qualitative analysis was made based on architectural
observations of the design space. It was noted that

278 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1

 Quantitative analysis of the daylight in the building
was done through illuminance measurements (see
Figure 5).
Figure 5
Knowledge from
different disciplines
is collected,
transferred,
reviewed and
coded into a
common language.
Step 2: "Translate". The knowledge from the differ-
ent fields is translated and investigated through ex-
periments.
A literature survey of the meaning of ceremonial
rituals referred to theory from sociologists, philoso-
phers and psychologists and formed a fundamental
design concept: Ceremonies are rituals that mark a
change of state of being. This idea was combined
with the question of how to satisfy the practical func-
tional needs of the ceremony, as well as to add value
to the ceremony. This led to the following assump-
tion that became the core of the design concept, to
be explored through a design proposal:
1. "If the ceremony is dynamic then the lighting
could also be dynamic."
For example, if a funeral is charged with emotions,
which evolve through the ceremony in phases, light-
ing could support these emotions by supporting the
transition between phases and fulfilling the spatial
and atmospheric needs attached to each phase.
For a better understanding of how different
lighting attributes can support a transformation of
religious space into a neutral one, an experiment was
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 279
conducted.
Images of light attributes were replicated in a
digital environment, defining a certain ceremony and
placing 3D models of people in the space of the
church building. An online survey was conducted to
compare pre-defined variables.
From the results the following design guidelines
were defined:
• A compromise between appropriateness and
neutrality is a compromise between warm
and white light: ideally between 4000-6000
Kelvin.
• Some level of contrast is needed to achieve
solemnity and intimacy.
• A very neutral and preferred result seems pos-
sible with diffusion of daylight.
• Many small luminaries are preferred, but must
avoid heavenly references to be neutral.
The visual hierarchy of the design is achieved using
three different lighting elements that together con-
stitute the design proposal:
• Pendant lights, floating over the benches in
varying heights.
• A highlight of the floor in the ceremonial cen-
ter.
• Dynamic diffuser panels that control and alter
the intake of daylight
The results of the attributes-test suggested that diffu-
sion of daylight is a neutrally perceived element. The
diffuser offered opportunities for the sought after dy-
namic element of lighting, by controlling how warm
light of the pendants is perceived and amount of day-
light present in the space.
A second experiment was conducted to test how
people perceive light with different fading phases of
the dynamic diffuser, viz.: 60, 30, 10, 5, 2 and 1 sec-
onds.
A predominant consensus was achieved from
this experiment, and a 30 second fading time for each
triangle was chosen as a basis for the dynamic dif-
fuser.
 Rapid prototype simulations of daylight and the
smart-film diffuser were essential to study the design
potentials of the double interior skin, appropriate to
the three phases in the ceremonial space.
Step 3: Transform. The findings from the above
experiments were transformed into a design solu-
tion using 3D models, scale models and simulations.
The effects of the dynamic diffuser together with the
other lighting elements were rendered in 3D mod-
els, renderings and photometric simulations (3DS-
Max, Rhino, V-ray, IES files) to examine the quantita-
tive relationship between daylight intensity, translu-
cency of the interactive interior wall, as well as time-
lapses in relation to the ceremony.
In accordance with the design concept, daylight
entering the ceremony space was to be filtered in dy-
namically to support emotions present in the course
of the funeral ceremony. The solution to these speci-
fications was a setup comprised of a PDLC smart-film
material, an Arduino controller using open frame-
works and customised electronic architecture. To
perform experiments with each of these technolo-
gies and to test the final functionality and compati-
bility, a down-scaled prototype was developed.
The 12 individually controlled PWM outputs sit-
uated on the Arduino Mega offered individual out-
put voltage levels in the range between 0 and 5 volt
direct current (VDC). To meet the higher voltage re-
quirements of the PDLC material, additional electron-
ics were needed between the Arduino outputs and
PDLC composite. Observations of the quality of the
light transmitted through the diffuse and transparent
panels were made and measurements of the values
of the transmittance and reflectance of light in the
different stages of the material were measured.
In order to test different lamp sources with differ-
ent luminous power and lighting distribution a sys-
tem was needed, which would provide a flexible ap-
proach for access to the space and the different light
sources. Dialux software was used for this process.
Step 4: Test. 3D physical models and digital simula-
tions were used for qualitative testing in this case (see
Figure 6). A user focus-group was questioned on dif-
280 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1
ferent scenarios and moods of the changing scenar-
ios and their reaction to different solutions was ob-
served.
Figure 6
3D model
simulations of the
diffuser-panels
were used for
qualitative testing
in focus groups
(Source:
Magnusson et al.
2015).
Step 5: Share and learn. Video, renderings, ani-
mated materials were prepared to communicate the
design idea under different lighting conditions (see
Figures 7-9). The time aspect was essential in this
context and the video was therefore an important
tool.
DISCUSSION
The transdisciplinary model for the "Architectural
Experiment" is applied to the case study, which
combines serial, parallel and iterative processes and
which included contextual analysis, architectural de-
sign, simulation, C++ programming, implementation
of the dynamic smart-film diffuser, programming of
voltage ranges on Arduino boards, rapid prototype
construction and lighting technology.
The case demonstrates the potentials of com-
bining digital, engineering and architectural design
tools and methods to transform the meaning of
spaces, by coding intelligent materials and dynamic
light to meet the changing needs of the urban archi-
tectural environment.
 The case focuses on the creation of a neutral cere- 2. Translate. The knowledge from the different
monial volume, using a complex system of resources. fields is translated and investigated through
It attempts to create, through lighting, an influence experiments. Rapid prototype simulations of
upon the sensed or perceived world. The case study daylight and the smart-film diffuser were es-
is used to examine the process it employs to achieve sential to study the design potentials of the
this aim. double interior skin, appropriate to the three
phases in the ceremonial space.
Figure 7
3. Transform. The findings from the experiments
Arriving. Rendering
are transformed into a design solution using
of the solution:
3D models and simulations. The effects of
video capture
the dynamic diffuser together with the other
(Source:
lighting elements were rendered in 3D mod-
Magnusson et al.
els, renderings and photometric simulations
2015).
(3DSMax, Rhino, V-ray, IES files) to examine
the quantitate relationship between daylight
intensity, translucency of the interactive inte-
rior wall, as well as time-lapses in relation to
Figure 8 the ceremony.
Ceremony. 4. Test: The 3D model and simulations were
Rendering of the used for qualitative testing in this case. A
solution: video user group was questioned on different sce-
capture (Source: narios and moods of the changing scenarios
Magnusson et al. and their reaction to different solutions is ob-
2015). served.
5. Share and learn: Video, renderings, animated
materials, communicating the design idea
with different light settings. The time aspect
Figure 9 was essential in this context, and the video
Departing. therefore an important tool.
Rendering of the
solution: video While luminance levels can be predicted and mea-
capture (Source: sured relatively easily, several of the success crite-
Magnusson et al. ria for the project revolved around achieving a dy-
2015). namic architectural atmosphere of neutrality suitable
to a ceremonial space where perception and time
is subject to the inherent ambiguity of visual per-
ception, subjective feeling, emotional response and
Following the "Architectural Experiment" model, the personal preferences. An attempt was made to ap-
process and tools can be grouped in the following proach this question both analytically and with a
five domains: qualitative approach and established results that in-
dicate that lighting attributes can have an important
1. Transfer. Knowledge from different disci- role in affecting whether a space is perceived as reli-
plines is collected, transferred, reviewed and gious or not.
coded into a common language. The process of combining complex combina-

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 281

 tions of daylight and electrical light, by employ-
ing the initial model has confirmed for the authors
its usefulness in integrating many disciplines and
computer-aided technologies in a design studio set-
ting. The method of moving from an analytical
phase centered on research and testing, into cre-
ative design-proposal phase, followed by a series of
smaller experiments to develop implementation and
detailing was successful in incorporating the three
academic fields of lighting engineering, architecture
and media technology and in achieving a resolved
design of integrated simplicity, evolved from an ini-
tial state of complex diversity.

AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The student team comprised Tim Jesper Ivan Mag-
nusson, Andrei-Ducu Predescu, Joaquim André Mor-
eira Maia and Christian Henrik Ankerstjerne. Super-
visors for the project were assistant professor Paolo
Burelli and professor Marc Fontoynont.

REFERENCES
Baetens, R, Jelle, BP and Gustavsen, A 2010, 'Properties,
requirements and possibilities of smart windows for
dynamic daylight and solar energy control in build-
ings: A state-of-the-art review', Solar Energy Materi-
als and Solar Cells, 94(2), pp. 87-105
Hansen, EK and Mullins, MF 2014 'Lighting Design: To-
wards a synthesis of science, media technology and
architecture', Fusion: Proceedings of the 32nd eCAADe
Conference, Newcastle UK, pp. 613-620
Hansen, EK, Olesen, GGH and Mullins, MF 2013, 'Home,
Smart Home: A Danish Energy-Positive Home De-
signed with Daylight', Proceedings of the IEEE : Special
Issue: The Smart Home, 11, pp. 2436-2449
Magnusson, T, Predescu, A, Maia, J and Ankerstjerne, C
2015, 'Seeing the Light – Transforming with light.
Redefinition of a ceremonial space', in surname
missing, initials missing (eds) 2015, Report:, Aalborg
University Copenhagen
Simon, H 1962, 'The Architecture of Complexity', Proceed-
ings of the American Philosophical Society, 106(6), pp.
467-482
Yin, R 1994, Case Study Research, Sage, London
[1] http://www.light.aau.dk

282 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1

IT Driven Architectural Design for All?
Sebastian Białkowski1 , Anetta Kępczyńska-Walczak2
1,2
Lodz University of Technology
1,2
{sebastian.bialkowski|anetta.kepczynska-walczak}@p.lodz.pl

This paper discusses teaching parametric design as a supportive method of

introducing design logic. Two case studies have been described, analysed and
concluded. The first case study focuses on a workshop based design of a
parametric pavilion, which resulted of building 1:1 scale object. The second case
study concentrates on the academic compulsory course providing parametric
design knowledge based on a particular topic imposed by tutors. In both cases
the main purpose was to get students being accustomed to a different way of
thinking, to open their minds to new approaches to design process and to
demonstrate a connection between programming skills and imagination
capabilities. Each of the cases returned valuable guidelines for design studio
pedagogy which has also been revealed in this paper.

Keywords: design logic, parametric, design pedagogy

INTRODUCTION ing scripting or programming, to fill in the gaps

There is no doubt, computers have become main
aiding tools for designers nowadays. Fast speeding
of computational technologies brings new toolsets
for architectural practice.Actually, the IT driven de-
sign process is not a novelty and has been gradu-
ally adopted in architectural design domain. How-
ever, there is a great shift observed lately in the di-
rect influence of programming technologies on de-
sign practice. To fully exploit these abilities archi-
tects have to obtain new skills and knowledge. This
can be done by learning programming or scripting
languages which are opening new domains in ar-
chitectural creativity and "manufacturing the ideas".
It has been widely discussed if there is no direct
link between a designer's mind and designing tool,
a designer becomes rather a reviewer than a cre-
ator (Kepczynska-Walczak 2008). As claimed by Ste-
fan Boeykens and Herman Neuckermans " (...) soft-
ware can only provide the desired functionality us-
of the software feature set"(Boeykens and Neucker-
mans 2009). That possibility of software customiza-
tion by applying programming abilities is becoming
increasingly appreciated. In consequence such situ-
ation, on the one hand enforces the universities to
make shift in education, but on the other hand opens
domains of experimentation and research. There is
a great discussion on the scope and methodologies
of teaching these emergent technologies since they
change the paradigm of design process. The ques-
tion how to support creative thinking with digital
tools still needs further investigation (Kepczynska-
Walczak 2014). "However, visual programming ap-
proaches that promise to fit the graphical mindset
of aspiring architects better are also gaining ground,
e.g. Bentley's Generative Component and Grasshop-
per for McNeel Rhino 3D. The reason for this is re-
ported to be that algorithmical thinking requires a
problem-centered approach, while architecture usu-

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 283

 ally takes a solution-centered strategy" (Wurzer et al.
2011). As the title of the paper suggests there is a
question to be answered if the information technolo-
gies driven architectural design should be a compul-
sory part of the curriculum.
CASE STUDY
In this chapter two chosen case studies are described,
analysed and concluded. Some guidelines for de-
sign studio pedagogy is also be revealed. In both
cases the main purpose was to get students being
accustomed to a different way of thinking, to open
their minds to new approaches to design process and
to demonstrate a connection between programming
skills and imagination capabilities.
WORKSHOPS - PAVILON P3
The first case study focuses on a workshop based de-
sign of a parametric pavilion. A group of students
from Architecture field of study, driven by a need to
learn and explore new digital tools more and more
commonly used in a worldwide architectural prac-
tice, organised a workshop and named it P3 - Pro-
cess Product Purpose. Its main goal was to learn para-
metric design methods and use that new knowledge
to create a full-scale pavilion not only virtually but
also in reality. The workshop was planned as a two
weeks long event, including building up the physical
1:1 scale model. However, due to the need to pro-
vide more introductory tutorials, and additionally, to
a technical delay, it was extended and lasted three
weeks. During that time students experienced, in
a very intensive and compressed way, a whole de-
sign process - from a design concept to realisation
on a building site. From the very beginning, a 15
millimetre plywood was chosen as a basic material
to construct the physical pavilion. The relatively low
price and easiness of tooling were the primary factors
in decision making process. Another argument was
that the chosen material was highly accessible on
the market as a standard construction material. The
budget provided for the workshop allowed to buy 78
sheets 2,20 meters long and 1,20 meters wide. It gave
over 200 square meters of plywood in total available
284 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1
for students and their imagination. Besides the de-
cision about material the three axis CNC milling ma-
chine was chosen for the main manufacturing pro-
cess. Both a material and a fabrication method were
the key constrains imposed on students.
Figure 1
P3 Workshops -
Introduction to
parametric design.
Figure 2
Teamwork in
groups.
The workshop began with an introduction to para-
metric tools in the form of an intensive course of
Rhinoceros and Grasshopper (see Figure 1). The se-
ries of tutorials were planned to cover a wide range of
differentiated knowledge of parametric design field
including basics of attractors, dynamic relaxation or
data managing. During the workshop students' cu-
riosity led to more involving problems such as big
data structures, complex geometry dependencies of
manufacturing or tagging tasks. It is also worth to
mention here that for majority of participants, this
workshop was the first opportunity of gaining knowl-
edge about architectural design process driven by al-
gorithms.
Figure 3 design logic was a correlation between three points,
Prototype testing. freely chosen on a flat plane which represented the
ground.

Figure 4
Base form creation
process.

Participants were divided into five design teams (Fig-

ure 2). Each group was asked to design a vision of the
pavilion, concerning a type of material, its limitations,
Figure 5 amount, and available manufacturing process. Apart
Simulation from a pavilion's architectural form, the high empha-
principles. sis was placed on the construction and structural is-
sues. During design process, students were asked to
omit any traditional joints applied in physical models,
such as glue, metal plates or nails. The whole struc-
ture was intended to be made of plywood only.
Furthermore, they were encouraged to make
mock-ups to evaluate their design and ideas. After a
few days of work the midterm presentation was or-
ganised, where each group presented their design
logic and structural solutions. A few joints prototypes
were prepared in CNC milling machine to test their
durability and stiffness. The best idea of each group
was extracted to become the basis for one common
final project.
The main structure of the pavilion was based
on a dynamic relaxation algorithm driven by Kan-
garoo solver for Grasshopper. The Frei Otto stud-
ies on tensile (soap bubble) structures and Antonio
Gaudi study of inverted gravity logic led students to
Figure 6
think of self-supporting structures as a base idea of
Form finding -
their projects. A mesh as a starting point for simula-
tweaking
tion was the result of combination of two algorithms:
parameters.
Voronoi tessellation - to find a general outer shape of
a pavilion, and the magnetic field behaviour for a di-
vision of the resultant space into triangular mesh (see
Figure 4). For both algorithms a starting point for the

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 285

 sign of the pavilion was ready, additional scripts were Figure 7
prepared for further fabrication purpose. During that Marking out the
stage, participants developed identifying system for pavilion on the plot.
all elements for future pavilion assembly.

Figure 8
Assembly process.

A simulation of inverted gravity was run on basic

principles of string behaviour. On each node of the
mesh an uniformly acting force against gravity was
applied. To keep the structure on the ground, de-
signers chose the most characteristic points to be
fixed. To enrich the form finding process additional
constrains were applied. Creation of overhang en-
tries to the pavilion, on the each site of the structure,
required additional structure movement limitations
(see Figure 5). Particular nodes in the pavilion were Figure 9
hooked to the ground by strings behaviour to imitate Digital model of
tents strand. The improvement of structural stiffness pavilion.
was achieved by applying supplementary forces act-
ing between plates. That method generate origami
effect on the surface of pavilion enhancing it tecton-
ics. Thanks to parametric tools, dynamic relaxation
could be running many times with different param-
eters or additional constrains, which leads to divers
outcomes (see Figure 6).
Figure 10
In parallel when part of a team was working on
Final result - overall
general design of the pavilion, second part of partic-
view.
ipants worked on 1:1 scale prototype of few adjoins
panels, developing the best solution for their connec-
tions and joints. Tests on the prototype allowed stu-
dents to evaluate their ideas and prevented design
from a variety of construction errors. When a final de-

286 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1

Figure 11 was supported by digital instructions prepared by
Final result - birds students as a part of the script. Three weeks of in-
eye view. tensive work resulted with a structure containing 570
unique panels joined by 1008 connectors mounted
by 2016 wedges. This fully digitally designed struc-
ture (see Figure 9) became a kind of architectural
manifesto for University authorities and other faculty
students by showing capabilities of IT tools in con-
temporary architectural practice (see Figure 10 to 13).

Figure 12
Final result - detail.
Figure 13
Final result -
interior.
With the help of the faculty surveyors and data gen-
erated by Grasshopper, the pavilion was precisely
marked out on the plot (see Figure 7). As soon as
all panels, joints and wedges were cut out, students
began pavilion assembly process (see Figure 8). The
construction took about five days to complete and
COMPULSORY COURSE
A successful result, strong interest and high stu-
dents attendance at the parametric design workshop
confirmed the growing need to introduce a regular
course on advanced CAAD tools such as paramet-
ric design methods. The first trials to apply these
methods were made for the fourth year students of
the Bachelor degree. The participants of the course
were both, regular enrolled and Erasmus students.
The whole course lasted fifteen weeks and was di-
vided into three parts. During the first three weeks
students were acquainted with new technologies
and approaches in architecture and prepared pre-
sentations on chosen topics. A wide-ranging vari-
ety of themes was covered, such as an application
of 3d printing technology in architecture, BIM pro-
cess, robotic's arm aiding fabrication etc. That part
aimed to introduce participants to a new environ-
ment of computational design, and make aware of
recent trends in technologies. Then, subsequent six
weeks (the second part of the course) were dedicated
to a new software and tools exploration. Students
learned about NURBS modelling toolset provided by
Rhinoceros3D with additional plugin for Graphic Lin-
ear Programing named Grasshopper3D. During this
part many examples and practical exercises related
to architecture were conducted to make participants
familiar with the computational process of design-
ing. It is worth to mention, that none of students
had any knowledge or skills in parametric, genera-
tive or computational design before. Last part of the
course contained a project task. The main assump-
tions were to design courtyard roofing in our main

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 287

 faculty building. As shown in Figure 14, three options
of roofing were providing for participants: to design
whole building roofing, cover one of the courtyards,
or design a cover for both patios. Students were free
in form of the design concerning exploration of new
parametric tools. During these weeks participants
were concentrated on their individual response to a
given topic. The results were summarized during the
final project presentation.
To sum up, the aim of the course was to make stu-
dents accustomed to a different way of thinking, to
open their minds to new approaches to design pro-
cess and to demonstrate that by connecting pro-
gramming skills with imagination capabilities. The
first task - a presentation of up-to-date technolo-
gies was intended to be a preface to individual ap-
proaches stated in a final design problem. Students
presented their research to exchange knowledge and
inspire each other with new solutions and opportuni-
ties given by a modern technology to reveal how con-
temporary architectural design might be successfully
aid by digital tools.
From the authors' experience, the learning pro-
cess of parametric design methods is much more re-
quiring than traditional methods used before. The
best results were possible to be achieved during
solving individual problems appearing in a project.
Focusing on individual projects, students improved
their consciousness of parametric design and devel-
oped an ability to understand the whole logic be-
288 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1
hind it. In that scenario, participants were developing
their skills faster than through understanding gen-
eral problems contained in standard tutorials. In our
course, tutorials (second part) appeared only to help
students rapidly understood a basic workflow of par-
ticular tools usage and were limited to minimum. The
principal emphasis was put on a final project. A de-
sign task for the final project was intended not be
complex. Students were encouraged to focus mainly
on a building form, its appearance and design logic
rather than its functionality. The reason for that was Figure 14
a desire to divert thoughts of students from straight- Initial boundaries
forward design studio problems solving towards the for final project.
process itself in order to open a potential for enrich-
ing a design development. The whole process of
achieving a final form of a building or a structure was
as important as the final appearance.
RESULTS
The case studies represent different approaches in a
multifaceted meaning. Nevertheless, some aspects
are clearly observable. It is worth stressing here stu-
dents' attitudes were highly diversified in both cases.
The participation in the workshop was free for all
faculty students who were interested in the partic-
ular topic. That freedom attracted highly motivated
and interested participants. In opposite to the work-
shop, the compulsory course as a different pedagog-
ical method, gathered all students. The first case def-
initely demonstrated a high motivation of learning
new tools for architectural design. Despite the atmo-
sphere of work with a slightly competing factor, par-
ticipants inspired and encouraged each other. What
is more, the aim of creating and building physical
1:1 scale object occurred a significant incentive. The
second case revealed different conclusions, though,
it also gave a valuable feedback for teaching para-
metric design methods. Not all participants per-
formed an ability and developed logical or mathe-
matical way of thinking to fully appreciate paramet-
ric design. What is more, during working on their fi-
nal project, a majority of students was focused only
on final result of their work (see Figure 15). The de-
 sign process was consciously ignored, threaten by
the students as a transitional stage without signifi-
cant meaning.
Figure 15
Outcom form
compulsory course
- Student work.
Figure 16
Outcom form
compulsory course
- Student work.
The maturity of students can also influence their de-
sign process and the way of thinking. The difference
in projects' quality was clearly visible during a final
presentation of the compulsory course Projects deliv-
ered by the Erasmus students were much more elab-
orate (see Figure 16). Their works diverged from the
other, by higher sensitivity of design logic and pro-
cess responsible for a final project. What is interest-
ing, those students were older from the regularly en-
rolled ones, and additionally they were participants
of Master Program in their Alma Mater. This example
shown the importance of design maturity of students
when Parametric Design course is implemented in a
studying program. Two editions of the course show
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 289
the feeble preparation of bachelor students to com-
plex and demanding designing process such a para-
metric design. In a contrary to the academic course,
the workshop revealed a radically different outcome.
All students involved in pavilion development were
very proud of the outcome but at the same time they
were highly conscious about design process which
led them to it.
During the exhibition made after the workshop, the
process was the main product exhibited by them. Ad-
ditionally, neither the academic course nor the work-
shop assumed the needs of existence of any theoret-
ical part of parametric design. That put our method
in contradiction to methods presented by Aguiar and
Gonçalves (2015) in their paper. All theoretical prob-
lems and questions were answered during computer
labs. The usage of graphical, node base programing
 application such as Grasshopper3D gave beginner
students better visibility what was happening during
a script execution. What is more, clear and pleasant
graphical user interface did not deter potential users
as opposed to the classical written syntax.

CONCLUSIONS
Both case studies enriched authors didactic experi-
ence and allowed them to evaluate their teaching
methods. As the results of the workshop and com-
pulsory course show, students' predispositions to un-
derstand and use parametric designing methods ap-
peared highly diversified.Architecture as a field of
study, due to its combination of art and engineer-
ing, attracts people with varied skills and aptitudes.
Parametric tools require from the user to be more
conscious about designing as a process. From teach-
ing point of view, parametric design should be intro-
duced at Master degree program where students' at-
titude to learn complex tools and her/his design ma-
turity is highly developed. Moreover, it is suggested
parametric design classes should be only proposed
as elective courses.

REFERENCES
Aguiar, R and Goncalves, A 2015 'Programming for Ar-
chitecture: The Students’ Point of View', Real Time -
Proceedings of the 33rd eCAADe Conference - Volume
2, Vienna, pp. 159-168
Boeykens, S and Neuckermans, H 2009 'Visual Program-
ming In Architecture Should Architects be trained
as programmers?', Joining Languages Cultures and Vi-
sions: CAADFutures 2009 CD-Rom, PUM
Kepczynska-Walczak, A 2008 'Contemporary Renais-
sance Architect – Yet Architect?', eCAADe 2008 Artesis
University College, Antwerp, pp. 445-450
Kepczynska-Walczak, A 2014, 'The Act Of Design
– Beyond The Digital?', Architecturae et Artibus,
6(1/2014), pp. 24-28
Wurzer, G and Alacam, S. L. 2011 'How to Teach Archi-
tects (Computer) Programming: A Case Study', Re-
specting Fragile Places 29th eCAADe Conference Pro-
ceedings, 2011, pp. 51-56

290 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1

Implementing Biomorphic Design
Design Methods in Undergraduate Architectural Education

Asterios Agkathidis1
1
University of Liverpool
1
a3lab@liv.ac.uk

In continuation to Generative Design Methods, this paper investigates the

implementation of Biomorphic Design, supported by computational techniques in
undergraduate, architectural studio education. After reviewing the main
definitions of biomorphism, organicism and biomimicry synoptically, we will
assess the application of a modified biomorphic method on a final year,
undergraduate design studio, in order to evaluate its potential and its suitability
within the framework of a research led design studio, leading to an RIBA
accredited Part I degree. Our research findings based on analysis of design
outputs, student performance as well as moderators and external examiners
reports initiate a constructive debate about accomplishments and failures of a
design methodology which still remains alien to many undergraduate curricula.

Keywords: CAAD Education, Strategies, Shape Form and Geometry, Generative

Design, Design Concepts

INTRODUCTION ponents have included Imre Makovecz (Kuhlmann

The term Biomorphism ultimately derives from
Goethe and was firstly introduced by the British poet
and writer Geoffrey Grigson in 1935, in relation to the
work of the sculptor Henry Moore (Kosinski 2001). It
is composed out of the Greek words βίος (life, living)
and μορφή (form). Strongly related to Surrealism, it
was used to describe the creative synthesis between
cubism and abstract art. It has been often associated
with fluid, organic shapes in art, architecture and de-
sign. Particularly in architecture, the term has been
related to nature inspired forms, naturally occurring
patterns and shapes.
The notion of organicism promotes harmony be-
tween architecture and nature to the point where
form and natural context merge into one. Key pro-
1998) and Frank Lloyd Wright, who, as Aldersey-
Williams (2003) points out, took the approach to new
heights. Even though organicism and biomorphism
are related (and are often used - incorrectly - synony-
mously), there are significant differences between
them. Organic architecture, as Wright himself de-
fined it, does not necessarily resemble natural forms,
but rather relates to materiality and integration into
a natural context.
Finally, the term 'bionics' - combining 'biology'
and 'technics', or 'electronics' - was invented by US Air
Force colonel Jack E. Steele and presented at a 1960
'Bionics Symposium', entitled 'Living Prototypes - The
Key to New Technology' (Nachtigall 2005). Aiming to
inform engineering and technology with knowledge

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 291

 and aspects of performance as they have evolved in
nature, bionic design can be seen as an aspect of
biomorphism. However, bionic, or biomimetic, archi-
tecture implies not only the form-related aspects of
mimicry, but the inherent qualities of construction as
well (Gruber 2011). Gruber also points out that Frei
Otto's research studies on membrane surfaces, and
Buckminster Fuller's tessellation techniques for dome
geometry, were most probably the first attempts to
integrate bionics into architectural design. It is in the
last ten years - by incorporating emerging technolo-
gies and tools, such as parametric, algorithmic and
generative design methods - that architects and en-
gineers claim to have moved beyond a mimicry of ge-
ometry and order, and into enhancing environmen-
tal, structural and material performance by learning
from the mechanisms and properties found in nature.
New terms such as zoomorphism, geomorphism and
anthropomorphism have arisen in order to specify
the particular source of inspiration or mimicry in each
case (in these instances, animals, geology and hu-
mans, respectively).
Even though these terms appeared only in the
20th century, nature has always been a paradigm for
artists and architects. Looking back in the origins
of western architecture, such as the design of an-
cient Greek temples, nature always plays an impor-
tant role, not only in terms of shape and appearance
but also in defining proportions and structure. Vari-
292 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1
ous other attempts to incorporate nature into design
and architecture have been taking place from ancient
times until our days, in almost all architectural move-
ments. Starting with traditional architecture around
the world, continuing with Arabic ornaments or ar-
chitects and designers during Art Deco and art Nou-
veau, Antonio Gaudi in the beginning of the 20th
century, until Oscar Niemeyer, Frei Otto in the 50's
and 60's continuing with Sandiago Calatrava and Sir
Norman Foster in our days.
Through the rise of digital design and fabrication
techniques, bio inspired design is becoming more
and more important in today's architectural practice
and academic framework, calling for innovative ed-
ucational concepts in both undergraduate and post-
graduate curricula.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES:
Main aim of this research paper is to evaluate the
suitability and implementation of biomorphic design
methodologies into undergraduate design studio.
Furthermore, we will investigate a variety of contem-
porary biomorphic design methods by monitoring
design case studies, using different approaches and
techniques, practiced in the academic framework of
Studio 04, one of the five graduate year's design stu-
dio units in our University. The studio encourages the
use of digital design and fabrication tools, as well as
physical modelling and drafting techniques.
Figure 1
Diagram of design
method applied in
the design
experimentations
presented.
 Our main research questions can be described as fol-
lows:
• How can biomorphic design methodology
be integrated in an undergrad design studio
module?
• Which are its strengths and weaknesses?
• Does the applied design methodology
achieve its objectives in producing innova-
tive design solutions and increase students'
design skills and future employability?
• Does the integration of biomorphic design
methodology in undergraduate level seem
appropriate?
the final paper, are offering an analytic evaluation
overview of biomorphic design methodologies inte-
gration in undergraduate education. In addition, we
will present a categorisation of the various design ex-
perimentations using nature as a source of formal in-
spiration, spatial / typological innovation, organiza-
tional method or as a tool for performative integra-
tion into structure and geometry.
We will present four characteristic design exper-
imentations, which were produced by applying the
method described previously and proceed to discus-
sions and conclusions based on the analysis of the
collected data.

DESIGN EXPERIMENTATION 01: HILL AND

RESEARCH METHOD AND FINDINGS
VALLEY
Our design method was based on three main
Our first design experimentation initially analysed hill
phases, Analysis - Morphogenesis - Metamorphosis
and valley formations resulting from the movement
(Agkathidis 2015), aiming the production of com-
of water (Figure 2). They emerge through the tidal
plete architectural proposals, in a research led edu-
currents on the soft, formable sandy soil of the sea.
cational framework. Analysis was focusing on prece-
Figure 2 dent studies originated in nature, where design prop-
Sand patterns erties, design intentions and parameters were iden-
formed by water tified. During Morphogenesis abstract generative
streams, models (Figure 1) were developed by incorporating
Merseyside, UK. the parameters of the previous phase. Finally, dur-
ing Metamorphosis, the previous prototypes were
translated into building proposals, including all nec-
essary deliverables, such as floor plans, sections, de-
tails, physical models and visualisations.
The method described here, was applied on a
12 week, design studio unit with a cohort of 63 stu-
Figure 3
dents, tutored by six tutors, part of a total of 240
Surface iterations
students in the entire year cohort. Students had to
by Grasshopper
work collaboratively during the first four weeks (anal-
algorithm, using
ysis and morphogenesis) and develop their individ-
singular or dual
ual projects in the remaining time of eight weeks. The
paths.
final project submissions were first marked by the en-
tire group of studio tutors, second marked and mod-
erated by a team, not involved in tutorials and ex-
amined by external examiners. The entire process
was monitored during two semesters. Analysis of de-
sign outputs, marking statistics, moderator and ex-
ternal examiners reports, which will be presented in

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 293

 Figure 4
Section of thermal
bath / SPA facilities.

During the phase of morphogenesis, a Grasshopper Figure 5

algorithm was developed in order to generate sur- Various shell types
face deformation prototypes in hills and valleys by in relation to the
simulating the flow of water along vectorised path- reciprocal unit.
ways. The algorithm required the introduction of 'at-
tractor paths' in order to develop various landscape-
like iterations. As a second step, a number of these it-
erations were materialized as physical models using
contour crafting, CNC milling and 3D printing tech-
nologies, which then offered up a range of different
tectonic solutions (Figure 3).
Finally, hill and valley typologies resulting from
the water-flow simulation process served as the spa- Figure 6
tial prototype for a spa facility, composed of hills, Physical model of
caves and valleys, and able to accommodate pools, double curved shell
saunas, steam rooms and relaxation zones (Figure with suspended
4). The building's double-curved roof helps its in- membrane.
tegration with the building site, a green, hilly land-
scape. Toyo Ito's reinforced concrete roof-scape
for the Kakamigahara Crematorium (Turnbull 2012)
served as a structural precedent for this project.

DESIGN EXPERIMENTATION 02: BIRD'S

NEST
This project analysed reciprocal structures in nature,
such as they appear in birds' nests. Structures like
these are formed from at least two elements, each
of which is supported by another. All elements meet
with each other along the span and not at the ver-
tices.
During the morphogenesis phase the team exper-
imented with different surfaces composed of vari-
ous types of units, starting with physical models and
continuing with grasshopper algorithms and digital
modelling. In particular, it examined the relationship
between unit, shape morphology and structural per-
formance, such as plane surfaces, and single and dou-

294 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1

Figure 7 ble curvature (Figure 5).
Snake skin analysis Following these investigations, reciprocal timber
diagram. shell structures were developed in order to accom-
modate an event/pavilion space. Investigations into
cladding solutions included textile membranes (Fig-
ure 6) and ETFE foils.

DESIGN EXPERIMENTATION 03: SNAKE-

SKIN
This project analysed reptile skin and scales (Figure
7). Taking place within the educational framework
of the Raffles Design Institute in Shanghai, with the
assistance of third-year students, this study involved
translating snakeskin patterns into a scale-like, fold-
able surface, composed of units that were stuck to-
gether. The final surface was found to be flexible
enough to form a large variety of shapes. Hand-
made models were constructed from standardized
strip modules, but the final design was based on a
folded unit created using a parametric Grasshopper
algorithm. Thus, the prototype evolved into a non-
standard solution, made from irregular modules.
Finally, the prototypes were transformed into a
shading/space-dividing wall, with the 1:1 prototype
built from recycled cardboard panels. Each module
was laser-cut and then assembled layer by layer. The
final output proved to be an extremely stiff and stable
structure, which also allowed for spectacular lighting
effects (Figure 8).

Figure 8
DESIGN EXPERIMENTATION 04: BRANCHED
Finalized wall
installation. BLOCKS
This project analysed branching and growth algo-
rithms in trees. During morphogenesis, branching
algorithms appearing in nature were applied to dif-
ferent geometrical units, such as lines and cubic vol-
umes, by using a Grasshopper script (Figure 9). A
set of iterative models (digital and physical) was pro-
duced, exploring structure, organization, massing
and typology.
The final project proposal translates the typo-
logical prototypes produced during the form-finding
(Figure 10) exploration into a volumetric accumula-

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 295

 tion of cubic spaces, aiming to accommodate a ther-
mal baths and spa facility. The same branching al-
gorithm was used as the primary organizational tool.
The proposed building achieves an innovative spa-
tial/organizational floor plan, and the massing is in-
tegrated into the landscape (Figure 11).
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The way that nature has influenced design in the
above design experimentations falls into several cat-
egories, which in turn give rise to a number of conclu-
sions. Some projects, such as the 'Branched Blocks',
use nature mainly as a source of formal inspiration.
Although this approach is often criticized by some,
it has always been a legitimate approach to form-
finding, especially in relation to mathematical rules
and equations, and it leads to a chain of innovative
solutions related to tectonics, typology, materiality
296 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1
and fabrication.
Other projects are concerned with using nature
as a source of spatial/typological innovation. The
'Hill and Valley' project, for instance, proposes a new
building type inspired by the topology of sand for-
mation. The entire spa complex evolves as a contin-
uous surface, hosting each of its functions either by
enclosure or through surface deformation into hills Figure 9
and valleys. Yet other examples, like the 'Branched Branching
Blocks' project, operate on an organizational/compo- algorithm studies.
sitional level. In this project a generative, branching
algorithm was applied in order to organize the lay-
out and massing of a building, again leading to un-
expected spatial and typological innovation.
Finally, some projects focus on the relation-
ship between geometry and structural performance
and/or material innovation (e.g. 'Snakeskin', 'Birds
Nest'). Both of these projects use algorithms as a
means of achieving structural and formal coherence,
while focusing on smart material fabrication solu-
tions by using either timber or paperboard- a re-
minder of the pre-computational attempts of Otto
and Candela.
Although biomorphic projects are often criti-
Figure 10
cised for ignoring contextual integration, case stud-
Algorithmic cube
ies like the 'Hill and Valley' project demonstrate a high
cluster.
degree of integration into the natural context. The
same can be said for the 'Branched Cubes' thermal
bath proposal, which manages to achieve contextual
integration with its design and materiality and could
therefore claim proximity to Wright's definition of or-
ganicism as a unification of design and nature. An-
other important observation is that biomorphic de-
sign solutions can operate on many different levels,
ranging from the size of an object or a building com-
ponent, through to a whole building, or even projects
on an almost urban scale.
The positive effects of including biomorphic de-
sign in architectural education are obvious. The un-
dergraduate design schemes shown here demon-
strate a high degree of structural and typological
innovation, combined with well-functioning floor
plans and sections. The appropriate level of knowl-
Figure 11
Finalized project
proposal for a
thermal bath.
edge has been acquired, as verified by external ex-
aminers, enhanced by the acquisition of new skills
(e.g. digital design and fabrication). Such case stud-
ies prove that undergraduate architectural education
can move beyond the boundaries of classical curric-
ula and offer innovative design methodology that is
in tune with both the zeitgeist and with the evolving
demands of the job market. In addition, simple, even
playful, large-scale exercises like the Snakeskin in-
stallation wall prove that there is both metaphorical
and literal space for 1:1 scale constructions in under-
graduate education. Traditional structures and hier-
archies in education, though, do present several bar-
riers to be overcome; this approach requires site sim-
plification, and teaching content must be adapted to
the appropriate level, addressing antiquated and un-
necessary health and safety requirements, and pro-
viding instruction in computational skills, an area
that is often ignored.
The projects featured in this paper clearly
demonstrate the enormous potential of biomor-
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 297
phism and bionics for developing innovative solu-
tions and design-based research. They met all ac-
creditation requirements set by RIBA and ARB and
did not receive negative comments or remarks by
the external examiners, thus proved to be appropri-
ate for an undergraduate design studio module.
Meanwhile, the strict boundaries between terms
such as biomimicry, biomorphism, zoomorphism,
geomorphism, anthropomorphism, organicism and
bionics are becoming ever blurrier. Emerging com-
putational tools and design techniques, such as gen-
erative, algorithmic and parametric design, in combi-
nation with digital technologies like CNC fabrication
and 3D printing, are embracing nature as a source
of inspiration, and will allow constructive new syner-
gies between biology and architecture in the years to
come.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My acknowledgments go to the design team of 'Hill
and Valley', Sen Lin, Haochen Jia, Jun Zhou and Jin-
hui Zhu, the design team of 'Bird's Nest', Maria Kaik,
George McLoughlin, Oluwaseyi Oladimeji, David Old-
ham, Yipei Tan, the design team of 'Sankeskin', Timur
Bissenbayev, Yuzhan Cheng, Qiuchen Yu, Minxuan
Zhu and Ben Prasetya Tanuatmaja and the design
team of 'Branched Blocks', Xiao Gu, Yuedi Liu, Yangt-
ing Yang, Jingley FU and Wenxuan Zhang.
In addition, my grateful acknowledgements go
to the Studio 04 tutors, Richard Dod, Daniel Wilt-
shire, Ürün Killic, Fei Chen and Simos Vamvakidis,
for their enthusiasm and hard work, and to the
workshop team of Stuart Carroll, Michael Baldwin,
Stephen Bretland and Aleksandar Kokai at the Liver-
pool School of Architecture.

REFERENCES
Agkathidis, A 2015 'Generative Design Methods: Imple-
menting computational techniques in undergradu-
ate architectural education', Proceedings of eCAADe
2015, Vienna, pp. 47-55
Aldersey-Williams, H 2003, Zoomorphic: New Animal Ar-
chitecture, Laurence King Publishing, London
Gruber, P 2011, Biomimetics in Architecture: Architecture
of Life and Buildings, Springer, Vienna and New York
Kosinski, D 2001, Henry Moore, Sculpting the Twentieth
Century, Yale University Press, New Heaven
Kuhlmann, D (eds) 1998, ‘Biomorphism in Architecture:
Speculations on Growth and Form, Bauhaus Univer-
sity of Weimar Publishers, Weimar
Nachtigall, W 2005, Biologisches Design, Systematischer
Katalog für bionisches Gestallten, Springer, Heidel-
berg
Turnbull, J 2012, Toyo Ito: Generative Order (Kassler Lec-
tures), Princeton Architectural Press, Princeton

298 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1

Building Information Modelling - the Quest for Simplicity
Within Complexity
Anetta Kepczynska-Walczak1
1
Institute of Architecture and Urban Planning, Lodz University of Technology
1
anetta@p.lodz.pl

There is a common expectation of technology to better help us manage the

complexity of life and to simplify our daily tasks. However, these developments
also raise a question of whether design technologies encourage complexity at the
expense of simplicity in the design process. Does computation cause complexity?
Or does it enable simplicity? This paper aims to answer these key questions,
posed as the main focus of the eCAADe 2016 Conference, by confronting different
approaches to teaching Building Information Modelling (BIM) in schools of
Architecture. The scope of the paper is based on both the author's knowledge of
recent BIM implementations in the academic curricula and experiments
conducted at Lodz University of Technology. Necessary prerequisites enabling
understanding the complex knowledge are discussed. What is more, the scheme
for the integrated BIM pedagogy is proposed.

Keywords: Building Information Modelling, BIM, semantic model, information

visualization, integrated design

INTRODUCTION to address complex situations in architectural envi-

We often expect a technology to better help us man-
age the complexity of life and to simplify our daily
tasks. However, these developments also raise a se-
ries of questions of whether design technologies en-
courage complexity at the expense of simplicity in
the design process. Does computation cause com-
plexity? Or does it enable simplicity? [1] There is
no doubt such defined problematics require mani-
fold analysis. To answer these questions and workout
a clear statement the paper will focus on Building In-
formation Modelling as a key area in a design process.
It is observed new digital technologies influence
design methods and offer exciting opportunities for
architectural design. Recent developments in com-
puter technologies and digital design tools enable us
ronments. On the one hand the more advanced tech-
nological support may evoke more challenging tasks;
on the other hand the tasks may provoke technolog-
ical growth and development. It is observed lately
such intricate methods have been gradually involved
in the processes of building design, construction and
maintenance. The most meaningful is Building Infor-
mation Modelling.
As Building Information Modelling is high on
agenda nowadays and influences the workflow in ar-
chitectural design practice and industry, it is timely to
confront and discuss the topic. There are many ini-
tiatives in Europe in the subject area, consolidating
regional BIM clusters, proposing EU funded projects
and other activities the author has been involved.

CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 299

 BIM has also become a very widely discussed re-
search topic, what can be proved by the presence
of the theme at conferences such as CAAD Futures,
ACADIA, SIGRADI, CAADRIA and eCAADe. A variety
of related papers can be given as examples: from the
focus on BIM in education (Vinšová et al. 2014) and a
novel approach to combine BIM and VR (Kieferle and
Woessner 2015), through the application of BIM in
digital reconstructions of heritage objects (Boeykens
et al. 2012), to programming for the enrichment of
BIM capabilities (Sharif and Gentry 2015). What is
more, there are many other conferences and sym-
posia focusing on BIM entirely, gathering people
from academia and practice with an ample industry
involvement.
WHAT IS BIM NOWADAYS?
Building Information Modelling has become a com-
mon concept and the term has been already adopted
to everyday language. To some extent, this common
use is often exaggerated and excessively applied to
3D modelling or even CAAD drawings. Therefore, it
is timely to recap what BIM actually stands for.
There is a number of definitions of Building In-
formation Modelling, however, all of them point out
the same core characteristics. Thus, BIM can be un-
derstood as a concept, an approach, a process, a
methodology, a knowledge-base for project infor-
mation, a technology or a set of tools essential to
embed all necessary data about designed object in
an integrated way. The richness and complexity of
the output are strongly related to the scope and
level of information possible to read or retrieve from
the semantic model. This semantic model is the
key to comprehend the idea of BIM, though it does
not mean it encompasses the entire definition. One
of the definitions states the following: "Building In-
formation Modelling (BIM) is a collaborative way of
working, underpinned by the digital technologies
which unlock more efficient methods of designing,
creating and maintaining our assets" [2]. Besides, it is
worth mentioning here, that BIM is not IFC. The lat-
ter stands for Industry Foundation Classes and it is
300 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1
a platform neutral, open file format specification. It
is registered by ISO, and it is an official International
Standard. It is a commonly used collaboration format
in Building Information Modelling based projects. To
sum up, IFC is an open format for data exchange, par-
ticularly intended to describe building and construc-
tion industry data.
To conclude, the mostly agreed definition nowa-
days is to interpret BIM as a process involving the
generation and management of digital representa-
tions of physical and functional characteristics of
places, while building information models (BIMs)
mean files which can be exchanged or networked to
support decision-making about a place.
A PLACE FOR BIM IN ACADEMIC CURRIC-
ULA
BIM has been receiving an increasing attention in the
architecture, engineering and construction industry.
Due to official regulations concerning the compul-
sory use of BIM in practice and being adopted in more
and more countries, there is an urgent necessity to
adapt the curricula in Architecture studies to the de-
manding market.
Actually, there is an ongoing discussion on the
best suited place in academic curricula for imple-
menting BIM concept and methodology. On the one
hand, in some institutions BIM is taught as early as in
the first semester of Bachelor studies (Vinšová et al.
2015). On the other hand, there are arguments to let
students mature for learning such complex tools, and
as a result, BIM is introduced at fourth of five years of
studies (Magdy M. Ibrahim 2014).
The author's personal experience in teaching
BIM goes back to the 90s of the twentieth century.
Experiments and didactics were based on the indus-
try first BIM software for architects. However, it was
not defined BIM at that time but was named "Virtual
Building Modelling in 1:1". By adding the scale 1:1, it
was emphasized it would reflect the real size of a de-
signed building.
There is no doubt the evolution of IT in general,
and to point out more specifically, of CAAD software
in architectural design domain have been progress-
ing significantly since that time. That is why the re-
vision questions arise: Does the use of complex de-
sign methods offer simplicity to the design process
itself? Is it possible to design complexity with sim-
ple methods? Or, in other words, to process complex
tasks with simple tools?
In order to answer the above questions and to
discuss a place for BIM in academic curricula, two
cases of BIM courses conducted at Lodz University of
Technology have been described, analysed and com-
pared. Generally, these two courses are delivered at
two bachelor study programmes which have been
expected to be similar, however, some key differ-
ences appeared. The study programmes discussed in
the paper are as follows: Architecture and Architec-
ture Engineering. Both of them are eight semesters
long, and BIM is taught at the same semester, viz. the
third semester of studies. A scope of the two courses
and the learning outcomes have been planned the
same, and the main goal is to teach BIM and how
to apply it in the design process. The classes start
with an introduction to the BIM concept, then a set
of exercises is prepared to allow students learn cho-
sen software supporting a design process enriched
by information about a building. Finally, a design
task is provided to recap knowledge and to practice
newly developed skills. The theme is adjusted to
the level of third semester students' capacity, so in
a case of Architecture study programme, it is a fam-
ily house at a given real location, while students of
Architecture Engineering are asked to design a sum-
mer cottage on a chosen plot. The task is not a con-
cept design only. The basic requirement is, how-
ever, to decide on building construction and mate-
rials, to estimate the thickness and the skins of exter-
nal walls, a roof, slabs, fundaments. Apart from ge-
ometry and structure the environment and climate
issues are taken into account and as a result, such
information is embedded in the virtual model of de-
signed building. There are some limitations planned
a priori. Hence both study programmes are lead-
ing to qualifications in architecture, these basic BIM
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 301
courses represent the approach to teaching architec-
ture design studio. What is more, as it is the early
stage of education (the third semester of bachelor
programme) proposed tasks should not be too com-
plex. The idea is to provide simple steps to achieve a
complex result. Nevertheless, such courses require a
set of prerequisites to enable students proceed with
the tasks and develop new skills. What was surpris-
ing, the BIM courses revealed a huge gap between
the two study programmes. While students of Archi-
tecture were able to meet the requirements, students
of Architecture Engineering suffered from the lack
of basic knowledge on building structures. There-
fore, at the beginning the latter group was not able
to proceed with preparation of an informative virtual
model. So, the classes had to be reconfigured to help
students achieve learning outcomes at the end of the
semester. This situation provoked undertaking an in-
vestigation on differences in curricula. Both study
programmes are relatively new, so such experience
may lead to valuable conclusions and improvements
of the curricula. For the purpose of the investigation
a comparison of pre-selected courses assumed to be
prerequisites has been prepared (see Figure 1). Each
course has been described concisely in the following
paragraphs to picture the problem. The brief is based
on the official description of courses published on-
line [3] and [4].
BIM prerequisites at Architecture study pro-
gramme
Semester 1:
General Building I. Students are acquainted
with the principles of technical drawing and basics
of building engineering. They are also familiarised
with various construction types as well as typical so-
lutions for basic building elements (wall, roof, beam,
slab). Students are expected to apply their knowl-
edge throughout small projects such as a modular
co-ordination of the plan and a design of external
walls for a single family house. (lectures and tutorials)
Building Materials. The aim of this course is to
provide students with information on basic building
 materials (brick, wood, concrete, stone, glass, etc.),
their properties and applications. Some processes,
which take place in the building materials (heat trans-
fer, moisture transport, hardening), are explained.
The appropriate use (structure, insulation, finishing)
of various materials is discussed. Potential risks and
dangers as well as methods of their mitigation are
outlined. (lectures and lab)
Introduction to Architectural Design. The
course aims at introducing basics of the designing
process and its principles. A particular attention is
given to stimulating architectural design thinking,
creativity and responsiveness. Design exercises are
focused on solving simple problems requiring small
scale interventions. Students are expected to achieve
302 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1
skills crucial for architectural profession - analysis of
given information and site; design representation
with drawings and models. Principles of professional
ethic (respect, dependability and responsibility) are
also outlined. (lectures and studio)
Semester 2:
General Building II. Further information on
building methods is provided, including principles of
load bearing; foundation types; principles of thermal
insulation; stairs design. Students learn how to de-
sign various roof types and a ribbed ceiling slab. Ad-
ditionally, they are to present a written report from
their visit to the Building Industry Exhibition. (lectures
and tutorials)
Computer Aided Design Studio I. The aim of
Figure 1
Comparision of
prerequisites of two
BIM courses.
the course is to develop spatial cognition and to pro-
vide an introduction to computer aided design as
a basic tool in engineering practice. Learning out-
comes include precise digital drafting, basic 3D mod-
elling and designing in the virtual environment. Stu-
dents should be able to create 2D architectural draw-
ings. They are also expected to perform a concept
design of a simple architectural form in a chosen soft-
ware. (lab)
Introduction to Architectural Design II. The
course includes three small-scale projects: 1. an ob-
ject in open landscape (for example, a rest stop along
a highway); 2. a similar facility in an urban setting (for
example, an entry to a botanic garden); 3. a more
complex design (for example, a holiday bungalow).
Students are expected to focus on interrelation be-
tween human being, architecture and environment
(setting). At the end of the course they should be
able to merge functionally uncomplicated architec-
tural forms into groups. (lectures and studio)
Semester 3:
Building Physics. Students are provided with
the theoretical and practical knowledge of basic con-
cepts and problems concerning heat and mass ex-
change in a building shell, sound propagation, mois-
ture exchange, energy balance of a habitable build-
ing, which are necessary for proper architectural de-
sign process. Students are also familiarised with solar
energy issues and their application including passive
and active systems and their efficiency. At the end of
the course they should be able to assess the effect of
a building modification and estimate the basic heat
and energy characteristics of building elements. (lec-
tures and tutorials)
General Building III. The course extends stu-
dents' knowledge on technical and structural issues
related to architectural design. Topics include foun-
dation methods and depths; water drainage systems;
windows, doors, gates types, constructions, methods
of fitting and sealing; flooring and floors; wall plas-
tering and painting. The Polish Building Code is also
discussed. A documentation of a single-family house
is to be compiled by each student by the end of the
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 303
semester. (lectures and tutorials)
Timber Structures. The course is envisaged
as an introduction to the basic properties of wood
and wood-based materials. Traditional and contem-
porary structural solutions are described. The is-
sues related to proper maintenance and exploitation
of a timber construction are also explained. Stu-
dents apply the knowledge throughout designing
a beam-column structure, a roof structure, and a
glued-laminated wood girder. (lectures and tutorials)
Building Installations. The course consists of
two parts. The first part aims at acquainting students
with the basics of designing hot and cold water sys-
tems; fire-extinguishing water installations; domestic
and rainwater sewage systems in a building and its
surroundings. The second part focuses on the con-
struction and design of simple central heating sys-
tems, mechanical ventilation systems and a variety of
heat sources. Both parts include lectures and a de-
sign studio. Students are expected to apply knowl-
edge to design installation systems in a given multi-
family house (a cold and hot water supply, an internal
sewage system, sanitary and rainfall installation con-
nected to the municipal sewage systems). Then they
focus on a design of a central heating or mechanical
ventilation in a single-family building. (lectures and
tutorials)
Integrated Architectural Design. Throughout
this course students learn the basic principles of ar-
chitectural design of housing. During the lectures
they are provided with theoretical and practical in-
formation concerning a design task - a small complex
of single-family houses (at least three buildings) with
the emphasis on the urban context and functional
solutions (proper orientation, proportion and func-
tional relationships, etc.); the appropriate structural
system and building materials should be also taken
into consideration. (lectures and studio)
Computer Aided Design Studio II. The aim of
the course is to provide an introduction to BIM ap-
plications, to develop practical skills in creating infor-
mation models of architectural objects and project
documentation based on the models and to learn es-
 sential visualization techniques. On successful com-
pletion of the course students should be able to ap-
ply BIM concept to architectural design tasks. This in-
cludes preparing a comprehensive documentation of
architectural design based on the model information
as well as creating sets of detailed data on the archi-
tectural objects based on the spatial BIM model. (lab)
BIM prerequisites at Architecture Engineer-
ing study programme
Semester 1:
Building Materials. The aim of this course is to
provide students with information on basic building
materials (brick, wood, concrete, stone, glass, bitu-
minous adhesives, mineral binders, etc.), their prop-
erties and applications. Some processes, which take
place in the building materials (heat transfer, mois-
ture transport, hardening) are explained. The appro-
priate use (structure, insulation, finishing) of various
materials is discussed. Potential risks and dangers as
well as methods of their mitigation are outlined. (lec-
tures and lab)
Fundamentals of Civil Engineering. The
course covers an introduction to the principal build-
ing elements, structural systems and traditional tech-
nologies including ventilation, exhaust and smoke
ducts. The problem of loads is emphasised. Students
are expected to make calculations for determining
the value of loads, including an impact of functional
arrangement and climatic conditions. This project is
to be done for a given rib-and-slab floor. (lectures and
tutorials)
Introduction to Architectural Design and Er-
gonomics. The course focuses on the basic knowl-
edge of architectural design ideas and principles.
Students should learn the rules of architectural draw-
ing, methods of presenting and discussing architec-
tural issues. To achieve basic understanding they are
expected to prepare a presentation on a modern/-
contemporary well known architect. The final assess-
ment is a design of a small building (expo pavilion,
summer house, etc.). (tutorials and studio)
Semester 2:
304 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1
Architectural Design Studio I. The main goal
of the course is to familiarise students with a design
process of residential buildings and complexes. The
course is based on a design process starting with a
wide range of analysis of existing exterior site condi-
tions, through the formulation of architectural forms
using adequate materials, to finding optimal archi-
tectural solutions. The design studio is enhanced
with lectures expanding on associated issues, such as
the impact of the building on the user, functional lay-
out and interrelations between building and its sur-
rounding, residential buildings typology, etc. (lec-
tures and studio)
Computer Methods in Architecture I. The aim
of the course is to develop spatial cognition and to
provide an introduction to computer aided design as
a basic tool in engineering practice. Learning out-
comes include precise digital drafting, basic 3D mod-
elling and designing in the virtual environment. Stu-
dents should be able to create 2D architectural draw-
ings. They are also expected to perform a concept
design of a simple architectural form in a chosen soft-
ware. (lab)
Semester 3:
Building Physics and Acoustic. Students are
provided with the theoretical and practical knowl-
edge of basic concepts and problems concerning
heat and mass exchange in a building shell, sound
propagation, moisture exchange, energy balance of
a habitable building, which are necessary for proper
architectural design including lighting and acoustics.
Methods of numerical analysis of heat flow including
2D and 3D modelling are outlined. Students are also
familiarised with solar energy issues and their appli-
cation including passive and active systems and their
efficiency. At the end of the course they should be
able to assess the effect of a building modification
and estimate the basic heat and energy character-
istics of building elements. Students are expected
to conduct calculations concerning heat exchange,
energy balance, and reverberation time for selected
rooms. (lectures and tutorials)
Concrete Technology. The course aims to famil-
iarize students with the technology of cement con-
crete including issues related to properties of con-
crete and the requirements, concrete classification,
normalization and classes, components of concrete
mixtures, their workability, placing and curing. Meth-
ods of concrete testing are also outlined. (lectures and
lab)
Building Installations. Students are introduced
to the classification-related terminology, designing,
operations, setting up and exploitation of typical san-
itation systems and district heating. Tutorials include
assessment of the influence of particular installa-
tions on hygiene and sanitation safety, the acoustics-
related comfort and fire hazard, people, buildings
and the surrounding. In addition, students are ex-
pected to design a simple central or water heating
installation, based on legal requirements and princi-
ples of technical knowledge. (tutorials and studio)
Architectural Design Studio II. During this
course students are acquainted with the architec-
tural design of small commercial buildings (a hotel, a
kindergarten, local bus/railway station, etc.) in an ur-
ban context. Lectures provide information not only
on the issues related to the design task (e.g. ho-
tel structure & programme; vertical communication
in building), but also on various concepts behind
the modern and contemporary architecture, such as:
"less is more", "we do not create art we solve prob-
lems", "less is bore" and many other. (lectures and stu-
dio)
Computer Methods in Architecture II. The aim
of the course is to provide an introduction to BIM ap-
plications, to develop practical skills in creating infor-
mation models of architectural objects and project
documentation based on the models and to learn es-
sential visualization techniques. On successful com-
pletion of the course students should be able to ap-
ply BIM concept to architectural design tasks, and in
particular to prepare a comprehensive documenta-
tion of architectural design based on the model in-
formation, as well as to create sets of detailed data
of the architectural objects based on the spatial BIM
model. (lab)
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 305
OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
The following deliberation presents the perspective
of teaching computer aided architectural design and
being situated in predefined settings. The main mo-
tive to undertake the above search was the observa-
tion that students of two courses of study, viz. Ar-
chitecture and Architecture Engineering, taking part
in BIM courses had differential background knowl-
edge. It is worth mentioning here, that it was in-
tended these two courses should differ in the lan-
guage of instruction only. The Architecture course is
taught in Polish, whereas the Architecture Engineer-
ing course is delivered in English. Nevertheless, there
are diverse names of particular courses, the overall
learning outcomes are the same. Both courses con-
sist of eight semesters, both are concluded by final
bachelor diploma projects and both promote engi-
neers in architecture. What is more, the two study
programmes are relatively new, so such investiga-
tion may reveal the most emergent conflicts, lead to
valuable conclusions, and in consequence, improve-
ments of the curricula.
The examination of the courses, presumed to be
prerequisites to teaching BIM, have helped to under-
stand differences in the learning progress. Through
the analysis of students' earlier learning outcomes
and prerequisites, and moreover, by an observation
of diversified knowledge it was possible to denomi-
nate key problems. First of all, as the lack of coher-
ence in students' knowledge emerged very early at
the "Computer Methods in Architecture II" course, it
was possible to adapt the course to students needs
while keeping the goal and project tasks unchanged.
Thus, it can be considered as an emergent reaction
to the situation. Secondly, a study of complemen-
tary courses was undertaken. The primary impres-
sion while reading the courses catalogues was rather
not unexpected. The courses looked alike and dis-
tinguished tiny differences were not supposed to
be the reason of the problem. However, after sev-
eral discussions with students and observations of
their state of knowledge, it became perfectly ob-
vious the prerequisite courses were not the same.

The courses for Architecture Engineering students
focused more on civil engineering tasks and calcu-
lations while students of Architecture learnt more
about building structures with the capacity essen-
tial for architects. Additionally, students of Archi-
tecture benefited more since the "Computer Aided
Design Studio II" course became complementary to
other courses provided at the third semester, viz. In-
tegrated Architectural Design, General Building III,
Building Installations, Building Physics and Timber
Structures. It was the initiative beyond the stiff cat-
alogue courses' descriptions. As a result, the de-
sign studio project benefited from the associated
courses and students performed better understand-
ing of complex knowledge. What is more, they were
able to develop also technical skills and apply them
in their final projects.
The observations allow to draw some conclu-
sions. First of all, BIM is not suitable for the first
semester or even the second semester students since
306 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1
Figure 2
Integrated
multidisciplinary
BIM course.
it requires a set of prerequisites not possible to ap-
prehend in such a short time. Secondly, to under-
stand BIM basics it is essential to learn building struc-
tures first. Until then we may speak about two di-
mensional drafting or three dimensional modelling,
but it is not equal to building information modelling,
however, often mistaken even by the teachers. An-
other conclusion is that BIM courses should be pro-
vided on several levels of education and should start
as a course dedicated to certain study programme,
for example for architecture students, civil engineer-
ing students, environmental engineering students,
etc. The BIM course described earlier would stand
for the basic, introductory one. Then, an advanced
course should be proposed enabling working in mul-
tidisciplinary teams and offering a simulation of the
real problems to be solved in a co-operative way. It
is worth mentioning here, that among many defini-
tions, finally BIM is about working together.
To sum up, there is no doubt BIM process is com-
plex and multifaceted, however through carefully de-
signed curriculum it is possible to make such com-
plex knowledge and practical skills simple to acquire.
FURTHER PLANS
Hence BIM is high on agenda and it is a real need to
prepare students to meet the growing challenges of
industry and technology, a new concept of interdis-
ciplinary design process simulation course based on
BIM has been proposed. It is planned to continue the
idea of teaching by "simple steps towards complex
results".
The idea coincides with a new programme of
undergraduate studies "Control Systems Of Intelli-
gent Buildings" launched at the Faculty of Electri-
cal, Electronic, Computer and Control Engineering
at Lodz University of Technology. The curriculum
has been developed in co-operation with other fac-
ulties, among them the Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Architecture and Environmental Engineering. The
new concept for advanced BIM course would include
an integrated design studio merging students from
both faculties and four courses of study (see Figure 2).
They would form interdisciplinary teams gathering
representatives from different fields of studies, prin-
cipal to challenge intelligent buildings design. So,
students of architecture, civil engineering, environ-
mental engineering (building installations) and con-
trol systems of intelligent buildings would work to-
gether to bring a project to fruition: from the initial
concept to the 'in use' phase [5]. Participation of stu-
dents and tutors of versatile backgrounds and knowl-
edge would stimulate exchange and, what is more,
simulate a design process as close as possible to the
reality. The latter would be achieved through the in-
volvement of extramural stakeholders from the AEC
industry. It is necessary to stress, this sector is very
active in the adoption of Information and Commu-
nication Technologies. Therefore, Integrated Project
Delivery (IPD) is highly on demand. It is an emerging
process framework bringing together people, sys-
tems, business structures and practices to keep infor-
mation flowing smoothly towards integrated archi-
CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 307
tectural, structural, environmental and ICT solutions.
To sum up, the aim of this newly proposed course is to
provide a scenario for a simulation of a complex de-
sign process and preparing students to meet the AEC
industry expectations. To achieve such complex goal,
it will be necessary to involve an innovative teach-
ing methods based on Design Thinking and Problem
Based Learning (Kepczynska-Walczak 2016).
FINAL REMARKS
The plethora of new possibilities generates chal-
lenges in education. They are assumed not to pro-
voke replacements but rather extensions to the old
and tested methods. Furthermore, taking into ac-
count also the tendencies on the market, it is possible
to draw some conclusions on how the design educa-
tion should be developed in the near future. There-
fore, the proposed scenarios would be worth consid-
ering in a broader discussion.
The impact of industry on academia is increasing,
so it is worth considering how these two may benefit
from each other. It refers directly to the concept of re-
search by design (Verbeke 2013; Herneoja et al. 2015)
perfectly reflecting research activities conducted in /
with and through practice.
There is no doubt BIM belongs to highly com-
plex concepts, though learning it can be a simple and
successful process. Besides the factors described ear-
lier, the success depends on how carefully and explic-
itly BIM course is planned and delivered. It is worth
mentioning here the author's approach towards dis-
cussing BIM in the context of Complexity & Simplic-
ity has been formulated from the perspective of com-
puter aided architectural design education.
The author believes the paper will contribute to
better understanding of BIM concept, to teaching
methodologies development, to a discussion on up-
dating the academic curricula and strengthening the
BIM idea in a design studio context. It is time for
BIM - complex in its nature - to simply immerse in
academia!
 REFERENCES 20programme&tryb=full-time
Boeykens, S, Himpe, C and Martens, B 2012 'A Case Study [5] http://www.building.co.uk/the-six-phases-of-bim
of Using BIM in Historical Reconstruction: The Vi- /5059652.article
nohrady synagogue in Prague', Digital Physicality -
Proceedings of the 30th eCAADe Conference - Volume
1., Prague, pp. 729-737
Herneoja, A, Pihlajaniemi, H, Österlund, T, Luusua, A and
Markkanen, P 2015 'Remarks on Transdisciplinarity
as Basis for Conducting Research by Design Team-
work in Real World Context through Two Case Stud-
ies of Algorithm Aided Lighting Design', Real Time -
Proceedings of the 33rd eCAADe Conference - Volume
2, Vienna, pp. 61-70
Kepczynska-Walczak, A 2016 'In Search of the Best Peda-
gogy in Teaching Architecture and Urban Planning',
EDULEARN16 Proceedings, Barcelona, pp. 5420-5429
Kieferle, J and Woessner, U 2015 'BIM Interactive - About
combining BIM and Virtual Reality - A Bidirectional
Interaction Method for BIM Models in Different Envi-
ronments', Real Time - Proceedings of the 33rd eCAADe
Conference - Volume 1, Vienna, pp. 69-75
Magdy, MI 2014 'Thinking the BIM Way - Early integra-
tion of Building Information Modelling in education',
Fusion - Proceedings of the 32nd eCAADe Conference -
Volume 2, Newcastle upon Tyne, pp. 427-435
Sharif, S and Gentry, R 2015 'BIM for Masonry: Develop-
ment of BIM Plugins for the Masonry Unit Database',
Real Time - Proceedings of the 33rd eCAADe Confer-
ence - Volume 1, Vienna, pp. 567-576
Verbeke, J 2013, 'This is Research by Design', in Murray, F
(eds) 2013, Design Research in Architecture, Ashgate
Publishing, Farnham, pp. 137-161
Vinšová, I, Achten, H and Matejovská, D 2015 'Integrat-
ing BIM in Education: Lessons Learned', Real Time -
Proceedings of the 33rd eCAADe Conference - Volume
2, Vienna, pp. 127-131
Vinšová, I, Matejovská, D and Achten, H 2014 'The Un-
bearable Lightness of BIM', Fusion - Proceedings of the
32nd eCAADe Conference - Volume 2, Newcastle upon
Tyne, pp. 411-415
[1] http://www.oulu.fi/architecture/2016ecaade/them
e
[2] https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/up
loads/attachment_data/file/34710/12-1327-buil
ding-information-modelling.pdf
[3] http://programy.p.lodz.pl/kierunekSiatka.jsp?l=
en&w=Architecture&p=4827&stopien=first-cycle%
20programme&tryb=full-time
[4] http://programy.p.lodz.pl/kierunekSiatka.jsp?l=
en&w=Architecture&p=4935&stopien=first-cycle%

308 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Design Tools - Volume 1

CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication
 Crafting as Inquiry into Computation
Exploring wire-bending in traditional practice and design education

Vernelle A. A. Noel1
1
The Pennsylvania State University
1
vernelle@vernellenoel.com

In an effort to sustain and revitalize the dying craft of wire-bending, I present the
development of three novel approaches: Digital Crafting, Computational
Crafting, and Crafting Fabrication. Computation and digital technology were
integrated with traditional wire-bending principles to design and fabricate
artifacts. In this work, I present three artifacts resulting from these novel
approaches, and analyze how these methods may be used in design education and
practice. Our findings benefit the practice because it offers opportunities for
teaching computational and traditional skills to older and younger generations
through wire-bending.

Keywords: wire-bending, Bailey-Derek Grammar, craft, computational design,

fabrication

Figure 1 INTRODUCTION
Wire-bender Traditional craft cultures and practices are disap-
performing pearing due to globalization, commercialization, and
wire-bending. techno-centric developments [1]. There has been in-
Photo (C) 2015 creasing concern around the world about the decline
Vernelle A. A. Noel. and potential disappearance of culturally significant,
traditional craft practices in Trinidad and Tobago, Sin-
gapore, Japan, and Indonesia, just to name a few.
Scholars have been looking to craft as a teaching tool,
leading to the introduction of crafting as a methodol-
ogy for teaching electronics, programming, and tool
development (Rosner and Ryokai 2009; Buechley and
Perner-Wilson 2012; Buechley and Eisenberg 2009; Wire-bending is a "specialized art, combining ele-
Jacobs and Buechley 2013; Zoran and Paradiso 2013). ments of structural engineering, architecture, and
This paper focuses on how preservation, education, sculpture" to create two-dimensional (2D) and three
and practice in the traditional craft of wire-bending dimensional (3D) forms [2]. This practice was devel-
can benefit from computational methods. oped in the 1930s in carnival in Trinidad and Tobago.
It became "one of the most highly developed of the

CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 311

 carnival crafts" (Crowley 1956). In this practice, wire
and other thin, flexible strands of material are bent
with hand tools and assembled to create structures
(Figures 1 and 2). Wire-bending however, is on the
decline due to old artisans retiring or dying, the slow
rate of transmission of knowledge, the younger gen-
eration's love of technology, and the craft's labor-
intensive nature (Noel 2013). This project begins to
demonstrate ways of reinterpreting a traditional craft
to integrate computation and digital technology. It
builds on crafting as a methodology for the devel-
opment of culturally-relevant computation in design
education, practice, tools, and methods. It does
not attempt to replace a traditional practice with a
techno-centric one, but instead endeavors to explore
how wire-bending could benefit from computation;
address waning interest by the younger generation;
and investigate the possibilities for design education
between craft and computation.
In traditional wire-bending, as with many other tra-
ditional crafts, knowledge is mostly tacit - residing
in the expert, with little separation between design
and fabrication. Designers usually have the ability
to materialize their ideas without externalization via
sketches or drawings. This is the case with expert
wire-benders Albert Bailey, and Stephen Derek. Dur-
ing my fieldwork and interviews in 2013, I observed
312 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1
that Bailey uses wire like a pen or pencil, materializing
his design ideas in wire without the use of drawings
or sketches as representations for design or fabrica-
tion. Derek sketches his design ideas on paper, but
his knowledge on which materials and connections
to use during fabrication of the artifact remains hid-
den. These wire-benders use their mental repertoire
of connection details, their palette of tools, and ma-
terials, to fabricate these wire-bent structures (Figure
3). This lack of externalization is a factor in the slow
rate of transmission of this knowledge.
A second reason for the craft's decline is its labor-
intensive nature. Historically, most wire-benders in
the Trinidad Carnival have been men. One reason
for this may be the manual strength and dexterity
needed to bend, cut, and clinch wires and other com-
ponents. Currently a lacuna of women, children,
and the physically infirmed exists in traditional wire-
bending. A third reason for the craft's decline is the
younger generation's love of technology. A large per-
centage of youths today are familiar with, and enjoy Figure 2
engaging with digital technologies like computers, Large dancing
gaming programs, and smart phones to name a few. sculpture in the
Traditional wire-bending is a low-tech practice with Trinidad Carnival
little to no opportunity at this time for using comput- constructed using
ers or other digital technologies. wire-bending
Through this project I will attempt to find an- principles. Photo
swers to the following questions: How can computa- (C) 2010 Vernelle A.
tion aid in making wire-bending more inclusive, ad- A. Noel. (Noel
dressing the lack of participation by women, children, 2015). Image
and the physically infirmed? How can computation republished with
address the labor-intensive nature of the craft? How permission.
can the younger generation's interest in, and famil-
iarity with digital tools, and technologies be used to
revitalize interest and participation in wire-bending?
My experiences in traditional craft, the cultural de-
sign practice of Trinidad Carnival, computational de-
sign, and education motivates this work on craft prac-
tices, computation, and technology. To my knowl-
edge, no established pedagogy on wire-bending or
design computation exists in the Republic of Trinidad
and Tobago (Trinidad and Tobago). This project ex-
plores ways of integrating computation, digital de-
Figure 3
The traditional
wire-bending
process.
sign, and technology in a culturally-relevant manner
into craft cultures to aid in their sustainment, revital-
ization, and advancement.
The organization of this paper is as follows. This
section gives a brief introduction and background
to the problem, and the practice of wire-bending.
Section 2, presents related work that merges and
(re)configures traditional models of practice using
computational approaches. In Section 3, I introduce
three (3) crafting methodologies - Digital Crafting,
Computational Crafting, and Crafting Fabrication -
for making artifacts based on wire-bending princi-
ples. In Section 4, I present the results of these ap-
proaches. Section 5 concludes the paper and out-
lines future work.
RELATED WORK
In a previous study, Noel developed the Bailey-
Derek Grammar, a computational design tool that de-
scribes the materials, connections, rules, and steps in
wire-bending from Trinidad and Tobago (Noel 2015).
This design tool was developed to aid expert wire-
benders in their practice and teaching; to provide a
Figure 4
Application of the
Bailey-Derek
Grammar in the
wire-bending
process.
CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 313
means through which designers, sculptors, and oth-
ers interested in wire-bending can begin to under-
stand the craft; and to teach computational princi-
ples in a culturally-relevant manner (Figure 4).
In Muslimin's study of a parametric approach to
fabrication for traditional ceramics, he tests the use
of digital modeling and CNC routers to directly fab-
ricate negative molds, in lieu of traditional mold-
making processes. He also reconfigures fabrication
devices based on digital methods of transformation,
illustrating the versatility of computation in the form
of visual embedding and shape grammars (Muslimin
2013). In his work on weaving, Muslimin analyzes
tacit knowledge embedded in traditional weavers to
develop computational design rules, and combine
traditional principles with digital tools. Through this
investigation into traditional weaving he develops a
new assembly system and a weaving grammar, ex-
tending the language of architectural weaving (Mus-
limin 2010a; 2010b; 2014). In his work on hybrid bas-
ketry, Zoran attempts to merge the digital and the
traditional by using hand weaving techniques to lace
reeds through 3D printed structures he digitally de-
 signed and fabricated (Zoran 2013). In another work,
he develops a handheld digital milling device that
enables carving of digital 3D objects out of phys-
ical material (Zoran and Paradiso 2013; Zoran and
Paradiso 2012). Schulte et. al. attempts to reclaim
the forgotten technique of steam bending through
digital steam bending, design, and form generation
(Schulte et al. 2014). These previous studies relate to
mine in their application of computational and digi-
tal strategies in traditional crafts, combining the dig-
ital and the traditional, and attempting to revive his-
torical techniques.
CRAFTING AND COMPUTATION
In this work I shall describe Digital Crafting as the
reinterpretation of a traditional craft by using digi-
tal processes and technologies in making artifacts.
This includes employing digital programs for design,
optimization, and automation, and CNC machines
such as 3D printers or CNC routers for digital fab-
rication. It does not currently include the assem-
bly process. Design in digital crafting comprises dis-
crete descriptions and steps, such as shapes, num-
bers, or words (code). Muslimin's work in ceramics
mentioned previously would be an example of this
314 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1
category of work. Computational Crafting, I define
as the employment of low-tech tools and processes
from a traditional craft, in the design and fabrication
of artifacts. Noel's previous work demonstrating ap-
plication of the Bailey-Derek Grammar is an example
of work in this category. Lastly, Crafting Fabrication
is the use of digital and non-digital tools, processes,
and technologies from a traditional craft, in the de-
sign and fabrication of artifacts. It is an attempt at a
hybrid process that captures the affordances of craft-
ing traditionally, computationally, and digitally. Zo-
ran's work on weaving, and Schulte et al. work in
steam bending are examples of this category. The
following experiments explore how the traditional
craft of wire-bending might be sustained and revital-
ized through a computational approach, for applica-
tion in education and practice.
Experiment 1: Digital Crafting
The first experiment attempts to use digital ap-
proaches and technologies in the (re)conceptualizing
of wire-bending. This experiment was motivated
by my desire to develop a piece of software for the
design and fabrication of artifacts using points and
Figure 5
Steps the author
went about in
developing the
Digital Crafting
Method.
 lines. The software (program) would take a digitally
modeled surface as input, and generate 3D geome-
try (lines and points) needed for its fabrication. Tools
and materials included a computer, Rhino3D soft-
ware, RhinoPython, a 3D printer, tape measure, and
wooden rods. Firstly, I designed 3D connections to
receive rods (wire or wood), then modeled them in
Rhino 3D. I took note of each step taken to model the
connections, researched examples of algorithms in
RhinoPython, then wrote my own algorithms to auto-
mate the process. To begin developing the algorith-
mic script, I had to find out which digital tools (com-
mands) were available to me. I tested each one of the
875 commands available in RhinoPython to under-
stand their functions, variables, inputs, and outputs.
Just as crafts persons would familiarize themselves
with the tools available to them, and understand how
they work, I did the same. The final program does the
following:
1. Generates points and lines on a surface ac-
cording to the resolution desired by the user;
2. Generates the geometry for connections ac-
cording to user requirements;
3. Labels the connections; and
4. Outputs line (rod) lengths needed for fabrica-
tion.
The Digital Crafting method illustrated in Figure 5,
takes a 3D model of an artifact as input (step 2). By
changing variables in the algorithm, users can gener-
ate several design options (Step 4). After users have
chosen their desired design for fabrication (step 5),
the 3D connections are generated, and 3D printed
Figure 6
Steps involved in
the Computational
Crafting Method.
CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 315
(steps 6 and 7). All the components are then assem-
bled to create the final artifact.
Experiment 2: Computational Crafting
The second experiment combines the Bailey-Derek
Grammar, and traditional wire-bending techniques.
Tools and materials included 18-gauge wire, a tape
measure, pliers for bending and cutting, a felt pen
for marking, masking tape for adhesion, and a 2D
template of the design. The Computational Crafting
method illustrated in Figure 6, began with drawing
a template as a guide for bending the wire (step 1). I
used my hands and tools (step 2), to bend, smoothen,
and manipulate wires so they followed the outline on
the template. As wire was bent along the outline,
masking tape adhered bent segments to the tem-
plate, so it would keep its shape. After bending all the
longitudinal and transverse wires, I assembled the ar-
tifact. The Bailey-Derek Grammar provided the in-
structions needed to make the connections needed
for assembly (steps 3 and 4).
Experiment 3: Crafting Fabrication
The third experiment combines digital and non-
digital tools, processes, and technologies. Tools and
materials included 1/16" diameter steel wire, a com-
puter, Rhino 3D software, tape measure, pliers, a felt
tip pen, masking tape, and a CNC wire-bender. The
Crafting Fabrication method, illustrated in Figure 7,
began by drawing 2D outlines of the design in Rhino
3D (step 1). These drawings were exported, then
opened in the DiWire interface to work with the CNC
wire bender. Points on the line had to be edited be-

fore sending to the CNC wire bender (steps 2A and
2B). Since the resolution of the curve in Rhino 3D was
higher than that able to be bent by the CNC wire
bender, some points had to be deleted and others
moved until the new line was a best fit to the original.
Straight wire was inserted into the machine where it
was bent according to the design (step 3). Each piece
of wire was cut and closed to form a loop with mask-
ing tape. All the components were then assembled
to form the artifact with the Bailey-Derek Grammar
providing fabrication instructions (steps 4, 5 and 6).
RESULTS
In this project, I develop three approaches to the tra-
ditional craft of wire-bending: Digital Crafting, Com-
putational Crafting, and Crafting Fabrication.
In the Digital Crafting approach, I reinterpreted
traditional wire-bending. I digitally modeled 3D con-
nections and forms, wrote algorithms, and digital
fabricated an artifact (Figure 8). I used 3D modeling
skills to design and model the connections. In order
to design these connections, I referred to previous
literature and documentation on wire-bending in
Trinidad and Tobago, and searched for other projects
316 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1
Figure 7
The Crafting
Fabrication
Approach.
online. I designed algorithms to automate the gen-
eration of the connections and output information
needed for fabrication; used a 3D printer to digitally
fabricate the connections; measured and cut rods;
and assembled the artifact (See [3]).
In the Computational Crafting approach to wire-
bending I drew the lines for my design in digital de-
sign software (Rhino 3D) to create a template; bent,
measured and cut wires with hand tools; and fol-
lowed instructions on wire-bending based on the
Bailey-Derek Grammar [See 4]. In addition, after fabri-
cating and assembling the artifact, I documented the
steps taken so the processes and knowledge could be
shared with others (Figure 9). I employed my knowl-
edge of shape grammars and computational design,
to illustrate the rules and steps used to fabricate the
artifact.
In the Crafting Fabrication approach, I drew lines
for constructing the artifact in digital design soft-
ware, measured and cut wire; used a CNC wire-
bender to digitally fabricate those lines; and followed
the instructions shown in Figure 9 to assemble the ar-
tifact. (See [5] and [6]).
Figure 8
Artifacts resulting
from 3 different
approaches to
crafting in
wire-bending.

Figure 9
Instructions for
fabricating the
artifact.

CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 317

 DISCUSSION AND FUTURE WORK
This project set out to investigate how education and
practice in the traditional craft of wire-bending could
benefit from computational methods to address sus-
tainment of the craft, the younger generation's love
of technology, and the labor-intensive nature of the
practice. The skills that can be taught using these
three (3) approaches to wire-bending are shown in
Table 1, while the ways in which the practice benefits
from this integration is highlighted in Table 2.
The findings suggest that the Digital Crafting ap-
proach to wire-bending can be used to teach 3D
modeling, programming, knowledge sharing, and
digital fabrication. Designers and students can learn
design computation, apply it in the cultural prac-
tice of wire-bending, carnival, architecture, and other
possibilities extending beyond its current applica-
tions. Digital crafting can also encourage dialogue
between traditional wire-benders, and the computa-
tional generation since the expertise and knowledge
of traditional experts can inform computational tech-
niques to develop the novel. This assembly process
in Digital Crafting was not very labor-intensive, be-
ginning to create a space where women, children,
and the infirmed can participate. One limitation of
this method includes the limited sensory engage-
ment between the crafts-person and the wire, as lit-
tle to no actual bending and manipulating of wire
occurred. Another limitation is the inability to make
design changes during fabrication, since the compo-
nents are discrete and design changes must be made
earlier in the process.
Results from the Computational Crafting approach to
wire-bending illustrate that the method can be used
to teach students traditional techniques, computa-
tional thinking, and experience sensorial engage-
ment with their materials and tools. They can also
practice dexterity, learning much from the flow of
materials and tools (Ingold 2013). Students can learn
to appreciate the skill, innovation, and history of the
craft, and those who created it, to inform the future,
and the sustainability of the craft. The computational
crafting method acts as a mediating artifact through
318 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1
which older experts and the younger generation can
share knowledge between each other. Older experts
can teach novices how, why, and when they make
certain connections while computationally minded
designers can demonstrate the benefits of external-
izing this knowledge. Figure 9 can be used to teach
others how to fabricate an artifact, giving experts
more time to deal with invention rather than conven-
tion, and increase the rate at which this knowledge is
shared.
Results from the Crafting Fabrication approach
to wire-bending show that it can be used to teach
digital drawing and representation; traditional wire-
bending techniques; and how to use CNC machines
and hand tools. Employing the CNC machine re-
duces the labor-intensive nature of bending by hand,
thereby opening up the practice to those with phys-
ical limitations. This approach is also a mediating ar-
tifact for youths to teach older experts how to draw
lines on the computer, and bend them with the CNC
desktop machine. Because of the experts' experience
with tools and machines, they may be able to create
novel ways of using the wire-bending machine in col-
laboration with the younger generation.
Employing these computational tools and meth-
ods in this culturally relevant manner can be an av-
enue through which users explore design in carnival,
architecture, and art. These approaches can begin to
develop research and design curricula around craft,
computation, and digital technology through wire-
bending, dancing sculptures, architecture, and carni-
val. Reddy says, "if the language skills and the habit
of engaging in reconstruction are not [...] preserved,
then there will be no culture" (Reddy 1993). The ap-
proaches to crafting that incorporate computation, il-
lustrated above, can benefit preservation, education,
and practice in the traditional craft of wire-bending
since it describes wire bending with different meth-
ods: algorithms, drawings, and computations. Hav-
ing access to these varied approaches is important for
sustainment and (re)configuration of the craft for de-
sign practice and education.
Some questions to be addressed in future work
Table 1
Skills that can be
taught through
these 3 approaches
to crafting in
wire-bending.

Table 2
Affordances of the
different
approaches to
crafting in
wire-bending.

CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 319

 are: How can classifying materials for application in
the Bailey-Derek Grammar extend the grammar, and
inform design practice, education, and innovations?
How can classifying tools and methods for design
and fabrication lead to hybrid systems? How can
the structural properties of these connections be em-
bedded visually in designs? Which of the three ap-
proaches facilitates deeper cognitive processing in
expert wire-benders, and novices? Future steps in
this study shall include: (1) sharing and testing these
approaches with others to observe what they learn
from these approaches; (2) conducting design and
fabrication workshops with practitioners and stu-
dents; (3) developing educational construction kits
and systems for children and designers; (4) develop-
ing a primer to teach wire-bending, 3D modeling,
programming techniques, and digital fabrication to
absolute beginners; and (5) continued leveraging of
computational approaches and digital technologies
to progress the practice.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge Felecia Davis, Albert
Bailey, and Stephen Derek for their guidance and
support. This work was funded in part by The
Government of the Republic of Trinidad and To-
bago, and The Stuckeman Center for Design Comput-
ing. Grateful acknowledgement is given to CARIRI,
NEDCO, Danielle Oprean, Shivaram Punathambekar,
José Pinto Duarte, and Eduardo Castro e Costa for
their support. Special thanks to my friends at the
Stuckeman Family Building.
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FlexiMold: Teaching Numeric Control through a Hybrid
Device
Serdar Aşut1 , Winfried Meijer2
1
Yaşar University 2 Delft University of Technology
1
serdar.asut@yasar.edu.tr 2 winfried.meijer@tudelft.nl

This proceeding presents the process and outputs of a collaborative workshop

which was held between Yaşar University in Turkey and Delft University of
Technology in the Netherlands. The aim of the workshop was to observe the
educational potentials of a custom-made formwork device towards teaching
CAD/CAM to architecture students. This flexible formwork, which we call
FlexiMold, is a hybrid device that is used manually by following computerized
numeric information. The students designed an architectural object which has a
complex shape and used this formwork to fabricate it in actual scale. We present
the workshop objectives, process and outcomes in this proceeding.

Keywords: CAAD Education, Human-Numeric Control, Flexible Formwork,

Double-Curved Surfaces

INTRODUCTION which is operated manually by following the data

The aim of this proceeding is to present the experi-
ence and outputs of a collaborative workshop which
was held between the Faculty of Architecture at Yaşar
University (YU) in Turkey and the Faculty of Archi-
tecture and Built Environment at Delft University of
Technology (TUDelft) in the Netherlands. The work-
shop was held in April 2015 with the participation of
the bachelor students of the Architecture and Inte-
rior Architecture and Environmental Design depart-
ments of YU and the master's students of the Design
Informatics chair of TUDelft.
The content of the workshop was focused on
teaching the use of Computer Aided Design and
Manufacturing (CAD/CAM) techniques for designing
and fabricating architectural objects which consist of
double-curved surfaces. To this end, we have de-
veloped a custom made flexible formwork device
which we call FlexiMold. FlexiMold is a hybrid device
sets which are derived from a digital model. The over-
all aim of the workshop was to explore the benefits
and drawbacks of such a hybrid approach towards
teaching CAD/CAM to architecture students. We pro-
pose that hybrid media, which enable and encourage
the students to engage with the design and fabrica-
tion information both cognitively and bodily, enable
a more efficient learning environment. The work-
shop had provided us a set-up in which we could em-
pirically observe and analyse the validity of this pro-
posal.
In addition to introducing skills and know-how
within CAD/CAM, the workshop aimed at familiar-
izing the students with the collaborative aspects of
design and fabrication as well as assisting them to-
wards developing insight on the tight relationships
between fabrication techniques and design thinking.
The workshop setup was structured towards achiev-

CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 321

 ing these objectives. The first phase of the workshop
was based on distant collaboration in which the stu-
dents of both universities worked in parallel; while
the students of TUDelft were developing the design,
the students of YU were developing the fabrication
system and examining its potentials and constraints
in order to communicate with the design team. Af-
ter the design proposal is completed, all of the stu-
dents have gathered in Izmir for a five days' hands-
on workshop in order to fabricate the design object.
The workshop was funded by the Scientific Research
Project Fund of Yaşar University, TUDelft Design In-
formatics Chair and Polkima Plastic Solutions.
THE DEVICE
FlexiMold is a flexible formwork device which was de-
veloped at TUDelft Design Informatics master's pro-
gram in the previous semesters at the elective course
that is titled Technoledge. It is developed by upgrad-
ing its precedents such as the Zero Waste Formwork
(Oesterle et al. 2012), Flexible Mould for Precast Con-
crete Elements (Raun et al. 2010) and Formwork Ta-
ble (Spuybroek 2004).
FlexiMold is constructed on a 70*70 cm wooden
base. It has 49 steel rods, each of which can be in-
dependently moved up and down manually. These
rods are placed in the base on a grid of 10*10 cm.
The formwork is shaped by adjusting all of the rods,
and then, placing a flexible polyethylene sheet on
top of them. The sheet is able to perform -almost-
any double-curved surface thanks to the grid pattern
which was CNC milled on both sides of the sheet (see
Figure 1).
The user receives a data set from the digital
model for shaping the formwork in order to cast each
surface. The data set consists of 49 numbers, each
of which refers to the position of each single rod.
The user adjusts all of the rods by following this in-
formation. Once all the rods are set in correct posi-
tions and the polyethylene sheet is firmly placed on
the rods, the formwork is ready for casting the mate-
rial. Therefore, we propose that this device is a hybrid
medium, which is operated using both computerized
322 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1
numeric information and manual labour. Our hypo-
thetical statement of Human-Numeric Control (HNC)
is rooted on this hybrid situation.
Figure 1
FlexiMold Flexible
Formwork Device.
HUMAN-NUMERIC CONTROL
Cross claims that design has its own distinct 'things
to know, ways of knowing them, and ways of find-
ing out about them' which remain largely tacit (Cross
1982). This indicates one of the critical challenges
faced in teaching CAD to design students, as CAD
mostly requires to communicate explicit information
which do not mostly overlap with the implicit realms
of design knowledge. Therefore, we need to develop
educational tools and methods which enable the stu-
dents to experience the digital workflows of CAD
practices through implicit, tacit and intuitive means.
Latour and Yaneva (2008) claims that an archi-
tect has to be equipped with diverse tools which are
the aids of imagination and instruments of thinking
tied to the body. This concept is rooted on the phe-
nomenological perspective of Merleau-Ponty (1962),
who have defined the concept of embodied percep-
tion towards illustrating the instruments which are
the extensions of one's bodily range and the bod-
ily synthesis. Within our hypothesis, FlexiMold is an
instrument of thinking tied to the body which sup-
ports imagination and it performs as the extension
of the student's bodily range and synthesis towards
enabling an embodied perception of the digital in-
formation.
 Norman (1994) introduces the concept of soft tech-
nology in order to refer to compliant and yielding
systems that acknowledge the initiative and flexibil-
ity of the person; whereas hard technology refers to
those systems that put technology first, with inflex-
ible, hard and rigid requirements for the human. In
this sense, FlexiMold addresses the concept of soft
technology as it is a compliant and yielding system
which allows initiatives and flexibility. Instead of con-
straining the human with rigid requirements, it inte-
grates with him/her while sustaining his/her intuitive
skills. This is where our statement of HNC is rooted
on. Unlike a complete Computer Numeric Control
(CNC) process with which the human cannot inter-
fere, the human undertakes a core role in an HNC pro-
cess. The user of the FlexiMold receives data from
the computer, understands and interprets it, then op-
erates the device manually in order to complete the
process (see Figure 2). Therefore, it is a hybrid situa-
tion between CNC and manual machining.
Figure 2
Human-Numeric
Control (Photo
credit: Yaman Umut
Bilir).
The bodily and cognitive interaction of the human
with the system in this hybrid situation provides po-
tentials for reframing the fabrication process towards
capturing the tacit dimensions of design knowledge.
By this means, it can lead to several experiments
even where fabrication becomes a creative perfor-
mance. In our particular case, the educational po-
tentials of this performance were the most signifi-
cant ones. First of all, it enables the students to fully
comprehend how a CNC machining process oper-
CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 323
ates. Also, it helps them to directly observe the rela-
tions between numeric data and form. We even had
the chance to observe that, they were most of the
time able to fix the problems on the formwork itself
when there is a mistake related with the datasheet
which is received from the digital model. And all
of these are performed through intuitive and simple
acts.
This mode of intuitive interaction with the de-
vice corresponds with certain fundamental notions
of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) research even
though our study is not directly related with HCI.
Namely, the theory of affordances and the synchro-
nization of action and perception are key to under-
stand the potentials that rise on the interaction be-
tween the human and FlexiMold. These two are
key concepts in Implicit Human-Computer Interac-
tion (iHCI) studies, which address the so-called third-
wave in HCI research. Gibsons's (1977) theory of
affordances was introduced into design by Norman
(1990) in order to address the relationship between a
physical object and a person -or for that matter, any
interacting agent, whether animal or human, or even
machines and robots-. Just like argued by him, Flex-
iMold affords its user towards determining how it is
possibly used, and therefore provides a steep learn-
ing curve. On the other hand, FlexiMold enables the
natural synchronization of the perception and action
spaces, which is argued as being a factor that enables
us to perform complex tasks by Sutphen et al (2000).
Eventually, FlexiMold is an HNC medium which en-
ables direct and organic interaction with numeric in-
formation rather than through consecutive lines of
text or, referring to Ishii and Ullmer (1997), painted
bits. It introduces the qualities of traditional and typi-
cal craftsmanship into our relationships with numeric
information.
WORKSHOP SETUP
The workshop was applied as a part of regular
semester courses in both universities. The partici-
pants from TUDelft were the 32 students which were
enrolled in the Technoledge course which is offered
 at the first year of the Design Informatics master's
program. This elective course which runs for 10
weeks focuses on the design and fabrication of a non-
standard architectural object. The course requires
the students to work in teams by using CAD applica-
tions. Pre-rationalization of the design is one of the
core learning objectives of the course. The partici-
pants from YU were the 17 students who enrolled in
the CAD/CAM and Rapid Prototyping course which
is offered by the Faculty of Architecture for the third
and fourth year bachelor students of the Architec-
ture and the Interior Architecture and Environmen-
tal Design departments. The objective of this elective
course is to introduce the students the uses of CAD/-
CAM techniques in spatial applications.
After completing the design, all 49 students have
gathered in Izmir for 5 days for the hands-on fabrica-
tion phase. The workshop was coordinated by Ser-
dar Aşut and Winfried Meijer and it was applied with
the supports of Peter Eigenraam and Thijs Welman
from TUDelft, Bilge Göktoğan from YU and Mark Gi-
raud from Polkima Plastic Solutions. The infrastruc-
ture which was necessary for the fabrication was pro-
vided by yumak (Yaşar University MakerLab).
DESIGN AND PRE-RATIONALIZATION
The students of TUDelft were given the task to design
an architectural object which has a complex shape,
can self-stand and provides spatial qualities while
considering the qualities and constraints of Flexi-
Mold and fiberglass. The design brief challenged the
students to model a complex shape by using para-
metric tools. Also, they were asked to consider the
qualities of fiberglass and the limitations of the form-
work (such as its dimensions or its capabilities to
bend) starting with the early phases of the design
process and pre-rationalize the design decisions ac-
cordingly. At the first phase, the students worked
as 8 teams for 2 weeks and presented a draft pro-
posal. One of these proposals was selected to be de-
tailed further. The selection was based on the aes-
thetic qualities of the object and its producibility in
this workshop. Then, the students worked on de-
324 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1
tailing the proposal and preparing it for the fabrica-
tion for 4 weeks. Eventually, they developed a de-
sign in the form of a mobius stripe which consists
of 59 unique panels that has double-curved surfaces
(see Figure 3). The object was approximately 2.30
in height and 4 meters in diameter. The panels had
hexagonal shapes. The size of each hexagon was lim-
ited in a boundary of 60*60 cm due to the dimensions
of the FlexiMold.
Figure 3
The design model.
The course of the YU students started only after the
TUDelft students completed the design proposals
and selected the one to be fabricated due to the
schedule differences between the two universities.
At this stage, the YU students were asked to produce
3 FlexiMolds, understand how to use these devices
as flexible formwork, test its opportunities and limi-
tations for the fabrication and guide the design team
accordingly. The students worked with the form-
works for 4 weeks in order to determine the most fea-
sible techniques for outputting the datasets from the
parametric model and shaping the formwork using
them. They communicated these decisions with the
design team and prepared manuals to be used on the
site during the fabrication.
The students of TUDelft have developed the
parametric model using Grasshopper and Rhino 3D.
The model served as an assistant to be used for gen-
erating variations of the design and the necessary in-
formation for the fabrication. Eventually, the model
was able to output charts which contain the numeric
data sets and CAD drawings with 2D and 3D drawings
 of the panels.
FABRICATION
The students of both universities gathered in Izmir in
order to fabricate the design object at the campus of
YU. They formed three mixed teams each of which
worked on a separate FlexiMold. So, each team was
responsible for producing approximately 20 panels
and finishing the assembly in five days.
Figure 4
A sample chart
containing the
numeric data set.
Figure 5
Students
positioning the rods
on the formwork.
The information regarding the fabrication process
was derived from the parametric model which was
completed using Grasshopper before the fabrication
week. This model first analyses the surface geome-
try of the whole object, then divides it into unique
hexagonal panels. It analyses the shape of each panel
surface and generates output in the form of charts
(see Figure 4) which contain numeric data sets that
CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 325
correspond to the positions of each adjustable rod
of the formwork. Also, it produces flanges which en-
close these panels and output drawings which repre-
sent the shape of these flanges.
The panel surfaces were made by using fiber-
glass. The reason for using fiberglass was that it can
perform well with curved surfaces, it is lightweight
and that it is fairly easy to learn how to cast it. The
flanges were produced by laser cutting mdf boards
which has 3 mm thickness. The flanges, which are
cut and assembled in the form of frames, define the
boundary of each panel. Also, they provide surfaces
for connecting each panel with its neighboring pan-
els. Moreover, they perform as a structural skele-
ton for the whole object when assembled. These
mdf flanges provided proper stability to the structure
while they were able to perform slight bends when
necessary during the assembly.
The panel fabrication process was simply done
in three sequential steps such as; adjusting the form-
work, casting the fiberglass and finishing the panel.
In order to adjust the formwork, the students used
the charts with numeric data sets for positioning the
49 rods manually (see Figure 5). After all of the rods
were positioned precisely, they firmly placed the flex-
ible polyethylene sheet on top of them. Then, they
positioned the flange frame considering the refer-
ence points. After that, they started casting 3 lay-
ers of fiberglass mat inside the frame and applied the
resin on it. After the panel was cured and removed
from the formwork, a group of students started to
work on panel finishing (such as sanding, smoothing

and polishing), while another group starts to adjust
the formwork for a new panel. By this means, the
students were able to produce one panel in down to
45 minutes (see Figure 6). Finally, they assembled all
of the panels by using bolts on the flanges and built
the whole structure. Despite the complex shape of
the object and its panels, only moderate force was
needed to make all the panels fit together precisely.
One of the most important difficulties which was
faced during the fabrication was caused by the mis-
match between the shape of the hexagonal panels
and the square shape of the formwork. Each panel
had to fit on a different group of rods. However, it
was necessary to calculate the position of all 49 rods
in order to achieve the curve continuities on the sur-
face. This difficulty was overcome by the paramet-
ric model. For each panel, the model created ghost
extensions to the surfaces so that the boundary of
its projection onto the formwork was as same as the
326 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1
Figure 6
The steps for
preparing a panel
on FlexiMold.
boundary of the formwork surface. Hence, it was pos-
sible to calculate the positions of all 49 rods. Then,
a corner of the panel was matched with a reference
point on the formwork surface so that the panel fits
on the surface with correct location and orientation
(see Figure 7).
CONCLUSION
The workshop was concluded with a successfully
Figure 7
completed product (see Figure 8). On the other hand,
The panel being
its process was more important for us than the ob-
cured on the
ject itself. After this first collaborative teaching expe-
formwork.
rience which we practiced together, it is fair to claim
that the workshop process within the learning ob-
jectives was way more efficient than we expected it
to be. We were able to observe that certain learn-
ing outcomes were achieved during and at the end
of the workshop process. Also, it was able to provide
us input towards improving our strategies in teach-
ing CAD/CAM.
The broadest thing is that design is highly related
with making; therefore, such hands-on experiences
in which the students are invited to build architec-
tural objects in actual scale need to take place more
common in architecture education. They encourage
personal involvement for the students -which is a
key aspect in learning. This experience has provided
them opportunities to comprehend the strong rela-
tionships between design thinking and the fabrica-
tion and material systems.
Another learning outcome is that the students
had the chance to understand the complex organiza-
 tion of the labour which is necessary for both design-
ing and building. Even our scale was much smaller
than an actual building design and construction, we
tried to introduce as much complexity as possible re-
garding the design and fabrication management. We
asked the students to form different groups to prac-
tice different tasks and to communicate with each
other all along the process. We also tried to re-mix
these groups for each time as much as we could so
that each of them had the chance to work with dif-
ferent people on each phase of the project. Even-
tually, they practised close and distant collaboration
to solve a variety of problems with different people
each of the time.
The particular learning outcome of this work-
shop was that the students had the chance to fully
comprehend how a CNC machining process works
by integrating their own selves bodily and cogni-
tively into the process. This is achieved through a
Figure 8
The built object.
CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 327
hybrid device in the form of an HNC system. Even
the students with the least knowledge on CAD/CAM
were able to understand the fundamentals of nu-
meric control easily by the help of this hybrid sys-
tem. After a quick warm-up process, all of the stu-
dents were able to develop an understanding on the
relationships between data and form seamlessly. Be-
cause, such a hybrid device minimizes the need for
explicit instructions as being an instrument of think-
ing tied to the body. It enables an embodied percep-
tion of the fabrication information by introducing in-
tuitiveness and bodily interactions.
Besides being a good tool for learning, this hy-
brid fabrication device performed as an efficient
communication interface between the students.
Considering that the group was fairly diverse, it was
necessary to encourage the participation of all in
each phase of the process. In our case it simpli-
fied the communication between the students who
 come from different countries, have different educa-
tional backgrounds and focus (from structural engi-
neering to interior design), have different skills (from
Grasshopper experts to the ones who have met it for
the first time in this workshop) are studying in differ-
ent levels (bachelors and masters') and have different
language skills; and enabled them to easily collabo-
rate on complex tasks.
We have applied two more follow-up workshops
in the following semesters with new students. Each
of these workshops focused on developing a certain
aspect of our first experience. For example, the main
issue which we have tried to elaborate in the second
workshop was the diversity of the students' profiles
and the organization of design and fabrication man-
agement between them. The third workshop, which
was applied by not flexible but stable formworks, fo-
cused on developing the distant collaboration phase.
We are planning to present these studies in future
proceedings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank Yaşar University for fund-
ing the project through Scientific Research Project
Fund; Prof. Dr. İ. Sevil SARIYILDIZ for supervising
and enabling the collaboration and Mark Giraud from
Polkima for providing us the workshop materials and
the hands on know-how.
328 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1
REFERENCES
Cross, N 1982, 'Designerly Ways of Knowing', Design stud-
ies, 3(4), pp. 221-227
Gibson, JJ 1977, 'The Theory of Affordances', in Shaw, R
and Bransford, J (eds) 1977, Perceiving, Acting, and
Knowing: Toward an Ecological Psychology, Lawrence
Erlbaum, pp. 67-82
Ishii, H and Ullmer, B 1997 'Tangible Bits: Towards Seam-
less Interfaces between People, Bits and Atoms', Pro-
ceedings of the ACM SIGCHI Conference on Human
Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 234-241
Latour, B and Yaneva, A 2008, 'Give me a Gun and I will
Make All Buildings Move: An ANT’s View of Archi-
tecture', in Geiser, R (eds) 2008, Explorations in Archi-
tecture: Teaching, Design, Research, Birkhäuser Archi-
tecture, pp. 80-89
Merleau-Ponty, M 1962, Phenomenology of Perception,
Routledge
Norman, D 1990, The Design of Everyday Things, Basic
Books
Norman, D 1994, Things That Make Us Smart: Defending
Human Attributes In The Age Of The Machine, Basic
Books
Oesterle, S, Vansteenkiste, A and Mirjan, A 2012 'Zero
Waste Free-Form Formwork', Proceedings of the Sec-
ond International Conference on Flexible Formwork,
pp. 258-267
Raun, C, Kristensen, MK and Kirkegaard, PH 2010 'Flex-
ible Mould for Precast Concrete Elements', Proceed-
ings of the International Association for Shell and Spa-
tial Structures (IASS) Symposium, pp. 36-51
Spuybroek, L 2004, NOX: Machining Architecture, Thames
& Hudson
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viving a Tangible Interface Affording 3D Spatial In-
teraction', Proceedings of the 11th Western Canadian
Computer Graphics Symposium, pp. 155-166
Fabricating Semi Predictable Surfaces
A workshop series on digitally fabricating freeform surfaces with
aggregates

Joachim B. Kieferle1 , George Katodrytis2

1
Hochschule RheinMain 2 American University of Sharjah
1
joachim.kieferle@hs-rm.de 2 gkatodrytis@aus.edu

Working with CNC routers and robots is widely used in architecture and
fabrication. Our paper describes ways to use these tools more intuitively yet
accurately and without a profound knowledge. We have developed a workshop
format, in which even inexperienced participants are able to quickly start
working with these tools by shaping the non-rigid material sand. Various
production methods and tools are incorporated such as "manual", "gestural",
"CNC" and "robotic" to create various 3D forms which are captured by methods
like 3D scanning, vacuum forming or glueing.

Keywords: Education, Digital Fabrication, Sand surface, Formwork

INTRODUCTION intuitive, imprecise and unpredictable material like

Digital fabrication with CNC routers and robots over
the last years has become a common method to
manufacture components for architecture. Nearly
all modes of digital production such as milling, saw-
ing, laser or hot wire cutting operate with both pre-
dictable and precise results - within production tol-
erances. However all these methods require a high
level of knowledge in modeling and control of the
machines (Kieferle et al. 2008).
Our research has taken the form of a series of
international and interdisciplinary workshops that
adopts alternative approaches which allow inexpe-
rienced users to use advanced tools like CNCs and
robots. Since the intention was not to teach students
working with CNC and robots on a high skill level but
to teach them the methodology beyond fabrication,
tools as a kind of open interface (Brell-Cokcan and
Braumann 2013). By combining precise tools with an
sand, we have generated surprising results and we
have encouraged the participants to experiment fur-
ther. The approach is not meant to replace the ex-
isting production methods but to extend the possi-
bilities of design and digital fabrication in this field.
The process involves robotic movement as pattern
making, sand-casting and mold making to produce
custom-made but also mass-produced panels. The
sand particles friction and behavior as well as robotic
arm movement parameters (depth, width, speed and
angle) can produce unpredictable and exciting re-
sults. The input diagram of movement and output
pattern of sand can hardly be completely controlled,
which allows for "creative" discrepancies.
GOALS
Even though there is abundance of sand on earth and
sand casting is an ancient form of construction, there

CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 329

 are only few examples of mold making using sand. By shows manual, CNC vacuum and robot fabricated ex-
using sand which collected from the desert, together amples.
with high-tech machinery like routers and robots, our In the first, manual method, participants were re-
goals were to: quired to manually form sand surfaces, experiment-
ing with heaps and carving. This exercise was in-
• establish a relationship between form and
tended to offer a qualitative experience in sand be-
production method
havior, discover approximate slope angles and exper-
• enable users with a low knowledge level of
iment with different shaping tools. The results clearly
digital fabrication to produce free form sur-
showed, that due to the imprecision of manual free
faces
form shaping only limited slopes and angles could
• develop a low cost method for a free form con-
be achieved except when drilling small holes. Due to
crete formwork of precast concrete volumes
the direct control and feedback while shaping with
and panels
hands the overlapping of repeated shapes was not
achieved. This manual method of hand drawing on
WORKSHOP SETUP the sand was inspiring as the first conceptual "sketch"
Our workshop series consisted of a 3-day intense and study for the following more complex digital fab-
work of 15-20 participants of various technical knowl- rication methods.
edge backgrounds. Participants were asked to re- Figure 1
search with a 'hands on' approach and find out how Three typical results
different techniques influenced the shaping of sand sand and vacuum
surfaces. They did so by using boxes of 40×60×12 cm formed snapshot of
filled with sand. The limiting factor of the box size manual (top), CNC
was the weight of the sand but this encouraged more vacuum (middle)
creative patterns. and robot (bottom)
production.
MANUAL, CNC AND ROBOTIC PRODUC-
TION
Three production methods were used for the fabrica-
tion process:
• manual
• 3-axis CNC with attached vacuum nozzle
• 6-axis robot with a simple tool head
As participants with different digital skill levels partic-
ipated in the workshops, the setting was designed in
a way that everybody could work with the machines
and easily transfer their data. As only sand was used
with simple tools, a vacuum nozzle attached to the
CNC and a wood head attached to the robot arm, the
limitations for the robot arm movement was defined In the second, 3-axis CNC method, a more mechan-
by the depth and speed of movement. Typical results ical input was developed. A gray scale image with
of the sand surfaces and cast in the vacuum formed the same size as the sand surface was used to control
plastic are shown in Figure 1, from top to bottom it

330 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1

 the vertical (z direction) movement of the 3- axis CNC The overlaid zigzag pattern with a spacing of 5 mm
head. Brightness and darkness values of the image controlled X and Y movement. Instead of a router,
were mapped to Z-values of the tool path and thus a a vacuum nozzle was attached to the 3-axis CNC to
vertical movement between plus 1 and minus 4 cm. suck out the sand at the position of the nozzle. This
subtractive method showed results quite similar to
Figure 2 standard CNC milling except for the falling sand par-
CNC with attached ticles in areas of steep slopes. The results were quite
vacuum nozzle. predictable (Figure 2).
In the third, 6-axis robot method (Figure 3), the
main control was a 3D spline representing the tool
head position. This spline could be drawn in any 3D
CAD software. The intention was not to generate the
path in an algorithmic way but to allow students to
freely "draw" shapes to overcome automated repe-
tition (Cheng and Hegre 2009). There are very so-
phisticated projects showing how robots can shape
algorithmic paterns with sand [1], however to make
it as easy as possible for students with hardly any ex-
Figure 3 perience controling robots, the setup had to be very
Robot carving sand simple. This is why we only asked them to draw a 3D
patterns. spline controling the movement of the tool tip. How-
ever this already required a planning in how often
and how deep the tip might pass by certain positions.
The oblique angle of the tool and thus of the robot
head was controlled by a line from the tool head to
a static reference point, about 50-70 cm above the
sand box surface. This production method showed
various unexpected results because of the overlaying
of sand mass, when the head crossed previously pat-
terned heaps of sand. Unlike in controlled produc-
tion processes like milling, the overlapping move-
ment of the attached head at the robot shuffled the
sand into the previously carved indentation influenc-
ing both the new and the existing carving. Differ-
ent angles of the tool produced different results. The
depth of the tool head in the sand as well as the num-
ber of repeated paths substantially influenced the
generated sand forms. Deeper indentations could
only be achieved by moving the robot arm head sev-
eral times in the sand, continuously carving deeper
into the surface.

CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 331

 MAPPING THE SURFACE FORMS Figure 4
In order to map, record and freeze the sand forms Applying foam to
these surfaces were digitally scanned and physical capture surface.
printed to other materials. Due to the instability of
sand forms a limited number of options was possible.
We experimented with:

• 3D laser scanning
• casting with foam
• vacuum forming
• gluing the sand together with varnish and
other adhesives.
Figure 5
Vacuum forming
3D laser scanning worked well as expected and cre- process of sand
ated precise point clouds of the sand surfaces and the boxes.
plastic surface casts. Experiments with various foams
(e.g. expanding foam and insulation foam) did not
produce any useful results (Figure 4). Already when
applying the foam to the sand surface, the geometry
of the sand particles was altered by the expansion of
the foam. Minor details were flattened instantly.
In contrast, vacuum forming (Figure 5) over the
unstable sand forms quite unexpectedly showed to
be very effective and relatively precise. For the vac- Figure 6
uum forming, the sand box was placed on the vac- Design studio
uum machine table. Sheets of plastic with a thickness project using sand
of 1.5-2mm were heated in the machines oven un- form (student Talin
til they became soft and malleable. Then the sheets Hazer).
were dropped over the sandbox, the vacuum table
moved up and instantly the air was sucked out so
that the plastic covered and copied the whole top
and sides of the sand boxes. After 60-90 seconds
the plastic cooled down and became stable again.
Despite the relatively high forces and movement of
the vacuum, the sand forms were hardly flattened or Tests in gluing the sand at the surfaces together with
pressed and the original sand surface variations were varnish spray showed nice, very detailed but also very
maintained within reasonable tolerances. So for fur- fragile results and the outcome were only useful in
ther production steps like precast concrete elements, small model scale. As a follow up of the workshop, a
this method seemed to be most promising as a form- studio project was done by student Talin Hazer (Fig-
work for medium curved shapes without fine details. ure 6). She ran tests with injecting glue into the sand
And if the one-way plastic could be replaced by e.g. using the robot arm. However the use of scripted
an elastic, reusable material like rubber, hardly any robot movement to draw and spray adhesives and
waste for form work would be produced. glue on the sand surface to make it rigid created

332 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1

Figure 7 some intriguing 3D enclosures.
Clay panels with
attached and APPLYING THE METHOD TO OTHER MATE-
integrated sensors. RIAL
Based on the experience with modeling forms into
sand surfaces, which then had to be cast to other ma-
terials, we ran tests with the viscous material charac-
teristic and plasticity of clay. The intention was to di-
rectly apply simple tools attached to the robot head
to shape a surface. We used the method of a spline
tool head path carving into clay (Figure 7).
In the Middle East clay is a traditional material
historically used for both its plasticity and thermal
prope ties. We decided to test this material. In our
Figure 8 setup we did not only want to create a shaped sur-
Temperature sensor face in clay but to measure and understand the phys-
stacks in clay box ical properties inside the thickness of the clay panel
installed already, in relation to its surface. This experiment was made
humidity sensor by both architecture and electrical engineering stu-
and outside dents. We fabricated "intelligent clay" panels with
multi-sensor not yet embedded electronics to collect and process various
positioned. data.
Three boxes, same size as the sand boxes, were
prepared. Sensors were positioned inside as well as
on the surface of each box. We were therefore able
to measure the properties inside the clay at various
points as well as the external conditions. To under-
Figure 9 stand the flow of temperature, two stacks of three
Typical graph of temperature sensors at various depth positions were
monitored located inside the clay thickness (Figure 8). Inside the
temperature (here 3 box further humidity sensors were positioned, and at
days curve). the outside of the box a triple sensor measuring tem-
perature, humidity as well as the brightness of light/-
sun was installed. Finally all three boxes were filled
with clay and the surface was leveled.
In order to have a neutral reference surface, one
panel was left untreated; the two others were ma-
chined with various surface patterns. Then the pan-
els were set up and the sensors sent the data every
3 minutes wireless to a raspberry pie mini computer
which was set up indoors. Every hour the new data
for presentation was hosted in Germany. For the vi-
(and if needed previous data too) was copied over the
sualization of the data, the raw data was saved in a
web from the United Arab Emirates to Germany, as
CSV dump file. Then automatically converted to an
the server for the evaluation and the web interface

CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 333

 rrd file and visualized on the project website with the
rrdtool [2]. The installation was monitored over sev-
eral weeks (Figure 9).
As expected the results showed the delay of the
heat flow through clay: the deep positioned sensor in
the clay panel measured higher temperature fluctua-
tions. A minor change of the surface pattern variation
was observed. Another parameter that should have
been taken into account was the shrinking character-
istic of drying clay.
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
Due to its complexity, well-trained and experienced
participants mostly use digital fabrication pedagog-
ically and it takes quite considerable time to pre-
pare and achieve satisfactory results. With our ap-
proach digitally inexperienced researchers, profes-
sionals and students can achieve good results within
a span of approximately 3 days, understand the po-
tentials of digital fabrication and work with complex
scripts and machines. By combining manual meth-
ods with a well chosen digital production framework
that provided the students with a steep curve of suc-
cess, it helps them to reach a high level quite quickly
since especially in digital design and fabrication "...
it has been fruitful to build up understanding and
skills incrementally" (Bechtold 2007). So the feed-
back from all participants was absolutely positive.
The results of this educational exercise are now the
basis for further research and application to practice.
The feedback from manufacturers about implement-
ing this approach into their production looks promis-
ing and encouraging. The qualitative experiments
would now require a quantitative approach. The pro-
duced forms and point clouds will have to be ana-
lyzed and also compared with the results gained from
a production with other aggregates. Furthermore we
will research into algorithms that will help to predict
the behavior of sand when pushed aside so that the
final outcome can be better predicted.
334 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like like to thank all participating students
from AUS as well as HSRM for their contributions and
work in the workshops. This includes nearly 40 stu-
dents of architecture and electrical engineering. We
would also like to thank Prof. Dr. Georg Fries of the
Electrical Engineering Departmnet at HSRM for his
active and valuable participation in this project.
Special thanks to the AUS CAAD Labs Director
John Michael Dosier as well as his team Jennifer
Theokary and Firass Al Joundi. The workshops would
not have been possible nor that successful without
their most valuable input as well as their day and
night support.
REFERENCES
Bechthold, Martin 2007 'Teaching technology: CAD/-
CAM, parametric design and interactivity', Predict-
ing the Future [25th eCAADe Conference Proceedings
/ ISBN 978-0-9541183-6-5] Frankfurt am Main (Ger-
many) 26-29 September, pp. 767-775
Brell-Cokcan, Sigrid and Braumann, Johannes 2013 'In-
dustrial Robots for Design Education: Robots as
Open Interfaces beyond Fabrication', Global Design
and Local Materialization[Proceedings of the 15th In-
ternational Conference on Computer Aided Architec-
tural Design Futures / ISBN 978-3-642-38973-3] Shang-
hai, China, July 3-5,, pp. 109-117
Cheng, Nancy Yen-wen and Hegre, Erik 2009 'Serendip-
ity and Discovery in a Machine Age: Craft and a CNC
Router', ACADIA 09: reForm( ) - Building a Better To-
morrow [Proceedings of the 29th Annual Conference
of the Association for Computer Aided Design in Ar-
chitecture (ACADIA) ISBN 978-0-9842705-0-7] Chicago
(Illinois) 22-25 October,, pp. 284-286
Kieferle, Joachim B., Katz, Neil and Thaleck, Kruno 2008
'From Shape to Fabrication', Architecture in Computro
[26th eCAADe Conference Proceedings / ISBN 978-0-
9541183-7-2] Antwerpen (Belgium) 17-20 September,
pp. 537-544
[1] http://www.dfab.arch.ethz.ch/web/e/lehre/208.ht
ml
[2] http://www.rrdtool.org
Nip and Tuck: A Simple Approach to Fabricate Double-
Curved Surfaces with 2D Cutting
Negar Kalantar1 , Alireza Borhani2 , Ergun Akleman3
1,2
Department of Architecture, Texas A&M University 3 Department of Visualiza-
tion, Texas A&M University
1,2
www.thetranslab.com 3 www.viz.tamu.edu/faculty/ergun/
1,2,3
{kalantar|borhani|ergun.akleman}@tamu.edu

In this paper, we introduce the Nip and Tuck Method, which provides a general
approach to construct complicated shapes without using high-level software
and/or without solving complex mathematical problems. Our framework is based
on discrete version of Gauss-Bonnet theorem, which states that the sum of vertex
angle defect in a given piecewise planar manifold or manifold with boundary
mesh surface is independent of the number of vertices, faces and edges. Based on
this property, architects and designers can simply introduce negative and positive
curvatures in the places they want to obtain desired shapes. We presented Nip
and Tuck Architecture to freshman students in beginning level design studios to
design arches with modular elements along with other methods. Several groups
of students, that chose to use Nip and Tuck approach to obtain individual
modules, were able to design and construct unusual small-scale arches.

Keywords: Nip and Tuck , Double-Curved Surfaces, Surface Active Arches,

Self-Supporting Plywood Structures, Fabrication with Planner Materials,
Freshman Design Studio

INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION chitecture continues to be the laser cutter. Conse-

In this paper, we address two challenges that design-
ers and more specifically, beginning designers deal
with in the context of geometric complexity and find-
ing form. Despite the widespread development and
adoption of three-dimensional (3D) modeling soft-
ware that allows for the virtual design of complicated
shapes, the physical construction of such shapes re-
mains an unsolved problem; currently, it requires ad-
vanced machinery capable of milling custom 3D fea-
tures or 3D printing. However, the most readily avail-
able digital fabrication tool in most schools of ar-
quently, for architecture students, moving from 2D to
3D methods of fabrication often leads to higher man-
ufacturing costs and a need to access outside fabrica-
tion facilities.
The other challenge for beginning design stu-
dents and, particularly, foundation architecture (first
year) learners is how to find forms suitable for their
designs and determine the criteria necessary for the
selection of such forms. There is, therefore, a need
to develop form finding approaches to help design
students become "form finders" rather than "form

CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 335


givers." In this paper, we introduce such a form-
finding approach that we have termed Nip and Tuck
Method.
Nip and Tuck Method is based on construction
with developable surfaces. These types of surfaces
are made out of thin sheets of flat materials that are
rolled rather than stretched [1] ; they are widely used
for the physical construction of complicated shapes.
These flat sheets are excellent for teaching the design
of complicated architectural forms because they can
easily be cut using laser cutters, one of the most com-
mon digital fabrication tools available to students of
architecture. Moreover, using widely available flat
materials such as plywood panels can significantly re-
duce manufacturing costs.
The design and construction of large-scale
shapes with developable surfaces requires archi-
tectural, engineering, and computer science exper-
336 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1
Figure 1
A Self -supporting
structure designed
by Nipping
technique.
Foundation design
students at Texas
A&M University:
Nicholas Houser
and Ezequiel
Campos.
tise (Sun and Fiume 1996, Mitani and Suzuki 2004).
Presently, only a few architectural firms take full ad-
vantage of the currently available graphics and mod-
eling technology to construct more complex forms.
However, in the long term it is reasonable to expect
that the design of complicated shapes will become a
common practice, even in small architectural firms. It
is, therefore, important to introduce students to such
design and construction problems at the freshman
level.
One of the most significant challenges to do-
ing so, however, is that freshman students do not
have the software expertise and math/physics knowl-
edge necessary to properly engage with these types
of problems. In this paper, we will present the Nip
and Tuck method, a process that allows for the intro-
duction of complicated shapes into freshman design
studios. This Nip and Tuck Method permits the con-
 trolled curvature of planar panels without the need Our method is based on the introduction of max-
for extensive software expertise and math/physics ima and saddle points in desired locations. Maxima
knowledge. points are obtained by nipping, and saddle points are
Freshmen can design simple planar panels from attained by tucking from an initial piece of paper. To
thin sheets, and cut them using laser cutters; they nip, we remove a piece; to tuck, we add a piece (Fig-
can then turn these planar panels into doubly- ure 2). In this research, for arch designs, we allowed
curved panels and use them to construct compli- students only to nip in order to guarantee convex
cated shapes. One of the most important impacts arches.
of our approach is that it allows students to inter-
Figure 2
nalize geometry through hands-on experiments. An-
Introduction of
other advantage is that this approach will signifi-
maxima and saddle
cantly lower construction costs because the planar
points in desired
panels can be cut from inexpensive materials such as
locations. Initial
plywood.
paper (left), Maxima
As part of our ongoing research into form-
(middle) and Saddle
finding structures, this practical design approach is
(right).
introduced in this paper in an effort to addresses the
following objectives:

• The design and fabrication of complicated
shapes using planner materials;
• The curvature control of planner panels with-
out the need for extensive software expertise,
in order to make non-structural surfaces into
self-supporting structures; and
• The introduction of strategies for bending
rigid materials such as plywood, and fixing
them into their final forms.
Our approach is based on a discrete version of the
Gauss-Bonnet theorem, which states that the sum
of the vertex angle deflections in a given piecewise
planar manifold (or manifold with boundary) mesh
surface is independent of the number of vertices,
faces, and edges (Akleman and Chen 2006). Since pa-
per is a developable material, it can be considered a
piecewise linear surface that consists of long strips of
planes; therefore, our formula can be applied to de-
velopable surfaces such as curved paper.

Figure 3 THEORETICAL PRELIMINARIES

With nipping and In this paper, we introduce an extremely simple ap-
tucking, it is proach to design and construct double curved sur-
possible to use faces with hands-on manipulations of developable
paper to easily materials. Our approach does not require any spe-
obtain a wide cific mathematical or computational knowledge. De-
variety of shapes. signers by using the intuition coming from Gaussian As mentioned, our method comes from the concept
curvature can create designs with nipping and tuck- of discrete Gaussian curvature, which is also called
ing using just paper, glue and stapler (exactly like angle defect. The angle defect, µi , of a vertex i, µi , is
tailors designing clothes with nipping and tucking defined based on the corner angles:where θi,j is the
fabrics). These paper models provide simple proof internal angle of the corner, j, of the vertex i and Ni
of concepts and larger versions of the designs can is the number of corners.
eventually be constructed using thin materials such
as sheet metal and plywood.

CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 337


∑
Ni
µi = Θ i ,j (1)
j=0
A discrete version of the Gauss-Bonnet theorem
shows that the sum of the vertex angle defects of all
of the vertices of a planar mesh is equal to 2(2 − 2g)
where g is the genus of the surface (i.e., the total num-
ber of holes and handles), and to (2 − 2g) where
g is the Euler Characteristic of the surface. This re-
sult agrees with the Gauss-Bonnet theorem (Chavel
1994), which states that the integral of the Gaussian
curvature over a closed and smooth surface is equal
to 2 times the Euler characteristic of the surface [2].
Vertex angle defect is a very simple concept that
can provide a good intuition sensitivity to control sur-
face curvature. Note that the value of µi is related to
the Gaussian curvature.
1. If µi > 0, then the vertex, i, is either convex
or concave.
2. If µi = 0, then the vertex, i, is locally planar;
(i.e., it can be unfolded to a plane without any
gap or self-intersection).
3. If µi > 0, then the vertex, i, is a saddle point.
In other words, to create a convex or concave region
with paper, we can simply take out some angle by
nipping (or pinching). To create saddle regions we
can add angles by tucking. Using this intuition it is
easy to play with paper to design developable sur-
faces.
Since we know that the total angle will always
stay constant, we can shape papers simply using glue
and staples. Using this insight, it is possible to shape
planner materials intuitively and construct a variety
of forms (Figure 3).
METHODOLOGY
To demonstrate the efficiency and simplicity of Nip
and Tuck Method, we used the method for designing
Surface Active Arches in a freshman studio. For ex-
ploring the notion of three-dimensional structures,
students in freshman design studios in Department
338 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1
of Architecture at Texas A&M University were asked
to use plywood and design self-standing arches [3].
The Surface Active Arch design project had two
stages. In the first, students explored surfaces and
geometrically active surfaces by using paper-like ma-
terials. Paper is an appropriate material for exploring
developable surfaces because it does not stretch and
is easy to cut and form (Figure 4).
In the second stage, students were asked to re-
make their concepts out of 1/8" thick plywood, and
explore active uses of the form through the relation-
ships among the various geometrical and material
behaviors. Students' final models were iteratively de-
veloped from small study models, eventually evolv-
ing into various joint and detail models created along
a number of different scales.
Using this process, we were able to observe the
effectiveness of the Nip and Tuck process in finding
forms. Using Nip and Tuck approach, students not
only learned how to find forms, but also learned to
the effect the materials in obtaining final designs. In
this particular case, students learned to differentiate
between two types of materials, namely paper and
wood. The most significant observations made by
students working with two types of materials were
that changing the materials changed the properties
of final forms. In other words, these forms were
not driven simply by geometry, but also by material
properties.
IMPLEMENTATION DETAILS
In the design studio, we considered three strategies
for the design and construction of the surfaces of self-
supporting arch structures: (1) Folding, (2) Bending
and weaving, and (3) Nipping (Figure 5). Unlike pa-
per, plywood is not easy to bend or fold; therefore, for
bending the plywood, we used three types of meth-
ods (1) Making relief cuts, (2) Cutting a series of kerfs,
and (3) Soaking plywood and reforming it (Figure 6
and Figure 7).
In all of these techniques, volume is created
somewhere between the parts. The convex forms
that result from applying these strategies can be used
Figure 4
A journey from
small paper models
to large plywood
arches.

Figure 5
Bending and
Folding were two
other strategies
that students used
to design
self-supporting
arches. Left project:
Madison Wilson
and Alexis Flores,
Right project:
Austin Madrigale,
Laura Zipps and
Madison Larmeu.

CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 339

 not only to cover space, but also as load-bearing Figure 6
building elements. Students used all of these strate- Left: different relief
gies to increase the stiffness of a thin layer of ply- cuts, Right project:
wood, thus converting the wood into surface-active Michael Hergert
structures. What is interesting about the Nip and and Sugey Zavala.
Tuck strategy is that the material and its distortion are
the determining factors in the form-generation pro-
cess (Buri and Weinand 2011).
Six groups of students chose to use Nip and Tuck
Method to design their arches. Since arch struc-
tures can only have positive curvature, for design-
ing arches, only nipping approach is sufficient. When Figure 7
nipping, students had to pay attention to the direc- Cutting a series of
tion of the inner layers of the plywood. By cutting kerfs and soaking
out some sections and taking out certain angles, stu- plywood to reform
dents were able to make convex or concave designs. it.
However, if the angle was large, the nipping process
needed to be conducted in progressive stages. Al-
though through soaking and steaming the plywood
surface became flexible enough to be squeezed into
the final angle, reaching that final angle was a grad-
ual progression. After getting the surface into the fi-
nal form, it needed to be fixed into position. Fixing
together two parts of a cut was achieved through var-
ious different methods such as screws and nuts, zip
ties, and rivets. To push the connections further and
experiment with the material, there was also the op-
tion of using methods such as intertwining or cut-
and-tenon (Figure 8).

CASE STUDIES
Here, to exemplify the practical possibilities of nip-
ping, we have included several self-standing arch
projects built from thin plywood modules. Below,
we discuss how the different modules can be made
and how they might be connected together to form Figure 8
arches. In these examples, the main focus is on how Different methods
to create complex, double-curved modules out of de- of fixing parts
velopable surfaces, as well as how to find methods together.
that simplify the process of forming and bending ply-
wood.

340 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1

 On the surface, the constructed arches were treated
as 2D domain structures. The design process was
conducted in three stages. In the first stage, stu-
dent proposed their desired single- or double-layer
arch structure. Once the arch was roughly designed,
the central challenge of creating the structural mod-
ules presented itself. During the second phase, the
proposed arches offered a convenient geometric ba-
sis for using nipping to design the different curved
modules that would eventually become the arch's
building blocks. In the third phase, the stability of
the proposed arch was revised, based on the three-
dimensional geometrical arrangement of the mod-
ules.
When a plywood surface is bent in one or two di-
rections, its stiffness and load capacity increase. For
this project, the depth of the bent surface became
Figure 9
a structural variable (Figure 9). The nipping method
Different models
enabled student to bend their piece of plywood in
were made to find
both directions, in order to achieve a positive Gaus-
the right curvature
sian curvature. In this case, the local behavior of the
and module.
plywood was changed by vertex deflection. To make
the basic module for the arch, three types of curved
surfaces were considered:
1. Neutral single curve (cylindrical);
2. Negative double curve (hyperboloid); and
3. Positive double curve (spherical).
Students made the double-curved modules by phys-
ically constructing developable surfaces. Since nega-
tive double-curved surfaces are difficult to construct
from plywood, the students mainly investigated pos-
itive curved surfaces in their arch modules.
Although a number of different ways to make
positive double curvatures were presented, the stu-
dents typically began with a rectangular sheet. Based
on the vector-drawing files produced through the
Rhinoceros platform, the students removed certain
angles as triangular pieces, and then joined the
neighboring edges of the angles together to create
convex regions. By turning the flat surface of their
plywood into a series of smaller cut pieces, the uncut
surfaces were easily bent or twisted and the planes
CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 341
interconnected. As the number of triangular cuts in-
creased, the degree of bending and twisting at each
cut area was enhanced accordingly. Longer cuts re-
quired less torsional force. In other words, the nar-
rower the piece, the more twistable the entire ply-
wood surface. In nipping, the ability of a sheet of
plywood to absorb the impact of torsional forces is
limited by the size of the panel, its core thickness
and density, and the length, width, and proportion
of the triangular cuts. Different groups of students at-
tempted to determine and apply the optimum com-
bination of these parameters in order to manipulate
the bending stiffness of the material. A wide variety
of 3D shapes could be achieved once the students
regularly or irregularly cut the different parts of their
sheets.
Students cut 2D pieces while leveraging 3D models
as masters, guaranteeing the accuracy and quality of
their designs. Flattening and then laying the digital
models of their 3D surfaces onto their 2D materials
helped students estimate the best connection holes
and angle cuts for the edges.
Continuous arch structures were achieved by
overlapping the surfaces of two neighboring mod-
ules. Most of the arches did not follow a variable cur-
vature. Consequently, the convergence angles of the
edges were, in some ways, alike.
By fabricating three-dimensional structural sur-
faces with strict two-dimensional cutting, students
were able to quickly grasp the possibilities and limits
 Figure 10
Different arches
designed by
nipping methods.
Left project: Lorena
Espinosa and Julia
Grasley, Right
project: Natalie
Akins and Thomas
Holmes.

Figure 11
Different arches
designed by
nipping methods.
Left project: Chesli
Nicole, Kathleen
Berger and Loryn
Taylor, Middle
project: Anna Cook
and Cynthia Castro,
Right project: Elise
Werner and Manuel
Duran.

342 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1

of their proposed designs (Figure 10 and figure 11).
The speed, efficiency, and low cost of prototyping al-
lowed the students to improve and fine tune their
structural modules in order to accommodate specific
requirements; this opportunity for revision was avail-
able until a very late stage of the design and fabrica-
tion process.
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
The Nip and Tuck Method offers great freedom for
structural curved forms, allowing them to be fabri-
cated from two-dimensional sheet material and laser
or 3-axis cutting machines. In addition, these sim-
ple methods offer enormous benefits in terms of fab-
rication, modularity, and customization. To date,
little published research has been presented that
describes the structural and mechanical properties
of the configuration formed through the nipping
method. In the future, designers and scholars should
investigate the effects of its geometry on the stability
and performance measures of convex and concave
surfaces, and discuss the advantages to and limita-
tions of using nipping to form flat materials. Across
a wide array of methods that can be used to trans-
form a flat sheet of material into a three-dimensional
form (such as bending and folding), it seems that nip-
ping is uniquely suited to forming plywood shapes;
it is one of the most efficient shape and structure-
forming processes. Combining nipping with other
methods enables the generation of different struc-
tural forms with a myriad of desirable characteristics.
Beyond allowing complex surfaces to be con-
structed out of regular laser cutters, the nipping
method also offers an additional benefit; it amplifies
the stiffness of a surface without adding extra ma-
terial. By exploiting the deformation of the materi-
als, the nipping approach generates bending-active
structures and causes more stiffness.
In this study, students explored nipping ap-
proach as a form-finding technique by using ply-
wood; however, it was possible to apply this method
to other materials such as metal or plastic sheets. The
experiences described here illustrate that the final
arch structures were not only informed by geome-
CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 343
try, but also that the fabricated geometries stemmed
from the materials, tectonics, and assembly logic.
Therefore, exploring the use of nipping and tucking
with other materials will even more tightly couple fu-
ture design explorations with materials-based proto-
typing.
Under extreme time constraints and without a
thorough knowledge of digital modeling software,
freshman students were challenged to explore the
geometric complexities of their designs and trans-
form their flat sheets of material into intricate three-
dimensional convex surfaces; the goal was to cre-
ate self-standing structures with improved mechan-
ical properties that were also light in weight. The
arch project sequence emphasized the mutual inter-
actions among physical prototyping and simple dig-
ital modeling, weaving together precision, jointure,
detail, connection, and assembly. Armed with the
empirical knowledge provided by the project, stu-
dents enjoyed a wide playing field of possibilities for
designing complex forms that otherwise would only
have been possible through the use of advanced dig-
ital modeling. Exploring the nipping technique and
its utility in addressing developable surfaces within
the bounds imposed by certain material properties
helped students to generate complex surfaces and
deliver robust 3D design capabilities.
Exploring developable surfaces within the con-
text of the design studio provided a framework for
developing a new in-house open source software
called UNFOLDING to address the constructability
and structural geometry of complex forms. This soft-
ware demonstrates the economic efficacy of using
minimal amounts of isotropic materials that can only
be bent in one direction to construct sculptural and
architectural forms of different scales. After being de-
signed, the software can be used to unfold a desired
form so that it can then be laser cut. Giving future
designers hands-on experience with modeling and
laser cutting will familiarize them with simple meth-
ods of fabrication, thus overcoming some of the cur-
rent limitations with exiting CAD software and fabri-
cation techniques.
 REFERENCES
Akleman, E and Chen, J 2006 'Practical polygonal mesh
modeling with discrete Gaussian-Bonnet theorem',
Proceedings of Geometry, Modeling and Processing,
Pittsburg
Buri, H and Weinand, Y 2011, 'The tectonics of timber ar-
chitecture in the digital age', in Kaufmann, H (eds)
2011, Building with Timber Paths into the Future, Pres-
tel Verlag, Munich, Germany, pp. 56-63
Chavel, I 1994, Riemannian Geometry: A Modern Introduc-
tion, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Kalantar, N and Borhani, A 2015, 'Flexible Textile Struc-
tures: An Agency for Informing Form and Matter',
International Journal of Interior Architecture + Spatial
Design, ii, pp. 50-55
Mitani, J and Suzuki, H 2004, 'Making paper craft toys
from meshes using strip-based approximate unfold-
ing. ACM Trans. Graph', ACM Transactions on Graph-
ics (TOG), 23, pp. 259-263
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developable surfaces', Proceedings of the conference
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[3] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=49SR0qsKeeA

344 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1

Digital Materialization: Additive and Robotical
Manufacturing with Clay and Silicone
Cristina Nan1 , Charlie Patterson2 , Remo Pedreschi3
1,2,3
University of Edinburgh
1,3
{cristina.nan|R.Pedreschi}@ed.ac.uk
2
cpatters@exseed.ed.ac.uk

Through the use of algorithmic design methods and an ever growing variety of
digital fabrication tools the complexity of process in the architectural discipline
seems to be increasing. As this statement might apply to a variety of different
areas of computational design and process management, this perceived growing
complexity does not have to be viewed as unnecessary complication of design
processes, if palpable and justifiable benefits occur. This paper intends to analyse
and investigate the potential arising from digital tools of fabrication, specifically
robots and 3D printers, and from open source platforms on exploring and
managing complexity while enabling both simplicity of process and simplicity of
implementation through emerging open source cultures. Building on this
assumptions, this paper explores the professional possibilities generated the
implementation of robotics as part of the academic curriculum. The theoretical
concept of Machinecraft will be introduced and showcased on two research
project, both focussing on advanced digital tools, additive manufacturing and
machine engineering. Please write your abstract here by clicking this paragraph.

Keywords: Additive Manufacturing, 3D Printing, Robotics, Digital Fabrication,

Open Source, Architectural Education

INTRODUCTION ond investigates the resulting methodological impli-

This paper explores the possibility of developing an
awareness and understanding of the new and com-
bined role robotics and open source platforms oc-
cupy in the architectural process and in interdisci-
plinary academic teaching, from the stage of defining
the project's framework to the stage of digital fabrica-
tion. This issue will be addressed on two levels of dis-
course. While the first level discusses the theoretical-
philosophical framework behind the architectural in-
tegration of machines, specifically robots, the sec-
cations on two applied research projects, one devel-
oped at the Edinburgh School of Architecture and
Landscape Architecture at the University of Edin-
burgh and the second at the Institute for Advanced
Architecture of Catalonia in Barcelona. The attempt
to redefine the status of the machine in general,
and specifically of the robot, seeks to illustrate the
robot as an active design agent, capable of influenc-
ing and redefining established processes in architec-
ture.Simultaneously the analysis focuses on develop-

CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 345

 ing an understanding of the role of computer aided
design and digital fabrication in architectural edu-
cation and to showcase a set of approaches of how
to make use of open source platforms and ways in
which these new territories can be implemented in
the academic context. As a conclusion, this paper will
investigate on the relevance of computation, digital
fabrication and open source platforms for the archi-
tectural discipline and its professional identity and
how these enable future architects and researchers
to access other disciplinary fields with the outcome
of advancing and adding complexity to the own dis-
cipline. It is of high importance to analyse and in-
vestigate the potential arising from digital tools and
open source platforms on both exploring and man-
aging complexity, while enabling both simplicity of
process and simplicity of implementation through
the earlier mentioned open source cultures.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
In order to redefine the importance and relevance
of the machine, including self-developed or manipu-
lated machines as 3D printers or robots, for the whole
of the design and fabrication processes in the disci-
pline of architecture, the author presents the theo-
retical concept of machinecraft. The concept of ma-
chinecraft intends to combine the two operational
ways which are being represented by its word com-
position. Machinecraft describes the process of de-
veloping a fabrication strategy which satisfies the re-
quirements of design, material and machine parame-
ters. It relies on a closed informational circuit in which
design, material and machine information constantly
complement and influence each other. Machinecraft
addresses the ability to extend the area of control
over the machine, just like a craftsman controls his
tools, this meaning to be able to manipulate the tech-
nical, mechanical configuration of a machine, in or-
der to attune it to material and design requirements.
This manipulation can be done in two ways. If in pos-
session of advanced programming and engineering
skills, the change of the machine configuration can
be done actively by the user, in this case the archi-
346 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1
tect. Through the means of open source platforms
these technical interventions and manipulations are
considerably simplified for the user and offer a di-
rect way of handling complexity through simplified
means. In the second case of highly complex sys-
tems, the adaptation of machine configuration will
be achieved by collaborating with mechanical en-
gineers or the machine developers and giving indi-
cations to how and why the mechanistic operating
mode should be changed according to project spe-
cific needs. This last step can be only done, if a prelim-
inary examination and understanding of the opera-
tional system has been done, so that the implications
which result from conducted changes consort with
the desired outcome. (Nan 2015.) The concept of ma-
chinecraft is rooted in the assumption, that just as ar-
chitects gradually engage in the customisation of de-
sign software through scripting, in the development
of customised materials or material systems (Menges
2008) in order to increase the optimisation and ef-
fectiveness of both design and making, the same
should be valid for their engagement with customis-
ing themselves machines.The access to and manipu-
lation of mechanical systems such as robots, CNC ma-
chines, 3D Printers and many others, from a software
and hardware point of view, is today radically sim-
plified through the access to open source platforms,
such as Processing, Arduino or even Grasshopper, to
just name a few. These type of machine systems were
previously considered as highly complex and compli-
cated so that a direct manipulation in terms of their
software-hardware through the architect was highly
improbable. Throughout the Digital Turn and the ad-
vancement of the open source cultures these realities
have changed. Because of the emerging open source
culture the architectural design but also increasingly
the fabrication processes and strategies can be seen
as network-driven activities, based on an inherent
collaborative practice. (Ratti 2015.) The generated
effect consists of making complexity accessible and
transforming it into simplicity, in the sense that net-
works of information or mechanical systems, previ-
ously highly discipline specific, become accessible to
 architects and free to manipulate. This leads to over-
coming design and machine limitations, thus allow-
ing the architect new degrees of disciplinary free-
dom. This new type of interaction between the archi-
tect and the machine can be simultaneously seen as
a strong catalyser for future cross disciplinary inter-
actions. Open source offers the possibility to man-
age and handle complexity in new ways by permit-
ting and enabling active manipulation of systems.
RESEARCH STUDIES
The previously described theoretical approaches and
constructs will be exemplified and demonstrated on
two applied case studies, both focussing on additive
manufacturing and advanced digital tools, but which
show different scales of implementation.
Figure 1
Fabric Cast
Concrete Model.
Research Study 01: From Fabric-Cast Con-
crete to Silicone 3D Printing
Context. The following presented research project
was developed during the MSc Material Practice
2014/15 programme at the University of Edinburgh.
The research showcases an investigation into digi-
tal material experimentation and simultaneously fea-
tures the relationship between aspects of the digi-
tal craft and tool development for digital fabrication.
During the first research phase, experiments were un-
dertaken with fabric-cast concrete and 3D printing
with silicone. These initial investigations led to the
CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 347
development of a self built ceramic and silicone 3D
printer and ultimately generated prototypes of cus-
tomised medical braces and gloves. Additive man-
ufacturing and textiles can be seen as the main line
of research which continuously goes through all of
the further described research phases. The educa-
tional value of integrating advanced digital fabrica-
tion, specifically additive manufacturing, as part of an
academic interdisciplinary curriculum is being show-
cased.
Lines of investigation.
Fabric-Cast Concrete and Silicone 3D Printing. Ini-
tially work was undertaken looking at textile form-
work for concrete structures as a viable alternative to
conventional formwork, commonly fabricated out of
wood. The use of textile formwork represents a ma-
jor advantage when dealing with complex geome-
tries, for instance based on single or double curvature
as it does not require any additional and material-
intensive scaffolding or moulds. As an output of this
first stage, as series of fabric-cast concrete columns
resulted. This process offered the starting point for
understanding textile material behaviour as a tool for
form control and generation. As a next step a series of
experiments followed which investigated the impact
of 3D printing and patterning directly on textile form-
work and fabric-cast concrete. The material interac-
tion between concrete and 3D printed patterns out
of silicon was analysed through a series of material it-
erations. Although the silicone alters how the fabric
stretches in response to the wet concrete, no major
material difficulties were encountered in terms of the
casting process and or removal of the silicone pat-
tern design. Through the interaction between con-
crete and silicone, an untypical hybrid material sys-
tem, a new type of unexpected material aesthetic
was generated. Being a soft, flexible and water re-
pellent material, the silicone allowed for precise de-
tail to be taken by the surface. Unlike conventional
moulds and formwork, the silicone can be easily re-
moved, the ease and low cost of each print meaning
that each formwork is essentially disposable. Rather
than the costly and time consuming method of cre-
 ating castings, or stitching objects into the fabric, the
silicone alters both the structure of the form as well
as detailed surface finish.
Ceramic and Silicone 3D Printing. These initial ex-
perimentations with textile formwork and 3D printed
patterns on the fabric evolved into an investigation
of additive manufacturing techniques firstly with clay
and as a second step with silicon on textiles. For
these purposes a self-built, low cost 3D printer was
developed. As starting point and technical instruc-
tion resource for the construction of the 3D printer,
the open source kits for a 3D Delta Printer for ce-
ramics provided by the researchers Jonathan Keep
and Dries Verbruggen were used. The developed low
cost Delta Printer is suited to printing taller objects
in clay due to the stationary circular base and tall
build volume, compared to a Cartesian Printer. It is
only through the 'free revealing' and open source de-
velopment that this type of cross-disciplinary project
is accessible and manageable for architectural stu-
dents. Despite beginning the project with minimal
experience of 3D printing from the student side, as
a 'user innovator' the internet allows 'access to the
rich libraries of modifiable innovations and innova-
tion components that have been placed into the
public domain' (Von Hippel 2005, 121). This new
type of emerging 'user-innovator' is characterised by
a movement between roles, in this between archi-
tectural designer to product engineer, which inher-
ently enables a revised approach towards the dynam-
348 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1
ics between design and fabrication process.A cen-
tral theme that developed throughout this research
was the value of the low cost printer that evolves
to the specific requirements of a material. The ad-
Figure 2
vantage of manipulating a hacked open source 3D
Silicon 3D Printing
printer lies within the possibility of customising ex-
in combination
truder and nozzle for the use of a well defined range
with Fabric-Cast
of diverse materials, in this case clay, porcelain and
Concrete.
silicone, offering thus a greater flexibility in contrast
to commercial printers and so is open to elements
of disruptive innovation. There is currently no com-
mercial printer that would allow simultaneous exper-
imentation with this material range, or provide plat-
forms for different substrates.The experiments with
ceramic 3D printing focused on understanding the
parameters of correlation between the material and
the machine. A wider range of materials for extrusion
has been explored, from clay to terracotta and porce-
lain, showcasing different extrusion behaviours. In
order to obtain an optimal extrusion result, the fol-
lowing parameters had to be considered: extrusion
rate, extrusion speed, material viscosity, nozzle type
and material depositing strategy. The focus of this
work lies in understanding how to manipulate and
control the ceramic 3D printer in order to then further
advance to developing a material depositing strategy
for medical hand braces with locally deposited sili-
cone through 3D printing.
Figure 3
Delta Printer for
Clay and Cartesian
Printer for Silicone.
Medical gloves and compression braces. A key aim
that developed during the further line of investiga-
tion was to find relevant applications for the low
­cost method of printing silicone onto textiles. This
Figure 4 evolved into the creation of customised compression
3D printed pattern braces for medical purpose, by making use of low
design on flexible cost materials and accessible additive manufactur-
textile. ing technology. Initial printing tests were executed
with latex and silicon. The latter was adopted for
further experiments due to its homogeneity, which
corresponds to industrial standards, the more flexi-
ble extrusion process, easy availability and low cost
of material.The main design principles for the com-
pression braces and gloves relies on investigating
the relationship between patterning and stretching.
Using pattern design to influence the compression
and stretching behaviour of textiles can be of high
Figure 5 relevance for the medical development in order to
3D printing Silicone enhance ergonomic features of support braces or
Pattern Design on to customise protheses. The research development
Substrate. was done through multiple digital and material it-
erations, by simultaneously correlating material be-
haviour, pattern geometry, fabrication process and
machine. Through the parallel development of the
material, digital and mechanical customised flexible
prototypes were developed. In order to obtain work-
ing prototypes a precise calibration of specially ma-
terial and machine parameters was necessary, thus
enabling the designer or architect to obtain an in-
creased control over both design and fabrication pro-
cess.
Software and Hardware. For this experimental se-
ries an existing plastic FDM printer was hacked and
technically upgraded. A new RAMPs board was in-
stalled as well as a new printhead developed to suit
the silicone. The main effort was put into control-
ling and manipulating the extrusion rate and flow of
the silicon, based on previous experience with ce-
ramic 3D printing. This involved developing an ex-
truder to mechanically dispense the silicone straight
from the cartridge, having previously explored but
realised limitations of printing with air pressure and
solenoid valve allowing precise control of extrusion
between movements. Rather than developing a sep-
arate reservoir of silicone, the extruder was designed
around a standard 300ml sealant cartridge. The ex-
truder developed within the Engineering FabLab

CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 349

 consisted of a mechanical screw, that forced the sili-
cone through a PTFE tube to a nozzle mounted onto
the printhead platform.The digital workflow con-
sisted of designing the differentiated patterning, so
custom print paths, to enable the creation of silicone
objects impossible with standard slicing software.
The modelling was based in Rhino and Grasshopper
was used to vary the density of the pathways over
a cylindrical form, originally scan of an arm, and so
influence and manipulate the areas of compression.
This output was then turned into a single path, to
enable consistent, clean printing. As the mechani-
cal extruder of the printer did not have the capabil-
ity to consistently retract between movements, it was
necessary for each layer of the object to be printed
in a single path. This printing strategy had a sig-
nificant impact on the process of designing the fi-
nal prototypes. Further experimentation was done
with an XBox Kinect 360 scanner, and free software
to scan elements of the body in order to increase the
ergonomics of the braces. As a final step Silkworm, a
plugin for Grasshopper, was used for generating the
G-code. The workflow of scanning, manipulation and
printing led to a series of combined digital simula-
tions and physical experiments, in order to obtain a
higher design refinement.
Conclusion. Through engaging with textile form-
work to building a 3D printer and developing 3D
printed pattern designs for textiles, a profound un-
derstanding was gained of related software, hard-
ware and the material behaviour. During this exper-
imental series a tacit knowledge of the process was
350 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1
developed. The theorist Richard Sennet describes
'tacit knowledge' as the implicit experiential under-
standing of a process or material, '...knowledge that
has become so self-evident and habitual that it seems
just natural' (Sennet 2008, 183). From an educa-
tional point of view the tacit knowledge represents
an emerging set of skills which are typical for crafts-
manship and can be only developed and accessed
through a hands on approach. This applies not only
to the traditional context of craft, but also to the dig-
ital context. By being directly involved in the me-
chanical assembly of a 3D printer an experience is
being generated which is of significant educational
value and confirms the concept of machinecraft: the
architect actively engaging in the technological de-
velopment of the chosen digital fabrication tools in
order to adapt them to specific project demands and
to thus overcome machine limitations. This type of
consequential emerging knowledge through direct
process involvement can be also defined as 'sticky'
or 'local' information. The American economist Eric
von Hippel considers that this 'information used in
technical problem solving is costly to acquire, trans-
fer, and use in a new location' (Von Hippel 1994, 429
). This is the information immediately available to the
user-­innovator, that is used to further development
of the product or process to suit immediate needs.
This generates a valuable educational insight as the Figure 6
interdependence between design, material, process Customised Hand
strategy and tool becomes apparent to the student. Brace with 3D
printed Silicone
Research Study 02: Minibuilders Pattern.
Context and Concept. Constructing to the previous
case study which focuses on small-scale prototyp-
ing and on the integration of new digital cultures as
part of a revised academic curriculum, the following
project creates a change of scale, as it engages with
on-site fabrication strategies. The case study at issue,
bearing the name Minibuilders, was developed as a
robotic research conducted as a group project at the
Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia in
Barcelona. Minibuilders is a project which deals with
architectural robotics and additive manufacturing for
big-scale structures. The case study illustrates the de-
velopment of a robotic fabrication strategy based on
the use of a multiple robotic system which uses a ma-
terial distribution system similar to the current 3D-
printing, but adapted to on-site fabrication.The most
relevant aspect of this research lies within the fact
that instead of choosing to work with industrial robot
arms for the construction of architectural elements
such as walls or columns, a reversed approach was
taken. Using robotic arms or portal 3D printers for
construction is based on the idea of using oversized
tools, so heavy machinery, in order to build equally
big structures. Operating with such tools implicates
a series of considerable disadvantages for on-site fab-
rication:
• Inflexibility due to the physical size of the
robot.
• A limited area of reach depending on the
length of the robot arm or the size of the 3D
printer.
• Reduced mobility, as industrial robot arms
move on trails and are not able to move inde-
pendently across space.
• Building limitation through the size of the
printer itself. In case of portal printers, the
structure to be erected has to always be
smaller than the machine itself, just as in the
case of a commercial 3D printer.
• Heavyweight for on site construction, as the
additional load of the robotic arm has to be
considered during the planning and the or-
ganisation of the construction phase.
The Robots. Taking these criteria into consideration,
the here developed strategy for on-site printing is
predicated on the development of a series of mo-
bile robots, which can act independently from one
another and thus fulfil separate functional demands.
The three developed robots with their built-in tech-
nology represent a hybrid between robotics and 3D
printing: while the mechanic specifications corre-
sponds to the ones of robots, the integrated mate-
rial deposition system correlates in its procedural fea-
CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 351
tures to the functioning of 3D printers. The drafted
strategy relies on dividing the on-site construction
processes into three phases, according to functional
necessities. The three phases are consecutive and
each correlates with the use of a different robot. The
first robot, the foundation robot, to come into opera-
tion is responsible for raising up the first ten to fifteen
layers which form the foundation of the future struc-
ture. Subsequently, after the foundation is finished,
the second robot continues depositing the following
layers and finalises the design. Whereas the founda-
tion robot is capable of moving on the ground, the
second robot, named grip robot, needs to be manu-
ally positioned on top of the finished foundation lay-
ers. According to the task it needs to fulfil, the grip
robot is designed as a type of climber robot. After
being placed in its position, the grip robot contin-
ues with the successive deposition of the layers. The
grip robot is the robot which completes the form and
which is responsible for the main construction task.
As both the foundation and the grip robot deposit
horizontal layers, any resulting structure, indepen-
dent of its shape, will exhibit a restricted structural
stability. Naturally, the cause of this lies in the ab-
sence of vertical reinforcement. In order to counter-
act this effect and to offer an increased structural sta-
bility, vertical layers along the horizontal ones must
be added. Concluding, the third phase seeks to ad-
dress this problem and deals with the construction
of the earlier mentioned reinforcement layers. This
stage is based on the utilisation of the vacuum robot
which is designed for ensuring a vertical motion. As
indicated by its name, the robot creates a vacuum be-
tween himself and the surface of the structure in or-
der to be able to advance vertically. The robot moves
along the structure, by following predefined paths.
These pathways originate from a previous, detailed
structural analysis of the design. Grasshopper and
the plug-in Karamba were used in order to gener-
ate this information. After the completion of this last
layer, design and construction process can be consid-
ered as finalised.
 Material System. The used material for the extrusion
is a composite material based on marble powder and
a two-components resin system. The two compo-
nent resin system was added as to accelerate the cur-
ing time of the extruded layers in order to facilitate
a smooth and stable movement of the robots on top
of the deposited material layers. A series of parallel
physical and digital experiments was done so that the
right mixing ratio to obtain an optimal viscosity and
texture of the material for the extrusion could be de-
termined. The development of the material, the ex-
trusion nozzle and the extruder happened in parallel,
as they represent correlated and interdependent pa-
rameters. Material, machine and building data thus
form a reciprocal informative circuit. This type of ap-
proach generates a new level of complexity regard-
ing the architectural input and the levels of inter-
vention, control and manipulation through the archi-
tect.Considering that the here showcased study was
handled as a proof of concept, only a limited amount
of exploration was invested in the development of
the composite material itself in terms of its fitness for
the construction industry. Considering the addition
of the two-component resin system the material can-
not be considered as fully sustainable or ecological.
352 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1
Future Investigations. The described printing and
construction strategy represents a proof of concept
to showcase that small robots may be more appropri-
ate to be used o print large-scale structures on site,
rather than industrial robot arms, which are more
suited for fabrication processes along an assembly
line. The refinement of the robots in terms of their
moving mechanisms, the development of a sustain-
able material system, the detailing of the extrusion
nozzle and their further specialisation regarding the
tasks they fulfil may represent main investigation ob-
jectives for future research. This project showcases
the importance of architects being directly involved
in the development of actual fabrication strategies, in
terms of machine development and process restruc-
turing and organisation.
CONCLUSIONS
The implications of the architect as a robotic in-
ventor and the incorporation of machine, fabrica-
tion and material parameters in the architectural pro-
cess are evidenced. Through the integration of self-
developed robotic devices as autonomous design
agents a new understanding of digital fabrication,
the construction site as a robotic environment and
Figure 7
Minibuilders, from
left to right: grip
robot, foundation
robot, vacuum
robot.
Figure 8
Minibuilders while
printing
protostructure.
the crafts nature of the architectural discipline may
arise.Through the means of open source platforms
and programming new areas of competence, such
as product engineering, material development and
mechanical engineering, but also influence can be
accessed by designers and architects alike. The im-
portance of mastering these digital tools goes be-
yond just expanding a digital skill-set, but it demon-
strates the disciplinary relevance of advancing in par-
allel design and fabrication strategies, which are in-
trinsically connected to one another. The emerg-
ing digital tools of design and fabrication, specially
the generation of new desktop fabrication tools such
as 3D printers, laser cutters or 3D scanners in com-
bination with the developing open source culture
have the potential to revolutionise and democratise
the discipline and thus initiate a new industrial rev-
olution. (Anderson 2012) Digital fabrication prac-
tices have the potential to expand the control of the
maker, in this case architects and designers, over the
design process and to overcome machine limitations.
They can be seen as extensions of the traditional pro-
Figure 9
Minibuilders during
on-site printing.
CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 353
cesses, adding an element of manageable complex-
ity, so that the parallel development of hardware and
software can sustain an intelligent network develop-
ment of design, material, fabrication and machine.
Acknowledgements
This paper and the presented theoretical part re-
lies on the author's PhD thesis, completed under
the guidance of Professor Dott. Arch. Paolo Fusi,
conducted at the HafenCity University Hamburg and
funded by the DFG, the German Research Foun-
dation.Minibuilders, the here described research
project, was developed during the Open Thesis Fab-
rication program (OTF) 2013/2014 at the Institute for
Advance Architecture of Catalonia. The OTF program
is constructed on the idea of offering a suitable aca-
demic framework and guidance for its participants to
conduct individual or group research according to a
self-imposed research agenda. Minibuilders was con-
ducted by a group consisting of six researchers, un-
der the guidance and with the help of multiple staff
members of the mentoring institute. Further infor-
 mation on the individual members of the research
team, the extended academic support, sponsorship
and collaborators can be viewed on the official web-
page dedicated to this project.

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Von Hippel, E. 1994, '"Sticky Information" and the Lo-
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354 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Fabrication - Volume 1

CAAD EDUCATION | Creative
Practices
Computation in Early Design Education as Investment in
Attitudes
Desantila Hysa1 , Mine Özkar2
1
Epoka University 2 Istanbul Technical University
1
drrumbullaku@epoka.edu.al 2 ozkar@itu.edu.tr

While education programs are generally defined in terms of learning outcomes

known as knowledge, skills and attitudes, it is not always obvious how attitudes
are to be gained. This study focuses on the formation of attitudes of
accountability and sharing of knowledge in computational approaches to basic
design education. We posit that computational thinking, even without computers,
is supportive of both the reflective practice and the learning of such values in
design education. We report on comparatively observed collaborative design
processes of first year architecture students who externalized their thought
processes through visual rules. While a reflection-in-action stage helps in
learning the know-how, a second reflection on reflection-in-action deepens the
understanding and initiates habits for how to think and act within and beyond the
design domain, leading to attitude formation.

Keywords: design computation, attitudes, visual rules, learning outcomes,

foundation design studios

INTRODUCTION: COMPUTATION AND edged in beginning architectural design studios.

MORAL COMPETENCES
Knowledge, skills and attitudes are often presented
as a triad of competences within the context of learn-
ing outcomes in higher education (Adams 2004).
Learning outcomes, for individual modules of educa-
tion such as a course or a program constitute state-
ments of what a learner is expected to know, under-
stand and be able to demonstrate as competences at
the end of a period of learning. For instance, learning
outcomes for a first year design studio are defined in
terms of the basic design skills and knowledge that
the student is expected to acquire. Recently, com-
putational design skills, mostly the idea of external-
izing processes with (ideally visual) rules, but also the
use of digital tools, have slowly come to be acknowl-
By definition, learning outcomes are a compos-
ite of knowledge, skills and attitudes that an individ-
ual will attain as consequence to his or her successful
engagement in a particular set of higher education
experiences (Adams 2006). Nevertheless, while most
institutions seek to articulate the learning outcomes
in terms of acquired knowledge and developed skills,
they do not explicate how attitudes are expected to
be gained perhaps due to the difficulty in assessing
attitudes in short term education cycles.
Attitudes are notoriously indistinct in computa-
tional design education. Often deemed a technol-
ogy, computational design is usually associated with
skills and abstract knowledge that absolves the stu-
dent of the social responsibilities of design thinking.

CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 357

 We posit that computation enables the designer to
externalize the process in service of a social point of
interest and thus instill desired attitudes, i.e. moral
competences such as sharing knowledge and ac-
countability.
Studies that demonstrate how attitudes are con-
veyed to learners in higher education is scarce. Skills
generally refer to the learned capacity to do some-
thing. Instead, attitudinal or affective outcomes usu-
ally involve the change or development of particular
values such as empathy, ethical behaviour or respect
for others (Ewell 2001). Such values, noted as "the
hidden curriculum" (Dutton 1991) of a learning set-
ting, may arise not only from the social context but
the curriculum as well. In this respect, Adams (2006)
suggests that learning outcomes should not be con-
sidered as statements only. Instead, they represent
a particular methodological approach for curriculum
design.
As such, being able to perform a certain set of
domain-related skills is not enough, unless the stu-
dent acquires a general habit of making use of those
skills inside and outside the domain (Resnick 1999)
and with a broader picture in mind. Attitudes are
generally defined as a collection of habits that drive
personal behaviors as well as one's patterns of think-
ing. In this paper, the scope is limited by account-
ability and collective practices that we propose as di-
rect results of computational thinking in design edu-
cation.
Visual Rules in Foundation Design Studio:
Reflection in and on Action
In foundation design studios, the student is usually
engaged with various abstract tasks to define rela-
tions between forms as the given formal vocabulary
facilitates the reasoning process. Commonly there
is interest in utilising tools such as comparative dis-
play, conversation, and systematic visual representa-
tions, to support the externalisation of the reason-
ing. These approaches encourage the students to re-
flect on their own reasoning in the decision-making
context. Duly, Meijers et al. (2005) has suggested
358 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1
that design thinking should be included as a funda-
mental competence to be acquired in higher edu-
cation. Even if this suggestion is not commonly fol-
lowed through, Buchanan (2008) has been advocat-
ing the teaching of design attitudes such as respon-
sibility for good organisation and decision-making in
disciplines other than design.
Similarly but within the context of the design stu-
dio, we suggest that the knowledge and skills ac-
quired while dealing with form in design education
may extend to attitudes and organisational ability.
Stiny (1980) points out that visual thinking is instru-
mental in understanding the spatial relations that
constitute designs. While rule-based design meth-
ods are generally associated with parametric design,
rule-based approaches can support visual and per-
ceptual properties of shapes. There have been pro-
posals in integrating such approaches to design edu-
cation in general (Knight 1999) yet there is not much
research done on the attitudes supported by such
pedagogical approaches.
We aim to show that computational design
thinking supports the learning of positive values in
design education. The hypothesis is merely based on
the fact that it enables an externalisation of design
thinking, sharing, and hence accountability. Our mo-
tivation is to provide yet another reason for introduc-
ing computing early on in design education among
with other fundamental skills and knowledge. Try-
ing to grasp the relational system underlying a de-
sign through visual rules helps in developing rea-
soning, choices, and judgement. A designer's shape
rules are not only tools to control the relations be-
tween shapes but they also facilitate the reasoning
process towards an increased understanding and the
improvement of personal attitudes.
A DESIGN EXPERIMENT IN A FOUNDA-
TIONAL DESIGN STUDIO
Our study involves comparatively observing collabo-
rative design processes in volunteering first year un-
dergraduate architecture students, over the course of
a month in various types of group projects. In the
study, students were encouraged to externalize their
thought processes through rules for reflection. While
a first stage of reflection helps in learning the know-
how or design skills, namely reflection in action, a
second stage of reflection is necessary for developing
habits of the mind and of knowing how to think and
act: reflection on reflection in action. In two tier tasks,
students first completed a design assignment, then
they were introduced to notion of visual rules while
assessment. Students were then asked to interpret
others' work through visual rules and apply them.
This protocol was repeated in a sequence of as-
signments so that students might develop regular
opportunities to critically evaluate themselves and
their peers. The assignments progress by adding a
new variable in each stage. Towards the end of the
process, they were expected to reflect on the collec-
tive and individual process comparatively, in terms
of what rules they used and how changed their own
rules on the way. This demonstrated that rule-based
approaches to design help not only in dealing with
form relations, but they become instrumental for the
external interpretation of actions. When treated as
a whole, rule-based approaches help in developing
strategies of knowing how to act and think within
and beyond the design domain, leading to attitude
formation.
The design experiment was conducted with fif-
teen volunteering first year undergraduate architec-
ture students at Epoka University in Albania. Stu-
dents had been exposed, for at least one term, to the
basics of design. The design tasks were structured
on two-dimensional formal organizations achieved
through a cut-and-paste technique of various shapes
within a given boundary. As part of the design
knowledge conveyed in the foundational design stu-
dio, students were asked to achieve unified wholes
by paying attention to the relationships established
between primitive elements and at the same time to
preserve the identity of those elements. Overlaps of
elements were allowed. Moreover, students were en-
couraged to consider the shapes emerging from the
overlapping and the background as a design input
CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 359
while defining relationships in different orders.
The sequence of the assignments was as follows:
1. Folding a blank sheet of paper in five consec-
utive steps.
2. Unfolding the paper, emphasizing the folding
lines and extracting emerging shapes.
3. Making a two-dimensional composition with
seven of the elements derived from Stage 2;
each repeated three times. Overlapping is al-
lowed; materials are black and grey on white
paper (35x50 cm). Students are introduced
to visual rules while collective assessment, by
identifying possible rules within existing com-
positions.
4. Making a two-dimensional composition with
three of the elements used in Stage 3; each re-
peated seven times. Overlapping is allowed,
materials are black and grey on white paper
(35x50 cm). Then, exchanging the design
work with the fellow student. Identifying with
visual rules, possible repeated patterns and
relations present in the design organization.
(Student 1 on Student 2 and Student 2 on Stu-
dent 1)
5. Re-making a two-dimensional composition
with three elements used by the fellow stu-
dent, each repeated seven times. Students
are asked to follow and apply the identified
rules in the design of their peer. Scaling and
overlapping is allowed; materials are black
and grey on white paper (35x50 cm). Ex-
changing again the design work with the pre-
vious fellow student. Identifying with visual
rules, possible repeated patterns and rela-
tions present in the design organization: Stu-
dent 1 on (Student 2 on Student 1) and Stu-
dent 2 on (Student 1 on Student 2)
6. Making a two-dimensional composition with
the three elements used in Stage 4, by follow-
ing the rules identified in Stage 5. Apart from
scaling and overlapping, one of the elements
is assigned a red color, while the rest is black
and grey on white paper (35x50 cm).
 In the normal run of a foundational design course, as-
signments are of short duration and proceed in a fast
pace by adding a variable each time. In this proposal,
we followed a slower process that also moved back
and forth. Students were asked to interpret shape re-
lations with visual rules, and to re-make the assign-
ments by reflecting on rules. The aim of interpret-
ing the design works with rules is to show students
that rules are good tools to formalize their design
thinking process and to freeze in time the possible
decisions taken. Such an interpretation helps stu-
dents exchange their ideas and learn from one an-
other, even without the presence of an authoritative
figure, such as an instructor. In the long run, this may
support students to become self-critical. The prob-
lem with rules stands in their abundance. Students
had difficulties in deciding on which rules to identify
and apply. Generally students were encouraged to
identify rules standing for the general layout orga-
nization of the canvas (35x50 cm), part-to-part and
part-to-whole relationships.
The Process: Reflection-in-Action and Re-
flection on Reflection-in-Action
The series of the design assignments started with a
paper folding exercise (Figure 1). Each student was
given a blank sheet of paper in A4 format. Without
using any drawing or measurement equipment, stu-
dents were asked to fold the paper in five consecu-
tive steps. The haptic feedback is not taken into ac-
count. Paper folding served as a starting point to in-
troduce students to the notions of shape embedding
as they start with a whole in their hands. Students
proceeded by folding what emerged from the pre-
vious step in a repetitive fashion. While the guiding
principle of "the whole gets divided into its parts" was
the same for all of the students, the outcomes were
varying.
Students were asked to make a unified whole
with seven shapes extracted from the folded paper
pattern and to repeat each shape three times. The
sub-shapes vary for each student. The key is in the
making use of the relational system present in each
360 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1
folding pattern. Below are illustrations for some of
the students' works corresponding to this step. Stu-
dents were not yet introduced to how visual rules
work within a design organisation. Although there
were some attempts to consider the background and
the overlapping as design input by Student S1 and
Student S3, as illustrated in Figure 2., the organisa-
tions generally lacked order (Figure 2, Student S4)
and non-repetitive shape-relations were prevailing
(Student S2).
Figure 1
Different folding
patterns produced
by students during
the study. Their first
move was the same:
the shortest side
was folded onto the
longest side.
At the end of Stage 3, students were introduced to
the notion of visual rules in support of the panel dis-
cussions that usually take place for assessment. They
were encouraged to view and represent their own
process through formal devices such as rules. View-
ing the whole process as computable, makes the stu-
dents be in control of their design decisions. This is
also possible due to the nature of two-dimensional
design works taking place in foundation design stu-
dios, where compositions are achieved through ge-
ometric transformations of primitive shapes and set-
tling relations between the different transformations.
Keeping in mind the potentials of visual rules, stu-
dents were asked to re-make the assignment of Stage
Figure 2
Student works of
Stage 3, before
being exposed to
visual rules. (left to
right: Student S1,
Student S2, Student
S3, Student S4).
Figure 3
Design works of the
same students,
done in Stage 4,
after being exposed
to visual rules.

Figure 4
The interpretation
of the Student S3
work done in Stage
4, with a small
change of the
design as it could
have ended,
referring to the
followed rules. A
shape rule relating
the extracted
sub-shapes of Stage
2.

3, as prescribed in Stage 4. The works of the same pre-
vious students are illustrated in Figure 3, after being
introduced to visual rules. There is a clear improve-
ment from Stage 3 to Stage 4, in terms of the spatial
relations defined. This view is relevant for more than
half of the group participating in the workshop.
The comparison between the two groups of illus-
trations points towards more responsible acts taken
by the students from Stage 3 to Stage 4, as a result
of making use of visual rules in their personal de-
sign processes. Below follows an interpretation with
rules of the design process of Student S3 in Figure 3,
done retrospectively. Ignoring the different weights
assigned to the shapes in composition, the student
work is redrawn as shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5.
The following stages of the study were set in sup-
port of the argument that rules help the external-
isation of the design thinking process, hence shar-
ing and accountability. The development of such
attitudes necessitates the inclusion of collaborative
learning similar to role playing. The design process
was reversed at this point. Students were first asked

CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 361

 Figure 5
The possible visual
process to obtain
Student S3 work:
(left to right, top
row) A shape rule
showing the
repetition of the
unit; the same rule
applied recursively;
(left to right,
bottom row) New
shapes are
perceived at
another level, as a
result of the
alignment of the
shape boundaries.
The new element
translates on the
horizontal axis and
reflects according
to the hypotenuse;
to identify some rules standing for the visually re- tion of the layout, parts are arranged in alignment Shape rule where
peating patterns and relations, within the composi- with each-other as shown in Figure 7. Student S6 the canvas height
tions done in Stage 4 by their fellow student. While acknowledges this spatial relation in her Rule 2 and becomes a
this reflection stage helps in learning the know-how reapplies it in her work by fitting the overall design determinant; a
of design, namely reflection in action, a second re- within the boundaries. As a result, in the second in- shape rule for
flection stage we think is necessary to deepen under- terpretation, the student handles the figure-ground assigning different
standing and developing habits of knowing how to relationship along the boundary better compared to tones to the parts,
think and act: reflection on reflection in action. After the first. by relating
identifying the visual rules, students, by working in Furthermore, Rule 3 and Rule 4 point to shape contrastively the
pairs, were asked to follow and apply the rules again relations standing for the overlapping between two figure and the
in a new organisation. This process was repeated shapes and the emergence of the background as an- ground.
twice. other shape. Student S6 wrote: "Something very pos-
Making students see their design works as visual itive in Student S5 work is that the overlapping part is
computations helps them not only observe and in- one of the main shapes itself. But the problem is that
terpret but also share their design decisions. In turn, she is not consistent in the repetition of Rule 3." Stu-
students become competent in critically judging dif- dent S6 commented on another rule as well: "I have
ferent design decisions rather than following them noticed that there is an approach where the back-
blindly. In Figure 6, additional to interpreting the ground participates itself to form shapes that already
composition with rules, Student S6 does not hesitate exist. But this approach was lost in many other cases.
to comment on possible "deficiencies" in the design Sometimes some strip lines are formed and the eyes
of her fellow Student S5. Starting with the organisa- get lost and confused while reading the shapes."

362 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1

Figure 6
Interpretation of
Student S5 design
by her fellow
Student S6, through
visual rules.
Student S6 rules
point to shape
transformation
(Rule 1), general
layout (Rule 2),
shape relations and
emergence of new
shapes from the
overlapping and
the background
(Rule 3 and Rule 4).

CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 363

 Figure 7
(from left to right)
The design work of
Student S5, as done
in Stage 4; the
interpretation of
Student S6 on
Student S5 work;
the same work as in
the middle, but
different tones are
assigned.

These statements show once more the potentials of
including visual rules in the studio discussions. Stu-
dent S6 not only interpreted design actions with ref-
erences to visual rules, but was also able to pro-
duce arguments for why some relations were good
and why some were not. Although there is room
for improvement, there is a clear evidence that the
interpretation of the second student on the first is
more consistent with the original intentions. We re-
port that ten out of fifteen students developed more
aware and consistent interpretations for the work of
their fellow students. The students not only inter-
preted what they saw, but also reflected on the other
students' reflections while both extracting rules and
reapplying them.
Figure 8
(from left to right)
Design work done
in Stage 4 by
Student S1; its
re-interpretation
done by her fellow
Student S2 in Stage
5; design work
done by Student S1
in Stage 6.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
This study turns a spotlight on attitudes that ideally
complement the acquired knowledge and skills, but
are often left tacit. Contrary to the general view of
seeing attitude formation as a relevant competence
for master graduates, the aim here is to make atti-
tudes part of the learning process at the very begin-
ning, along with the gaining of basic knowledge and
skills. Our focus is on the formation of attitudes that
directly relate to the sharing of knowledge and the
accountability of the design decisions.
Accountability is defined as the responsibility for per-
formance, or the obligation to report to others, to
explain, to justify the taken actions (Huisman and
Currie 2004). Our basic premise is that making stu-
dents see their designs as visual-spatial computa-
tions helps the students observe what they are doing,
how they are doing and more importantly, that they
reach an understanding of why they are doing things

364 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1

the way they do. Moreover, rules that capture the
visual stages of a transformation externalise knowl-
edge to be shared and to be questioned at various
instances of design and production. Previous studies
have acknowledged the role of formal tools like visual
rules in externalising the design thinking process in
support of the "reflective practice".
Our study included observing fifteen first year
architecture students with the aim of assessing atti-
tudes. The students used visual rules as a tool to re-
flect upon their personal and their fellow students'
design processes while defining or identifying differ-
ent shape relations. We acknowledge that their pro-
cesses would have been better studied over a longer
period of time and in future studies, more system-
atic methods should be tried for assessing attitudes.
All of the students were able to define rules and re-
late parts at one level though some of them did not
succeed to form unified wholes as shown in Figure
8, regarding the work of Student S2 on Student S1.
The Student S2 himself is reported saying that he felt
trapped while reapplying the rules as if he was doing
the same composition again. This might be related
with the abundance of rules identified in a composi-
tion and their specifications.
Nevertheless, by working in pairs, students tried
to be accountable to one another. For instance, one
of the students claimed in the post-experiment dis-
cussion that "although we were working on each
other's design works, I felt the whole process very
personalised. Now I may easily recognise my fellow
student's work amid many others." This means that in
interaction with each other, students start to under-
stand their personal differences as well as others' de-
sign reasoning process. By visualising their steps as
an articulation of reflection, students learn to share
their learning with others and understand whether
they are doing things differently or similarly. This
may be developed further towards the role of rules
in developing personal styles and multiplicity in de-
sign as shown briefly in the paper folding exercise in
Figure 1.
This research is part of an ongoing study on the
CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 365
role of attitudes in student learning in higher educa-
tion. In this study we showed how students might
learn to be accountable to others by way of a com-
putational approach to the foundation design studio
course. The general objective is to make students
learn to practice attitudes in other settings as well.
Previous studies have acknowledged the difficulty
of assessing attitudes as they are a time-dependent
competency. A further development of this study
might be an integration of visual rules as part of a stu-
dio pedagogy for the whole academic year and to ob-
serve the habits of thinking and acting that students
may develop over longer periods of their education.
Acknowledgements
We sincerely thank the volunteering participants
who are students at the Department of Architecture,
Epoka University: Ana Zhibaj, Arjola Pilua, Brisilda
Cani, Dorel Habili, Ilda Sadrija, Ira Balukja, Jon Bruci,
Kejsi Sula, Lediana Sula, Manjola Logli, Polikseni
Bano, Redjan Hysa, Valeria Nikolli, Xhenisa Dushaj,
Xhulia Xhakanaj.
REFERENCES
Adams, S. 2004, 'Using Learning Outcomes: A consider-
ation of the Nature, Role, Application and Implica-
tions for European Education of Employing Learning
Outcomes at the Local, National and International
Levels', United Kingdom Bologna Seminar, Edinburgh
Adams, S. 2006, 'An Introduction to Learning Outcomes',
in Froment, E., Kohler, J., Purser, L. and Wilson, L.
(eds) 2006, EUA Bologna Handbook: Making Bologna
Work, Raabe Verlags, Berlin
Buchanan, R. 2008, 'Introduction: Design and Organiza-
tional Change', Design Issues, Vol. 24, No.1, pp. 2-9
Dutton, T.A. 1987, 'Design Studio Pedagogy', Journal of
Architectural Education, 41(1), pp. 16-25
Ewell, P. 2001, 'Accreditation and Student Learning Out-
comes: A Proposed Point of Departure', CHEA Occa-
sional Paper
Huisman, J. and Currie, J. 2004, 'Accountability in Higher
Education: Bridge over Troubled Water?', Higher Ed-
ucation, 48, pp. 529-551
Knight, T. 1999, 'Shape Grammars in Education and Prac-
tice: History and Prospects', International Journal of
Design Computing, 2, pp. 2-13
 Meijers, A., van Overveld, C. and Perrenet, J. 2005, Criteria
for Academic Bachelor's and Master's Curricula, TU/e,
Eindhoven
Resnick, L 1999, 'Making America Smarter', Education
Week Century Series, 18(40), pp. 38-40
Schön, D. 1984, The Reflective Practitioner: How Profes-
sionals think in Action, Basic Books
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Froebel’s Building Gifts', Environment and Planning B,
7, pp. 409-462

366 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1

Objects-to-sense-with
Computational Tools for Embodied Spatial Learning

Athina Papadopoulou1
1
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
1
athpap@mit.edu

This paper proposes objects-to-sense-with as tools that provide sensory-based

learning of space and expand spatial knowledge beyond merely the formal and
visual aspects currently dominant in design discourse. To reintroduce
sensory-based learning methods in architecture education, this paper first revisits
the sensory pedagogies formulated in the early 20th century, reviews precedents
in the arts that utilize body-centered sensing technologies, and reframes previous
discussions on the pedagogical role of technologies as tools for thinking. Finally,
this paper describes the development of a wearable tool with embedded sensors
created by the author and describes how the results are visualized. The developed
tool, which is used to record sensory data in-situ by the user and allows for a
body-centered representation of space, serves as an example of an
object-to-sense-with that can be used to achieve a sensory-based and
body-centered understanding of architecture.

Keywords: architecture education, design tools, sensor technologies, embodied

perception

INTRODUCTION sign pedagogies into an active, situated exploration

Although physical spaces are being perceived and
experienced through all the senses (Millar 2008), the
design of spaces has been traditionally taught in ar-
chitectural studios, usually focusing on formal visual
qualities at the expense of the other senses, and sep-
arating spatial learning from the actual physical envi-
ronment. A great number of studies in the field of en-
vironmental psychology have demonstrated the di-
rect psychological response of the sensory aspects of
space to those who occupy it (Gifford 2001). These
studies however have only had a limited influence in
the formal education of the architect. What learn-
ing tools and methods can we use today to turn de-
of physical spaces that incorporates all the senses?
This paper proposes the use of computation
tools as "objects-to-sense-with" in the built envi-
ronment which allow us to acquire embodied spa-
tial knowledge. These tools, which take advan-
tage of today's self-tracking and sensing technolo-
gies, suggest methods inspired by Montessori's and
Moholy-Nagy's sensory training exercises. Alluding
to Seymour Paper's "objects-to-think-with", objects-
to-sense-with suggest an embodied pedagogical de-
sign approach that regards computational tools not
as the educational end goal but as powerful tools for
learning.

CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 367

 Precedents in education, arts and technologies that
serve as a background for the proposed objects are
first reviewed, then a description of a wearable com-
putational tool developed by the author is provided
as an example of an object-to-sense-with, and finally,
possible scenarios of such tools in educational set-
tings are being discussed.
EDUCATION OF THE SENSES
The focus on sensory training used by physicians
such as Jean-Marc Gaspar Itard and Edouard Seguin
in special education in the middle of the 19th and
beginning of the 20th century, provided the back-
ground for Maria Montessori's radical sensory peda-
gogies (Winzer 1993; Montessori 1912). The aim of
the education of the senses as formulated by Montes-
sori in the Montessori Method was "the refinement
of the differential perception of stimuli by means
of repeated exercises" (Montessori 1912, 173). In
the Montessori Method, Maria Montessori describes
techniques for the training of each of the senses, each
of which involved a special set of didactic material,
from sets of wooden blocks with different textures for
training the sense of touch, to sets of bells for training
the sense of sound.
According to Montessori, the isolation of the
sense under study was an important parameter of
sensory education. To train the sense of touch, chil-
dren would be asked to discriminate between tex-
tures while blindfolded; to train the sense of sound,
children would be asked to discriminate between
sounds in the dark (Montessori 1912). In order to
engage the students in a creative participatory sen-
sory exploration of the environment, these sensory
exercises would usually take the form of games.
By extending children's perceptual understanding
through the sensory training exercises, Montessori
aimed at equipping her students with refined aes-
thetic judgment. Montessori's radical pedagogies
were structured around auto-education methods, fo-
cused on learning through self-discovery and self-
instruction. Her sensory training methods assume
an auto-didactic exploration of one's own physical
368 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1
surroundings through which an appreciation of the
sensory qualities of the material environment can be
achieved (Montessori 1912).
A few decades after the formulation of the edu-
cation of the senses by Montessori, László Moholy-
Nagy formulated sensory training methods for archi-
tects and designers while teaching in the Bauhaus
school. According to Moholy-Nagy, the first-year ed-
ucation at the Bauhaus school aimed at broadening
the sensory experiences of students and enriching
their emotional values. Moholy-Nagy's sensory train-
ing exercises, offering knowledge beyond textbooks
and descriptions, helped in providing an experien-
tial understanding of textures and tectonics (Moholy-
Nagy 2005).
Like Maria Montessori, László Moholy-Nagy was
concerned about providing the students with an un-
derstanding of the various different sensory qualities
of material objects. Through sensory training exer-
cises, students were able both to build a repertoire
of different sensations and identify the subtle dif-
ferences within the same sensation. The students'
projects varied from tactile tables to a "luna-park for
the fingers" to a "smell-o-meter." Such projects al-
lowed students to study the senses by making tools
to study and visualize them. Although the sensory
assignments allowed students to measure the dif-
ferent sensations, the goal was not a scientific mea-
surement and taxonomy of those but rather an ex-
periential learning though creative experimentation
(Moholy-Nagy 2005).
SELF-TRACKING FOR SELF-DIRECTED
LEARNING
Sensing technologies that keep track of data related
to their health, performance and mood allow peo-
ple to self-monitor their behavior and empower them
to take control over their actions through expanded
self-awareness. In the Quantified Self movement,
dedicated self-trackers collect, measure and analyze
data about their behavior through phone applica-
tions, self-made tools and other tracking devices
aimed at an empowered self. According to Gary
Woolf, co-founder of the Quantified Self movement,
tracking data about one's own body and behavior is a
way to take control of the data in a data-driven world
and turn digital technologies into self-evaluation and
self-discovery tools [2]. The automated digital track-
ing process allows for surprises in the learning pro-
cess as it expands self-awareness beyond physical
observation, revealing aspects about one's own self
that would otherwise be unnoticed [3].
In a similar manner that proponents of the Quan-
tified Self movement claim to gain a better aware-
ness of their own bodies and behaviors, we might
argue that tracking technologies could help us be-
come more aware of our sensory responses to the
built environment through the mapping of our sen-
sory actions in space. In fact, artists have already
taken advantage of such technologies to promote a
body-centered awareness of the built environment.
In his "Bio-Mapping" project, Christian Nold created
a body-centered cartography of the city by superim-
posing people's paths and emotions on city maps.
The bio-maps were made possible by asking partic-
ipants to walk in the city while using a simple self-
tracking device consisting of a biometric sensor and
a GPS (Nold 2009). Another body-centered spatial
project created through self-tracking was "Running
Stich," by Jen Southern and Jen Hamilton. Running
Stich was exhibited as a 5m x 5m projection of the
multiple urban trajectories traced by different partic-
ipants who used their GPS phone applications [1].
Such approaches point toward alternative ge-
ographies, mappings, and representation of the
physical environment based on the emotions and the
senses. If sensory education in the beginning of the
20th century was made possible by special sets of di-
dactic materials and experimental studio prototypes,
this paper suggests that by taking advantage of to-
day's technologies we can propose novel tools and
methods for the enrichment of the senses that not
only render students aware of the material qualities
of objects but also take the education of the senses
out of the classroom, allowing for direct, experiential
learning of the built environment in-situ.
CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 369
FROM OBJECTS-TO-THINK-WITH TO
OBJECTS-TO-SENSE-WITH
In his book Mindstorms, Seymour Papert (1993) used
the term objects-to-think-with to refer to objects
and technologies that act as tools for thinking, and
particularly to stress the importance that computers
can have in self-directed education. Papert broadly
defines "objects-to-think-with" as "objects in which
there is an intersection of cultural presence, embed-
ded knowledge, and the possibility for personal iden-
tification" (Papert 1993, 11). In Mindstorms, Papert
suggests that just as the gears he played with in
childhood became his personal model for mathe-
matics, computers could universally become objects-
to-think-with for children in learning new concepts.
Papert introduced the Turtle in the LOGO program-
ming language in order to make the learning process
in computers, as well as the learning process about
computers, more tangible and concrete.
The LOGO Turtle moves on the screen follow-
ing the user's typed instructions and gradually forms
geometrical shapes by creating a line along her
path. Children can identify with the Turtle, imagin-
ing themselves moving while she moves. As Papert
argues, "Drawing a circle in a turtle geometry is body
syntonic in that the circle is firmly related to children's
sense of and knowledge about their own bodies" (Pa-
pert 1993, 63). In this way knowledge becomes ac-
tive, situated, and self-directed. Children manage
to acquire knowledge in a concrete and personal-
ized manner, taking control of their learning. Papert
uses Piaget's distinction between concrete and for-
mal thinking, emphasizing the importance of con-
cretizing abstract concepts. Whereas concrete think-
ing is embodied and occurs in an early developmen-
tal stage, formal thinking is an abstract form of think-
ing and occurs later in the development of the child.
Although Papert mostly refers to children's learn-
ing methods, both children and adults can bene-
fit from body-centered, situated and active learning
strategies. A great amount of literature in embod-
ied cognition (Johnson 1990) and enactive cogni-
tion (Noe 2006) argues for body-centered knowledge
 Figure 1
Wearable tool with
embedded sensors
developed by the
author as an
example of an
Object-to-sense-
with.

and embodied perception. Moreover, research in the term suggests a pedagogical role for computa-
the cognition of space demonstrates that memory of tional tools in architecture and other the spatial dis-
spaces is mainly body-centric: people tend to recall ciplines focused on the senses and the physical ex-
spaces they have experienced relative to their bodily ploration of the built environment.
actions and movements (Papadopoulou 2015).
Alluding to Papert's objects-to-think-with, the THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN OBJECT-TO-
term objects-to-sense-with coined here refers to the
SENSE-WITH
use of objects that promote sensory-based learn-
When visiting architectural spaces of interest, archi-
ing by allowing knowledge to emerge through our
tects generally use photos, videos and quick hand
bodily actions in the physical environment in a self-
sketches to capture and document the form and ex-
directed manner. Tools for architectural represen-
perience of space. Even though perspective draw-
tation and documentation of space are traditionally
ings, images and videos express an experiential point
focused on the built environment and material ob-
of view of the building, they are usually based on
jects per se, excluding the body and the senses from
visual experience, having limited reference to ele-
the depiction of space. Using objects-to-sense-with
ments of the tactile, aural, olfactory and kinesthetic
to perceive and analyze space can lead to sensory-
experience of space. Thus, the motivation behind the
based architectural maps and drawings through the
object-to-sense-with developed by the author was
depiction of the interactions between the body, the
to suggest a tool that can offer multimodal body-
built environment and the objects within.
centric documentation of spatial experiences. This
As in the case of the LOGO Turtle, objects-to-
multimodal documentation of spatial experience can
sense-with can be body syntonic drawing tools that
allow architects and students to engage in a spatial
depict space based on one's own paths, trajectories
discourse beyond mere formal aspects. The depic-
and bodily actions. Objects-to-sense-with are not
tion and documentation of our bodily interactions
tied with specific technologies or aesthetics. Rather,
with space can allow a discussion on experiential out-

370 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1

 comes of specific architectural solutions and com- icant variance in the functions and indoor/outdoor
parisons between different architectural spaces on uses, the temperature values would remain more or
a sensory basis. Thus, built spaces could be ana- less the same. Thus, there would be no need for real-
lyzed based on possible trajectories of movement or time, continuous tracking of the temperature data as
on tactile or even olfactory responses. Although the there would be no significant variation in the values.
same objects-to-sense-with could be used in various
Figure 2 spaces by different people, each outcome would be
Example of unique since sensory-based documentation is always
body-centered temporal, ephemeral and personal. Therefore, using
visualization of objects-to-sense-with does not imply making objec-
spatial interactions tive measurements. Rather, it allows us to document
using the sensory experiential traces, suggesting new possibilities of in-
data recorded teractions and motivating learning through personal
through the Object- exploration and discovery. Through the mapping
to-sense-with of body-centric data, objects-to-sense-with can offer
demonstrating the ways to render visible and tangible the unseen qual-
rules used for the ities of space and thus bring into the studios and the
visualization. design discourse elements beyond the mere material
aspects of built space.
The prototype developed by the author (Figure
1, Figure 3) is only an example of a possible object-to-
sense-with. In an educational setting, students could
build their own objects-to-sense-with and adjust the
architecture of the tool to the sensory interactions
they would like to focus on. As was the case in the
sensory training methods used by Montessori and
Moholy-Nagy, different sets of didactic material and A simple two-dimensional sensory notation system
different sensory training and mapping tools could was developed that could also be drawn manually,
be used for each sense or senses under study. In or- allowing for comparisons between the automated,
der to provide evidence that such a tool can be de- software-generated sketch and the one drawn by the
veloped in an educational setting that does not re- user. The prototype, which was designed as a wear-
quire advanced hardware and software knowledge, able tool with embedded sensors, collects data re-
simplicity in the technical implementation was an im- garding the position x,y of the user in space, as well
portant parameter in the development of the tool. as the sound and the tactile interactions of the user
In order to record and represent the sensory data at each x,y position. Since the tool is continuously
in a simple manner, a set of sensors related to vi- recording the data, when the data are inserted into
sual, tactile, auditory, kinesthetic sensory interac- the visualization software, the movement path of the
tions were used and a simple set of rules to visualize person in space is gradually recreated as an animated
the data (Figure 2). Sensory information that required graphical representation, together with a representa-
complex implementation, such as information re- tion of the auditory and tactile interactions happen-
lated olfactory sense, was not addressed. Moreover, ing along the path.
environmental qualities such as temperature were By depicting each location of the person as a
not directly captured. Unless the space had a signif- point in space, the trajectory of the person in space
is finally visualized as a line. The time the person

CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 371

 spent at each x,y location is visualized by varying the
diameter of the points that compose the line of the
path. The tactile interactions are visualized as diago-
nal lines at each location, and the sound levels as cir-
cles with varying diameters, having as a center each
of the x, y locations that compose the final path (Fig-
ure 2, Figure 4, Figure 5). Two cameras, one added
to the wearable prototype, and one added as a head
equipment, complement the tracking setup to offer
additional information for processing regarding the
visual and tactile interactions.
Implementation
The prototype, which was 3d-printed in plastic, was
designed as a wearable tool that can be adjusted
to the user's wrist. The microcontroller (Arduino
Uno R3) as well as the sensors were part of the de-
sign of the tool and were embedded in the pro-
totype. The prototype also enclosed a camera to
record the materials the user interacted with through
touch. The following sensors were connected to
the microcontroller: An electret microphone, an in-
frared proximity sensor (VCNL4000), a triple axis mag-
netometer and accelerometer (LSM303DLMTR), and
a real-time clock. The microphone, proximity sen-
sor and clock were embedded in the wrist-wearable
tool, whereas the triple axis magnetometer and ac-
celerometer were attached to a chest-strap that the
users wear in addition to the wrist-wearable tool (Fig-
ure 3).
The electret microphone was used to collect
information regarding the auditory interactions by
measuring the sound levels at each of the user's lo-
cations throughout the user's path in space. The in-
frared proximity sensor was used to collect informa-
tion regarding the tactile interactions. The proxim-
ity sensor was attached to a ring on the user's finger
and was connected to the wrist-wearable tool. Since
the infrared proximity sensor provides information
regarding the distance of an object through the re-
flected infrared light, and the sensor is located at the
user's finger, we can conclude that a small distance
value signals a tactile interaction with an object.
372 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1
The values from the magnetometer and ac-
celerometer combined were used to calculate the
movement path of the user in space by providing in-
formation regarding the orientation of the user. The
magnetometer, which calculates the angle between
North and the device's y axis, was used to provide
measurements regarding the position of the user.
The accelerometer was used to distinguish between
pause and movement and to compensate for the
magnetometer's tilt. The real-time clock was used to
synchronize all different data when processing them.
All measurements were directly stored in an SD
card using a microcontroller SD card shield and were
imported afterwards as a text file into Processing soft-
ware. In the algorithm developed in Processing by
the author to visualize the user's path, a 2D unit
vector is being created whose location is continu-
ously being updated according to the stored mea-
surements of the magnetometer and accelerometer.
Keeping the traces of the past 2D unit vectors, and
adding the newly instantiated vectors that represent
the more recent locations in time, a line is gradually
being traced on the screen that represents the path
of movement of the user of the tool exploring the
space.
Using the acceleration values, a threshold is de-
fined to distinguish between movement and pause
in the user's path. When pause is detected, a circle
is drawn having as center the current location of the
unit vector, whose diameter varies according to the
duration of the pause. To visualize the auditory infor-
mation, for each new unit vector that is being instan-
tiated, signaling a new position of the user the space,
the sound level values captured at the given posi-
tion and time are mapped into the diameter of a cir-
cle having as center the location of the vector. Thus,
the larger the circles, the louder the sounds that were
captured at the specific location and time in space.
To visualize the tactile interaction in Processing,
a distance threshold is defined to determine whether
the touch condition is true or false depending on
the proximity of the objects detected through the IR
sensor. When a tactile interaction occurs, then a di-
 agonal line, whose length can be adjusted to corre-
spond to the proximity of the object, is drawn on the
screen starting from the location of the 2D unit vec-
tor. The orientation of the line represents the direc-
tion of the action of touch in space, as it corresponds
to the heading of the unit vector.
To filter information from the camera, a color
matching algorithm was developed, which, through
color recognition of the video frames, discerns the
objects that were part of the longest in time tactile
interactions with the user. The same color-matching
mechanism was applied to video recordings that
were captured by the camera close to the visual field
of the user to detect the objects that were stared at
the longest, and possibly most attracted the user's
Figure 3
The designed
prototype as an
Object-to-sense-
with and the
sensors used to
document sensory
interactions in
space.
CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 373
visual attention. In both cases, the program takes
a snapshot when the conditions that signify salient
features are met. All features can be combined in
a single interface embedding information regarding
movement, sound, touch and vision.
In future development, the algorithm can be im-
proved by taking into account the speed of move-
ment. In the current state of development, only
pause and movement are represented in the gen-
erated sketch, assuming that the person is moving
at constant speed. By using the acceleration values,
the speed of movement can be calculated as well,
rendering more accurate the mapping of the move-
ment path in space. Moreover, the use of a gyroscope
could help distinguish between changes in the user's

orientation due to rotations of the body in the same
location and changes of orientation due to walking
in space.
Scenarios of use
An important aspect in the education of the senses
as proposed by Montessori and Moholy-Nagy is the
ability to focus on one of the senses by filtering out
other sensory interactions. In the tactile and auditory
training exercises they propose, students are usually
blindfolded so that visual information does not inter-
fere with the training of the other senses. Although
being deprived of other senses so as to focus on a
specific sense might be an appropriate method for
small exercises in a studio setting, it would not be
374 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1
Figure 4
Example of
body-centered
visualization of
spatial interactions,
using the sensory
data recorded
through the Object-
to-sense-with,
demonstrating a
high level of tactile
interactions, and
pause in multiple
locations during
spatial exploration.
applicable in large setting or outdoor environments,
since students would need to freely navigate. There-
fore, it is suggested here that objects-to-sense-with
can offer an alternative to traditional sensory isola-
tion methods by allowing the users to filter their sen-
sory interactions in space through the tool.
One way to filter the sensory information is
to control how and which sensory data are being
recorded. For example, users could adjust the hard-
ware and software to output information regarding
only touch, sound or movement, combinations of
these, or all of these together. This flexibility would
allow architecture students to study a built space
through the lens of a specific sense. Moreover, in
the interface where the data are being visualized stu-
 dents can alternate between different channels of chitecture students to communicate ideas in the es-
sensory information in a similar manner that they can tablished media used so far in the studio and archi-
add and subtract material information in a design in- tecture practice which is drawings and sketches. If
terface by switching on and off layers of grouped ob- an educational setting allows for more experimen-
jects. Superimposing the multimodal body-centered tal approaches, then one could imagine multisensory
maps onto a building's plans could provide insights representations of space. For example, in the case of
on the experiential qualities of the space and body- the developed tool, apart from a visualization of the
centered ways to reflect on future designs. sound levels, the recordings of the actual sounds can
A wearable tool for documenting our sensory in- be embedded in the interface, allowing interactions
teractions with the material environment can be a in multiple modalities, and rendering more complete
powerful learning tool, as it can take design educa- and accessible the provided information.
tion out of the classroom for in-situ spatial explo-
Figure 5 rations. A common procedure in architecture stu-
Example of dios is to review and analyze precedents as well as
body-centered to visit and analyze the area of intervention. Instead
visualization of of merely reviewing textbooks and documenting
spatial interactions, the site using videos, pictures and sketches, which
using the sensory mainly rely on visual means, objects-to-sense-with
data recorded would allow instead a multi-sensory situated learn-
through the Object- ing method of studying both built spaces and their
to-sense-with, surrounded physical environment, offering a body-
demonstrating a centered understanding and evaluation of architec-
high level of sonic ture.
interactions. The object-to-sense-with tool allows users to fo-
cus their attention in specific modalities while explor-
ing space, and thus provides a direct way of filter-
ing sensory information. A physical exploration of
spaces, that can be part of studio-based or other type
CONTRIBUTIONS
of educational setting, can be focused on a specific
To provide a historical background for the develop-
sense in order to evaluate spatial qualities and expe-
ment of alternative teaching methods in architec-
riences related to that sense. For example, if focused
ture that go beyond the formal and visual aspects of
only on auditory qualities, the tool would motivate
space and embrace all the senses, this paper offered
students not only to listen carefully to the environ-
a brief review of the sensory pedagogies formulated
mental sounds but also to generate sounds in order
by Maria Montessori in the Montessori Method and
to test the acoustic qualities of both the geometry of
introduced into design education by László Moholy-
the space and the material used.
Nagy at the Bauhaus school. Reviewing the sen-
Visualizing the data collected from multiple sen-
sory pedagogies of the early 20th century allowed us
sory modalities allows body-centered drawings to be
to rethink the methods used in current educational
compared with conventional drawings of space as
models in the design studio and formulate methods
one can overlay or put side by side drawings of ma-
for a multisensory learning of space.
terial boundaries of spaces and drawings of traces
Dedicated self-trackers utilize tracking technolo-
of bodily experiences of the same spaces. In other
gies to gain a better awareness of their bodily needs
words, representing the data in a visual can allow ar-
and behaviors, and artists utilize GPS and other

CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 375

 tracking devices to map urban space from a body-
centered perspective. Briefly reviewing precedents
in the arts and the aims of current self-tracking ten-
dencies, the author proposed the incorporation of
such approaches in design education to suggest
tools for sensory pedagogies, reframing the peda-
gogical methods proposed in the early 20th century.
Seymour Papert used the term objects-to-think-
with to refer to technological tools that act as tools
for thinking, enabling students to acquire concrete
knowledge through a body syntonic, self-directed
learning. Building upon Papert's terminology, while
stressing the sensory aspect of embodied knowl-
edge and the use of sensing technologies, the author
coined the term objects-to-sense-with to propose a
pedagogical role for sensory-tracking tools and of-
fer a response to the need of sensory-based, body-
centered learning in the architecture.
The author developed a wearable tool as an ex-
ample of an object-to-sense-with, demonstrated the
results and discussed scenarios of use and possibil-
ities for further development. The tool functions
as a generator of simple body-centric diagrams of
space that can be used to compare and contrast dif-
ferent sensory interactions in the same space or the
sensory interactions of the same person in different
spaces. Through gathering real-time data regard-
ing the users' location in space, their tactile interac-
tions and the sound levels relative to their position in
space, and by visualizing the data in Processing, users
are able to document their real-time body-space in-
teractions in the physical spaces they explore.
Objects-to-sense-with can be used in architec-
ture to offer in-situ exploration of the built environ-
ment that focuses on the senses. Different possi-
bilities can be explored for representing space in
multisensory and multimodal means through the
recorded data, and different scenarios can be em-
ployed to engage students in sensory-based learning
of space by allowing them to make and use their own
objects-to-sense-with as tools for self-directed, body-
centered learning.
376 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank Professor Terry Knight,
Professor Takehiko Nagakura, and Professor Edith
Ackermann for the discussions and advice on this
work.
REFERENCES
Cohen, R 1985, The Development of Spatial Cognition,
Psychology Press.
Gifford, R 2001, Environmental psychology: principles and
practice, Optimal Books, Colville
Johnson, M 1990, The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis
of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason, University of
Chicago Press
Millar, S 2008, Space and sense, Psycology Press/Taylor &
Francis, New York
Moholy-Nagy, L 2005, The New Vision: Fundamentals
of Bauhaus Design, Painting, Sculpture, and Architec-
ture, Dover Publications, New York
Montessori, M 1919, The Montessori Method, Frederic A
Strokes Company
Noe, A 2006, Action in Perception, A Bradford Book, Cam-
bridge, Mass
Nold, C 2009, Emotional Cartography: Technologies of the
Self, http://emotionalcartography.net
Papadopoulou, A 2015, 'The Architect's Perspective on
the Tour and Map Perspective', Cognitive Processing,
16, pp. 331-336
Papert, S 1993, Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and
Powerful Ideas, Basic Books, New York
Winzer, M 1993, The History of Special Education: From
Isolation to Integration, Gallaudet University Press,
Washington, D.C
[1] http://journal.media-culture.org.au/index.php/m
cjournal/article/view/192
[2] http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/02/magazine/02se
lf-measurement-t.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0
[3] http://www.webcitation.org/66TEY49wv
'Starting with Nothing' and 'Ending up with Something'
Musical Improvisation and Parametric Spatial Design Improvisation

Jeremy Ham1 , Marc Aurel Schnabel2 , Lawrence Harvey3 ,

Daniel Prohasky4
1,3,4
RMIT University 2 Victoria University of Wellington
1
http://www.jjham.com 2 http://aurel.pro
3
http://www.sial.rmit.edu.au
1
jeremy@surfcoastarchitecture.com.au
2
marcaurel.schnabel@vuw.ac.nz
3,4
{ lawrence.harvey|daniel.prohasky}@rmit.edu.au

Musical improvisation is a complex field of the study of creativity wherein the

musician - according to jazz pianist Herbie Hancock - improvises by 'starting
with nothing' and 'ending up with something'. We explore a 'Musico-Spatial
Design' creative practice design research project that uses parametric spatial
design tools to research musical improvisation, then takes knowledge gained from
this process to illuminate aspects of improvisation within parametric spatial
design processes. Our investigation of musical and parametric spatial design
improvisation provides insights into how both novices and experts engage in
improvisation and how they don't really 'start with nothing' but bring into the
design conversation a varying range of referents to inform designerly intent.

Keywords: Parametric Spatial Design, Musical Improvisation, Scripting ,

Creative process

INTRODUCTION
At the opening concert for the 2015 Melbourne In-
ternational Jazz Festival, jazz pianist Herbie Hancock
introduced his improvised performance with Chick
Corea by telling the audience how they would 'start
with nothing and hopefully end up with something'.
Hancock and Corea are renowned improvisers with a
capacity to generate incredibly complex and beauti-
ful music in the moment, with years of performance
and practice informing their capacity to make design-
erly decisions on timing, timbre, attack and duration
with split second accuracy and without the need for
notation. As researchers operating at the intersection
of music and spatial design, this statement serves as
the starting point for a conversation on the practice
of improvisation within both domains.
In our research we examine a digital drumming
generative improvisation exercise and explore how
musicians bring into improvisations a complex reper-
toire of patterns and phrases that have been learnt,
copied and adapted over a period of playing expe-
rience. We expand the examination of musical im-

CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 377

 provisation to initiate a discussion on the concept computational approaches to facilitate the produc-
of parametric spatial improvisation. This 'Musico- tion of 'architecture' from music through Music In-
Spatial Design' positioning provides a lens through strument Digital Interface (MIDI). This includes the
which to enable further understandings of architec- work of Ferschin et al. (2001), Levy (2003), Fowler
tural and spatial creative design processes. The in- (2011), Krawczyk (2012) and Tomara et al. (2011).
tention of this paper is to generate a conversation on Extended innovative creative investigations by No-
how musicians and spatial designers create through vak (2007) explores the translation of 'frozen music
improvisation and to serve as the basis for further re- into liquid architecture', that emancipates architec-
search. We question whether musicians and spatial ture from matter and music from sound. The work
designers 'start with nothing' with the aim of 'ending of Swiss architect Jan Henrik Hansen (2015) furthers
up with something'. these explorations in a practice context across a wide
Parallels between music and architecture (we use range of 'musical sculptures' through to building fa-
the term spatial design to enable a wider discus- cades over a number of years, providing a compre-
sion) have been widely examined throughout his- hensive body of translations from one medium to the
tory, and can be conceptualised on three levels: other across scales and media.
through process- the means of inventing and real-
ising, product- the outcome of these processes and
Figure 1
experience- the human interaction with the out-
Bells Beach House
come. Goodman (1974) provides an account of the
by SurfCoast
comparisons between music composition and archi-
Architecture.
tecture as 'allographic arts' that require notation in
the form of plan or score in order to be realised. We
address this by examining improvisation without no-
tation (music) and improvisation through notation
(parametric design).
Elizabeth Martin (1994) in 'Architecture as a
Translation of Music' describes the 'y-condition' as
'the middle position of music and architecture when
translating one to another finding an organic union
between the two'. Musico-Spatial Design connec-
tions have manifested in many ways over the years:
most famously with the collaboration between Ian-
nis Xenakis, Le Corbusier and Edgar Varese for the
1958 Brussels World Fair. This built creative collabo-
ration integrated electroacoustic music and architec-
tural space in the form of a 'poeme electronique' (Xe-
nakis and Kanach 2008). Martin's 'y-condition is ex-
pressed by Steven Holl (1994) in the Stretto House- a
built interpretation of Bela Bartok's Music for Strings
Percussion and Celeste. These built works provide
two contrasting ways in which music and architec-
ture can be combined in built form.
The advent of design computing has enabled

378 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1

The authors' own investigations between the disci-
plines of music and architecture include the devel-
opment of a model of virtual architecture generated
from the music of J. S. Bach (Christensen and Schn-
abel 2008) and the development of an integrated
design-build design studio over several years involv-
ing design students composing music, designing a
'Music Room', building these at real scale and retain-
ing work on an on-line Virtual Gallery (Ham 2003,
2005).
The first authors' own house is an outcome of
a design process that references musical elements
such as polyrhythmic material pattern overlays and
metaphorical expressions of instrumentation and
golden section geometries whilst operating within
the pragmatic constraints of planning and building
regulations (Figure 1). Given the significant work un-
dertaken in architectural and spatial manifestations
of music, there exists a gap in knowledge in the area
of developing understandings of similarities in the
creative processes of both domains. This area of 'pro-
cess' forms the basis of this paper.
MUSICAL IMPROVISATION AND DESIGN
PROCESS
Our Musico-Spatial Design theoretical positioning
uses parametric spatial design tools to examine musi-
cal improvisation and then takes knowledge gained
from this process to illuminate aspects of paramet-
ric spatial design processes. Focussing on the initial
stages of creativity we are interested in how both mu-
sicians and spatial designers 'start with nothing' and
'end up with something'. The 'nothing' is the drum-
mer sitting on the drum stool, sticks in hand: the
parametric designer on computer with empty screen
(perhaps with pencil in hand). The 'something' is an
improvised drum solo, or the first iteration and out-
come of a parametric script respectively.
Both musicians and spatial designers improvise
as part of their creative practice. Improvisation is
generally regarded as a process of 'in the moment' ex-
temporisation of musical creativity which is evident
in a range of cultures and musical styles including
CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 379
Jazz, Flamenco, Indian Tabla music, Hip Hop, Rock
and Blues (Bailey 1993). Composition differs from
improvisation in that the outcome is pre-conceived
(usually through the language of notation) prior to
the performance; however given the many modali-
ties of musical performance (including digital modal-
ities including live coding), the lines between com-
position and improvisation are often blurred.
Composition and improvisation form a living sys-
tem whereby chaos and order coexist, with chaos
evolving from order through disruptive improvisa-
tions, resulting in a reordering of the complex sys-
tem of musical dialogue. This does not neatly fit into
the 'levels of improvisation' as proposed by Benson
(2003) but operates within the complex system of
Cobussen's Field of Musical Improvisation (Cobussen
2010) founded indeterminism, imperfection and un-
predictability Kleidonas (2012).
Brown (2006) connects music and architecture
through the study of jazz and improvised music to
contribute 'insight regarding the human creative po-
tential that can be enabled in the interplay of dy-
namic systems: filled with risk, diverse durations,
fleeting boundaries and varying qualities of media'.
He describes improvisation as, 'borrowing from the
language of the biological and the computational,
best understood as an emergence- one of human
thought and action: that is facilitated by a range of
variables, properties and structures'. The degree, and
success of compositional and improvisational output
is a function of the ability of the creative practitioner
to engage in the creative parameters within which
they work as defined by the opportunities and con-
straints of the interface between idea and artefact.
Improvisation requires the instantaneous musical re-
sponse to an internal or external stimulus within the
range of musical choices of frequency, time and dy-
namics Malinowski (2011) as determined by the in-
strument.
 GENERATING COMPLEXITY THROUGH
SOLO DRUMMING IMPROVISATION
We base this research on the creative practice of dig-
ital drumming within a merged Musico-Spatial De-
sign creative practice PhD by project work at the
Spatial Information Architecture Laboratory (SIAL) at
RMIT University. Project work involved the perfor-
mance by the first author (an experienced musician
and architect) of a series of 80 drum solos on a Roland
TD20 digital drum kit templated to 100 beats per
minute for 100 beats (Figure 2). Other improvisa-
tions were performed across the contexts of Beat and
Fill (playing drum beats) and playing improvisations
over a set guitar track. This generative exercise was
designed to test the scope, structure, shape, form
and details of improvisational capacity, using MIDI
format to enable computational analysis. Drumming
is perhaps an under-recognised creative art form that
is gaining traction in research through, for example,
renowned King Crimson and Yes drummer Bill Bru-
ford's PhD on the creative aspects of the western
drum kit player (Bruford 2015). Drummers, like archi-
tects and spatial designers, each evolve unique ap-
proaches to design solutions. The creative approach
of drummers like Buddy Rich, Jo Jones, Bill Bruford,
Shiela Escovedo, Terry Bozzio and Thomas Prigden to
380 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1
improvisation over a set template will be significantly
different. The creative approach of architects such as
Mies van der Rohe, Frank Gehry and Zaha Hadid to a
set task will also be markedly different. These differ-
ences are founded on philosophical and stylistic dif-
ferences evolved through creative practice over time.
Drum improvisation in a very physical practice
that requires percussive striking with hands (sticks)
and feet on the interface of the drum kit. The foun-
dation of drumming is the physical production of of-
ten complex overlays of polyrhythms over a temporal
structure. Using hands and feet, the drummer phys-
ically percusses on a resonant surface to produce
a sound. Virtuoso drummers such as Terry Bozzio
have an advanced capacity to produce 4-way com-
plex polyrhythmic overlays from all limbs- essentially
playing four things at once. Although this may op-
erate well as a mathematical exercise, the key to the
master drummer is building skill levels to serve a mu-
sical intention or purpose. Referring to the opening
statement, the expert drummer, in performing im-
provised drum solos does not really 'start with noth-
ing' but brings into each improvisation a combina-
tion of referent patterns and phrases (The 'go-to' riffs
invented, learnt, borrowed and adapted that consti-
tute style) which are informed by a range of factors,
Figure 2
Model of Drum solo
in Plan, Elevation
and Isometric.
 environmental conditions, thoughts, feelings and in- analysis that includes the integration of many forms
tentions that tacitly inform the drummer's response of spatialized representations with tagged descrip-
Improvisation is thus founded on Schön (1983) con- tors, culminating in the use of 3D printed represen-
cept of 'tacit knowing in action' through the recall tations of referent patterns and phrases (Figures 4
and implementation 'in the moment' of a repertoire and 5). This drummer's own representation of im-
of 'referent' (Pressing 1987) patterns and phrases that provised drumming allows for the analysis of micro-
have evolved through played experience. timing, playing behind and ahead of the beat and
In an effort to define this repertoire of 'referent' the variations in velocity that defines individual style.
drum patterns and phrases, the collection of drum The wider research project involves using this para-
solo outputs were curated, with a representative set metric framework to analyse how different drummer
of 100 context-specific referent patterns and phrases improvise over a set musical piece. Drummers thus
extracted in MIDI, then analysed in relation to length, have their own signature elements of style that, when
style, beat type, quality of play, complexity and a brought into the spatial domain, can be compared.
'referent rating'. Using Rhinoceros3D Version 5 with
Figure 3 Grasshopper (GH) the 'ImprovScope' script was built
Roland TD20 Digital that enables spatialization of referent drum patterns
Drum kit as and phrases in plan, section, elevation and 3D (Figure
Instrument and 3). MIDI data was translated into .csv format, record-
Interface. ing tempo, 'drum note', 'velocity', 'note on' and 'note
off' over time to 1/1000ths of a beat accuracy. These
data were read into GH, separated and sorted using
standard GH components to result in the generation
of a series of points in space for each drum note with
velocity and note length data attached.
The principal of this translation is the use of spa-
tial design software to unlock the complexities of the
process drum based improvisation and not to repro-
Figure 4 duce concepts of 'frozen music'. We propose that by
GH Spatialization & translating these improvisations into the spatial do-
Tagging of Drum main, a theoretical 'musico-perspectival hinge' is un-
Pattern based on locked (referring to Pelletier and Pérez-Gómez (1997)
Symbolic perspectival hinge) thus enabling spatially-dominant
Representation of people (e.g. architects) insights into understanding
Drum Kit. the 'infinite art of improvisation' (Berliner 2009). The
GH script overcomes problems inherent in traditional
Figure 5 notation and founds representations on a spiral sym-
Lofted bolic representation of the drum kit as viewed from a
Representation of players perspective. The Snare dum forms the centre,
Improvised Drum with bass drum to the bottom, with arrays of Hi-Hats,
Events in Time. and Cymbals on the outer spiral and Tom Toms radi-
ating around the inner spiral. Velocity of hits are rep-
resented, in this spatialization, by the radius of mesh
spheres. The GH script allows multiple modes of

CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 381

 The eighty drum solo improvisations form a gener-
ative basis for the creation of a complex data set of
multi-layered polyrhythms through the interface of
the digital drum kit. When overlaid onto eachother
in MIDI, patterns emerge regarding clustering of
drum notes, combinations of drum patterns includ-
ing flams, closed and open rolls, combinations and
the other elements that constitute drumming style
(Figure 6). Each of these improvisations 'started with
nothing' and 'ended up with something' in a musi-
cal sense, however each solo was in some way pre-
conceived through muscle memory and complex
cognitive processes and neural transmission where
'auditory stimulus activity reaches the cerebral cor-
tex 8-9 millisecond after stimulation' (Pressing 1987).
The musical intention may well 'start with (close to)
nothing' however evolves as a necessity during live
play. This is because the urgency of live play re-
quires immediate action and reaction with little or no
time for reflection-on-action to inform reflection-in-
action. We acknowledge the limitations of this re-
search, however see significant potential in adding to
the present framework to include body mapping and
the analysis of brain activity in improvisational activ-
ity using Emotiv EEG Brainware-apparatus in future
project work.
PARAMETRIC SPATIAL DESIGN IMPROVI-
SATION
We preface this conversation by stating some of the
key differences between musical improvisation and
spatial design improvisation. Fundamentally, impro-
vised music is performed (played) in the moment
meaning the time for critical-path decision making
is many times quicker than spatial design. From the
outset, free improvisation in spatial design appears
to be more difficult than music. This domain is cen-
tred around the resolution of a design brief founded
on an often-complex array of spatial, financial, struc-
tural, servicing, temporal and resourcing constraints.
Real risks for spatial designers are posed where the
outcome of spatial design decisions may cause loss-
of time, money or even life. This has resulted in
382 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1
many conservative design practices recycling a well-
established set of design solutions from project to
project that are known to work.
The core intention of many parametric design
processes is to push boundaries - as one can see
easily from the CumInCAD Index, which is full of
complex, innovative and difficult projects brought
into fruition through parametric design processes.
For example the Sagrada Familia project is one that
has driven innovation through parametric design
by the need to solve complex geometric problems
spatially and materially across a geographically dis-
persed team (Burry 1996). In this paper, we focus
on the initial starting point of design, as this starting
point is where comparisons with improvisation can
be the closest.
Parametric spatial improvisation, unlike musical
improvisation, is facilitated through notation in the
form of scripting. The research described above out-
lines an alternative method of notating improvisa-
tions so that the notation follows the improvisation.
'Script' is derived from the term for written dialogue
in the performing arts, where actors are given direc-
tions to speak, perform or interpret. Subsequently,
'scripting' is a creative process that describes the
artistic intent of the designer. Scripts can define a
set of rules that perform a set of defined operations
on a set of parameters. Software applications can be
programmed and adjusted by scripts allowing for ex-
ample repetitive tasks to be automated or to gener-
ate solutions that fit to a range of parameters (Bilo-
ria 2005). Thus, the lines between composition and
improvisation, notation and 'live play' are blurred in
parametric design.
Thus notation forms the foundation of paramet-
ric design, just as it forms the foundation of musical
composition. A descriptor of geometry or a virtual
geometric elements - each of these have mathemati-
cal relations with a global coordinate system and/or a
mathematic function which describes the geometry -
just as a note is located within a stave (global coordi-
nate system). The rules between geometric elements
that define new elements of relational geometry mir-
 ror the relation between one note/drum beat with re-
spect to the next - and so on. These 'rules' or musical
relations that link notes/elements of geometry is the
'medium' or 'skeleton' for musico-spatial parametric
design - hence - parametric design starts with some-
thing - that something is notation.
Instead of using only compositional methods for
designing, designers utilise scripts to form their own
generative properties and base for their design im-
provisation. Developing and amending scripts - de-
signers can quickly improvise and control their ideas
by amending the parameters or rules to fit their de-
sign intent (Celani 2008). Thus, there exists a role
reversal between music and parametric spatial de-
sign improvisation. The improvising drummer can
improvise freely to produce the initial musical output
quickly and efficiently, only later to be slowed down
in mixing, sampling and processing of sound through
the Digital Audio Workstation (DAW) (Figure 6).
The parametric designer however must work
through the constraints of analysing parameters and
Figure 6
Processing
Interface: Reaper
DAW with 80 Drum
Solo's Overlaid in
MIDI Piano Roll
Format.
CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 383
setting up scripts to allow the freedom of improvisa-
tion in the production of multiple design outcomes
with a minimum of effort. One moves from simplicity
of operation to complexity in processing, the other
from complexity of parameterisation to simplicity of
generation of multiple spatial alternatives. Although
parametric improvisation in architecture does not
lead directly to a resolved design, yet the interdisci-
plinary methodology can be accepted as a valuable
approach for infusing innovative ideas into overall
design process. The computational processes offer
the ability to empower designers to delve into other
fields. Allowing for a unique interpretation, represen-
tation through the improvisation process that gener-
ates the resulting artifices (Figure 7) (van Velthooven
and Schnabel 2016).
Thus, significant 'embodied effort' (Ham 2004) is
required to deliver initial representations and to re-
solve the complex, wicked and ill-defined problems
(Rittel and Webber 1973) inherent in spatial design.
This has parallels with the research on representa-

tional media by Bermudez and King (2000) wherein
they found that 'analogue representations are far
more fluid and appropriate than digital media for ini-
tial and fast development of ideas, the stimulation
of the imagination, free inquiry, the intentional and
random cross-reference of diverse sources', whereas
'digital media are stronger for design development as
they demand higher levels of geometrical definition
and abstraction'. For digital natives and expert users,
mediating digital and physical media is natural, how-
ever the issue arises as to how novice users can best
engage in improvisation. For them, the pencil and
sketch pad may be the ideal spatial design improvi-
sation tools- not the computer. Maybe, for novice
spatial design improvisers, Tom Kvan was right: the
computer is the problem (Kvan 2004) as novice users
384 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1
Figure 7
Improvisations
using a variety of
scripts to generate
hyperlocalized
architectural forms
(van Velthooven
and Schnabel 2016).
may well 'start with nothing' but a blank screen and
an empty pallet of referents.
The development of a repository of parametric
referents acts to enable efficiencies in parametric de-
sign processes. These referents, in the form of el-
ements of scripts, patches and code can be saved
and recalled digitally, then shared online thus cre-
ating hybridized multi-user referents (much in the
same way as a band has its trademark 'licks'). Expert
scripters, like expert drummers, can recall, cut, copy
these with speed, accuracy and precision. The key is,
to refer again to Bermudez and King (2000), to de-
velop a hybrid media process wherein each medium
facilitates the free flow of design. In both music and
spatial design, expert users find this natural and easy
to the point of their skill and knowledge limitations,
whereas novices struggle.
A fundamental element of improvisation is the
ability to 'play'. The problem is, 'as parametric models
exceed levels of complexity that go from toy systems
to the real world practice problems, they become
increasingly inflexible' Pena de Leon (2014). When
'starting with nothing', this inflexibility (due to com-
plexity) provides barriers for non-expert users to en-
gage in the potentials of parametric design tools and
represents a hurdle even for expert designers. Play-
ing with toys is thus different to playing with complex
systems and play by novices is different to play by ex-
perts. Parametric improvisation subsequently does
not solve all issues connected with the process of ar-
chitectural design and may even cause other issues.
It allows however, an alignment of cause and effect
and a reflection of the design intent, its processes and
to some extent - its outcome (Schnabel 2012).
CONCLUSIONS
The research we have presented explores the idea
of improvisation within a Musico-Spatial Design per-
spective wherein one domain forms a lens through
which to examine the other. Founding this paper
on a statement by a virtuoso jazz improviser (Herbie
Hancock), we find that both drummers and spatial
designers do not really 'start with nothing' when they
improvise, but bring into the process a repertoire of
patterns and phrases that have been learnt, copied
and adapted over the period of creative practice. The
founding quote by Herbie Hancock was followed by
a two-hour concert whereby he and Chick Corea im-
provised freely and fluently over rehearsed and un-
rehearsed material in a highly complex dynamic in-
terplay using a wide range of trademark 'referent' pi-
ano riffs as the foundation. This is the domain of the
expert, the virtuoso, the 'practiced digital hand' (Mc-
Cullough 1998) that most creatives aspire to. Reach-
ing the stage of musical and spatial design virtuos-
ity takes years of practice, repetition, learning, copy-
ing and adapting and evolving an individual sense of
style.
A creative practice project is described that uses
CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 385
the digital drum kit as a means of generating impro-
visational output that is curated and translated into
spatial form using parametric design processes. In-
sights into the 'infinite art of improvisation' brings
forward the issue of how parametric design tools
such as GH enhance or obstruct the ability of spatial
designers to improvise. The exploration of the gestalt
within both environments can enhance the under-
standing of issues relevant to the field and lead to
meaningful and new results (Schnabel 2005).
We find that expert musicians and spatial design-
ers don't 'start with nothing', however they start with
something in order to create something else. Expert
musicians like Herbie Hancock and Chick Corea, and
also expert parametric designers start their impro-
visation drawing on a rich vein of knowledge cen-
tred on their domain that has been learnt, copied and
adapted over their creative practice. The key to para-
metric design, perhaps, is to borrow from musical im-
provisation and find ways to best enable the free flow
of ideas through play.
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Understanding the Verbal Concepts Appropriated by the
Students in the Architectural Design Studio
Burak Pak1 , Zeynep Aydemir2
1
KU Leuven Faculty of Architecture 2 ITU Faculty of Architecture
1
burak.pak@kuleuven.be 2 aydemira@itu.edu.tr

The main aim of this study is to gain a better understanding of the role of verbal
concepts in the architectural design processes of the students in a studio context.
To serve this purpose, we carried out a 15-week studio in an urban architectural
masters design studio at KU Leuven Faculty of Architecture. We observed the use
of verbal concepts in time during this studio and analyzed the design processes of
the students based on their self-report logs on the studio web platform. Based on
these, we conducted a statistic analysis and a network mapping study. We found
that early concepts provide a starting point for developing fully-fledged
specialized design ideas. Furthermore, a higher number of links between
concepts indicated their importance during the process. In addition, the data
collection and research methods proved to be reliable for mapping the design
process of the students as well as revealing the evolution of the ideas in the studio.

Keywords: Design Studio, Concepts, Crowdsourcing, Web Platform,

Self-reporting, Design Research

INTRODUCTION ent types of these concepts play a role in various

In this study, we use the term "verbal concept" to
describe "verbal units of information that design-
ers stress as important" during the design process
(Schön and Rein 1994). According to Schön, design-
ers impose a network of 'names' on to the design task
and the design situation which helps them to frame
the design task and solution (Dorst 1997). Examples
of these names (or verbal concepts) for a particular
design process is: 'spatial identity, social interaction,
informal networks, and dislocation' (Schön and Rein
1994).
In literature, it is possible to find a plethora of ref-
erences to verbal concepts used in design and their
possible attributes. However, there are only a few
number of empirical research studies on how differ-
phases of design and design studio learning.
Motivated by these observations, we aim to de-
velop a better understanding of this topic and specif-
ically address the following questions:
• How can we research the verbal concepts ap-
propriated by the students during the archi-
tectural design studio?
• Can verbal concept maps and statistics of self
report logs reveal knowledge on these? and
how are they related to the design processes
of the students?
Section 1 will introduce a background review of ver-
bal concepts in design process. In the following sec-
tion (Section 2), we will introduce the method of the

CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 387

 study and the hypotheses. Section 3 will reveal the
analysis results from the studio work we carried out
during the Spring 2015 semester. In conclusion (Sec-
tion 4), we will discuss the findings and make sugges-
tions for future research on the role of verbal concep-
tual representations in architectural design and de-
sign learning.
BACKGROUND
In design research, the term 'concept' has more than
one meaning. First of all, a 'design concept' may re-
fer to a complex construction incorporating mental
units; an assemblage that gathers the intricacies of
the project as a collection of responses to a particu-
lar problem (Teal 2010, p.301). In this context, a 'de-
sign concept' is an idea that drives many of the major
preliminary design decisions (Goldschmidt and Sever
2011, p.139). This idea embodies several features in
the form of an early design defined as representa-
tions which are essential for developing the concept
into a fully-fledged design (Cross 2006, p.66).
Alternatively, the term 'concept' may refer to
units of information that designers stress as impor-
tant during the design process. From a problem solv-
ing perspective, these are 'verbal conceptual repre-
sentations' that play an essential role in establishing
relationships for transforming physical or social rela-
tions into a functional idea (Akin 1986, p.75). Schön
(1994, p.26) calls these 'names' or features and re-
lations that become the things of a story. Accord-
ing to Schön, designers impose a network of 'names'
onto the design task and the design situation which
helps them to frame the design task and solution
(Dorst 1997). Examples of these verbal concepts were
identified by Schön in a specific design study as:
'spatial identity, social interaction, informal networks
and dislocation'. In literature, it is possible to find a
plethora of references to verbal and non-verbal con-
cepts used in design and their possible attributes.
According to Waldron and Waldron (1988), ini-
tial concepts are related to the early design phase,
they provide a necessary starting point and could be
partly fallacious or critical to the procedures that will
388 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1
follow (Cross 2006, 34). Initial concepts are not nec-
essarily consistent, they are alternatively named as
'early concepts' that have an effect on the quality of
design solutions; and successful early concepts do
not necessitate alternative concepts for further de-
velopment (Cross 2006, 06).
Goldschmidt and Tatsa made an empirical study
on leading concepts (2005). They carried out a de-
sign studio experiment in which data was collected
by an experimenter throughout the semester. They
inspected students' conceptual ideas quantitatively
in the course of development of their term projects
and tried to establish possible correlations between
the quality of final projects and various parameters
related to their design ideas. The study shows that
good ideas can be identified, counted and charac-
terized by looking at the links they generate. Lead-
ing concepts can be associated with good ideas as
they are described as useful concepts that lead good
designs (Goldschmidt and Tatsa 2005, p.603). Ac-
cording to this study, leading design ideas have a
higher number of links that are formed among ideas
or decisions. This study suggests that a higher num-
ber of links indicate the criticality and importance of
the ideas or concepts (Goldschmidt and Tatsa 2005,
p.606).
RESEARCH DESIGN
In order to respond the research questions, a 'living
laboratory' was set up in an International Urban Ar-
chitectural Design Master's Studio at KU Leuven Uni-
versity, Faculty of Architecture in Brussels during 15
weeks of 2014/2015 spring semester. The partici-
pants were 43 international architecture students (25
females and 18 males) in their first or second year of
master studies.
A web-based research platform for augmenting
design learning (Pak and Verbeke, 2012)(Pak and Ver-
beke 2014) was set up for collecting information from
the students, which also included the studio brief,
schedule, bibliography, program, announcements,
communication and assignment submissions.
Every two weeks, an assignment challenge was
Figure 1
Submission of
'diversity-
uniformity' group
for the first group
assignment.

announced which required the students to submit
their work through the online platform. With ev-
ery submission, they were asked to provide up to
five keywords (open question, e.g. connection, in-
tegration, productive) and choose at least one of
the ten concept-couples suggested by the groups at
the beginning of the semester (multiple choice, e.g.
density-uniformity, frontstage-sideline, foundspace-
sterilespace). By doing so, students created self-
reporting logs (concepts) on the platform as design
diaries which formed a basis for the source data for
our research.
After a review of concept categories in literature,
we decided to focus on two types of concepts: lead-
ing and unique concepts. A repeating concept is
counted as a leading concept in all submissions and
included in the count except the last one.
Identifying and Coding Novel and Leading Con-
cepts. Novel concepts are the concepts that are used
for the first time in a student's submission. They are
counted as a novel concept only when they are first
used. For instance, 'diversity-uniformity' was identi-
fied as a novel concept when it appeared in the first
submission and categorized as a leading concept for
the second submission.
Identifying and Coding Unique Concepts. A
unique concept is used for only one time during the
semester in the entire studio.
After documenting all the concepts that are
used, we determined the quantity of the unique con-
cepts and their distribution among students. Based

CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 389

 on our literature review we tested six hypotheses.
Since we have limited space in this conference paper,
we will report only two of them:
• H1 Early concepts provide a starting point
for developing fully-fledged specialized de-
sign ideas (Cross 2006, p.106)
• H2 Higher number of links between concepts
indicate the criticality and importance of the
ideas or concepts (Goldschmidt and Tatsa
2005)
ANALYSIS RESULTS
With the accumulation of design diaries on the web-
based research platform, we collected every verbal
conceptual representation of design ideas and ana-
lyzed their correlations in the context of their nov-
elty, uniqueness, lead, and quantitative limitations.
During the 15 weeks of the studio semester, 479 con-
cepts were reported through 9 assignment submis-
sions. 10 of them were concept- couples derived
from students' pin-up presentations and suggested
by the instructors, and 469 of them self-reported by
the students. 240 of 469 were unique concepts re-
ported only once. The three most used concepts
were 'connection, integration and productive' (Table
1).
390 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1
We made a statistical analysis of the novel and unique
concepts and their several correlations to examine
the hypotheses. To test the hypotheses(1 and 2), we
used Cytoscape software for visualizing network rela-
tions of concepts suggested by the students.
Hypothesis H1: Early concepts provide a starting
point for developing fully-fledged specialized de-
sign ideas. In order to test the hypothesis of Cross
(2006), we analyzed how students describe the de-
velopment of their ideas with verbal concepts dur-
ing the semester. We linked nodes of concepts that
are reported by each student to the group concepts
with edges in Cytoscape software to create a concept
map. Cytoscape is a software designed initially for
integrated models of biomolecular interaction net-
works. Within this software environment, molecu-
lar species were represented as nodes and their in-
teractions were represented as links, namely, edges
between nodes (Shannon et al. 2003, 2499). In
our study, each verbal concept was represented as
a node and linked concepts were represented with
edges in between. For instance, concepts that are re-
ported together for the same assignment were rep-
resented as nodes and linked with edges; whereas
concepts that are reported later, but linked to a pre-
viously reported concept were also represented as
Table 1
The 10 most
frequently used
concepts by the
students.
Table 2
Analysis of a
student's most
concept links based
on edge
betweenness
centrality: the
number of the
shortest paths that
go through an edge
in the whole
network.
nodes and linked with edges to a former concept.
Therefore, all related concepts are linked with edges
and repeated links are represented thicker.
Cytoscape software provides network analysis
function as well as a variety of visual representa-
tions of the integrated data. With a network analy-
sis we achieved the edge betweenness rates (Girvan
and Newman 2002) of links between nodes (Table 2).
The concepts 'front stage-sideline' and 'found space-
sterile space' are the highest rated concepts in terms
of their links; and they are concepts reported for the
first and third assignments. These results show that
final designs of the students use early concepts as a
basis.
Hypothesis H2: Higher number of links between
concepts indicate the criticality and importance
of the ideas or concepts. In order to test the hypoth-
esis of Goldschmidt and Tatsa (2005), we analyzed
all concepts used in the studio and their links dur-
ing the semester. We linked nodes of concepts that
are reported together in the same submission (thus
relating to a design stage) with edges in Cytoscape
software. Edges are bundled using the built-in al-
CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 391
gorithm with the following parameters: spring con-
stant (0.003), compatibility threshold (0.3), the num-
ber of handles (3), maximum iterations (100). With
a network analysis, we achieved the rates of links be-
tween nodes. Figure 2 shows that concepts that have
higher rates of connection and more links are gath-
ered at the center, whereas concepts with fewer links
are in the periphery. Additionally, high rated links are
darker and thicker. Concepts with high rated links are
used by more students and lead the main studio dis-
cussions.
CONCLUSIONS
We used the setting of an International Urban Archi-
tectural Design Master's Studio as a living laboratory
and set an online research platform for collecting self-
reports of students as an objective data. We evalu-
ated the keywords of assignments submitted every
two weeks during the semester as verbal conceptual
representations of their works.
We analyzed verbal conceptual representations
in design learning based on two hypotheses (Table 3).
Our results indicate that it is possible to follow the im-
 Figure 2
Concept map of the
whole studio: A
force-directed
graph drawing,
generated through
Cytoscape
Software, using an
SQL query from the
database of the
web platform
containing student
reports.

392 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1

Table 3
The overall
evaluation of
hypothesis tests.
plications of verbal concepts in the students' design
processes, and they demonstrate certain patterns:
1. Our network analysis (edge-betweenness
centrality values) indicated that early con-
cepts acted as a central reference to the whole
studio.
2. Early concepts provided a starting point for
developing fully-fledged specialized design
ideas. For each student, the traces of the early
concepts were visible in the final verbal logs
of the students.
3. The most referenced verbal concepts by the
students were critical and led the main discus-
sions in studio.
By using a web-based research platform to collect
self-reports of the students, it was possible to gener-
ate concept maps and statistics which helped to un-
derstand how students think conceptually and how
concepts contribute to the design process.
Furthermore, in the studio, we observed the im-
plications of verbal conceptual representations to de-
sign processes. We found that the verbal concepts in-
troduced in the early stages of the design studio play
a crucial role in the design processes of the students.
From a pedagogical standpoint, we believe that dis-
covering their effects on different phases can help to
initiate and trigger new ideas to develop better de-
signs in a studio setting. Our research is limited in
scale and it is clear that there is a need for more in-
depth research to reveal these effects. We hope that
this study will be helpful to designers and researchers
as a basis for understanding the role of the verbal
concepts in design learning as well as a structured
CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 393
method for collecting, visualizing and analyzing the
relations between the design concepts.
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don
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Ramage, D, Amin, N, Schwikowski, B and Ideker, T
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tegrated models of biomolecular interaction net-
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sign thinking', International Journal of Art and Design
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puters in Engineering Conference 1, pp. 203-209

394 | eCAADe 34 - CAAD EDUCATION | Creative Practices - Volume 1

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design
Concepts & Strategies
Coding as Creative Practice
Corneel Cannaerts1
1
KU Leuven Faculty of Architecture
1
corneel.cannaerts@kuleuven.be

This paper looks into coding as a creative practice within architecture, more
specifically into textual and graphical coding as a practitioner during the design
process. It argues that coding is not a mere tool for designing but a particular
design medium, with its own affordances and resistances. Using code as a design
medium provides a specific form of feedback, it influences the design process and
its outcomes. Code is a technological and conceptual support for design thinking.
In other words, code and coding can be ascribed agency in architectural design.
This research is based on a number of cases from design practice and teaching,
ranging from small design experiments, developing software tools for specific
design projects and teaching workshops. The cases are grouped into three
metaphors, each describing a particular aspect of coding as a design medium.

Keywords: coding, sketching, tooling, structuring

INTRODUCTION tural research both in academia and practice, often

In the last decade coding has become increasingly
accessible as a design medium in architecture and
design. Design software is more and more extended
and customised through the development of script-
ing interfaces, add-ons, plugins, libraries, integrated
development environments and programming lan-
guages (Davis and Peeters 2013). Designing through
writing custom code has shifted from being practiced
by a handful of academics and pioneers to a broad
emerging culture of coding in architecture and de-
sign (Burry 2011). While there have been an exten-
sive number of exhibitions, conferences and publi-
cations documenting this shift, they tend to focus
either on code as technique or on the design out-
comes, only a limited amount of publications address
how code as a design medium informs this culture of
coding (Maeda 2004; Silver 2006; Coates 2010; Reas
and McWilliams 2010; Burry 2011).
Recently there has been a change in architec-
described as research by design and creative prac-
tice research (Fraser 2013; Verbeke 2013; Verbeke et
al. 2015). In this mode of research, which combines
action and reflection, practice and theory, the act of
designing is a substantial and crucial driver for re-
search. The research discussed in this paper uses this
mode of inquiry, which can be described as the re-
search into the 'medium itself' (Van Schaik and John-
son 2011; Blythe and van Schaik 2013), as it looks into
the role of coding as a design medium in creative
practices of architecture and design. Coding is ap-
proached not with the aim towards the fundamen-
tal understanding of a computer scientist or the pro-
fessional understanding of a software developer, but
rather with the aim of exploring its potential for de-
sign practice.
This paper is framed in the two evolutions out-
lined above and explores the impact of the increased
accessibility of coding on practices of architecture

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 397

 and design. The aim is to demonstrate how coding
as a medium informs a design process. The role of
coding is explored not isolation but in relationship
to other media used in a design process. This pa-
per is based on a number of cases from design prac-
tice and teaching, ranging from small design exper-
iments, developing software tools for a specific de-
sign project and teaching workshops. Through re-
flection on the projects the cases are grouped into
three metaphors, each describing a particular aspect
of coding as a design medium.
SKETCHING WITH CODE
Since the adoption of computers in architectural
practice there has been a debate on whether CAAD
can be used as a sketching medium. The long held
belief (Schön 1983; Garner 1992; Goel 1995; Bilda and
Demirkan 2003) that design ideation was only pos-
sible through hand drawing and CAAD was limited
to refining and documenting already existing design
ideas is challenged by more recent research (Jonson
2005). Schaeverbeke and Heyligen (2012) argue that
both analogue and digital media can used for sketch-
ing. Furthermore, contemporary practice architects
tend to switch between or use different design me-
dia simultaneously, design ideation can be located in
this 'in-between' (Schaeverbeke and Heyligen 2012).
The appropriation of coding by architects it cannot
be seen in isolation but as an extra layer of this fluid
and diverse use of media in design practice (Meredith
and Sample 2013).
Gänshirt (2007, p.101) makes a distinction be-
tween verbal and visual design tools, corresponding
with complementary ways of thinking: verbal, linear,
logical thinking on the one hand, visual-spatial, as-
sociative thinking on the other. Based on McLuhan's
(1964, p.22) thesis that media are ordered hierarchi-
cally in terms of abstraction, coding can be seen as an
abstract verbal design medium, whereas sketching is
classified as an intuitive visual medium. Interestingly
enough Gänshirt (2007, p.101) defines the computer
as being on the intersection between visual and ver-
bal tools. Even though writing code is a verbal design
398 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
tool the feedback it provides to the designer is partly
visual, and if the designer is fluent enough in writing
code it can be used as a sketching tool.
Figure 1
Various design
experiments and
sketches: Sticky
Stuff, Bubble Grid,
Magnetic Field,
Recursive Growth.
This notion of sketching, bridging the gap between
verbal and visual and exploring design ideas through
writing code is central to Processing, an open-source
programming language, development environment
and community of creative coders (Maeda 2004; Reas
and McWilliams 2010; Reas and Fry 2007; Process-
ing, 2016). Programs written in Processing are called
a sketches, and they are collected in a sketch book.
Its syntax refers to terms used in design practice and
software: drawing, stroke, fill, etc. Its simple inter-
face, reference and syntax is deliberately designed
to reducing the gap between writing code and get-
ting visual feedback on screen. Its core functionality
can be extended, with third party libraries developed
by the community, into a means for prototyping and
production.
In my design practice writing sketching through
code plays an important role, I have used Processing
extensively ranging from quick sketches, design ex-
perimentation, coding tools for other architects, de-
signers and artist, writing code for specific fabrication
machines (Cannaerts 2015a; Cannaerts 2015b). The
sketches shown in Figure 1, can be compared to doo-
dles, or explorations of specific generative systems.
Moments of playing, interacting with the graphical
representation of code and tweaking values are alter-
nated with changes to the code itself. Rather than
describing the specific details of these projects, in
this paper I will reflect on the experience of sketching
with code and how this informs my design practice.
Working with code as a design medium provides
the designer with different kinds of feedback on the
screen: a graphical window showing the result of the
running code, a textual one showing the actual code
itself and possibly textual feedback through the con-
sole. Although the running code can be made to
respond to various inputs, for example mouse and
keyboard, the design mainly progresses by working
on the code itself. Text-based coding is an unfor-
giving medium - forgetting even one character will
lead to a syntax error, and it is often hard to tell from
the visual feedback alone what is exactly going on in
an algorithm. These limitations can be overcome by
continuously testing the code, incrementally build-
ing on working versions of the code and using the
console to provide textual feedback, or by develop-
ing a debug mode that renders certain information
on the screen. Graphic coding interfaces tend to
be a bit more forgiving, as code is contained within
blocks with clearly defined inputs and outputs, but
they tend to become quite hard to read once defini-
tions get larger.
As stated above, sketching with code adds an-
other layer to the multiple design media used in prac-
tice, and does not replace sketching with pen and pa-
per but rather complements it. While coding sketch-
ing on paper can greatly help with visualising ideas
while simultaneously testing them out in code. Dif-
ferent from sketching with pen and paper, sketches
with code develop incrementally, not by retracing a
sketch but by building on working previous blocks of
code. The reuse of code and gradual increase in com-
plexity allows sketches to be turned into blue prints
and actual design projects.
Code as a medium to develop ideas tends to
progress in chunks as parts of the underlying algo-
rithm get defined, evaluated and refined. While de-
veloping an algorithm, often happens through a sim-
plified version of the design problem at hand, which
GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 399
can take the form of simpler input geometry or low
number iterations or variables. Once an algorithm
reaches a certain state of development, I tend to in-
crease the complexity, which is often a revealing mo-
ment. In graphical programming, a similarly layered
feedback exists, allowing work on the geometrical
and the algorithmic simultaneously.
MAKING AND USING TOOLS
Using code as a design medium affords control over
the algorithms beneath the interface of software
tools and, as such, allows designers to develop their
own design tools. Going beyond the intended use
of a tool or developing your own tools is frequently
mentioned by practitioners as a main motivation for
using code as part of their creative practice (Maeda
2004). In architecture, this is a prominent argument
in many publications on parametric and algorithmic
design (Kilian 2006; Meredith 2008; Fischer 2008;
Burry 2011). This position is most explicitly stated by
Aranda and Lash (2006) under the title tooling, they
describe a number of algorithmic techniques which
are illustrated by a version of the algorithm in pseudo
code, a number of experiments and a project devel-
oped with this specific algorithm.
In 2013 I gave a workshop together with Phil
Ayres and Hollie Gibbons at CITA, Kopenhagen , Den-
mark to start the Adaptive Aggregates installation
project as the start of the CITA studio master pro-
gram. The workshop conceived as an introduction to
computational design that required no prior knowl-
edge of coding. Three design tools were developed
looking into simulating aggregate structures across a
number of scales. The design tools used text-based
coding in Processing and parametric modelling in
Grasshopper, while they could be used without al-
tering the actual code through user interfaces, they
introduced various computational design strategies
and provided the source code for students willing to
learn how the underlying code worked.

The first tool (Figure 2) looked into the fabrication
and inflation of the material component, it was de-
veloped through iterative material testing and sim-
ulated using a particle spring model in Grasshopper
and Kangaroo. The components, consisted out of an
inflated tube were fabricated prior to the workshop
in three scales. The second tool (Figure 3) was coded
in Processing and explored different ways of connect-
ing the components, it allowed for exploring branch-
ing structures based on the logic of connecting the
different components. The user interface allowed for
control of the geometry of the components, the rules
of connection, the noise introduced by small devia-
tions in the connecting system. The third tool (Fig-
ure 4) used a rigid body simulation to simulate the
pouring or packing aggregations, the user interface
allowed for the position, type and number of compo-
nents to be poured into the scene, an environment
mesh could be used to simulate pouring over differ-
ent objects and obstacles.
In order to overcome the limits inherent in de-
sign software, we used different computational de-
sign tools and strategies to develop a spatial propo-
sition. We chose to operate simultaneously in dif-
ferent software environments and use different com-
putational design techniques: explicit geometric
modelling in Rhino, visual parametric modelling in
Grasshopper and text-based scripting in Processing.
The preparation resulted in three design tools; com-
putational techniques were made available through
400 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
design tools with graphical interfaces. The three in- Figure 2
troduced tools are described in more detail above. Tool 1: material and
The position, orientation and geometry of the com- simulated inflation.
ponents could be described by the three coordinates
and an offset thickness, and all the tools could ex-
port and import text files containing this information.
Rhino was central in the work-flow; it was used to col-
lect and compile the multiple explorations, prepare
the starting conditions and environment meshes as
input for the simulations and assemble the different
strategies into a final design proposal.
Figure 3
Tool 2: Branching
based on
connecting logic.
In the tools coded for Adaptive Aggregates work-
shop, simulations could be found on multiple scales.
Through nesting different simulations, it becomes
clear that each tool comes with its own assumptions
and its own requirements and limitations and all pro-
vide a different insight in the design task at hand. All
of these simulations have their affordances and cap-
ture materiality in discrete encoded elements, from
the particles and springs simulating the inflation to
the compound shapes assembled out of convex parts
in the rigid body simulation. Furthermore, time is
encoded as explicit discrete steps: the algorithm
that makes up the simulation computes the resulting
world one iteration at a time.
Having access to the code that drives software
tools can allow for a deeper understanding of the de-
sign issues at hand and uncover the assumptions in-
herent in the tools. Actively developing this code
 allows for these assumptions to be questioned and ing their environments, the forces at play, and other
explored differently. In the Adaptive Aggregations components.
workshop I was often reminded of my own assump-
Figure 4 tions as students were using the tools. To that ex-
Tool 3: Pouring tent, I think the tooling metaphor is useful, but it
simulation. also introduces an opposition between tool making
and tool using, which in my practice of using code
as a design medium are not separate activities, rather
they mutually inform each other. The process of mak-
ing a tool gradually unravels the design problem at
hand. Furthermore, coding your own design tools
does not generally start from a blank canvas but is
instead based on examples, code snippets, add-ons
and libraries often developed by others. The environ-
ments in which you code are obviously tools them-
selves, with their own assumptions, limits and poten-
Figure 5 tial, programmed by someone else.
Material & Digital
Form Finding STRUCTURING CODE
Workshop. One of the main reasons architects and designers
name for appropriating coding in their creative prac-
tice is automating repetitive work (Burry, 2011). Reas
and McWilliams (2010), call repetition the 'computers
talent' and demonstrates this with a number of ex-
amples from art, design and architecture. On could
say that the effort and time spent on coding only be-
comes useful if some degree of repetition and vari-
ation is involved, and it can operate on collections,
lists or arrays of elements. Code has a bias towards
the many and the multiple, and designing with code
tends to shift the focus from the one off and the Much of the syntax of code has to do with struc-
unique to the systemic and the multiple (Burry 2011). turing repetition and meaningful variation. In text-
In the Material & Digital Form Finding workshop based coding this is reflected in defining and declar-
(Figure 5), material experimentation formed the ba- ing variables, loops, conditionals, functions, objects,
sis for coding different a number of bespoke design classes etc., which are all means of efficiently struc-
tools that allowed for exploring spatial potential of turing code and determine the flow of instructions
form finding systems. Conceptually translating ma- passed to the computer (Fry 2010). The elements
terial system into a code requires decisions into how for structuring code are highly hierarchical and are
to structure the code, ie, what are the material com- geared toward modularity and reuse, and splitting up
ponents and how do they relate computational con- a design problem into reusable chunks.
cepts. In this project they were simulated as particle Findings from the Material & Digital Form Finding
spring-models (Kilian 2006), where springs and par- workshop were further developed. The Folded Strips
ticles are modelled as autonomous objects negotiat- Pavilion project (Figure 6) , which extended the rela-
tionship between material and digital to be more it-

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 401


erative and cyclical by also including digital fabrica-
tion. Since the project required digital fabrication the
workflow was based on Rhino and Grasshopper as a
more robust modelling environment, which was fur-
ther extended with Kangaroo, a physics simulation
add-on for Grasshopper and Anemone, which allows
recursion within the Grasshopper environment. The
Folded Strips Pavilion used a physics simulation to de-
rive the overall form of a pavilion . The design sim-
ulated a particle-spring model based on hexagonal
grid, the grid can be deformed to allow for denser or
less dense areas. In order to be fabricated the data
tree of the hexagonal grid is reorganised as continu-
ous folded strips rather than hexagonal cells.
402 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
Figure 6
Folded Strips
Pavilion: Design
Model, Fabrication
Model, Paper &
Metal Prototype.
In visual programming languages, such as
Grasshopper, code is structured as a network of com-
ponents, where each component computes an out-
put based on data it receives as an input. Different
than in text-based programming, the flow of exe-
cution is explicitly visualised, which provides a clear
feedback of the algorithm. When definitions become
more complex, components can work on lists of data
and nested lists of data, or data trees, it becomes in-
creasingly harder to understand what is happening
in the algorithm which necessitates clearly structur-
ing the definitions through grouping, naming and
clustering (Davis et al 2011).
CONCLUSION: AGENCY OF CODE
While the metaphors used in this paper to describe
coding as a creative practice - sketching, tooling,
structuring - each highlight a particular aspect of how
coding operates as a design medium, none describes
the use of coding in all its intricacy. Because of its re-
usability and fluidity, code as a design medium can
switch between these different modes of informing
the design process. The cases discussed in this paper
demonstrate that code is a specific design medium
with its own affordances and resistances. In other
words code has agency in the design process and
each of the discussed metaphors unveils part of that
agency (Cannaerts 2015a; Pickering 1995).
The fundamental difference between coding
and most other design media, is the layered-ness of
the provided feedback. Coding allows for simultane-
ously working on the geometry representing a partic-
ular instance the design and the textual representa-
tion of the logic that drives that design. Through hav-
ing sufficient experience in coding and using intu-
itive interfaces, coding can become a form of sketch-
ing, although it operates through both textual and
geometric manipulations. Working on verbal and vi-
sual representations of design is also reflected in the
difference between making and using tools. Instead
of promoting the first over the latter it is through the
switching between both that designing with code
progresses. Both object oriented programming in
Processing and data trees in Grasshopper are elegant
structures, computationally but also in visualising the
structure of the algorithm, this paper demonstrates
that those structures can be a conceptual driver for
design.
FURTHER RESEARCH
Code is a shared and collective medium, the work
presented here could not be possible without the
programmers and designers of the programming
languages, interfaces and hardware. Having access
to underlying algorithms in design is empowering,
but is only pealing a way the first layer of interfaces
of design tools. What is revealed is a highly designed
GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 403
and layered cultures of code, the agency of code lies
obviously largely within this shared and cumulative
history of code and the people who contributed to
this.
The cases discussed in this paper approaches
coding from the perspective of a designer writing
code as part of the design process. The arguments
presented here are mainly limited to a conversation
between the author as designer and the design at
hand. Coding increasingly influences shared prac-
tices and design collaboration, further research could
be done in sharing code as collaborative practice.
Code becomes increasingly a shared language be-
tween multiple partners in the design process.
ACKNOLEDGEMENTS
The Folded Strips Pavilion project was developed by
Corneel Cannaerts in collaboration with Bart Mer-
mans and VAC machines.The Adaptive Aggregates
project was developed by Phil Ayres, Hollie Gibbons
and Corneel Cannaerts, CITA Copenhagen.All other
sketches and projects by the author.
REFERENCES
Aranda, B and Lash, C 2006, Tooling, Princeton Architec-
tural Press, New York
Bilda, Z and Demirkan, H 2003, 'An insight on designer’s
sketching activities in traditional versus digital me-
dia,', Design Studies, 24, pp. 27-50
Blythe, R and van Schaik, L 2016, 'What if Design Practice
Matters?', in Fraser, M (eds) 2016, Design Research in
Architecture, an Overview, Ashgate, Burlington, pp.
53-69
Burry, M 2011, Scripting Cultures: Architectural Design and
Programming, Wiley
Cannaerts, C 2015a, Negotiating Agency: Computation
and Digital Fabrication as Design Media, Ph.D. Thesis,
RMIT University
Cannaerts, C 2015b 'Fabricating Material Intensities:
Designing and Making Mediated by Computation',
Creative Practice Conference: Making Research | Re-
searching Making., Aarhus, pp. 151-161
Davis, D 2013, Modelled on Software Engineering: Flexi-
ble Parametric Models in the Practice of Architecture.,
Ph.D. Thesis, RMIT University
 Davis, D, Burry, J and Burry, M 2011 'Untangling Para- [3] http://www.grasshopper3d.com/
metric Schemata: Enhancing Collaboration through
Modular Programming', Designing Together: Pro-
ceedings of the 14th International Conference on Com-
puter Aided Architectural Design Futures,, Liège, pp.
55-68
Davis, D and Peters, B 2013, 'Designing Ecosystems, Cus-
tomising the Architectural Design Environment with
Software Plug-ins', in Peters, B and De Kestleir, X
(eds) 2013, Computation Works: The Building of Algo-
rithmic Thought, Wiley, pp. 124-131
Fischer, T 2008, Designing (tools (for designing (tools for
…)))), Ph.D. Thesis, RMIT University
Garner, S 1992, 'The Undervalued Role of Drawing in De-
sign', in Thistlewood, D (eds) 1992, Drawing Research
and Development, Longman, pp. 98-109
Goel, V 2005, Sketches of Thought, MIT Press
Gänshirt, C 2007, Tools for Ideas: An introduction to Archi-
tectural Design, Birkhäuser Architecture
Jonson, B 2005, 'Design ideation: the conceptual sketch
in the digital age', Design Studies, 25, pp. 613-624
Kilian, A 2006, Design Exploration through Bidirectional
Modeling of Constraints, Ph.D. Thesis, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology.
Maeda, J 2004, Creative Code: Aesthetics + Computation,
Thames & Hudson
McLuhan, M 1964, Understanding Media: The Extensions
of Man, McGraw-Hill
Meredith, M 2008, From Control to Design: Parametric/Al-
gorithmic Architecture, Actar
Meredith, M and Sample, Hilary 2013, Everything All at
Once: The Software, Videos, and Architecture of MOS.,
Princeton Architectural Press
Pickering, A 1995, The Mangle of Practice: Time, Agency,
and Science, University of Chicago Press
Reas, C and McWilliams, C 2010, Form+Code in Design,
Art, and Architecture., Princeton Architectural Press
Schaeverbeke, R and Heylighen, A 2012 'In Search of the
In Between', In Physical Digitality: Proceedings of the
30th eCAADe Conference, Prague, pp. 49-57
Schön, D 1983, The Reflective Practitioner, Temple Smith
Silver, M (eds) 2006, AD: Programming Cultures: Art and
Architecture in the Age of Software, Wiley
Verbeke, J 2013, 'This is Research by Design', in Fraser,
M (eds) 2013, Design Research in Architecture, an
Overview, Ashgate, pp. 137-160
Verbeke, J, Zupanzic, T and Achten, H 2015 'Digital Tools
and Creative Practice in Architectural Research', Real
Time, eCAADe Conference 2015:, Vienna, pp. 25-28
[1] http://benfry.com/deprocess/
[2] https://processing.org/

404 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1

Using Processing with Architectural 3D Modelling
Inês Caetano1 , António Leitão2
1,2
INESC-ID/Instituto Superior Técnico
1
ines.caetano@tecnico.ulisboa.pt
2
antonio.menezes.leitao@ist.utl.pt

Although programming was considered a specialized task in the past, we have

been witnessing an increasing use of algorithms in the architectural field, which
has opened up a wide range of new design possibilities. This was possible in part
due to programming languages that were designed to be easy to learn and use by
designers and architects, such as Processing. Processing is widely used for
academic purposes, whereas in the architectural practice it is not as used as
other programming languages due to its limitations for 3D modeling. In this
paper, we describe the use of an extended Processing implementation to generate
three 3D models inspired in existing case studies, which can be visualized and
edited in different CAD and BIM applications.

Keywords: Generative design, Programming, Processing, 3D modeling

INTRODUCTION to designers and architects. Such is the case of the

Only recently have architects considered the use of
programming in architecture, as they become aware
of its potential, thus introducing it in their design
practices (Burry 2011). This allowed the automation
of tedious tasks, the exploration of generative pro-
cesses, and the generation of complex solutions that
would be difficult and time consuming to produce
manually. Therefore, algorithms became extensions
of human thinking by overcoming its potential limita-
tions, allowing the exploration and experimentation
in an alternative realm (Terzidis 2003). The concept
of Generative Design (GD) can be defined by this al-
gorithmic and rule-based process, through which a
wide variety of solutions can be created in a short pe-
riod of time (Fasoulaki 2008).
However, programming is not a trivial task (Burry
2011). In order to facilitate the use of GD, some
programming languages were carefully designed or
adapted with the aim of teaching programming skills
Processing language (Reas and Fry 2007).
BACKGROUND
Processing was created especially for designers with-
out any previous experience in programming. Nev-
ertheless, it has also been used in other fields, includ-
ing architecture. This programming language is con-
sidered as a pedagogical language and, in fact, it has
being taught in several academic courses. Therefore,
this language has grown over the years and has be-
come increasingly popular due to its simplicity, to the
academic community support, and to the excellent
documentation available (Fricker et al. 2008).
Still, in the architectural practice Processing is
not as used as other programming languages, such
as Python, Grasshopper, AutoLISP, and VisualBa-
sic. The main reasons for this unfortunate situation
are the inability of Processing to interact with the
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) and Building Informa-

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 405

 tion Modeling (BIM) tools that are typically used by
architects, such as AutoCAD, Rhinoceros 3D, and Re-
vit, and also its shortcomings in 3D modeling oper-
ations and transformations, such as sweeping, loft-
ing or extruding. This is not surprising, as Processing
was originally intended for 2D drawings and anima-
tions, running in its own programming environment
and completely isolated from other applications.
Only recently was Processing extended with sim-
ple 3D operations and ways of exporting the gener-
ated designs. Some libraries were also developed to
add some of the required operations, such as increas-
ing the range of 3D primitives, creating and control-
ling irregular shapes, or dealing with some 3D shape
transformations. In the Related Work section we will
enumerate and describe some of these libraries with
more detail.
Unfortunately, these 3D operations are still lim-
ited in their capabilities. Therefore, the application
of Processing in the field of architecture remains dif-
ficult, even though it is easy to learn and use. In or-
der to overcome this situation, we propose an aug-
mented Processing for architects that deals with a
wider range of 3D modeling primitives (cylinders,
spheres, cones, etc) and transformations (extrusions,
lofts, sweeps, Boolean operations, etc), which are es-
sential in the architectural daily practice, and gener-
ates their results directly into a CAD or BIM tool.
AUGMENTING PROCESSING
In the past (Correia and Leitão 2015), we proposed a
solution to join CAD and BIM tools with the Process-
ing language, allowing architects to develop new de-
signs using this programming language while gen-
erating their results directly into a CAD or BIM ap-
plication. This solution was implemented in Rosetta
(Lopes and Leitão 2011), an Integrated Development
Environment (IDE) for generative design. One main
advantage of Rosetta is its emphasis on portabil-
ity and, unlike other development environments,
Rosetta supports scripts using different languages
(AutoLISP, JavaScript, Python, Racket, and Scheme)
and generates identical models in all supported
CAD and BIM applications (AutoCAD, Rhinoceros 3D,
406 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
Sketchup, Revit, and ArchiCAD).
In order to make Processing suitable for the
needs of architects, 3D modeling extensions to the
Processing language were also implemented in the
Rosetta IDE. These extensions include several opera-
tions for basic 3D modeling, such as boxes, spheres,
cylinders, cones, etc., as well as shape forming oper-
ations, such as lofting, sweeping and extruding, and
also Boolean operations, i.e. subtraction, intersec-
tion, and union of shapes.
In addition to supporting the traditional syntax
and semantics of the Processing language, our solu-
tion extended Processing in three directions:
1. Interactive evaluation, which allows designers
to evaluate small fragments of Processing pro-
grams in a Read-Eval-Print-Loop (REPL), en-
abling quick experimentation of the scripts
being developed;
2. 3D modeling, an essential extension in order
to improve the use of Processing for architec-
ture;
3. Professional CAD, a connection between Pro-
cessing and CAD/BIM tools, supporting the
generation of designs in those tools without
suffering from the problems that typically oc-
cur when designs are imported from different
applications.
The most significant advantage of the implementa-
tion of Processing for Rosetta is the ability to use, in
Processing programs, all the 2D and 3D modeling op-
erations available in Rosetta. Given that these op-
erations access the corresponding operations in the
CAD/BIM tool being used, this gives Processing the
capability to directly create shapes in that tool.
USING PROCESSING IN ARCHITECTURE
Our implementation of Processing is intended for ar-
chitects that learned Processing and want to use it
in their architectural practice. In this section, we de-
velop three architectural examples using Processing:
1. Al Bahar Towers;
2. Allianz Arena;
3. Quality Hotel Friends.
 Additionally, we discuss the advantages and draw-
backs of Processing for the architecture practice. For
each of the examples we use Processing running in
the Rosetta IDE, thereby allowing the visualization
and edition of the generated models in the sup-
ported backend applications, including Rhino and
AutoCAD.
Al Bahar Towers
Our first example is the Al Bahar Towers in Abu Dhabi,
design by Aedas Architects. These towers are char-
acterized by their responsive facade, which is com-
posed by several triangular units inspired in the tra-
ditional Islamic element "mashrabiya". Nevertheless,
in this paper we will simply focus on modeling these
towers facade design, and not on its kinetic proper-
ties.
Figure 1
Inner glass surface
(left-side); outer
surface organized
in groups of four
points (right-side).
We divided this example into two different stages.
Firstly, we created the inner glass surface with the
tower's shape and, then, we explored the outer skin,
which is composed by the triangular units. Before ex-
ploring each stage, we had to define the set of points
that corresponded to the tower's geometry, which
together with a surface creation operation produced
the inner glass surface (Figure 1, on the left). More-
GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 407
over, these points were also used to generate the sur-
face mesh of the outer layer, which was then orga-
nized into groups of four points (i.e. a squared mesh)
so as to facilitate the future development of the tri-
angular units (Figure 1, on the right). In practical
terms, this first stage required operations like calcu-
lus of matrices and surface normal vectors, arrays of
coordinates, and surface creation.
The second stage was the creation of the tower's
outer skin with the triangular units. First of all, we de-
fined the geometry of these units and, then, we ap-
plied them on the squared mesh defined in the pre-
vious stage.
To create the units, we started by calculating the
vertices that defined their shape. Then, these ver-
tices were strategically linked using lines, which in
turn were used to produce the surfaces. This process
is synthetized in Figure 2 by the images A-B-C.
Secondly, the generation of the outer skin con-
sisted in mapping these triangular units along the
squared mesh. Finally, we overlapped both inner and
outer surfaces so as to produce the final model, which
is visible in Figure 2.
Note that, apart from the arrays of coordinates,
this second stage required surface creation between
curves, an operation that is not available in the origi-
nal Processing implementation.
Allianz Arena
Our second example is the Allianz Arena stadium in
Munich, designed by Herzog & de Meuron Architects
with ArupSport. As in the previous example, we had
to first define the overall shape of the stadium. There-
fore, in order to obtain this form we used the math-
ematical formula of the superellipse to produce the
cloud of points that corresponded to the stadium's
shape. This was then used to produce, first, the un-
derlying surface of the model and, then, to distribute
the diamond shaped cells which characterize the fa-
cade. Lastly, we produced each of these cells using:
1. an array of coordinates and a closed-line
defining the diamond-shaped curve of each
cell;
 Figure 2
The Al Bahar Tower
3D model using
Processing. On the
left – the units
generation process:
A. the main vertices
that define each
unit shape; B. lines
to link the main
vertices; C. the
creation of surfaces
between lines; In
the middle - One
instance of the
generated model;
On the right – two
shape variations of
its facade.

Figure 3
Allianz Arena
model: a print
screen of the
generated model,
visualized in
AutoCAD, and the
Rosetta IDE with
the corresponding
Processing code.

408 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1

 2. a loft operation between this curve and a
point placed perpendicularly to it.
To sum up, not only did this model use matrices and
vector calculations, it also required the loft operation
to generate the stadium envelope pattern. Figure 3
shows an instance of the generated model in Auto-
CAD and the corresponding Processing code.
Quality Hotel Friends
Quality Hotel Friends, in Stockholm, is our
last example, which was designed by Karolina
Keyzer+Wingårdhs. This hotel has a straight facade
and it is composed by several circular windows of
three different sizes. Note that these three sized win-
dows are strategically placed to create the wave ef-
fect visible in Figure 4.
Figure 4
Quality Hotel
Friends model: A.
The creation of the
cylinders with
different sizes; B.
overlapping of the
cylinders with the
facade wall; C.
subtraction of the
cylinders from the
wall.
In practical terms, we generated this example in two
stages. Firstly, we created the hotel walls with a box
operation and, then, we produced the round win-
dows. For this, we had to produce the matrix of
points that shaped the facade, and then we orga-
nized them into arrays of coordinates. These arrays
were then used to distribute the cylinders over the
walls, and to control each cylinder radius size. More
precisely, each cylinder radius size was controlled by
the distance between its positioning point and the
attractor point. After generating all the cylinders,
GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 409
they were subtracted from the walls previously cre-
ated, therefore creating the windows openings (Fig-
ure 4, A-B-C).
Summarily, the modeling of this building re-
quired 3D primitives, such as boxes and cylinders, to
produce the walls and the circular windows, required
both matrices of points and vector calculations to
create and place the circular windows, and, finally,
the Boolean operation Subtraction to create the win-
dows openings. Figure 4 synthetizes this process and
shows one instance of the obtained model using Pro-
cessing.
Evaluation
In this section, we summarize the generation process
of all three examples and we demonstrate that the
modeling extensions added by our solution were cru-
cial in the exploration of these models.
First of all, we synthetized the operations that
were necessary for each example and, then, we com-
pared the availability of those operations in (1) the
Processing language and Processing Development
Environment (PDE), and (2) in our implementation of
Processing in Rosetta.
Although our sampling is limited, it revealed the
range of operations that are typically used in 3D mod-
eling. After analyzing the information presented in
Figure 5, we can conclude that the majority of the op-
erations that are essential for the generation of the
previous examples, are not available in the original
Processing implementation. Moreover, we predict
that models that are more complex than the ones
presented in this paper will require even more ad-
vanced 3D modeling operations. It is thus important
to fully support in Processing the operations that are
available in the CAD/BIM tool being used and that
is precisely one of the important features of our Pro-
cessing implementation in Rosetta.
PORTABILITY
Portability is the ability of a program to be compiled
or run in a different environment and, in our case,
it allows us to produce identical models in different
 Figure 5
Synthesis of the
needed operations
for each example,
and their
availability in both
Processing PDE and
in our
implementation of
processing to
Rosetta IDE.

CAD tools, such as Rhino, AutoCAD, or SketchUp,
among others. Using our solution, it is now possible
to (1) explore 3D architectural models using the Pro-
cessing programming language, since the modeling
operations required are already available, and (2) to
visualize the obtained models in the different CAD or
BIM tools that are essential for architects. Moreover,
it allows the designer to easily change the CAD tool
that he wants to use (Figure 6).
Finally, Rosetta also promotes portability across
the supported programming languages, allowing
the combination of Processing with the other sup-
ported programming languages such as Autolisp,
Phyton, Racket and Javascript.
RELATED WORK
There are already some libraries that improved Pro-
cessing to deal with more 3D modeling extensions.
Shapes 3D [6] is a library that extends processing with
a set of 3D shapes, including ellipsoids, toroids, he-
lixes, and others. iGeo [5] is a 3D modeling soft-
ware library in Java, which has an interface special-

410 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1

Figure 6
The Al Bahar tower’s
model using
different CAD
applications
(SketchUP,
AutoCAD and
Rhino5).
ized for processing called piGeon. This library in-
cludes vector operations, NURBS curve and surface
geometries, polygon meshes, and 3D model file I/O.
ANAR+ is a geometry library for Processing (Labelle et
al. 2010) that was intended to be a programming in-
terface supporting shape exploration based on para-
metric variations. Toxiclibs [4] is an independent li-
brary collection for computational design tasks with
Java and Processing, which supports 2D/3D vectors,
spline curves, 4x4 matrices, intersection tests, mesh
container, and OBJ and STL exporters. Finally, Com-
putationalGeometry library [3] allows Processing to
deal with dynamic mesh generation and rendering,
including isometric contours and surfaces, boundary
hulls and skeletons.
One of the problems with these libraries is that
none of them allows architects to directly interact
with the most used CAD/BIM applications. Therefore,
they have to resort to import procedures which, fre-
quently, loose some of the geometric information or
transform it into undesirable forms (e.g. converting
smooth surfaces into meshes). In addition, some 3D
operations are still missing, including Boolean oper-
ations and shape transformation operations. Our so-
lution, besides extending processing with 3D model-
ing operations and primitives, also allows the inter-
action between Processing and the CAD and BIM ap-
plications typically used by architects.
Dynamo [1] and Grasshopper [2] are program-
ming languages that are also quite popular among
GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 411
the architecture community, mainly for those who do
not have any programming experience. Both have
the advantage of interacting with at least one of the
CAD or BIM tools that are used in architectural prac-
tice.
Grasshopper is a visual programming language
for Rhinoceros. This language is widely used by be-
ginners as it allows them to quickly develop, test and
visualise small programs due to the friendly and in-
tuitive environment. Recently, it was also extended
to interact with Revit and ArchiCAD via independent
plug-ins. Unfortunately, Grasshopper has scalabil-
ity problems: the more complex the user program
gets, the more difficult it becomes to understand and
maintain it. The use of clusters can mitigate this prob-
lem but, in practice, it is rare to see programs that take
advantage of the idea. The plug-ins for interacting
with other tools besides Rhinoceros are very experi-
mental and not yet widely used. For the purposes of
this work, the major drawback of Grasshopper is that,
although it also supports some textual programming
languages, the list does not include Processing.
Similarly, Dynamo is a plug-in for Revit strongly
influenced by visual programming languages. It is
also based on a workflow of nodes and connections
that creates BIM objects in Revit. Dynamo share the
same advantages of Grasshopper, but it also suffers
from the same limitations, including the scalability
problem and the fact that it does not support the Pro-
cessing language.
 Comparing to Rosetta IDE, Grasshopper and Dynamo
might be more intuitive and user-friendly, partic-
ularly for those without programming experience.
Nevertheless, to overcome their limitations when de-
veloping more complex models, architects are forced
to use textual programming languages. As a conse-
quence, architects end up dealing with textual lan-
guages even when they were not supposed to. More-
over, programs that combine both visual and textual
programming languages tend to be less organized
and more difficult to understand.
On the other hand, although Rosetta requires a
more profound initial investment in learning the Pro-
cessing language, it allows the development of pro-
grams with higher complexity and more levels of ab-
straction.
CONCLUSION
Processing is a simple and pedagogical program-
ming language and, hence, easy to learn by design-
ers with no previous programming experience. How-
ever, when it comes to the architects' work, Process-
ing shows its limitations:
1. Lack of 3D modeling operations;
2. Difficult combination and interaction of Pro-
cessing with the most used tools in the archi-
tectural practice.
Our solution overcomes these two barriers, by aug-
menting Processing with new design abstractions
and operations, and by connecting it with several
CAD and BIM tools. The examples developed in the
paper illustrate the extension and adaptation of Pro-
cessing to the architectural practice, not only by en-
abling the use of the most needed 3D operations and
transformations, but also by allowing a direct con-
nection with the most used CAD and BIM applica-
tions.
It is noteworthy that the majority of the 3D prim-
itives and operations used to develop the examples
presented in this paper could not have been done
using exclusively the features provided by the orig-
inal Processing language, as it does not provide lofts,
sweeps, cylinders, and other crucial operations for ar-
412 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
chitectural modelling.
A final advantage of our solution is that it also al-
lows architects to combine Processing with the dif-
ferent programming languages provided by Rosetta,
such as Python and Scheme. This allows Processing
to move from its comfort zone - the design environ-
ment - into the more complex and demanding archi-
tectural environment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by national funds through
Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) with ref-
erence UID/CEC/50021/2013.
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Correia, H and Leitão, A 2015 'Extending Processing to
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Computation - Proceedings of the 33th eCAADe, Vi-
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Fasoulaki, E 2008, Integrated Design: A Generative Multi-
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Using the Phase Space to Design Complexity
Design Methodology for Distributed Control of Architectural Robotic
Elements

Mary Katherine Heinrich1 , Phil Ayres2

1,2
Centre for Information Technology and Architecture, IBT, KADK
1,2
{mhei|Phil.Ayres}@kadk.dk

Architecture that is responsive, adaptive, or interactive can contain active

architectural elements or robotic sensor-actuator systems. The consideration of
architectural robotic elements that utilize distributed control and distributed
communication allows for self-organization, emergence, and evolution on site in
real-time. The potential complexity of behaviors in such architectural robotic
systems requires design methodology able to encompass a range of possible
outcomes, rather than a single solution. We present an approach of adopting an
aspect of complexity science and applying it to the realm of computational design
in architecture, specifically by considering the phase space and related concepts.
We consider the scale and predictability of certain design characteristics, and
originate the concept of a formation space extension to the phase space, for
design to deal directly with materializations left by robot swarms or elements,
rather than robots' internal states. We detail a case study examination of design
methodology using the formation space concept for assessment and
decision-making in the design of active architectural artifacts.

Keywords: phase space, complexity, attractor, distributed control

INTRODUCTION & BACKGROUND
The methodology detailed in this paper is devel-
oped as part of the EU research project flora robot-
ica (Hamann et al. 2015, [1]), which uses tightly cou-
pled plant-robot bio-hybrids to form architectural
artifacts that are self-organizing and evolving, with
distributed control mechanisms. In the flora robot-
ica project, the robotic controllers incorporate ap-
proaches from evolutionary robotics (Bongard 2013),
distributed embodied evolution (Watson et al. 2002),
and interactive evolutionary computation (Secretan
et al. 2008). This paper deals specifically with the
problem of the architectural design of such a robotic
system, and the question of how high-level architec-
tural design requirements can be merged with low-
level rules of robotic control.
Active architectural elements
In this context, the architectural design problem
at hand is that of designing controllers for ac-
tive/robotic architectural elements that have strong
self-organizing behaviors.

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 413

 Existing buildings containing active products
(such as automated window shades or automated
HVAC) are often controlled centrally, through read-
ily available technology known as building automa-
tion systems or smart building management systems
([2]:Siemens 2012). These centralized systems deal
with changes in environmental conditions by exist-
ing design methodologies of averaging or homog-
enizing (cf. Pavliotis and Stuart 2008), at the scale
of perhaps a wall or a room. In addition to these
industry products, there are existing buildings fea-
turing bespoke active facade elements. There are
many built examples incorporating matrices of LED
lighting, such as the centrally controlled BIX facade
of Kunsthaus Graz (Cook and Fournier 2004). There
are also examples of built facades incorporating ki-
netic elements, including Media-TIC (Cloud 9 [3]), IBA
Soft House (KVA MATx [4]), BIQ Algae House (Split-
terwerk [5]), Yeosu Theme Pavilion (SOMA [6]), Al
Bahr Towers (AHR [7]), and MegaFaces (Asif Khan [8]).
Some of these facades feature decentralized control
but, to the knowledge of the authors, do not incor-
porate decentralized communication between ele-
ments. There are some departures from the central-
ized communication paradigm at the scale of instal-
lation, e.g. Sentient Chamber (PBAI [9]) (Chan et al.
2015). There are also relevant architectural demon-
strators, prototypes, or probes (Thomsen and Tamke
2009) in literature (Frazer 1995, Beesley (ed) 2006,
Thomsen et al. 2015). We therefore understand the
question of designing distributed/decentralized con-
trol and communication in architectural elements to
be relevant to CAAD (computer-aided architectural
design) state of the art, in addition to its relevance to
flora robotica.
Evolving robotic controllers
In prior flora robotica work (Wahby et al. 2016), we
have used NEAT (Stanley and Miikkulainen 2004) to
evolve Artificial Neural Network controllers in simula-
tion for an evolutionary robotics (Bongard 2013) ap-
proach to the control of plant growth and motion in
a bio-hybrid setup, and successfully crossed the re-
414 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
ality gap to replicate our simulation results in phys-
ical experiments. Having demonstrated that, in the
tested conditions, results of plant-robot bio-hybrid
controllers evolved in simulation are able to cross the
reality gap, we seek to extend the work to evolving
distributed controllers. In this paper, we focus on the
architectural design problems posed by the context
of distributed controllers evolved in simulation.
Figure 1
Diagram of
bidirectional
communication
links between
models and
analyses in the
common encoding
and integrated
projection.
Common Encoding & Integrated Projection
In the flora robotica project, in order to avoid a single
model's potential bias toward either the plant sym-
biont or the robot symbiont, we will take a pluralistic
modelling (Helbing 2010) approach to the definition
of the distributed bio-hybrid controller (see partial
florarobotica models/analyses in Wahby et al. 2016,
Zahadat et al. 2015, Soorati and Hamann 2015, Hein-
rich and Ayres 2016). As a general framework for ap-
proaching the problem of merging high-level archi-
tectural requirements with these pluralistic low-level
rules of control, we propose a common encoding and
integrated projection (see Figure 1) which will incor-
porate bidirectional communication between each
of the low-level input models and a single common
encoding of those models, will use the current state
of the common encoding to generate an integrated
projection of a late timestep, will assess the inte-
grated projection according to high-level architec-
tural objectives, and will use that assessment to pun-
 ish or reward the evolution of the low-level input
models.
COMPLEXITY & PREDICTABILITY FOR AR-
CHITECTURAL DESIGN
In the description and study of dynamic systems, the
'phase space' is the representation of all possible in-
stantaneous states that can occur in a physical sys-
tem (Butkovskiy 1990, Sayama 2015). Each of these
states, and its associated characteristics, corresponds
to a single point in the mathematical phase space.
In existing design rhetoric, we sometimes refer
Figure 2 to the parameter space and the solution space of a
Author's illustration model. These spaces can be approximated and un-
of Bar-Yam's (1997) derstood analytically, because any particular com-
mathematical bination of parameters always results in the same
concept, called a unique solution. The phase space is distinct from
complexity profile, these in that it describes the full set of possible states
showing how one that may eventually arise from a set of behaviors, and
system can have therefore, in certain types of systems, cannot be de-
different numbers rived purely analytically (see Bar-Yam 1997). In the
of independent context of architectural design, this means that de-
behaviors at sign solutions must be modeled and simulated be-
different scales, fore visual interrogation and analysis of the design
depending on the can occur.
system's scale of These types of systems, which can be described
randomness, through modelling and the analysis of model results,
coherence or are categorically complex systems (or complex adap-
correlation. tive systems). The scientific study of complex sys-
tems deals in part with the principles governing the
emergence of such systems from simple components
(Bar-Yam 1997). This paper details an approach of
applying a particular aspect of complexity science to
the realm of computational design (or design com-
putation), specifically by employing the mathemati-
cal phase space as an approach for architectural de-
sign, modelling, and simulation. Due to the context
of architectural design, we assume that only spatially
distributed models of systems are relevant to this de-
sign methodology, which can be an important dis-
tinction in modelling (e.g. work on the breakdown of
mean-field approximation and work on spatially dis-
tributed models, Werfel and Bar-Yam 2004, Bar-Yam
and Sayama 2006, Dieckmann and Law 2000).
GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 415
In this paper, we consider the complex sys-
tems and behaviors of architecture that is respon-
sive, adaptive, or interactive--in other words, archi-
tecture that contains sensor-actuator systems. We
consider sensor-actuator systems that are controlled
through decentralized control and communication,
thereby allowing self-organizing behavior. We also
adopt some of the vocabulary of complexity science,
so that 'complexity' refers to the number of possibili-
ties in a system and the length of description thereby
required to encompass it (Bar-Yam 1997).
It is sometimes assumed in architectural discourse
that incorporating methods of emergence, dis-
tributed control, and evolutionary robotics will
largely equate to unpredictability in the architec-
tural result (Frazer 1995, Kolarevic and Malkawi (eds)
2005, Kretzer and Hovestadt (eds) 2014). However,
we know from complexity science that this varies
depending on which scale of the system you are
describing, which characteristics you are concerned
with, and at which point in time you are viewing the
system. For example, in the classic agent-based Boids
model (Reynolds 1987) of flocking birds, though the
positions of agents in relation to one another may
be very unpredictable at early timesteps, they will be
much more predictable at later timesteps after they
have formed flocks. Similarly, if the system's behavior
is described at the scale of individual agents within
 a flock, it is more unpredictable because each run
of the system will have birds with differing start po-
sitions and orientations. However, if the model is
described at the scale of the flock, then it is much
more predictable, because the system will tend to-
ward similar flocking behaviors, regardless of start
position.
The amount of predictability varies greatly by
system. Some complex systems have attractors,
which will cause the system to move toward a partic-
ular configuration or set of configurations, depend-
ing on the number of attractors and the expanse of
the basins associated with those attractors. For in-
stance, if a particular system has two attractors, and
the basins of attraction from these two cover the
phase space equally and entirely, then the system will
tend to one of these two states with equivalent prob-
ability, despite an expansive array of possible start
conditions (see Hurley 1982, Sayama 2015). In other
words, the phase space of possible configurations is
predictable, if not the exact configuration, and the
expansiveness of that predictable phase space de-
pends on the complexity of the system. The amount
of predictability of the exact configuration that a sys-
tem with attractors will move toward depends on the
number of attractors and basins of attraction. There-
fore, in looking to design rules for distributed control
and communication in architectural sensor-actuator
systems, we do not design a solution by finding and
evaluating individual instances. We instead work to-
ward designing a system's (i.e. set of behaviors') full
set of possibilities (the phase space) and its attractors.
The description used to design an architectural
complex system should occur at the scale that is per-
tinent to the particular architectural design problem
at hand (this does not change the scale of rule-based
interactions; scale of rule and outcome are still dis-
tinct). The system should be designed so that coher-
ent behaviors or correlated behaviors (see complex-
ity profile and related concepts, Bar-Yam 1997) oc-
cur at that pertinent scale (see Figure 2). As we saw
in the example of the classic Boids model (Reynolds
1987), there could be a prohibitive amount of ran-
416 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
domness at a certain timestep and scale, making it
seem too unpredictable for architectural design. At
such a state, a comprehensive description of the sys-
tem would have to include a description of each in-
dividual agent in order to describe the behavior of
the system. But in that same system, there could be
coherent behavior at a different timestep and scale.
At this state, a comprehensive description could be
comprised of very little information, because it would
need to describe only one behavior: that of the co-
herent group (see random, coherent and correlated
behaviors, Bar-Yam 1997).
The balance of complexity and simplicity in a de-
signed system may likely depend on which scale is
being described, and at which point in time. There-
fore, the task of designing architecture that is emer-
gent, distributed, or evolutionary is not a task of de-
signing behaviors with primarily unpredictable re-
sults. It is rather the task of designing a relevant
phase space; it is the task of designing the scale at
which coherent or correlated behavior occurs, with-
out resorting to high-level control.
DESIGN METHODOLOGY CASE STUDY:
CONTROLLERS FOR SOLAR RESPONSIVE
SELF-ORGANIZING GROWTH
The case study selected is the task of designing an
exterior plant-robot bio-hybrid system (similar to the
bio-hybrid setup in our prior flora robotica work,
Wahby et al. 2016) that responds to solar exposure.
The design task of the response is to to shade occu-
piable spaces from the sun by growing taller where
needed, but to only grow where necessary, so as to
leave as much occupiable space on the site as pos-
sible. However, the system should maintain some
presence, even if the site receives no sunlight, so
that the open area is divided into smaller occupiable
spaces, and so that the system has a chance to re-
act if the lighting conditions change at a later time.
The controller should assume that the bio-hybrid sys-
tem generally grows upward, to both align with plant
dynamics and to be self-structuring. The bio-hybrid
system should be able to be placed on any site and
 correctly interpret whether each element is in sun or both time and space, and the possible states of the
shade. system and the possible transitions it can undergo
are finite (Wolfram 1983, Wolfram 1984, Sayama
Figure 3
2015). We use a Moore neighborhood setup [11], in
Comparison of
which, as each cell determines its state, it looks at the
predetermined and
cells directly below, above, and beside it, and it also
centralized (which
looks at the 4 cells diagonal to it. We use a standard
use methods of
majority rule (Wolfram 1983), in which each cell de-
averaging and
cides its state by conforming to whichever state holds
homogenization,
the majority in its neighborhood.
Pavliotis and Stuart
The majority rule means that, if a cell is dark, 2
2008), and
of its neighbors are dark, and 6 of its neighbors are
decentralized
light, the cell will become light in the next timestep
systems, showing A predetermined controller in this case (which would (see Figure 4). Likewise, if a cell is light, 5 of its neigh-
the conditions bring bio-hybrid growth to a certain height based on bors are dark, and 3 of its neighbors are light, it will
under which they solar geometry derived from latitude and longitude) become dark in the next timestep (see Figure 4). The
either fail or is not sufficient , because the controller would be un- majority rule was chosen because its dynamics are
succeed to able to react to shade cast on the site by clouds, trees, known to often lead to clusters, which are desirable
accurately respond or neighboring buildings (see Figure 3). A central- in the given case study. In this setup, we use dimen-
to site conditions. ized sensor-controller would also not be sufficient in sions of 100 x 100 and periodic space, and in initial
this case because, though the sensor would be able conditions use equal probability of randomized cell
to correctly interpret its local neighborhood's solar state distribution. (All setups are completed in a com-
condition, it would assume that the solar condition bination of PyCXsimulator [12], IronPython [13], and
is the same across the site, and would fail in condi- Grasshopper3d/Rhino3d [14], with reference to the
tions where neighboring buildings (for instance) cast PyCX Project [12].)
shadow on half of the site (see Figure 3). Decentral-
Figure 4 ized sensor-controllers, by contrast, would not fail in
Author's illustration any of the above mentioned scenarios (see Figure 3)
of two examples of and has the spatial consequence and design oppor-
transitions of the tunity of increased heterogeneity.
states of single cells If the system has not only distributed control,
in a Moore but distributed communication, it has the added ad- Extending Phase Space to Formation Space
neighborhood [11] vantage of being able to create spatial clusters as it The phase space of a Cellular Automaton is an enu-
majority rule CA grows, to provide as much occupiable space on the meration of all possible configurations in that setup,
(Wolfram 1983), site as possible. Therefore, with the design problem according to the dimensions of the cellular automa-
based on presented in the case study, it is appropriate to de- ton and the number of possible cell states. For
communication sign a system that features distributed control and instance, in the first part of Figure 5, we can see
strategies from distributed communication. all the possible configurations in a 2-cell by 2-cell
Sayama (2015). The two-dimensional cellular automaton with binary cell
central cell in each Cellular Automata (CA) setup states (two possible cell states). The number of possi-
block of 9 is the We select Cellular Automata [10] as a typology to ad- ble configurations in this setup is few, so they are easy
only cell transition dress this design problem, because it models decen- to imagine, visualize, and analyze. In the second part
depicted. tralized communication in a way that is befitting of of Figure 5, we see a visualization of the phase space
non-mobile architectural elements, it is discrete in of this system (visualization method from Sayama

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 417


2015). Each possible configuration of the system is
subjected to the majority rule (in a Moore neighbor-
hood in periodic space), and the configuration it goes
to in the next timestep is recorded. Then, a graph
is constructed showing each configuration transition
as an edge connecting the two configurations. Each
component (cluster) in the graph reveals a basin of
attraction in the system, and the hub of that com-
ponent (center of the cluster) reveals the attractor
(see Sayama 2015). The phase space visualization
for this system shows that it has two equally large
basins of attraction, going to the attractor configu-
rations of fully dark or fully light. There are several
other configurations that have no predecessors and
do not change configuration when subjected to the
rule. The only way for the system to achieve these
states is to begin there, and, once there, it can pro-
ceed nowhere else (see Sayama 2015). When using
these systems in architectural design, however, we
are unlikely to be concerned with the internal states
of members of the system, which is what the phase
space description is based upon. We are much more
likely to be concerned with the material manifesta-
tion left behind as the system progresses. For this
reason, we originate the concept of the mathematical
formation space, as an extension of the phase space
intended specifically for the realm of architectural de-
sign. The formation space is an isometric mapping
onto the existing phase space (hence being consid-
ered an extension). It is a mapping of a particular
418 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
Figure 5
1) An enumeration
of all possible
configurations of a
2-dimensional
binary state CA with
4 cells, 2) author's
visualization, based
on Sayama's (2015),
of the phase space,
attractors, and
attraction basins of
the CA (Wolfram
characteristic of the configuration at a larger scale 1983), and 3) a
than the individual cell, ideally at a scale at which visualization of
some coherence or correlation of behavior is appli- isometrically
cable to the design problem at hand. In the third mapping a
portion of Figure 5, we look at the particular char- formation space of
acteristic of length of boundaries between oppos- the CA onto the
ing states throughout the system's entirety, isomet- phase space,
rically mapped onto the phase space to form a for- according to the
mation space. In this mapping, we can see that the characteristic of
two large basins of attraction now lead to the same boundary length.
attractor, boundary length "0", and that the 7 states
which used to be completely isolated can now be
grouped together into boundary lengths "2" and "4".
This method of visualization shown in Figure 5 (for
phase space and for formation space) is fine for this
very small system. However, the number of possi-
ble configurations in a CA system is defined as the
number of possible cell states, raised to the power
of the number of cells (Wolfram 1983, Sayama 2015).
So, while this system shown in Figure 5 contains only
16 (2ˆ4) configurations, a system with only 16 cells
would contain 65,536 (2ˆ16) configurations. It is easy
to see how this visualization approach quickly be-
comes unmanageable.
Rather than interrogating every possible config-
uration in the phase space or formation space, we
must find ways to approximate effectively and make
reliable design decisions. The following lays out rea-
soning for the usefulness of the formation space (and
related concepts), in architectural design, as motiva-
Figure 6
Progression of two
setups. Top setup
reaches its steady
states very quickly,
bottom setup does
not yet reach its
steady states at the
100th step.

Figure 7
The 100th timestep
of 20 different
setups, with 5
separate simulation
runs shown for each
setup. Setups are
indicated by
number of states (s)
and size of
neighborhood
radius (r). This
side-by-side
comparison is
meant as a method
of visual analysis
exploring
dependencies in
the system through
changing variables.

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 419

 tion for further work to verify usefulness and find ef- randomized initial condition will fall. But, if we look at
fective approximations. For this case study, we in- the formation space, we can reliably project (perhaps,
clude 20 setups of the CA, and conduct 5 simulation in some cases, even guarantee) the attractor that the
runs for each setup. The 20 setups cover each pos- characteristic will fall near to. Therefore, it is feasi-
sible combination if number of possible cell states (s) ble that using this system, we could design low-level
ranges from 2 to 5 and radius size of neighborhood (r) control rules to reliably produce an approximate de-
ranges from 1 to 5 (these setup choices are strongly sired density, number, and spatial scale of the occu-
informed by PyCX Project [12] and Sayama 2015). In- piable areas present on the site.
dividual timesteps of single runs of two of the se-
tups are shown in Figure 6, and the 100th timestep Figure 8
of every run is shown in Figure 7. In Figure 6, we Visualizing the
see that the upper setup settles on its steady states configuration of the
extremely quickly, while the lower setup has not yet steady states of two
reached its steady states even by the 100th timestep. runs of the same
In Figure 7, we see that setups with smaller neigh- setup, and
Probe study into evolving controllers visualizing the
borhood radii reliably reach a steady state with many
If, instead of designing for a particular set of these cri- boundaries
small clusters, with the initial possible states approx-
teria, we desire that the density and scale of these oc- between binary
imately equally represented. We also see that setups
cupiable areas can adjust, just like height, to achieve states in those same
with larger neighborhood radii tend to end with the
shading on the site, then we could subject the con- two steady
entire system in a homogeneous state, with only one
trol rules of the system to evolution. In Figure 9 we configurations.
of the starting cell states represented.
see the results of an example probe study (Thomsen
If we look at the resulting steady states from two
and Tamke 2009) into evolving the controller in sim-
runs of the same setup, such as those in Figure 8, it
ulation (in Galapagos [14]). The evolution of the con-
is clear that it would be impossible to predict which
troller is rewarded for maximizing open area, shad-
state an individual cell will end up in, or which over-
ing that open area, and maximizing length of bound-
all configuration the system will end up, if the start-
aries. The results of this probe (Figure 9) show dif-
ing conditions are randomized and unknown. In this
ferent results on each site, suggesting response to
way, considering the phase space of the system, its
differences in shade provided by neighboring build-
result seems incredibly unpredictable, and perhaps
ings. The first site, shaded only from the south,
not useful for architectural design. However, if we
results in high density of boundary condition, tall
do not consider the cell states, system configuration,
growths, and open areas in the center, where they are
and phase space, and instead consider the formation
shaded by growths. The second site, more shaded
space and spatially-useful characteristics at the scale
by buildings, results in shorter, fewer growths. The
most relevant to the design problem at hand, the
third site, already very shaded, results in low den-
system suddenly seems drastically more predictable.
sity of boundary conditions, and growths that slope
If we look only at the boundaries between states in
downward and outward, thereby providing little ad-
these two simulation results, and consider the overall
ditional shade to open areas. These preliminary out-
boundary length in the system, we can see that they
comes show promise in fulfilling the high-level de-
are very similar. More precisely, they are of lengths
sign requirements of maintaining open occupiable
1,834 and 1,709; incredibly similar for a system with
space and system growths as spatial dividers, and of
10,000 cells. In short, if we look at the phase space
shading occupiable space that is not already shaded
of this system it is difficult, or impossible, to predict
by neighboring buildings, suggesting that the probe
precisely into which basin of attraction an unknown
into evolving controllers merits further investigation.

420 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1

Figure 9
Results of probe
study, evolving the
CA majority rule
controller in
simulation on three
distinct sites.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, we have presented a design method-
ology for applying phase space considerations to the
realm of architecture, as an alternative to methods of
averaging and homogenization. We have presented
the framework of the florarobotica common encod-
ing and integrated projection. We have originated
the formation space, as a concept to deal with char-
acteristics of active architectural artifacts at a scale
that is pertinent to a specific design requirement. We
have used the formation space as a framework for de-
sign analysis of case study simulation results in the
context of a specific design task, and used that anal-
ysis to construct a probe study into evolving con-
trollers in simulation. The results of the probe point
toward the possibility of future work using the forma-
tion space to evolve low-level control rules for high-
level design tasks, with specificity to individual site.
In the context of the prior flora robotica work on evo-
lutionary robotics and crossing the reality gap with
bio-hybrids, this shows the potential usefulness of
the formation space in looking at high-level architec-
tural design requirements and merging them with
distributed control and distributed communication.
Future work includes pursuing substantiation of this
specific potential usefulness, as well as general for-
malization, development, and verification of the for-
mation space concept.
GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 421
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
flora robotica has received funding from the Euro-
pean Union's Horizon 2020 research and innova-
tion programme under the FET grant agreement no.
640959.
The authors would like to thank collaborators
Heiko Hamann and Payam Zahadat for guidance in
swarm robotics and artificial life, and Mohammad Di-
vband Soorati for his idea of common encoding. The
authors would like to thank Yaneer Bar-Yam, Hiroki
Sayama, and the NECSI Winter School for instruction
in complex systems and modelling. The paper relies
heavily on the example of Sayama's PyCX Project.
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Evolving Parametric Models using Genetic Programming
with Artificial Selection
John Harding1
1
University of The West of England
1
john3.harding@uwe.ac.uk

Evolutionary methods with artificial selection have been shown to be an effective

human-computer technique for exploring design spaces with unknown goals. This
paper investigates an interactive evolution of visual programs currently used in
popular parametric modelling software. Although parametric models provide a
useful cognitive artifact for designers to interact with, they are often bound by
their topological structure with the designer left to adjusting (or optimising)
metric variables as part of a design search. By allowing the topological structure
of the graph to be evolved as well as the parameters, artificial selection can be
employed to explore a wider design space more suited to the early design stage.

Keywords: genetic programming, parametric design, artificial selection,

evolutionary design, design exploration

INTRODUCTION applications shows a desire to allow modelling and

Parametric modelling software for constructing vi-
sual programs is now commonplace in architectural
design. Based on dataflow programming, visual pro-
grams define the development of form through a se-
ries of associated explicit functions, commonly tak-
ing the form of a Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG). The
structure of the DAG describes a mapping of num-
bers to geometry, setting out a possible design space
to be explored when parameters are adjusted (Aish
and Woodbury 2005).
A combination of parametric modelling and per-
formance analysis tools allow designs to be evalu-
ated both quantitatively and qualitatively in real-time
when adjusting parameters. This process is now well-
known, with multiple 3rd party analysis plug-ins (en-
vironmental, structural, etc.) being developed for vi-
sual programming tools such as Rhino Grasshopper
and Autodesk Dynamo. The recent increase in such
analysis to take place in the same integrated environ-
ment.
Cognitive Artifact
A 'parametric schema' defines the development of
form explicitly as well as providing a cognitive artifact
for the design team to interact with. Parametric mod-
elling therefore shifts focus on final form to the devel-
opment of form. As Oxman states (2006, 243): "In dig-
ital design significant processes that have frequently
been represented as non-explicit in traditional de-
sign models must now be considered explicit".
This differentiates explicit programs that have
a defined hierarchy with implicit ones, for example
those found in emergent systems. Whilst the latter
can offer novel design approaches and wide design
exploration (Bentley and Kumar 1999), the explicit
developmental structure between 'seed' and 'design'

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 423

 is often lost. Parametric models therefore provide a
valuable cognitive artifact for design teams working
at the level of process.
Parametric lock-in
Although a DAG-based parametric model keeps a
record of how building geometry is created, display-
ing this explicitly comes at a price. As Aish and Wood-
bury (2005, 11) state: "nothing can be created in a
parametric system for which a designer has not ex-
plicitly externalised... this runs counter to the often-
deliberate cultivation of ambiguity that appears to be
part of the healthy design process." As the DAG be-
comes increasingly complicated, so its flexibility re-
duces. The graph can quickly resemble a tangle of
spaghetti, making it increasingly inflexible and un-
suitable for the early stages of design where flexibility
is most desired (Davis 2013).
Although theoretically an infinite amount of de-
signs can be generated in a parametric system (Ox-
man and Gu 2015), they are bounded by the topo-
logical structure of the DAG. To date, evolutionary
methods in parametric design have focused on ad-
justing numeric parameters only, for example when
parametric models are combined with metaheuris-
tics such as Genetic Algorithms (GA) or Simulated An-
nealing (SA) (Rutten 2013).
This paper therefore investigates whether a
wider parametric design exploration using evolu-
tionary methods can take place by allowing the topo-
logical structure of the DAG to evolve in addition
to the metric parameters? This would help counter
parametric lock-in, opening up design possibilities at
the conceptual stage by working at a higher level of
abstraction (Harding et al. 2012).
GENETIC PROGRAMMING FOR DAGS
DeLanda (2002, 11) states that if architectural designs
are to enjoy the same degree of combinatorial pro-
ductivity as biological ones, we must begin to "think
topologically" and avoid too narrow a design search.
By applying Genetic Programming (GP) techniques
on DAG-based parametric models, this can poten-
424 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
tially be achieved - essentially turning parametric de-
sign software into a combinatorial shape grammar
with a vast selection of common geometric rules al-
ready at hand.
Shape grammars in architectural design have
seen a resurgence in recent years (Grasl and
Economou 2014), both in terms of alternative meth-
ods of representation using graphs (Grasl and
Economou 2011) and in supporting designers who
are still in the process of designing and may not yet
have a clear shape grammar in mind (Strobbe et al.
2015). Whereas these examples tend to use bespoke
software applications, the motivation for this work
lies in working with existing visual programming
methods such as Rhino Grasshopper.
In architectural design, GP has been explored
in the generation of form by Frazer (1995) and later
Coates et al. (1999) using GP with Lindenmayer
systems. More recently evolving networks through
augmenting topologies (NEAT) (Stanley and Miikku-
lainen 2002) have been employed for the exploration
of novel forms (Clune and Lipson 2011).
A recent form of GP known as Cartesian Ge-
netic Programming (CGP) has focussed specifically on
evolving DAGs (Miller and Harding 2008). The attrac-
tion of CGP and its applicability in a wide range of
fields is partly due to its relatively simple develop-
mental encoding from an integer string to combina-
torial structures. This form of encoding has inspired
the method presented here that reduces a Grasshop-
per parametric model to a part-integer, part-floating
point genotype, with the associated phenotype a
parametric model.
Embryo
Embryo is the name of a Rhino Grasshopper plug-in
developed by the author that maps a number string
genotype to a complete parametric model pheno-
type. The choice of development within Grasshop-
per was partly due to its current popularity. As Vier-
linger and Bollinger state (2014, 609): "Grasshopper
unveils algorithmic design to non-programmers with
intuitive interfaces". Its organisation of common (and
Figure 1
Encoding process
used by Embryo
when generating a
Grasshopper
definition.
bespoke) explicit functions into 'components' make
them similar to shape grammar rules, and the poten-
tial for combining both human and computer gen-
erated DAGS and analysis tools under one platform
make it an attractive choice.
Constructing a graph in Grasshopper can be split
into three categories: External parameters (for exam-
ple numeric sliders, external geometry, etc.), the pool
of components in the graph (nodes) and the topolog-
ical structure that forms associations between com-
ponents (edges). These three categories form the ba-
sis of the genotype used by Embryo when construct-
ing a parametric model:
1. Metric genes: control the parameter values
for generated sliders and have a direct numer-
ical mapping. These can be either integer or
floating point values. These metric parame-
ters are the first things generated by Embryo.
2. Function genes: when a component is added
to the graph, the function genes controls the
type of component is selected from the pool.
3. The topological genes are integer based and
map the output location for each component
input when forming the graph. Altering these
genes changes the topology of the graph.
If enough genes are not provided then genes are re-
peated. Furthermore, if the value of genes are too
high for the current state of the system then modular
arithmetic is used. Using a large gene pool negates
this but requires more memory.
Figure 1 gives an outline of the process with a
GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 425
simple example. A component pool is specified (a),
which in addition to the genotype is used by the Em-
bryo component (b) to generate a parametric model
(c). The metric genes are mapped directly to the nu-
meric sliders. The functional (shown blue) and topo-
logical (shown red) aspects of the genotype indicate
how each component is chosen and its inputs are
then connected back to an output respectfully. A
form of parameter datatype matching ensures wires
are connected to relevant inputs and outputs.
Further details on the method used can be found
in Harding (2014) which includes the current limita-
tions with the approach. This include aspects such
as handling multiple associations per component in-
put which is yet to be included. Aspects such as deal-
ing with parameter datatype matching and more set-
tings such as removing unsuccessful components is
also discussed but will not be elaborated on here.
Clearly the combinatorial possibilities with such
a process is huge, hence a brute force approach for
exploring the design space meaningfully is difficult
and other metaheuristics should be considered that
help counter bloat, a known problem when using GP
(Miller 2001). The explicit embryogeny of the DAG
encoding makes it suitable for evolutionary methods
such as genetic algorithms (Kumar and Bentley 2000),
where evolvability is also a key concern.
The CGP encoding method means that during
mutation and crossover, aspects of the original def-
inition are maintained. As the process is effectively
evolving a visual program itself, this essentially trans-
lates to a form of genetic programming.
 EVOLVING PARAMETRIC MODELS
Evolutionary algorithms commonly use an objective
function to evaluate designs at each generation. Ar-
tificial selection however replaces this function with
selection by human participant(s) who need not
make their motivations explicit and may change dur-
ing the evolutionary process (Dawkins 1986). Such
Interactive Evolutionary Computation (IEC) methods
are capable of exploring complexity without requir-
ing human understanding of the specific process in-
volved (Sims 1991, 328).
Leaving the objective function open to the de-
sign team allows for qualitative or intangible drivers
to be included in the design search. That is not to say
that quantitative performance criteria cannot be in-
cluded, only that the human participant(s) becomes
an active part of the design search, guiding the evo-
lutionary method through the paradox of choice at
the early design stage (Piasecki and Hanna 2011).
Judgement during evolution therefore takes
place on two forms of phenotypic representation,
both the parametric schema (development model)
and the building model (generated design). The de-
sign team can (if they choose) steer the process to
evolve parametric models that are legible, or capable
of being understood. Maintaining this engagement
gives the evolved models a chance to be further de-
veloped manually following an evolutionary process.
Grasshopper Setup
Grasshopper proved to be a suitable environment for
combining Embryo, a metaheuristic algorithm and
an artificial selection method. By explicitly formulat-
ing the search algorithm in the same environment
as the problem is defined, a more flexible reaction
to special requirements is possible (Vierlinger and
Bollinger 2014, 611). This meant that several third
party components could be used to construct an in-
teractive evolutionary approach.
Octopus Explicit (Vierlinger and Bollinger 2014)
is a set of tools for forming customised evolution-
ary algorithms. In this implementation the genotype
format (Octopus solution), components for crossover
426 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
(Simulated Binary Crossover) and mutation (point)
are all utilised. Hoopsnake by Yannis Chatzikonstanti-
nou [1] facilitates feedback loops within Grasshop-
per. This is activated following selection, allowing the
population to evolve and pause for user input at each
generation.
Figure 2
The evolutionary
process with
associated
Grasshopper
plug-ins
highlighted in red.
Figure 2 shows the overall process with associated
special components highlighted in red. An initial
population of genotypes and associated parametric
model phenotypes are randomly generated. These
can be viewed by the designer (both in terms of the
DAG and generated geometry) and two elite parents
selected for the next generation. Crossover and mu-
tation is then applied to form the next generation.
The associated implementation in Grasshopper
is given in Figure 3. Below the horizontal threshold
line is the metaheuristic process as per the previous
diagram. This includes the manipulation of the popu-
lation of genotypes and their use by the Embryo com-
ponent (shown bottom right). The parametric mod-
els generated by the machine are located above the
threshold line. The components used in the gener-
ated graph are selected from a pool, shown top-left.
These could be any Grasshopper components, either
Figure 3
The setup in
Grasshopper. The
model above the
threshold line is
machine-
generated.

Figure 4
Three bespoke
Grasshopper
components for the
Tower Hamlets
project.

standard ones or those created by third parties. Project Application

Note that in this example, some human placed
components have also been incorporated during
graph generation, something that Embryo can han-
dle with outputs being tagged (*). This is one of the
main benefits of using a single environment, as de-
signers can begin to work at different levels of ab-
straction (i.e. crossing the threshold).
In collaboration with 3DReid Architects (London),
Embryo was originally used to generate paramet-
ric models for a residential project in Tower Ham-
lets (Harding 2014). Shape grammar rules were em-
bedded as Grasshopper components (Figure 4) with
heuristics both specific for this project and based on
the experience of the architect.

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 427

 This included two types of residential massing block
of set width and variable length: one with a set min-
imum height (a) and one with an additional vari-
able controlled by the 'add storeys' input (b). Planes
for connecting the massing blocks were set as input
and output parameters, allowing different but con-
strained permutations to be explored. An additional
third component formed a link bridge between res-
428 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
idential blocks to improve connectivity and contrast
the orthogonality of the block layout (c).
The original process involved mostly using a ran-
dom seed to generate designs, but only small alter-
ations could then be made manually. Essentially, the
process whilst useful became a task of selecting a par-
ticular generated model as opposed to developing
one iteratively using cumulative selection.
Figure 5
Six generations of
development.
Gross internal area
is shown for each
design.
 In light of this, the original project was therefore re-
visited, adapted into the evolutionary method as dis-
cussed in the previous section and a new trial con-
ducted. The generated parametric models therefore
lie somewhere in-between a human and machine ap-
proach, with the process becoming more of a conver-
sation with the machine able to suggest alternatives
but with neither party dictating development.
Results
In the trial, an initial random population of 8 designs
was presented to the design team. The paramet-
ric models generated began with 6 numeric param-
eters and 12 components. A crossover and muta-
tion rate of 0.7 and 0.1 respectively was used. During
the search, quantitative analysis could be conducted
again within Grasshopper. In this simple example, us-
able floor area (as a function of volume) and a mea-
sure of heat loss (surface area / volume) is offered to
Figure 6
Associated
parametric model
topology at each
generation.
GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 429
the design team that can potentially influence the se-
lection process.
Designs with around 40,000m2 GIA based on the
number of residential units were deemed to be desir-
able. The massing context could be easily referenced
in during the design search due again to the single
Rhino/Grasshopper environment.
The results of a typical run is shown in Figure
5 with each design having an associated parametric
model phenotype (Figure 6). Each design is labelled
A-H for each generation. In this example, only six
generations are shown but the process could in the-
ory continue indefinitely. Two parent designs are se-
lected from each generation as shown highlighted.
Some of the motivations behind the selection at
each generation were recorded during the process:
1. First choice simply based on potential for fu-
ture development.
2. Option D chosen due to the introduction of a

block in the x-axis. Option B chosen due to in-
teresting array of link bridges
3. Option D again for the same reasons. Option
(F3) with non-working components not se-
lected. Parameter domains reduced and com-
ponent number increased to 16. Option G se-
lected due to possible courtyard space at cen-
tre.
4. Options D&E appear similar with slightly dif-
ferent parameters. D selected. GIA needs
reducing to brief requirement influencing
choice of H.
5. Heat losses getting quite high hence Option
H selected. Elevated elements providing in-
terest. Ramp on A a possible entrance to
a centrally located building away from exist-
ing massing. Courtyard created between new
buildings and existing.
6. Option F now has ramps from one location
to two blocks. Heat loss performance has re-
covered. GIA is a little low but further adjust-
ments can be made.
The motivations during the search were both qual-
itative and quantitative, and constantly subject to
change. Once the final design was selected, a para-
metric definition exists (as opposed to a CAD model)
could be taken forward for further development. Fig-
ure 7 shows how the model was developed in terms
of parameter adjustment (a), alterations to the graph
(b) and enhancing the massing model (c). The GIA
could therefore be increased to the brief requirement
parametrically.
430 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1
Figure 7
The evolved
definition is further
modified and
shown in context.
Clearly these are simply massing models and some
of the choices made are based on relatively simple
criteria, but the potential for including graph devel-
opment as part of the search has potential if the leg-
ibility of the graph can remain. The clean structure
of machine generated parametric models can help
with this. In reality there is a balance to be struck
between having too few metric parameters to un-
derstand their influence and too many to keep track
of. As Davis (2013, 76) states: "An ideal parametric
model would encompass all the variations the de-
signer wants to explore within the smallest dimen-
sionality possible."
CONCLUSIONS
This research shows how a combination of paramet-
ric modelling tools with genetic programming can
explore wider design spaces in architectural design
whilst retaining a parametric definition. By opening
up the topology of the graph as part of the search,
parametric models are generated as opposed to ad-
justment of numeric parameters by the metaheurisic.
Using an interactive evolutionary algorithm, human-
computer interaction can be used to enhance the
search even when the problem cannot be defined.
The example given has shown potential, but has
revealed a number of limitations that need address-
ing in future work:
• At present only one parametric model can be
viewed at a time (Grasshopper is not designed
for this type of use). Further interface devel-
opment is therefore required to display mul-
 tiple models in each generation simultane-
ously.
• All generated numeric parameters have the
same range giving no hierarchy of scale ap-
propriate to the components they are associ-
ated to.
• As discussed in Section 3, multiple edges per
component input is yet to be implemented.
• It was found that crossover caused a larger
than expected disruption to the parent
graphs. This was likely due to the CGP method
of encoding and using mutation alone may be
more suitable approach in future in line with
other CGP applications (Clegg et al. 2007).
• Bloat can still be an issue and generated para-
metric models can sometimes freeze. Incor-
porating a maximum calculation time and re-
moving any model that does not compute
from the gene pool is a possible solution.
• Facilitating groups of components in the pool
(i.e. clusters).
• User fatigue is a known issue with interactive
evolutionary computation. Kruse and Conor
(2015) have shown how intelligent agents can
be used in conjunction with an IGA.
As well as addressing these limitations, future related
research includes using the technique to evolve para-
metric models for existing CAD geometry in order to
suggest new design directions for models that are
inflexible. Here a combination of target based evo-
lution is more suitable, perhaps using other meta-
heuristics such as simulated annealing.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank 3D Reid Architects for
their support during this research. This work is part-
sponsored by the 2016/17 UWE VC Early Career Re-
searcher Development Award.
GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 431
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366
Rutten, D 2013, 'Galapagos: On the logic and limitations
of generic solvers', Architectural Design, 83(2), pp.
132-135
Sims, K 1991 'Artificial evolution for computer graphics',
Computer Graphics 25(4), Siggraph '91 Proceedings,
pp. 319-328
Stanley, KO and Miikkulainen, R 2002, 'Evolving neural
networks through augmenting topologies', Evolu-
tionary computation, 10(2), pp. 99-127
Stiny, G and Mitchell, WJ 1978, 'The palladian grammar',
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Vierlinger, R and Bollinger, K 2014 'Accommodating
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[1] http://yconst.com/software/hoopsnake/

432 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Design Concepts & Strategies - Volume 1

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications
Homeorhetic Assemblies
Turning beehive formation dynamics into high-res tectonics

Roberto Monesi1 , Alessio Erioli2

1
università di Bologna 2 Università di Bologna
1
www.emergent-behaviors.blogspot.com
2
www.unibo.it/sitoweb/alessio.erioli
1
mone.monesi@hotmail.it 2 alessio.erioli@unibo.it

This thesis research investigates the architectural and tectonic potential that can
stem from behavioral complexity of collective construction in biological systems
and its dynamic relations with the colony in terms of the continuous construction
and adaptation process over the time. The role model considered as a case study
regards the dynamics of honeycomb formation, and in particular three
fundamental behaviours have been extracted from this biological process:
stigmergic behavior, structural self-stabilization capacity and environmental
adaptability. All these features were then coded into a multi agent system
interacting in an heterogeneous environment and capable of selectively adding
elements to a particle-spring system that is periodically self-adjusting, simulating
material behavior. The outcomes, strongly rich and heterogeneous in their spatial
organization, are characterized by a continuous tectonic of emerging
singularities seamlessly flowing into one another.

Keywords: tectonics, beehive, stigmergy, multi-agent system, robotics

INTRODUCTION
Homeorhetic Assemblies begins from the study of
self-organizing biological systems. The reason for
this interest is rooted in principles of ecology, here
intended as the study of the set of economies (ex-
change relations) between an organism and its envi-
ronment, and efficient resource distribution patterns
are a cornerstone of evolutionary success of a sys-
tem. An ecology applied to design and contempo-
rary fabrication technology beyond mere formal im-
plications (i.e. imitating shapes) in the search for ar-
ticulated spatial complexity and heterogeneous per-
formance with a high-resolution fabric made of sin-
gle elements that share the same shape and mate-
rial. The analyzed systems are characterized by the
ability to create highly organized structures and effi-
cient complexity from simple rules and a single ma-
terial, harmonizing form with material organization
and physiology in a condition of homeorhesis (a sta-
ble dynamic of development). Their morphological
and physiological complexity are not the outcome of
a carefully thought and executed general plan, they
rather emerge from the interaction in space and time
of a large number of individuals with elementary be-
haviors and their ability to perform acts of construc-
tion (pick and place, pour, weave, etc.) engaging also

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 435

 the morphogenetic capacities of a variety of material
systems.
ROLE MODEL
The role model considered as a case study regards
the dynamics of honeycomb formation (see Figure
1). The honeycomb stereotype, a grid of perfectly
hexagonal cells, is just a particular case of forma-
tion on a flat surface in homogeneous conditions;
nonetheless, it has too often been misinterpreted as
a general design intent from the bees. This is one of
such cases (phyllotaxis is the typical other case) when
representation cuts the links between a pattern and
the dynamics of its formation. Cell shape, size and de-
ployment depend instead from its primary function
(containment), size and body shape of the construc-
tor agent and other factors unfolding over time such
as coordination among agents and material behav-
ior and the variability of environmental conditions
(Tautz 2004).Three fundamental behaviors have been
extracted from the role model: morphogenetic ca-
pacity of the material, stigmergic behavior and envi-
ronmental adaptability during the growth process.
MORPHOGENETIC CAPACITY OF THE MATE-
RIAL
Processes and interactions that lead to the realiza-
tion of a beehive are multiple and unfold continu-
ously in space and time. The physical parameters,
such as mechanical characteristics and their variation
in time play a fundamental role in the system. In the
case of the hive, in every instant of the growth pro-
cess the structure is stable, and this is possible not
only because self-organization promotes stable pat-
terns (Camazine et al. 2003), but also because the ma-
terial is able to adapt (modifying its shape, its den-
sity and its consistency) to the efforts and tensions
to which it is subjected. Tautz (2004) demonstrates
these morphogenetic capabilities investigating the
processes necessary for the realization of the hon-
eycomb, which is defined as emergent result from
the interaction between the function of the cells, the
construction technique and the material. At the mo-
436 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1
ment of deposition the material is in viscous state (to
be worked more easily) and the cells are built accord-
ing to the size and shape of the bees' body. The re-
sult is a closest-packing pattern composed of cylin-
drical cells all similar in size to each other because the
size of worker bees is equally similar. After short time,
during the passage of the wax from viscous to solid
state, the tension in the material tends to change the
cell's original shape, concentrating efforts along the
lines of contact between the various cylinders; from
these interactions and the closest packing arrange-
ment emerges a cell shape that tends to the char-
acteristic hexagonal pattern. This material capacity
becomes essential for the entire system to optimize
stress distribution patterns and ensure great stability
to the whole structure.
STIGMERGIC BEHAVIORS
Camazine et al.(2003) demonstrates how the way
in which the bees realize their natural hives can be
considered as a self-organized biological system, in
which the resulting structure emerges from the ac-
tivity of many individuals, none of which is a leader or
has plans to follow. A fundamental aspect for study-
ing the self-organizing systems is to understand the
way in which the agents interact with each other. On
this topic Camazine et al. confirmed the studies pub-
lished by Darchen and Darchen (1994), that demon-
strates how communication between the bees dur-
ing the construction process happen via stigmergy
(indirect coordination among agents by means of
a trace in the environment). The potential of this
type of interaction is evident in many biological sys-
tems (such as termite mounds) and has been care-
fully studied in computing by Johnson (2009). Dur-
ing the hive construction each bee deposits a small
amount of wax, in adjacency to the already built cells,
which can be used to continue the construction. The
wax acts thus as an attractor for the other insects
and this material directs the building development
process. Stigmergy, then, is used to regulate the se-
quence and the pattern of construction start points
as well as affecting the bee trajectories and allows the
Figure 1
Example of natural
beehive: these
images from web
([1],[2],[3],[4]) show
the emergence of
the typical
hexagonal pattern
and the great
capacity of the
system to adapt to
the environment.

suitable material concentration for the system devel-
opment.
ENVIRONMENTAL ADAPTATION
Another typical property of self-organizing systems,
and fundamental characteristic of the beehive, is
their environmental adaptability. The colony, in fact,
is able to interact with the environment and eval-
uate the principal parameters for its development.
Darchen and Darchen (1994) demonstrate this great
adaptability studying the system behaviors in rela-
tion to some essential environmental factors. The
first one is temperature: bees are extremely suscepti-
ble to these parameter variations (especially larvae)
and for this reason the hive is developed along ar-
eas with very low thermal variation. Effect of airflow
is the second environmental parameter considered:
beehives, in fact, in the case of persistent flows, tend
to follow the main directions of the wind; in this way
the currents are conveyed and thermal fluctuations
reduced, while also limiting orthogonal stresses on
the honeycombs. Another typical characteristic of
many self-organizing systems is their ability to take
advantage from the potentialities that the environ-
ment offers: bees, during the hive construction, are
able to wrap, incorporate or attach to any part of
the environment that is able to afford that operation,
thereby transforming them into anchor points for the
structure. This behavior allows more development
possibilities for the system increasing its stability.
BEHAVIORAL MODELS
All the features of the bees' works were coded into
a multi agent system, based on a large number of
agents which shared behaviours can be divided into
three families: physical and mechanical properties,
stigmergy and environmental adaptation. Since the
final intent is to transfer the process to a different
scale and means of fabrication (robotic driven fil-
ament deposition) the cell as elementary unit for
growth has been substituted with linear segments.
PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
All the behaviors and properties used to simulate the
creation of physical structures and their features are
included into this family, and their influence on the
system is visible in Figure 2.
Material deposition and self-stabilization. Each
agent combines its movement with a continuous
analysis of the environmental conditions. Whenever
suitable conditions are met, it deposits a physical
structure in which every particle is connected to the
nearest among the already existing ones through
springs. Thus, the structural system created (which
has specific physical and resilience characteristics)
has a tendency to continuous self-stabilization, tend-
ing to a stable configuration. The structure, then,

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 437

 turns out to be in continuous transformation under
the effect of the external forces.
Repulsive charges. To ensure the continuity of the
interstitial voids each agent also settles repulsive
charges that guarantee a minimum distance be-
Figure 2
tween different honeycombs. When this distance is
Examples of
not respected the structures tend to connect by in-
morphological
creasing the local stiffness.
variations
STIGMERGIC BEHAVIORS dependent on
Stigmergic behaviors are a fundamental part of the physical parameters
coded system because (although indirectly) they are such as the
the only form of communication between agents. maximum length
and minimum
Cohesion. The first behavior concerns the interac- percentage of
tion of the agent with the particles that are set at a elongation of the
medium-long distance from its actual location. Each springs.
agent is attracted by the visible portion of the already
stabilized material. This behavior affects directly the
agent's movement and its deposition behavior; it is
essential to trigger material concentration (which is
typical of stigmergic systems) and avoid dispersion
(see Figure 3).

Strength increase in time. A fundamental charac- Figure 3

teristic of the studied role model is the alteration of Examples of
the physical and mechanical features of the structural morphological
elements over time. To implement this in the simula- variations caused
tion, each spring increases its stiffness over time. The by the changes of
simulated hardening produces a greater diversifica- the parameters of
tion of the structural behaviour. The result is a de- stigmergic
formability that decreases over time and the progres- cohesion (visual
sive transformation of elements from elastic springs range and
into rigid bodies. Over time, the older parts of the magnitude).
structure become less and less compliant to physi-
cal stress, freezing the particles into place and lock-
ing their surrounding region in a fixed configuration,
allowing the overall development of the structure.
Double section deposit. To ensure adequate struc-
tural redundancy but simultaneously for limit the
number of unnecessary connections each agent de-
Separation. The second stigmergic behavior, in-
posits the material in the form of double cubic sec-
stead, regards the agent's interaction with the nearby
tion. This allows to reduce the maximum length of
particles. Below a certain proximity threshold, the
the springs and, at the same time, also to increase the
particles generate a repulsion force towards the
global structural rigidity.
agent, which will tend to move away (see Figure 4).
This behavior is fundamental for the growth of the

438 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1

 whole system, as it prevents the agents from pen-
etrating into the already deposited structures, opti-
mizing their work and permitting a greater overall de-
velopment.
Figure 4
Examples of
morphological
variations caused
by the changes of
the parameters of
stigmergic
separation (visual
range and
magnitude).
Environmental adaptation
The ability to read and analyze space is a fundamental
characteristic for the system's environmental adapta-
tion. In order to make the simulation as plausible as
possible, the environment (modeled as a finite and
discrete voxel grid) is considered anisotropic and it is
characterized by different fields (vector and scalar).
Vector field. Each agent is able to read the strength
and the direction of the field at its current loca-
tion. This vector component has a direct influence
on the agent's speed and, consequently, on its move-
ment. By altering the agent's movement behavior,
vector fields have an indirect influence on the de-
posited material highlighting constructive patterns.
These patterns tend to canalize the principal currents
and minimizing the horizontal actions acting on the
structure.
Scalar Field. The scalar fields simulate the function
of temperature in nature: each agent reads the sur-
rounding environment and tends to move towards
areas characterized by values similar to those neces-
GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 439
sary for the construction. As a consequence, the gen-
eral development of the structure has a tendency to
follow field isovalues.
Interaction with pre-existing structures. To allow
the adaptation to wide variety of environmental con-
figurations and spaces, each agent is able to read po-
tential obstacles and modify its own movement ac-
cording to them, so as to avoid them. In case there
are still the right conditions, each agent continues to
deposit material. The particles, if they are in close
proximity to the obstacle, will adhere to it, by con-
straining to it their own position and becoming an-
chor points for the whole structure.
Voids generation. In order to increase the tectonic
and architectural potential of the system and intro-
duce the possibility of design choices, the agents
have been equipped with additional behaviors than
those in the role model. They are able to read vol-
umes and repulsion points (created for design pur-
pose) and change their motion in order to respect
these spaces. These behaviors allow the designer
a possibility of interaction with the system, with-
out limiting the properties of self-organization. The
structure, in fact, in the stabilization phase remains
free to reach its optimal configuration.
Material optimization. The deposited structure, be-
sides tending to stability in every moment of growth,
it is also continuously tested in terms of local and
global deformation by checking the elongation per-
centage with respect to its rest length. If this value is
negligible (which means so is its load), the evidently
unnecessary element is removed, so as to limit the
number of springs to those strictly necessary. From
a global point of view, in the case of great instability
of more springs, the particles, during their collapse
will approach to other parts of the structure and they
will tend, if it possible, to connect to the more stable
elements.
Tectonic research
The encoding of the multi agent system required
a careful evaluation especially of relations between
the introduced behavior (see Figure 5). To do this,
 Figure 5
Behaviours
relationship
diagram: the
picture shows
schematically the
behaviours of each
agent, and as the
process that
emerges from these
interactions it is
not-linear.

Figure 6
Examples of
different structural
configuration
emerging from
variations in the
agents behavior
(with increasing
complexity).

440 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1

 at the introduction of any change in the system we
have generated several phenotypes (see Figure 6)
based on the properties introduced until then (geno-
types). The study of these partial results allowed us
to progress in our research on continuous tectonics
until arriving at architectural scale.
FABRICATION SIMULATION
During the entire research we considered the possi-
bility to build a prototype through the use of a 6 axis
robotic arm and the realization of a nozzle for plas-
tic deposition. This step preceded by the study about
hardware (robot and extruder) and material (ABS and
PLA) it required the reorganization of deposition pat-
tern through the following phases (see Figure 7).
1. Initially all the springs have been ordered ac-
cording to the Z coordinate of their starting
point (the one on the lower level).
2. Then the possible intersections were detected
(between the elements and between ele-
ments and the robotic arm during its move-
ment). After identifying the collisions, the
affected springs were divided at the critical
points.
3. At this point all the springs (in an higher num-
ber) have been re-ordered according to the Z
coordinate of the starting point.
4. At the end of this process, to restore the struc-
Figure 7
Above: principal
phases for the
reorganization of
the deposition
pattern. Sorting,
collision detection
and new sorting.
Under: digital
simulation of the
fabrication process
for the prototype.
GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 441
tural continuity and to ensure greater stiffness
at the node, in the beginning of each spring
has been imposed to the robot a small circu-
lar motion, for increase the deposition of ma-
terial and allow a better connection between
different elements.
ARCHITECTURAL APPLICATION
To demonstrate the potentiality of homeorhetic as-
semblies, the system described was applied to ar-
chitectural scale. To do this it was necessary to de-
fine the boundary conditions. In addition to the
anisotropic space in which to run the simulation
(characterized by scalar and vector fields similar to
those found in reality), two trajectories were de-
signed. The mesh constructed from these curves rep-
resents the spaces to be respected, and to be left
empty. In this way, the fundamentals volumes for
the generation of the pavilion are imposed by the
designer. The last required inputs were the start-
ing points from which the structure starts to growth.
During the growth of the system a lot of information
emerge (in the form of data such as stiffness, defor-
mation, etc ...) and show the constant interactions
between the three main subjects involved: the envi-
ronment, the agents and the structure that they re-
alize. The extraction of these data makes it possi-
ble to verify the emergence of stabilization pattern,
 Figure 8
Patterns that
describe the
changes of
mechanical and
physical properties
of the system
during its growth.
These images show
the evolution of the
deformations (from
green to red) and
the stiffness for the
each springs (from
cyan to magenta).

Figure 9
Principal steps of
the growth of
system.

442 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1

Figure 10
Top and side view
of the complete
structure.
Figure 11
Side views of one of
the resulting
configurations.
which are fundamentals for the global development
(see Figure 8). At the end of the process (see Figure
9) the coded system produces a morphology that is
not predictable, and it reveals interesting peculiari-
ties from an architectural point of view (such as the
creation openings, cavities etc...) (see Figure 10). The
result is then a complex structure, redundant and or-
ganized from a material point of view, characterized
by a continuous tectonic and able to also generate
a good spatial continuity (see Figure 11). The indi-
vidual structural elements (all with same shape and
material) assume different values depending on their
position generating different gradient of density and
permeability.
CONCLUSION
At the design level, the process resulting from this
research is an example of coexistence between
bottom-up and top-down approach. Bottom-up
strategies are the main features: they are manifested
by stigmergic self-organization, the morphogenetic
capacity of material, the environmental adaptation
and they highlighting pattern of stability. The top-
down strategy, instead, allow us to influence the ex-
pression of self-organization, through the setup of
GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 443
the system and the introduction of voids and spaces
that will be observed by agents during the simula-
tion.The outcomes can be defined as high-res con-
tinuous tectonics that appear extremely redundant
and heterogeneous in their spatial organization. The
heterogeneous density and the spatial organization
emerge from the process of self-organization and en-
tail the development of continuous tectonics, cre-
ated for aggregation (and not for juxtaposition) of
many elements all similar to each other that undergo
a transformation so that the whole is characterized by
a set of emerging singularities (i.e. surface, column-
like and truss-like conditions), seamlessly flowing
into one another. High redundancy is a deliberate
choice, enabled by the possibilities of automating
construction through the behavioral programming
of robots: a 6 axis robotic arm (for which a custom
nozzle for plastic deposition is currently being de-
veloped) will be used for prototyping. The introduc-
tion of this further constraint required the reorgani-
zation of the deposition pattern and had consistent
feedback also in the computational simulation phase,
while not affecting the quality and complexity of the
outcomes. Possible future developments will cer-
tainly be targeted at overcoming the two main issues
 addressed in this research. The first one is the fabri-
cation (especially in large-scale) achievable by opti-
mizing the hardware and using them to prototyping
more elements assembled together, or even through
the use of more robotic arms that can be used in par-
allel. The second fundamental step will be the over-
coming of computational limits appeared in this re-
search. In fact, in these simulations many emerging
effects were limited by the low number of agents and
structural elements (each simulation involved about
200 agents and up to 300,000 springs). The use of a
single CPU therefore seems to be the main computa-
tional bottleneck. However, these problems can be
overcome through the use of technologies such as
GPU or cloud computing. Homeorhetic Assemblies is
an attempt at the application of continuous tectonics
and an exploration of their aesthetic consequences; it
constitutes an example of how they can be harnessed
for the complex articulation of architectural spaces
through high resolution assemblies and material be-
haviors coordinated by the intricate interaction of el-
ementary agents endowed with simple rules.

REFERENCES
Camazine, S, Deneuborg, JL, Franks, NR, Sneyd, J, Ther-
aulaz, G and Bonabeau, E 2003, Self-Organization
in Biological Systems, Princeton University Press,
Princeton
Darchen, B and Darchen, R 1994, Il fantastico mondo delle
api, Piccoli, Torino
Johnson, BR 2009, Pattern formation on the combs
of honeybees: increasing fitness by coupling self-
organization with templates, Division of Biological
Sciences, university of California, San Diego
Tautz, J 2004, 'Honeybee combs: construction through
a liquid equilibrium process?', The Science of Nature,
Naturwissenschaften(91), pp. 350-353
Tautz, J 2008, The Buzz about Bees: Biology of a Superor-
ganism, Springer Science & Business Media, Berlin
[1] http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org
[2] www.sawattsdesign.com
[3] www.flickr.com/photos/max_westby
[4] https://twitter.com/LondonBeeKeeper

444 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1

Monolith: The Biomedical Paradigm and the Inner
Complexity of Hierarchical Material Design
Panagiotis Michalatos1 , Andrew Payne2
1
Harvard Graduate School of Design / Autodesk, Inc. 2 Autodesk, Inc.
1,2
{panagiotis.michalatos|andrew.payne}@autodesk.com

This paper discusses our ongoing research into hierarchical volumetric modeling
and the external forces which are motivating a shift from the traditional boundary
representation (also known as BREP) that has thus far dominated design software
toward a more flexible voxel-based representation capable of describing complex
variable material distributions. We present Monolith; a volumetric modelling
application which explores hybrid forms of digital representations and new
design workflows that extend a designer's ability to describe the material
properties of a 3d model at the mesoscopic and even microscopic scales. We
discuss the inherent complexities in volumetric modelling and describe the design
opportunities which heretofore were unavailable using existing techniques.

Keywords: hierarchical materials, multi-material 3d printing, voxels

INTRODUCTION more than assemblies of discrete components (see

Two technological developments are forcing us to
reevaluate the paradigms we use in computer aided
design (CAD). The first is the emergence of new
fabrication techniques that enable greater control
over the deposition and mixing of materials at ever
smaller scales.
Rapid advancements in additive manufacturing
(AM) and material science are increasingly forcing
material design, as a technique, to become an iso-
lated self-contained practice with little feedback into
the overall design process. Instead, we argue that
material design is integral to design development
and contend that a new digital paradigm is needed
to support an integrated design process.
Secondly, 3d visualization and modelling tech-
niques are increasingly influenced by developments
in the biomedical field, which because of its sub-
ject matter is concerned with distributions of matter
Figure 1). Most design software used by architects
has its origins in mechanical engineering, and often
implies an assembly paradigm inherited from the in-
dustrial revolution. Yet, the needs of the biomedical
industry to describe living matter which exhibits mul-
tiple scales of organization and variable material dis-
tributions, have necessitated new forms of represen-
tation that go beyond the traditional boundary rep-
resentation.
In a boundary representation, influenced as it
were by the products and the demands of industrial
manufacturing, each object is understood to be fully
described by its bounding surfaces while the inte-
rior is treated as a solid homogeneous and isotropic
material. Contrastingly, in the biomedical paradigm;
the interior structure of an object matters. In fact,
the boundaries between components are fuzzy and
highly fused to the point that one cannot speak easily

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 445

 about the space between traditional CAD modeling
and three dimensional voxel based image processing
with the aim of allowing a very fine level of control
over volumetric material distributions, especially in
light of new multi-material 3D printing technologies.
With these as our two starting points, our research
and software development focuses on exploring the
design possibilities of hybrid geometric representa-
tions and design workflows that combine the intu-
itive geometric definitions of existing CAD with the
fuzziness and fluidity of voxelized models, and the
flexibility of parametrized and associative definitions.
In addition, we propose an integrated design envi-
ronment where simulation is embedded into the de-
sign process. Finally to realize the promise of hierar-
chical material design that spans scales from the mi-
cro to the macro we explore the possibilities of three
dimensional typography as a way to define varying
material properties.
446 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1
The product of our research is called Monolith and is
a hybrid modeling environment at the intersection of
CAD and three dimensional image editing (see Fig-
ure 2). It employs visualization techniques borrowed
from the biomedical field that help reveal and inter-
act with fine inner structures within the material vol-
ume. Figure 1
To achieve this we needed to address three prob- 3d printed model of
lems. One is the data structures for describing these human scull using
continuous material fields, the second is the user in- multimaterial
teraction and design workflows exposed in a soft- polyjet technology.
ware application, and third is the types of outputs
and processing that could link the digital models to
actual fabrication processes.
DATA STRUCTURES
For the data structure, we opted to use a multichan-
nel voxel model. Similar to how an image contains
RGB channels, our data structure contains a series of
channels that define different geometric and mate-
rial properties. Each channel represents one type of
field that describes a scalar value that changes from
point to point in space.
The most basic channel is the shape channel
that will determine the solid/void boundary. From
this field we will extract two nested isosurfaces that
will determine the outer and inner boundaries of the
solid volume.
A second channel will determine the material
mixing ratio and will be interpreted using three
dimensional typographic techniques into a micro-
pattern with desired porosity and anisotropy. Essen-
tially, this channel describes the material mixing ra-
tio at each point in space. For example, a value of 0.0
would mean that the first material would be applied
at the corresponding voxel location while a value of Figure 2
0.5 would be interpreted as a 50% mixture of the two Monolith's user
materials; creating a composite of their color, elastic, interface.
or optical properties (see Figure 3).
Finally three extra channels describe the fields
for volumetric texture coordinates (U, V, and W) that
will enable arbitrary flow of micro-patterns within the
volume.
Figure 3
The shape and
material ratio
channels form a
combined
outcome.
Additionally, the data structure is extensible enough
to make it easy to exchange information with simu-
lation modules. For example, supplementary chan-
nels can be added to a voxel model which contains
the base geometric information in order to store the
results of a structural analysis simulation.
Each voxel channel can be used as a drawing
context. Operations such as anti-aliased drawing of
lines, points, planes, transformed voxel models and
meshes are supported. These operations use three
Figure 4 dimensional super-sampling in order to avoid pixila-
Examples of soft tion and aliasing effects along boundaries.
Boolean operations
between voxel INTERACTION AND MODEL BUILDING
models. Various volume based modeling methods for mate-
rial gradients have been proposed before (Jackson
et al. 1999), but our approach focuses on the fluid-
ity of the user experience trying to provide a com-
prehensivre user interface for volumetric modeling.
The interaction with the model is mediated through
a layer compositing paradigm not dissimilar to tra-
ditional image processing applications (Blinn 1994).
However the layers themselves can host extensive
user interfaces with self-contained workflows. For ex-
ample, some layers adhere to a freehand painting
paradigm while others utilize a more controlled ge-
ometry based interface for field generation.
Layers are organized in a stack that is composited
to create the final model. Each layer represents either
a modeling operation (e.g. creating a set of fuzzy gra-
dients around geometric objects, or voxelize a mesh)
or a filtering operation (e.g. Gaussian blur, signed dis-
tance map).
The compositing of layers is mediated by a com-
positing function that determines the type of blend-
ing between a layer and the one above it in the
stack. These compositing functions simply corre-
GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 447
spond to different weighted arithemtic operations
between the corresponding voxel values. Geomet-
rically they correspond to Boolean operations. Addi-
tion corresponds to union, difference to subtraction,
and multiplication to intersection of solids. How-
ever because the voxel models are fuzzy, they are
characterized by gradients rather than simply solid
/ void conditions. The blending operations result in
softer blending with some filleting along the inter-
sections. Even very complex Boolean and morphing
operations that would challenge most boundary rep-
resentation based software, are trivial when using a
voxel representation. In fact, it is the sharp transitions
and acute intersections that are difficult to replicate
within the voxelized model (see Figure 4).
By using fully parameterized layers we achieve two
things. First, the user can manipulate the model and
the series of operations that generate it at a more
granular level. This is something that users have
come to expect from design applications. Second,
the use of parameterized layers allows the user to
interact with a low resolution version of the model
while editing and only compute a fine resolution ver-
sion for production. This enables the software to
achieve interactive rates during modeling and com-
positing operations.
The user can add various voxel field generator
layers that allow them to interactively define three di-
mensional gradients. The five most notable ones cor-
respond to different creative paradigms.
1. The formula based layer, generates voxel fields
by a user provided formula (see Figure 5). The user
types a function of the form f(x,y,z) and the appli-
cation evaluates this function at each x,y,z location
 throughout the voxel field. In addition any parame- Figure 5
ter that appears in the formula but is not a recognized Formula based
mathematical function (e.g. cos, sin, exp...) or re- generation.
served variable (e.g. x,y,z...) is automatically mapped
to a user controlled parameter and attached to sliders
in the UI. Thus enabling a relatively easy method for
the creation of parameterized volumetric gradients. Figure 6
2. Image based modeling methods rely on user Image sweep
provided greyscale images that are used as cross- generation.
sections in loft or extrusion operations (see Figure 6).
Whereas in brep modeling one lofts curves, in voxel
based modeling one has to extrude images. This
technique can create loft operations with smooth Figure 7
topological transitions. Geometry based
3. The geometric distance field layer enables generation.
the use of conventional geometric primitives (lines,
points, circles, boxes) as base geometries for the gen-
eration of a voxelized field around them. Various
falloff parameters remap the distance of each voxel
to a geometric element so that different gradients are
generated around objects (see Figure 7).
4. The grid editing layer allows a more controlled Figure 8
and structured way of defining arbitrary gradients in Examples of weight
space. The user interacts with a grid of points by as- editing a grid of
signing different weights to different nodes. These control points and
weights are then interpolated in order to generate various
a smooth gradient between the nodes. The user interpolation
can select different interpolation functions that result functions.
in different interpolated boundary surfaces between
the nodes (see Figure 8).
5. The free paint layer allows the user to edit the
field by applying local operations interactively, like Figure 9
"sketching", sculpting or locally distorting the under- Example of
lying voxel model (see Figure 9). localized smearing
Voxel fields created by generator layers can then control in free paint
be manipulated using various filters and effects. A mode.
Gaussian blur applied to a voxel model results in
the smoothing of the level set surface including a Figure 10
reduction of topological complexity (see Figure 10) Example of a
something that cannot be achieved with conven- Gaussian blur filter
tional mesh relaxation methods. applied to voxel
model.

448 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1

 Other filtering layers can be used in order to apply In terms of user perception, the interface emphasizes
some convolution based filters using various kernels. the volumetric aspects of the design; thus moving
Such filters can facilitate operations like erosion or the focus away from surface modelling and the im-
"thickening" of the voxel model. Other filters are used portance of the skin that has dominated BREP based
to create distortions within the voxel fields by remap- free form modeling applications to date. The user is
ping the voxel values to different locations. Voxel presented with a toolset that is geared towards the
based distortions can easily accommodate nonlin- creation of material distributions in the form of gra-
ear transformations, ranging from a simple twist, to dients that permeate space.
topologically complex operations like an inversion
that can turn a model inside out (see Figure 11), or VISUALIZATION
a symmetric self-blending. Monolith's voxel-based approach has also required
that the traditional modes of visualization be revis-
Figure 11
ited. In conventional CAD software, the primary em-
The inversion filter
phasis is on surfaces and the rendering pipeline has
turns an object
been optimized for mesh rendering. However, in
inside out.
Monolith we wanted to be able to visualize in real
time objects that are translucent, have inner and of-
ten quite intricate structures, material gradients, and
even micro-patterns (see Figures 12 and 13). This
has become possible by using pixel shaders that im-
plement a ray marching algorithm (Hadwiger et al.
Figure 12
2008). The shape channel, the material gradient, the
Use of volumetric
UVW map and the micro-pattern are all uploaded to
shaders enables the
the GPU as 3D textures and sampled along the ray
visualization of
paths. Normals are estimated from the gradient of
inner structures.
the transparency field.
The marching ray shader is implemented in
OpenGL Shading Language (GLSL) and High Level
Shading Language (HLSL) and basically computes
the alpha weighted sum of all the points that a ray
Figure 13 leaving the viewer's eye encounters as it propagates
Volumetric shading through the voxel field. This requires a rather compu-
of a medical model. tationally expensive loop within the fragment shader
that has to execute hundreds of 3d texture lookup
operations per pixel.
To further speed up the shader we use an off-
screen low res depth texture that contains either the
bounding box of the voxel field or a low resolution
version of the isosurface (Lorensen and Cline 1987).
This off-screen texture is used as a mask so that pix-
els that do not correspond to rays that would inter-
sect the voxel field are discarded early. In addition
this depth texture determines the starting points for

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 449

 the marching rays so that we can concentrate most distance will become the W coordinate. This method
of the resolution of the rays within the volume. will allow the patter to flow along a given geome-
Finally the step of the marching along a ray is try (see Figure 17). For instance it might be advan-
slightly randomized. This prevents the appearance tageous for structural reasons to align the inner scaf-
of artifacts that would make the model seem like a folding of a part to the outer surface so that some
series of transparencies parallel to the viewer. At the of edges of the pattern may align with directions of
same time randomization gives a more grainy quality principal stress in some situations.
to the rendered object.
Figure 14
A model with a 3d
RASTERIZATION halftone
In order make hierarchical material design possible,
micro-pattern.
we needed some way to describe the material pat-
terns and their mapping throughout a three dimen-
sional volume (see Figure 14). It was important that
the user should be able to control the microstructure
shape (i.e. its variable porosity) from point to point in
space and its directionality. Control over these prop-
erties enable the realization of materials with inter-
esting anisotropic optical and elastic characteristics.
There are three elements that control the micro
pattern within the volume. The first is the material
ratio channel that determines the macroscopic gra-
dient that we want to achieve. This gradient will be
reinterpreted as some short of variable porosity or
mixing ratio for the two materials that are going to
be 3d printed. The second element is a pattern that Figure 15
will get repeated throughout the volume in order to Micro-pattern map
achieve the three dimensional half toning effect. This compositing and
pattern is repeated and multiplied with the material half-toning.
ratio field. The result of this operation after binariza-
tion is a micro pattern whose porosity depends on
the underlying material ratio field. Finally in order to
determine how the micro-pattern flows through the
volume we can use a set of three channels that would
correspond to the UVW coordinates (see Figure 15). Figure 16
The user can control the flow of the UVW coordi- UVW coordinates
nates using various volumetric extensions of conven- flowing around
tional ways of generating texture coordinates (from imported mesh
a sphere, cylinder or other geometry) (Ebert et al. model.
2002). In addition Monolith enables the user to im-
port a mesh and then it propagates UV coordinates
from the mesh to the whole voxel field along the
singed distance function (see Figure 16). The signed

450 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1

Figure 17 OUTPUTS
UVW coordinates In order to allow post processing or fabrication of
flow within the monolith models we need to translate them to suit-
volume of a model. able outputs that are compatible with existing BREP
software and printer drivers. The most basic output
is a mesh of the level set surface. However in order to
describe material gradients we added two more op-
tions. One is to export a cascade of closed meshes
that represent different gradient regions along the
material mixing channel. To achieve this we create
isosurfaces of the material ratio channel and then
trim them by the shape channel. This method al-
low the use of monolith model with multimaterial
printers that support gradients indirectly through the
assignment of different materials to different adja-
cent meshes. A second way to translate continuous
voxel models into something resembling a gradient
is to use a hyperfine mesh that represents the variable
Figure 18 porosity pattern of one material mixing into another.
Example of a In addition monolith contains two slicing
micro-pattern with pipelines. The first slicing pipeline is used for the
a 2D raster slice generation of high resolution bitmap stacks intended
preview. to be used with polyjet and other bitmap based 3d
printing technologies (see Figure 18). The second
Figure 19 slicing pipeline extracts various vector based slices
Stress line that are suitable for gcode generation and FDM style
visualization using printing. In both cases the material gradient is inter-
hairline 3d printing. preted as a three dimensional half toning or dither-
ing that macroscopically will resemble one material
mixing into another.
The bitmap slicer can simultaneously slice
through the voxel field as well as a set of curves and a
bounding mesh. In order to efficiently slice through
large numbers of curves we break the curves into
line segments and use an interval tree data structure
The user can define the micro-patterns either to organize these segments so that we can limit the
through simple two dimensional grayscale images number of intersections per slice. The interval tree
(i.e. bitmaps) or through volumetric images that allows us to very quickly retrieve all line segments
they have created within Monolith itself. In that way, that intersect a horizontal slice taking into account
a voxel model can become the rasterization micro- line thickness. Curves embedded in the model can
pattern that determines the material mixing and de- be voxelized at print time allowing for the creation
position of a larger model, thus enabling a form of of very fine patterns throughout the volume without
hierarchical modeling across different scales. the need to create computationally and memory in-

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 451

 tensive meshes. For example, the stress line pattern
can be visualized and printed directly within a single
volume of material (see Figure 19). These stress line
patterns also suggest the optimal reinforcement pat-
tern if one were to use multi-material 3D printing to
deposit soft and a fibrous materials.
MATERIALIZATION AND DESIGN POTEN-
TIAL
The definition and fabrication of material gradients
presents us with new design opportunities but also
require the development of a different design intu-
ition (Kaijima and Michalatos 2011). The designer
is expected to think across multiple scales from the
micro-pattern to the macroscopic object, and at the
same time move from the boundary representation
regime that presents objects as sets of surfaces into
a paradigm that favors volumetric material distribu-
tions.
For example by mixing transparent and opaque
materials we can achieve gradients of privacy or op-
tical clarity and light diffusion / transmission. If we
add the micro-pattern into the design process of
these semi-transparent designs we can create micro-
louvres within the volume of an object such that it
will seem as more or less transparent (or transmit
more or less light) depending on the viewing angle
(see Figure 20).
Mixing two materials of different elastic moduli
we can create a gradient of strength with smooth
transitions between soft and hard parts. This would
avoid certain high stress concentrations along mate-
rial boundaries (see Figure 21). In order to further ex-
plore the possibilities at the intersection of voxel rep-
resentations and structural simulations we added a
static linear elastic analysis and topology optimiza-
tion module within Monolith.
Voxel models are, in a sense, easier and more
straightforward to simulate as they don't require a
discretization step which complicates most finite el-
ement simulations of brep based models. Because of
the constant step in the voxel field, certain operations
like the building of stiffness matrices are greatly sim-
452 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1
plified with significant performance gains. Emerging
simulation methods such as lattice Boltzman fluid dy-
namics would eventually enable a Multiphysics sim-
ulation to run over a voxel model at interactive rates
for the user, with real time feedback. The use of topol-
ogy optimization too is a natural fit for voxel models.
In fact for the minimum compliance problems the op-
timal solution requires the existence of material stiff-
ness gradients rather than clear boundaries between
hard and soft materia (Bendsoe and Sigmund 2004)
(see Figure 21).
Figure 20
Example of
anisotropic
transparency.
Figure 21
A reinforced beam
with a mixture of
soft (translucent)
and hard (opaque)
materials produced
using topology
optimization.
This taken to smaller scales enables us to design arti-
ficial grain within a material (Doubrovski et al. 2014).
When we mix a very soft with a very hard material we
can create patterns that cause the anisotropy in the
grain to manifest as a preferential deformation of the
material along certain controlled directions (see Fig-
ure 24).
Figure 22
A chair model with
principal stress
aligned
reinforcement
pattern (side view).

Figure 23
A chair model with
principal stress
aligned
reinforcement
pattern (top view).

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 453

 CONCLUSION Figure 24
Through the use of new design workflows and visual- Example of artificial
izations, Monolith attempts to achieve a shift in how grain using two
designers approach materiality through digital me- materials of
dia. The assembly paradigm and the boundary rep- different elastic
resentation that we inherited from mechanical engi- modulus.
neering and ultimately the industrial revolution are
no longer adequate in describing the new possibil-
ities afforded by emerging fabrication technologies.
Even the analytical tools have to adapt; moving from
a statistical understanding of materiality through a Figure 25
homogenization process to the possibility of micro- Microscopic images
management of material deposition in a localization of various
approach. This will also enable us to revisit traditional micro-patterns.
materials such as wood in all their complexity and
be able to integrate the material anisotropies, due to
both natural and artificial grain in tectonics that span
a wide range of scales.

REFERENCES
Bendsoe, M.P and Sigmund, O. 2004, Topology Optimiza-
tion, Springer
Blinn, J.F 1994, 'Image Compositing-Theory', IEEE Com-
puter Graphics and Applications, 14, pp. 32-33
Doubrovski, E.L., Tsai, E.Y., Dikovsky, D, Geraedts, J.M.P,
Herr, H and Oxman, N 2014, 'Voxel-based fabrica-
tion through material property mapping: A design
method for bitmap printing', Computer-Aided De-
sign, 60, pp. 1-12
Ebert, D.S., Peachey, F.K., Perlin, D. and Worley, K. 2002,
Texturing and Modeling, Third Edition: A Procedural
Approach (The Morgan Kaufmann Series in Computer
Graphics) 3rd Edition, Kaufmann
Hadwiger, M, Ljung, P, Salama, C.R and Ropinski, T 2008
'Course Notes Advanced Illumination Techniques for
GPU-Based Volume Raycasting', SIGGRAPHASIA2008
Jackson, T.R., Liu, H, Patrikalakis, N.M., Sachs, E.M. and
Cima, M.J. 1999, 'Modeling and Designing Function-
ally Graded Material Components for Fabrication
with Local Composition Control', Materials & Design,
20, pp. 63-158
Kaijima, S and Michalatos, P 2011, 'Intuitive material dis-
tributions', in Legendre, G (eds) 2011, Mathematics
of Space, Wiley
Lorensen, W.E and Cline, H.E 1987, 'Marching cubes: A
high resolution 3d surface construction algorithm',
ACM Computer Graphics, 21, pp. 163-169

454 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1

Design Exploring Complexity in Architectural Shells
Interactive form finding of reciprocal frames through a multi-agent system

David Gerber1 , Evangelos Pantazis2

1
University of Southern California, School of Architecture & Viterbi School of En-
gineering 2 University of Southern California, Viterbi School of Engineering
1
www.djgerber.com 2 www.topotheque.com
1,2
{dgerber|epantazi}@usc.edu

This paper presents an integrated workflow for interactive design of shell

structures, which couples structural and environmental analysis through a
multi-agent systems (MAS) for design. The work lies at the intersection of
architecture, engineering and computer science research, incorporating
generative design with analytical techniques. A brief review on architectural
shell structures and the structural logic of reciprocal frames is described.
Through the morphological study of reciprocal frames locally we seek to inform
the behavior of a MAS, which integrates form-finding techniques, with daylight
factor analysis (DFA) and finite element analysis (FEA) on a global
configuration. An experimental design is developed in order to explore the
solution space of large span free form shells with varying topologies and
boundary conditions, as well as identify the relationships between local design
parameters of the reciprocal frames (i.e. number of elements, profile) and the
analyses (i.e. stress distribution, solar radiation) for enabling the generation of
different global design alternatives. The research improves upon design
decision-making latency and certainty through harnessing geometric complexity
and structural form finding for early stage design. Additionally, the research
improves upon design outcomes by establishing a feedback loop between design
generation, analysis and performance.

Keywords: Generative design, computational design, multi-agent systems, shell

structures, reciprocal frames, form finding, parametric design

INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION have provided architects with opportunities to move

The rapid evolution of digital design in the field of away from standardization and traditional design ap-
architecture and design computing and its' coupling proaches that predicate themselves on symmetry
with new fabrication and construction technologies and repetition. Our work takes as precedent a post-

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 455

 fordist perspective on the possibilities for architec-
ture, namely a rejection of modernisms' over reliance
on the self similar and an acceptance of the con-
temporary condition for mass customization. How-
ever, the work does not take the position of differ-
ence for difference sake but rather more importantly
sees differentiation as an indicative of performance
and natural design evolution. It furthermore situ-
ates itself intentionally in a discourse of emergence
and of the viability, tenability and even perhaps en-
hanced characteristics highly complex and intricate
geometry and tectonic systems may have for archi-
tecture. The availability of parametric and associative
geometry systems has allowed for the invention and
proliferation of non-Euclidean and un-variegated ge-
ometries and has facilitated design variation in accor-
dance with designer intent and here, most critically,
where complexity can be substantiated as higher
performing. The research furthermore takes into ac-
count an era for architecture of an increased interest
in performance based design models which combine
analytical and evaluation processes with digital pro-
cesses of form generation and rationalization (Gerber
2007). Yet our research sees performance as need-
ing to be balanced with the synthetic, aesthetic and
communicative aspects of all great design, in other
words, the informing of form through both the de-
sign exploration and solution space thinking intrin-
sic to associative parametric and algorithmic genera-
tive design with that of complexly coupled empirical
objective functions found in our engineering cousins
analytical methods (Mitchell 2005).
Research has shown that empirically validated
simulations and visualized information can assist de-
signers in making better design decisions. Exam-
ples include when environmental analyses simula-
tions are used during design development in order to
enhance environmentally-conscious and cost effec-
tive design solutions (Roudsari et al. 2014, Eastman
1994). Another recent precedent includes the inter-
active design exploration of shell structures through
form finding which demonstrates that complex struc-
tures can be more efficient than reduced and simpli-
456 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1
fied systems, when the form-force diagrams are vi-
sualized and made accessible (Rippmann and Block
2013). Despite advances, the literature indicates
there remains a lack of integrated and extensible
workflows combining multiple analyses and genera-
tive design early in the design process. The necessity
of such workflows for design through to construc-
tion of bespoke structures challenge existing tools
and methods in part due to the complexity of the
design constraints, parameter sets, and often con-
flicting and complexly coupled objectives (Shea et al.
2005, Scheurer 2010). Our work in part seeks to tackle
this pervasive problem by providing a prototypical
integrated workflow but also seeks to further the in-
tegration and adopting of computer science tech-
niques of great interest and relevance to architecture,
that of agent based models or here more specifically
the multi-agent system (MAS).
BACKGROUND
With the introduction and pervasive availability of
reinforced concrete in the 20th century, an inter-
est in the use of thin shells and funicular struc-
tures for architectural purposes becomes prevalent
(Pietraszkiewicz and Gorski 2013). This is easily ob-
served through a survey of the great number of large
span shell structures that were realized in 20th cen-
tury with functions that vary from stadiums, to fac-
tories and airplane hangars to name a few (Adri-
aenssens et al. 2014). Famously, architects like A.
Gaudi and H. Isler developed apparatuses such as
the hanging chain and fabric model methods in or-
der to simulate, test and calculate shell structures
(Chilton and Isler 2000, Ochsendorf 2010). In sim-
ilar analogue fashion F. Otto, studied the behavior
of grid shells and membrane structures, while struc-
tural engineers like P. L. Nervi and F. Candela in-
vestigated statics and construction techniques and
by manipulating them achieved the construction of
unique thins shell structures such as Agnelli Exhibi-
tion Hall in Turin (1948) and the Chapel Lomas de
Cuernavaca (1958) (Tomlow et al. 1989, Burkhardt
et al. 1976, Garlock et al. 2008). These researching
 practitioners all are credited with laying the founda- der to manage contemporary design demands, archi-
tion of what is called architectural form finding to- tects and designers need to shift away from reduc-
day. More recently, researchers have been develop- tionist models that rely on standardization and seg-
ing computational methods for modeling and solv- mentation of functional requirements and use ana-
ing or "form finding" structures to find equilibrium. lytical simulation tools that provide designers with
Killian among other researchers developed interac- useful performance feedback (Oxman 2008, Malkawi
tive, real-time hanging chain modelling tools, using 2005). Therefore, there is a need to develop interac-
particle spring system solvers(Axel Kilian 2005). Piker, tive and integrative design tools that intuitively allow
developed "Kangaroo" a tool for real time exploration designer to understand the relation between geom-
of funicular networks using dynamic relaxation while etry and performance, promote geometric, material
Block has developed a methodology and tool for and functional differentiation and provide a seamless
the exploration of funicular shells under compression data flow from design to construction for among all
based on Thrust Network Analysis(Piker 2013, Block participating counterparts.
and Ochsendorf 2007).
Our literature suggests that the future of digi- RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
tal design lies in considering the computer as a col- Our interest lies at the intersection of architecture,
laborative partner in the design process that is ca- engineering and that of empirical models to enhance
pable of generating design alternatives and evalu- performance criteria in broad terms. In designing sys-
ating different solutions in response to robust and tems and methods that enable architects to develop
rigorous analytical models of design conditions and free form shell structures that are: computationally
performance (Gerber et al. 2012, Pask 1969, Mitchell generated, intricate and highly varied geometries,
1990). Moreover, the literature indicates that in or-
Figure 1
Experimental
workflow diagram
illustrating the
context,
generation,
analysis, and
materialization and
feedback steps of
top down,
generative,
feedback and
optimization, and
then to material
prototyping.

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 457


and that span continuous open architectural spaces.
The research contributes to the discourse where the
complex is embraced as opposed to reduced. Here
our hypothesis states that by combining interactive
form finding techniques with environmental analy-
sis, via a MAS for design approach, designers can
achieve the generation of alternative shell structures,
which perform better across multiple performance
criteria when compared to purely deterministic and
or manual design exploration methods. The scope of
the work presented here includes, the defining and
optimization of structural components, the environ-
mental efficiencies gained, and, and a discussion of
the design decision making affordances for the de-
signer. Another critical objective is to evaluate and
argue further for how the non-standard can be found
to outperform the standard structural system.
Our research methodology includes, the formu-
lation of an integrated workflow for the design of ef-
ficient shell structures, which are based on the recip-
rocal frame structural system (see Figures 1-2). This is
developed through a custom MAS which is validated
through a series of incremental experiments and
comparisons. These experiments include the gener-
ation of a set of shell models, which are expressed
and prototyped as reciprocal frames, which are not
solely driven by structural efficiencies but coupled
with environmental considerations. The software
458 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1
Figure 2
Diagram describing
the design steps of
the MAS for design
methodology.
prototype combines form-finding techniques using
a spring based mesh relaxation solver (Rhinoceros
Grasshopper/Kangaroo), with environmental solar ra-
diation analysis (Rhinoceros Grasshopper/Ladybug,
Radiance) in order to drive a multi agent system (Pro-
cessing, IGEO). Both the global geometry (shell) and
the local (reciprocal frame) are conditioned based on
a set of user defined environmental parameters such
as: geo-location, footprint area, support conditions
and material . The research then studies the proper-
ties of the reciprocal frame design alternatives locally,
in terms of different number and shape of elements,
and explores which the relationship between each
design parameter and the structural analysis. Glob-
ally different support conditions and loading condi-
tions are studied. The system uses the analyses (i.e.
stress distribution, solar radiation maps) and the rela-
tionships between different design parameters as in-
puts for the behavior of a multi agent system (MAS),
which generates alternative morphologies of recip-
rocal frames (See Figure 4) . The morphology of the
reciprocal frames is informed by the combination of
the structural and environmental analyses via a MAS
driven optimization. The goal is the generation of
more efficient structures, which span large areas with
the use of short structural members (material econ-
omy) while providing improved environmental con-
ditions beneath them (energy economy).
Figure 3
Diagram illustrating
the input
parameters and 2
different design
behaviors and
resulting
environmental
analysis.

DESIGN OF THE EXPERIMENT particle engine is informed by user specified environ-

The project explores a design methodology for shell
structures, which combines form finding informed
with environmental parameters and the application
of a modular structural system that of reciprocal
frames. The principle of reciprocity in structural de-
sign and construction i.e. the use of load bearing el-
ements to compose a spatial configuration wherein
they are mutually supported by one another has
been in use since antiquity. The design of the ex-
periment includes the analytical study of the recip-
rocal unit and the application of reciprocal frames on
form found shells. The form finding process is occur-
ring though a MAS based approach where a physics
mental parameters (longitude, latitude, orientation,
sun position). The generated shells are populated
with reciprocal frame units which are analyzed struc-
turally both locally and globally. Based on the struc-
tural analysis on a local level key design parameters of
a reciprocal unit such as: a) the length, and b) thick-
ness of elements are adjusted in order improve the
structural performance globally. In this experiment
we focus only on two aforementioned design param-
eters, in Figure 4 we illustrate all key parameters of
the reciprocal frames(see Figure 4). The research then
implements the above methodology by developing
the computational workflow (see Figure 2) that in-

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 459

 cludes both a generative and an analytical compo-
nent informing each other. The generative part of
the workflow is developed using Processing and the
IGeo libraries while the analytical part is developed
in Rhinoceros 3D software using Grasshopper and
specifically a) Kangaroo b) Karamba, and c) Ladybug
plugins (see Figure 1). The workflow is tested by de-
veloping an experimental design case study, that of
the long span hangar in its global form. The exper-
460 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1
imental design process includes the definition of a
covered area, support conditions and amount of el-
ements to be used, as well as structural parameter
such as elasticity, connectivity between mesh points
(particles as frame elements) and friction. A shell ge-
ometry is generated based on the combination of
force distribution (self weight) and solar path posi-
tions (shading). Once the geometry reaches equi-
librium, reciprocal frames are applied on the surface
Figure 4
Design parameters
for reciprocal frame
and stress
distribution of
different units
based on the
number of
elements.
 at every point of the geometry where the architect
and design team controls the valency (number of el-
ements in one reciprocal unit), as well as the param-
eterization in the generation of varying element pro-
files (i.e. sectional profiles). The generated geome-
tries are analyzed both locally and globally where
the design has a graphical overview of the stresses
induced in the profiles assuming a certain material
and load condition (see Figures 3 and 4). For this ex-
perimental run we kept this constant as Douglas Fir
South Wood and 1kN load distributed over the en-
tire surface area of each beam element. The geomet-
ric properties of the results are visually assessed by
the designer in correlation with their structural per-
formance (see Figure 5).
Case Study: An informed reciprocal frame
long span shell structure
In order to validate the systems and methodology,
the MAS is applied on the conceptual structural de-
sign of a large span hangar structure. We use our
approach for the design of reciprocal frame struc-
tures with different topologies that span 50m and we
compare it with a recently built structure of the same
size. We use the comparison between the different
cases as a means for benchmarking efficiencies of our
methodologies and for drawing conclusion for the
further refinement of our system.
Figure 5
Graphs showing
maximum element
stress in relation to
length, thickness
and geometry as
well as the
allowable stress.
GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 461
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
The results of our work so far are on both a local and
global level. On a local level we test different sec-
tion profiles, which range from standard to not stan-
dard and observe that the structural performance of
each reciprocal element is largely affected by cross
sectional profile. Six different types of profiles are
tested including: a circular pipe, a rectangular el-
ement, and 4 types of planar elements with differ-
ent, a) proportions of width over height, and b) with
one transformation (torsion along main axis and off-
set along main axis. We plot the stresses on the re-
ciprocal elements with different geometries in rela-
tion to varying length and thickness (see Figure 5).
We observe that only one type of element (twisted
planar) fails to meet the requirements for allowable
stress based on the American Building Code while
the rest of the profile types show an almost linear re-
lationship of their length and thickness to the stress.
We note that as the length increases the stress also
increase while as the profile increases the stresses
on the element decrease. In terms of the unit we
observe that as the number of elements increases
(valency) the stress decreases (see Figure 5). For a
unit (reciprocal frame) of n=3 and a pipe profile the
stresses can be as high as 1620 kN while for n=6 it
drops as low as 703 kN (66%) At this stage, for simplic-
ity and clarity of the experiment we test only one pro-
 Figure 6
Structural analysis
of global
geometries
generated by
varying agent
behaviors. Figure 7
(below): Solar
Radiation analysis
of global
geometries which
have been
generated with
form finding and
with different agent
behaviors.

462 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1

file type and reciprocal frame unit (n=3) for applying
it on the global geometry. In terms of global geom-
etry we generate 4 different topological cases based
on the support conditions and whether or not the ge-
ometry has an opening. We test one of the topolo-
gies for both a span of 50 and 100 meters. We ana-
lyze both the form found and environmentally influ-
enced geometries and measure the following: prin-
cipal forces (compression, stress, moments, displace-
ment and cross section utilization (see Figure 6). The
utilization of the cross section, is the ratio of applied
stress over yield strength of the element and using a
safety factor of 200% we size the elements in order
to achieve a target utilization which is between -50%
to +50%. Additionally, the maximum displacement
is measured which is within limits (0.5 to 5cm). The
structural analysis shows that geometries with a hole
have a significant increase in moments (130-200% in-
crease) while we observe that the amount of support
conditions does not affect significantly the result-
ing principal stresses rather their position and shape
(see Figure 6). The environmentally informed shells
are subject to higher principal forces as their form is
modified from the pure form finding however they
are performing better in environmental analysis (see
Figure 7). Although the designed workflow is con-
trolled manually by the user in terms of generation
and transfer of geometrical data for finite element
analysis, the intent is to lay a foundation that can
be automated for generation and analysis to form
a singular structural agent, which has as an input
the analytical results and as an output modifications
on the defined design parameters. With proper au-
tomation, ample results can be generated for differ-
ent profiles, different notch styles, varying material
parameters, varying cross-sectional dimensions and
varying frame morphologies. The next steps include
the development of an autonomous structural agent,
which will be able to analyze, visualize and evaluate
structural analysis data from the generated geome-
tries and communicate information to the generative
agent in order to continually optimize the next gen-
erative iterations. The final objective is to develop a
GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 463
Multi-Agent System for architectural, structural and
environmental optimization from design to construc-
tion.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents the application of a MAS for de-
sign approach that supports the integration of struc-
tural performance in order to inform the design deci-
sion making of a generative design process, leading
to improved design solutions and in this case long
span reciprocal frame structures in an applied hangar
configuration. The aim of this work is two-fold, a) to
explore how designers could implement non deter-
ministic processes where the precise definition of lo-
cal rules can be combined with analytical tools in or-
der to lead to globally optimized geometries, and b)
to develop an integrated design methodology based
on MAS that provides designers with not only ge-
ometric feedback but structural performance feed-
back and thus assist them in generating and selecting
among well performing design solutions. The pre-
sented experimental case illustrates how a MAS for
design in architecture approach can be developed
and tailored to specific design problems in order to
assist architects and designers in generating higher
performing design solutions in terms of structural
and environmental performance.
Here the experimental results are presented in
the form of three scales and investigations: 1) the
reciprocal frame morphology (valency); 2) the cross
sectional and element lengths; and 3) the global con-
figuration of a shell structure, the hangar. The ge-
ometric configurations of the design solutions may
vary but the coupling of the generative with the an-
alytical and optimizing processes ensures the satis-
faction of prescribed structural goals. Our objective
has remained to demonstrate the value of the emer-
gent, non-standard, and geometrically intricate as a
viable post fordist solution for form finding and per-
formative driven design. The system was able to
generate shell as reciprocal frame configuration(s),
which provided longer spans based on short self-
similar elements. We have demonstrated that archi-
tects and designers can benefit by implementing an
 integrated bottom up design approach for the de-
sign of building components that lead to optimal
global configurations. By combining analytical meth-
ods with user data, properly formulating and pass-
ing such data automatically to a generative process,
we provide designers with a larger pool of complex
yet well performing design solutions that could not
be modelled manually. The experimental case study
and results showed improvements both in terms of
energy efficiency by generating solutions that in-
creased the amount of available daylight, as well as in
terms of design process as we provide the designer
a methodology to augment an existing design ap-
proach, that of pure form finding while integrating
environmental parameters as well. By analyzing and
cross-comparing the results, the continued objective
is to deduct heuristics and weighting factors to pro-
vide intuition and to further model behaviors for our
agents in order for the MAS system to be able to au-
tomatically generate a series of design.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This material is based upon work supported by
the National Science Foundation under Grant
No.1231001. Any opinions, findings, and conclu-
sions or recommendations expressed in this material
are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily re-
flect the views of the National Science Foundation.
We would like to give special thanks to all the par-
ticipants and researchers that contributed to this
project; specifically Punit Das and Rhe-seok Kim for
their contributions in preparing and running the ex-
periments and in the illustrations of the results.
REFERENCES
Adriaenssens, S, Block, P, Veenedaal, D and Williams, C
2014, Shell Structures for Architecture: Form Finding
and Optimization, Taylor & Francis - Routledge
Block, P and Ochsendorf, J 2007 'Thrust network analy-
sis: A new methodology for three-dimensional equi-
librium', International Association for Shell and Spatial
Structures, pp. 155-167
Burkhardt, B, Otto, F and Arup, O (eds) 1976, Multihalle
Mannheim, Institute for Lightweight Structures (IL),
Stuttgart
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Chilton, J and Isler, H 2000, The Engineer, Thomas Telford
Publishing, London
Eastman, C 1994, 'A data model for design knowledge',
Automation in Construction, 3, pp. 135-147
Garlock, M, Billington, DP and Burger, N (eds) 2008, Félix
Candela: engineer, builder, structural artist, Princeton
University Art Museum Monographs
Gerber, DJ 2007, Parametric practices: Models for de-
sign exploration in architecture, Ph.D. Thesis, Harvard
Graduate School of Design
Gerber, DJ and Lin, S 2014, 'Designing in complexity:
Simulation, integration, and multidisciplinary de-
sign optimization for architecture', Simulation, 80(8),
pp. 936-959
Killian, A and Ochsendorf, J 2005, 'Particle-Spring Sys-
tems for structural from finding', Journal of the Inter-
national Association for Shell and Spatial Structures,
46, pp. 77-84
Malkawi, A and Kolarevic, B (eds) 2005, Performative
architecture : beyond instrumentality, Spoon Press,
New York
Mitchell, J 1990, The logic of architecture: Design, compu-
tation, and cognition, MIT press, Cambridge, MA
Mitchell, J 2005 'Constructing complexity', Computer
Aided Architectural Design Futures 2005
Ochsendorf, J 2010, Guastavino vaulting:The art of struc-
tural tile,, Princeton Architectural Press
Oxman, R 2008, 'Performance-based design: Current
practices and research issues', International Journal
of Architectural Computing, 6, pp. 1-17
Pask, G 1969, 'The arhitectural relevance of cybernetics.',
Architectural Design, 39, pp. 494-496
Pietraszkiewicz, W and Gorski, J (eds) 2013, Shell Struc-
tures: Theory and Applications,, CRC Press
Rippmann, M and Block, P 2013 'Funicular Shell Design
Exploration', ACADIA 13: Adaptive Architecture, On-
tario,Canada, pp. 1-19
Roudsari, M, Pak, M and Smith, A 2013 'Ladybug:
A Parametric Environmental Plugin for Grasshop-
per to Help Designers Create an Environmentally-
Conscious Design', 13th Conference of the Interna-
tional Building Performance Simulation Association
(BS2013), pp. 3128-3135
Scheurer, F 2010, 'Materialising Complexity', Architectural
Design, 80, pp. 86-93
Shea, K, Aish, R and Gourtovaia, M 2005, 'Towards inte-
grated performance-driven generative design tools',
Automation in Construction, 14, pp. 253-264
Tomlow, J, Graefe, R, Otto, F and Szeemann, H 1989,
The model, Institute for Lightweight Structures (IL),
Stuttgart
DrAFT: an Algorithmic Framework for Facade Design
Inês Caetano1 , António Leitão2
1,2
INESC-ID/Instituto Superior Técnico
1
ines.caetano@tecnico.ulisboa.pt
2
antonio.menezes.leitao@ist.utl.pt

Architecture has always followed the times and their innovations and, currently,
an architecture based on digital technologies has been emerging and has
increasingly explored architectural facades. In this paper we use DrAFT, a
computational framework for the generation and exploration of facade designs,
to explore a set of different examples of building skins. DrAFT includes a
classification of facades that helps in the identification of algorithms that best
suits each design intent. After combining the algorithms provided by this
framework, the designer can more easily explore the solution space of the
intended design.

Keywords: Generative design, facade design, DrAFT framework, Rosetta

INTRODUCTION specification of facade designs. In practical terms,

Nowadays, the architectural facade is characterized
by complex shapes and patterns, mainly, due to the
use of new design tools (Pell 2010) which promote
further design exploration. The development of Gen-
erative Design tools, particularly, the use of algo-
rithmic approaches, have had an important role in
the generation of these contemporary skins because
they simplified the design of complex and intricate
architectural surfaces, which would not be viable to
produce manually. In addition, they also increase
the design efficiency and their evolution has been
changing, not only the design process, but also the
architectural thinking (Kolarevic 2003).
Unfortunately, algorithmic approaches do not
make facade design trivial. On the contrary, they
require the rigorous specification of all algorithmic
steps, a task that requires specialized knowledge and
that, in many cases, can be quite complex.
In this paper, we propose a computational
framework designed to simplify the algorithmic
DrAFT - Draft Algorithmic Facade Tool - promotes
the exploration of facade designs and simplifies the
adaptation of the generated models to the ever-
changing design process conditions. Here, we
present a collection of examples developed using
this framework, thereby demonstrating its usability
and flexibility in facade design, and also showing
other possible applications.
ALGORITHMIC APPROACHES TO DESIGN
Generative design (GD) is a computer-based ap-
proach to design that creates shapes through algo-
rithms (Terzidis 2003). Algorithmic design is a process
that explores complex forms from simple and itera-
tive methods/rules while preserving specified quali-
ties (Meredith 2008). For this, architects produce an
intermediate algorithmic-based description of a de-
sign rather than its shape (Leitão 2013).
Parametric Design is a specific GD approach that

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 465

 generates different instances of a design, where each
instance represents a particular set of values for the
design parameters (Barrios 2005), allowing the de-
signer to freely explore a large solution space of the
design briefing/program. Therefore, this allows ar-
chitects to continuously evaluate several solutions,
which would be difficult to do with traditional design
methods.
In spite of their advantages, algorithmic-based
design methods require a disciplined approach
which, in many cases, is difficult to follow. It is impor-
tant, then, to develop strategies that help designers
implement these methods. In this paper, we address
this problem and we contribute to the state-of-the-
art by proposing a strategy for the development of
algorithmic-based solutions for the generation of fa-
cades.
DRAFT FRAMEWORK
DrAFT is a computational framework created to help
designers in the algorithmic description of facade de-
signs, during the design exploration stage. It is based
on a classification of facades composed by different
categorical dimensions that we considered compu-
tationally relevant (Caetano et al. 2015). In practical
terms, the designer combines the main characteris-
tics of the idealized design with the categorical di-
mensions which, in turn, guide him in the selection
of the most appropriate algorithms. It is noteworthy
that this guiding process is not intended to replace
the role of the designer, but to significantly reduce
his programming effort and, therefore, improve his
design workflow.
Thereafter, the selected algorithms are com-
bined using functional operators, also known as
higher-order functions (HOF), i.e. functions that re-
ceive other functions as arguments and/or compute
other functions as results (Leitão 2014). The combi-
nation of the algorithms produces the correspond-
ing facade design model which can be quickly modi-
fied as many times as needed, allowing the designer
to more easily explore the solution space of his de-
sign. Therefore, this allows designers to adapt their
466 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1
designs to the ever-changing design process condi-
tions and this process can be repeated as many times
as needed, promoting continuous improvement in
the design exploration.
Framework Structure
Our framework takes into account several stages that
typically occur in facade design, thereby dealing with
the different characteristics of the:
1. Facade's surface, including its shape;
2. Design units, that together create the whole
facade pattern;
3. Distribution of the units;
4. Articulation between the previous parts, i.e.
surface and units.
For each one, there is at least one categorical di-
mension in charge of producing the matching facade
characteristic, which corresponds to a set of related
computational functions.
Framework Goal
Note that the goal of our framework is not to provide
functions and algorithms to cover an entire range
of facade designs, and neither to limit the facades
that can be produced. It is rather to reduce the pro-
gramming effort of the architects at the early stages
of design, while speeding up the development of
facades using an algorithmic approach. DrAFT al-
lows the reuse of algorithms that are already de-
veloped and that are typically needed in the explo-
ration of new designs of facades. This means that,
not only can architects generate new designs just
by using the selected algorithms, they can also com-
bine these algorithms with some additional scripting
when needed. This often happens when the ideal-
ized design is highly detailed and personalized, re-
quiring a more specific algorithmic description. In
these cases, the algorithms developed can then be
incorporated in the framework, thereby further im-
proving the matching process of subsequent facade
designs.
 CASE STUDIES COMPILATION Library of Birmingham
We will start with the Library of Birmingham by
Figure 1 Mecanoo, visible in Figure 2. This building has
The selected case a straight facade composed by several overlapped
studies. First row: rings of two different sizes and colours, black and
Library of gold, which results in a unique pattern. First, we anal-
Birmingham, in ysed this facade design and, then, we obtained the
Birmingham, and most appropriate algorithms through DrAFT classifi-
the Yardmasters cation. In practical terms, we selected a set of algo-
Building, in rithms that:
Melbourne; Second
Row: Sheung Wan 1. Produced the flower shaped units (Figure 2-A);
Hotel, in Hong 2. Distributed the units in a regular-grid (Figure
Kong, and Hello 2-B);
House, in 3. Created two layers of units with different sizes
Melbourne: Last (Figure 2-C);
row: Formstelle 4. Overlapped both layers, thus creating the fi-
Building, in Töging nal pattern (Figure 2-D);
am Inn, and
Precinct Energy Lastly, we combined these algorithms using different
Project, in functional operators and HOFs. Figure 2 shows an in-
Melbourne. stance of the obtained model.
Figure 2
Library of Similarly to Shape Grammars, the framework here
Birmingham. The presented can be considered original or analytical
set of algorithms (Pupo et al. 2007). In the original case, the goal is
used to produce the to generate a completely new facade, while in the
model: A. Units analytical case we look for an algorithmic interpre-
shape; B. Units tation of an already existing facade. In this section,
Distribution; C. Two we analyse and generate a set of existing facades to
layers of different demonstrate the analytical capabilities of the frame-
sizes and colours; D. work. Initially, the selected facades were analysed
Layered facade and classified using the DrAFT classification. Figure
articulation. 1 synthetises the selected facades.
The next stage was combining the functions pro-
vided by the classifications. As a result, this com-
position of functions generates the matching facade
model of each project, which we will develop bel- Sheung Wan Hotel
low. In some cases, it was possible to reproduce Sheung Wan Hotel (Figure 3) by Thomas Heatherwick
the facade models simply using the set of algorithms is our next example. As the previous example, we
available. However, more specific designs required also started with a design analysis of this facade to
the development of additional algorithms to comple- then classify it.
ment the provided ones. This facade is straight and it is composed by sev-

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 467

 Figure 3
Sheung Wan Hotel
model. A. Unit
shape; B. Unit
distribution in a
regular-grid; C. Unit
subdivision into
smaller rectangular
and squared units;
D. Random
application of
materials, metal or
glass; E. Random
depth size.

eral rectangular units (Figure 3-A). These units are an alternated grid. Finally, to create the HELLO ef-
then mapped into a regular-grid (Figure 3-B) and they fect of the facade we used an image with this word
are further subdivided into smaller units with a shape to control the placing of the perpendicular bricks. If
that randomly varies between a squared and rectan- the bricks were coincident with the area of the word
gular geometry (Figure 3-C). Lastly, the units depth HELLO, they were aligned with the facade axis. Oth-
and assigned material vary randomly from a certain erwise, they were placed so as to protrude.
height value of the building's facade (Figure 3-D and
E). Figure 3 synthetizes the combination process of Figure 4
the algorithms and shows an instance of the gener- Hello House model
ated model. produced using
DrAFT framework.
Hello House A. Pattern unit; B.
The following example is the Hello House facade by Unit distribution; C.
OFF! Architecture, visible in Figure 4, which is com- Picture to control
posed by several stacked white bricks placed in two the bricks
different positions: along the facade's surface or per- positioning; D. Final
pendicular to it. pictorial effect.
Firstly, we considered the set of two bricks as the
pattern unit, i.e. an horizontal and a perpendicular
brick (Figure 4-A). Secondly, we distributed them into

468 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1

 Precinct Energy Project Also note that the size of the perforations varies
continuously along the facade, thus reaching its max-
Figure 5 imum at the center and its minimum at the ends (Fig-
Precinct Energy ure 6-C). To produce this effect, the size transforma-
Project model. A. tion of these prisms was controlled by an attractor,
Definition of the which is a point or a set of points that act like virtual
unit; B. Unit magnets. In this case, we used a set of points creat-
distribution in an ing a horizontal line in the middle of the facade and,
alternated-grid. C. then, the size of each prism was calculated according
Pictorial effect with to the distance between its location and the nearest
an image; D. Final attractor point.
effect, which was Finally, the hexagonal prisms were subtracted
then subtracted from the facade surfaces in order to produce the per-
from the facades’ forated surface effect (Figure 6-D). Figure 6 shows an
surface. instance of the obtained model.
Figure 6
As in the previous example, Precinct Energy Project
Formstelle building.
(Figure 5) by PHTR Architects has a pictorial facade
A. Pattern unit; B.
that produces a design similar to an inkblot. How-
Unit distribution in
ever, in this case the inkblot effect is created by the
an alternated-grid;
existence or absence of perforations.
C. Units size
In practical terms, this example has a straight and
transformation; D.
perforated facade, wherein the perforations have a
Facade with a
circular shape. We used cylinders to produce these
perforated
holes, which were placed according to an image rep-
articulation.
resenting the inkblot effect that we wanted to pro-
duce. In the end, the cylinders were subtracted from
the facade surface, thus creating the perforated sur-
face visible in Figure 5.
Note that the process that controlled the place-
ment or not of a cylinder at each position was similar
to the one described in the previous example. Figure
5 synthetizes the whole generation process of this ex- Yardmasters Building
ample, and also the set of algorithms that were used. Our last example, the Yardmasters Building by
McBride Charles Ryan, visible in Figure 7, was also
Formstelle / Campus Netzwerk generated using the algorithms provided by its clas-
The facade of the Formstelle building, visible in Fig- sification. To generate this example we had to pro-
ure 6, was designed by Format Elf Architekten and is duce a facade with a regular shape, a layer with the
characterized by a perforated surface with hexagonal Islamic pattern and also some window openings with
holes. These were produced using hexagonal prisms, an irregular shape. In practical terms, the pattern was
which were then distributed along the facade in an produced by the repetition of a unit (Figure 7-A) dis-
alternated-grid, thereby creating a pattern similar to tributed in an alternated-grid (Figure 7-B). The ob-
a honeycomb (Figure 6-A and B). tained pattern was then used to shape the windows

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 469

 Figure 7
The Yardmasters
Building model. A.
Units geometry; B.
Units distribution in
an alternated-grid;
C. Creation of the
windows; D.
Applied
articulation, with
the Islamic pattern
on the facade’s
surface; Below: the
Yardmasters’ final
model.

openings (Figure 7- C/D) and, finally, it was applied
on the facade's surface. Nevertheless, we had to de-
velop some additional scripting in order to produce
the Islamic units, as they have a more specific shape.
Figure 7 summarizes the generation process of
the Yardmasters building, including the definition of
the surfaces and the pattern units.
In this example, although we had to develop the
algorithms to describe the Islamic pattern geometry,
all the other design parts were produced using the
predefined functions. As a result, we can conclude
that the DrAFT framework helps architects in the gen-
eration of a large variety of facades by reducing both
the programming effort and the time spent.
OTHER APPLICATIONS
In this section, we present other possible applications
of the DrAFT framework. We start by developing an
original facade.
As an example, we will consider that we want a
straight facade with pyramidal elements. To this end,
we select the algorithms that respectively generate a
(1) straight surface and (2) pyramidal elements. Let
us also assume that we want the height of the pyra-

470 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1

 mids to vary according to the distance to a curve. Our changing some of the input values, thereby produc-
framework also provides a function to produce this ing different instances of the same design, or by alter-
type of size variation. Therefore, the algorithms se- ing some of the functions used, thus changing some
lected so far allow us to define the function that cre- design characteristics. Therefore, to modify the type
ates the units. of distribution and geometry of both units and fa-
We set that the units distribution is done in an cade (see Figure 9), we do not need to change the
alternated-grid. In practical terms, the function to rest of the structure, i.e. the functions in charge of
distribute them is a higher-order function, which re- producing the other facade parts.
ceives other functions as arguments: To complete the definition of the facade design,
we can also optimize the generated models. So,
1. The function that creates each unit, as it
imagining that we want to maximize the light pass-
knows how the distribution is done but not
ing through the previous example (Figure 9), we de-
the elements to distribute.
fine as parameters:
2. The function that describes the facade surface
as it requires the set of points on which the 1. the smoothness of the attractor-curve (in a
distribution will be done. range from 0.5 to 6.0);
2. the minimum pyramids openings (between
Figure 8 0.1 and 1.0);
An instance of the 3. the height of the pyramids (with a maximum
pattern produced of 0.5m).
using the set of
algorithms above. A simple but effective optimization algorithm can
then be implemented just by repeatedly sampling
the parameter space, generating the corresponding
facade, and computing the amount of light that it
lets through, saving the values of the parameters that
maximize that amount of light.
For better control of the optimization process we
can fix some of the parameters, e.g., the smoothness,
Figure 9
and optimize for the remaining parameter space.
An instance of the
This allows us to obtain a model that combines a de-
pattern produce
sign that pleases us with values for the remaining pa-
using the
rameters that are close to the optimal (see Figure 10).
algorithms above,
which now include
units with a PORTABILITY
different shape The current implementation of the framework was
(pyramidal) and a done using the Rosetta IDE (Lopes and Leitão 2011).
distribution in an This has the significant advantage of making the
regular-grid. framework portable across the different CAD and BIM
tools supported by Rosetta, allowing us to produce
Lastly, we will define that the elements are applied on identical models in Rhino, AutoCAD, SketchUp, Revit,
the facade's surface and the colour used is gray. The and ArchiCAD. This means that the DrAFT framework
result is visible in Figure 8. is not restricted to a single CAD tool, as it happens
Now, we can simply vary this facade design by with other similar frameworks, thus liberating the de-

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 471


signer from the limitations of any specific software.
Moreover, it allows the designer to easily change the
CAD tool that he wants to use (Figure 11).
Additionally, Rosetta also promotes portability
across the supported programming languages, al-
lowing the exploration of the framework in different
programming languages such as Autolisp, Phyton,
Processing and Javascript. As a result, in order to use
our framework, designers can choose the program-
ming language that they are more familiarized with,
without forcing them to learn a new language.
RELATED WORK
Some authors have already developed some work in-
spired by the wide variety of contemporary facades.
Pell (2010), Moussavi (2006) and Velasco et al. (2015)
tried to organize this variety of designs and each one
created a classification of facades based on different
concepts. Nevertheless, none of the previous classifi-
cations helps architects with the algorithmic descrip-
tion of new facade designs.
Su and Chien (2016) recognized the existence of
some algorithmic patterns in facade designs. These
similar algorithmic structures can be reused later to
generate further designs, one of the basic concepts
of our framework.
On the other hand, tools like the Paneling Tools
plug-in for Rhino and Grasshopper, the Lunch Box
add-on to Grasshopper, and ParaCloud Gem, a stand-
alone toolkit that adds generative capabilities to any
472 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1
Figure 10
On the left: a
graphic with the
areas maximized for
each smoothness
value; On the right:
the selected final
model.
CAD system that supports .obj, .stl, .collada, and
.dxf file formats, already attempt to solve the prob-
lems here described. All of them are capable of cre-
ating grids of points on a surface, mapping elements
in different ways, applying attractors to control ele-
ments size, etc.
However, when these tools are manually used
in an iterative user-driven process, they can be tire-
some and error-prone. In addition, when they are
used in an Application Programming Interface (API)
or as plug-ins to a domain-specific programming lan-
guage, such as Grasshopper, a certain level of au-
tomation is obtained, however, the designer is al-
ways bound to the specific functionalities provided
by the tool, thus limiting its agency in exploring dif-
ferent combinations of operations and extending the
capabilities of the tool's pre-defined operations. Be-
sides that, these tools are more used for generic
panelization, subdivision, and population of surfaces
thus, although they have been used to generate com-
plex facade patterns, they are not fully architectural-
oriented which means that they do not directly ad-
dress relevant concepts in facade design such as ma-
teriality or the tectonic relation between the facade
elements.
Dynamo for Revit and Grasshopper for Rhino
also allow users to implement the functionalities pro-
posed in this paper. However, the freedom allowed
by these tools becomes difficult to manage in com-
plex facades (Leitão et al. 2012). In these cases,
a more structured and systematic approach like the
Figure 11
Re-execution of the
same model in
different backends
(AutoCAD, Rhino5,
SketchUP and
Revit).
one we propose is more manageable.
In summary, with these tools the architect is lim-
ited by their non-domain specificity or, in order to ex-
tend their capabilities, he needs to build from scratch
the necessary functionalities or use a mix of different
tools that most of the time are not compatible. Our
work extends the state-of-the-art by systematizing
and structuring, in an architectural-oriented frame-
work, the parametric generation of a wide range of
facade typologies, and by operationalizing it resort-
ing to a simple algorithmic approach that uses and
combines different functions that directly implement
facade design concepts.
CONCLUSION
The exploration of architectural facades is not new.
However, by resorting to recent digital technologies,
architects can once again focus on facade design,
promoting the exploration of complex patterns and
GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 473
geometries. In this paper we showed how the DrAFT
framework can help designers generate different fa-
cade designs. The current implementation was done
using the Rosetta IDE (Lopes and Leitão 2011), allow-
ing the exploration of facade designs in different pro-
gramming languages and the generation of the cor-
responding models in different CAD and BIM applica-
tions.
The framework uses a classification of facades
that guides the selection of the appropriate algo-
rithms for each type of facade design. The algo-
rithms might then be used directly, or might be com-
bined using functional operators, promoting a sys-
tematic exploration of designs which ultimately aims
to a higher productivity by improving the time spent
in scripting tasks, and adding flexibility to the de-
signers' workflow. Due to the simplicity of the func-
tional composition, this framework accommodates
the ever-changing nature of a design process by fa-
 cilitating the test of several designs, or instantiations
of the same idea, in any design stage. In this paper
we also demonstrated the framework's flexibility by
exploring a set of existing facades.
In the near future, we plan to expand DrAFT, cov-
ering a wider range of facades. To make this frame-
work more usable, we are particularly interested in
conducting a field study of its application, to identify
weaknesses of the proposed processes and opportu-
nities for extensions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by national funds through
Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) with ref-
erence UID/CEC/50021/2013.
Pell, B 2010, The Articulate Surface - Ornament and tech-
nology in Contemporary Architecture, Birkhauser
Pupo, R, Pinheiro, E, Mendes, G, Kowaltowski, D and
Celani, G 2007 'A Design Teaching Method Using
Shape Grammars', Proceedings of the 7th Interna-
tional Conference Graphics Engineering for Arts and
Design, Curitiba, Brasil
Su, H and Chien, S 2016 'Revealing Patterns: using
Parametric Design Patterns in Building Facade De-
sign workflow', Proceedings of the 21st CAADRIA, Mel-
bourne, Australia
Terzidis, K 2003, Expressive Form: A Conceptual APproach
to Computational Design, Spon Press, New York
Velasco, R, Brakke, A and Chavarro, D 2015 'Dynamic
Façades and Computation: Towards an Inclusive
Categorization of High Performance Kinetic Façade
Systems', CAADFutures 2015, CCIS 527, Springer, São
Paulo, Brazil

REFERENCES
Barrios, C 2005 'Transformations on Parametric Design
Models: A Case Study on the Sagrada Familia
Columns', Proceedings of CAAD Futures 2005, Vienna
University of Technology, Austria
Caetano, I, Santos, L and Leitão, A 2015 'From Idea to
Shape, from Algorithm to Design: A Framework for
the Generation of Contemporary Facades', The Next
City - 16th CAADFutures, CCIS 527, Springer, São Paulo,
Brazil
Kolarevic, B (eds) 2003, Architecture in the Digital Age - De-
signing and Manufacturing, Spon Press, London, U.K
Leitão, A 2013 'Teaching Computer Science for Architec-
ture', Future Traditions - Proceedings of the 1st ecaade
Regional, FAUP Porto, Portugal
Leitão, A 2014 'Improving Generative Design by Com-
bining Abstract Geometry and Higher-Order Pro-
gramming', Proceedings of the 19th CAADRIA., Kyoto,
Japan
Leitão, A, Santos, L and Lopes, J 2012, 'Programming
Languages for Generative Design: A Comparative
Study', International Journal of Architectural Comput-
ing, 10(1), pp. 139-162
Lopes, J and Leitão, A 2011 'Portable Generative De-
sign for CAD Applications', ACADIA 11: Integration
Through Computation - Proceedings of the 31st ACA-
DIA, Calgary, Canada
Meredith, M 2008, 'Intro', in Sakamoto, T and Ferré, A
(eds) 2008, From Control to Design: Parametric/Algo-
rithmic Architecture, Actar
Moussavi, F 2006, The Function of Ornament, Actar

474 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1

Elemental Intricacy
Architectural Complexity through Hard and Soft Material Agency

Alexandros Kallegias1 , Eleni Pattichi2

1
Architectural Association School of Architecture 2 EP Architects
1
alexandros.kallegias@aaschool.ac.uk 2 elinapattichi@gmail.com

This paper presents the research completed in AA Greece Visiting School 2016 in
Thessaloniki. The work integrates computational design and digital fabrication,
focusing on aspects of complexity in the making of an architectural interactive
prototype. During this research, the use of computation accommodates the design
and fabrication of indeterminacy and complexity in different scales and levels .
The prototype, Eos, projects on itself the urban characteristics of the city of
Thessaloniki. The aim has been to enable a 1-to-1 scale structure to act as a hub
of information, capable of communicating with human users through interaction.
As the city of Thessaloniki is characterised by specific environmental and urban
conditions, the prototype has been set to express such properties.

Keywords: pattern design, 1:1 scale construction, digital fabrication, design

simulation, interactive prototyping

INTRODUCTION gether 7 tutors and 24 students from different coun-

The gap of complexity that exists between unsimu-
latable real world systems and our models of them
reflects the fact that the real world often behaves
in ways that directly contradict our ideas about it
(Frazer 1995, 117). The paper portrays the design
and fabrication of a large scale structure through
the exploration of human communication coupled
with an active built architectural prototype. The case
study described in this paper is the outcome of an
investigation which has explored low-tech materials
with high-tech fabrication tools for the realization
of a complex 1:1 scale structure during an interna-
tional 10-day academic programme in 2016. The pro-
gramme has run as collaboration between the Archi-
tectural Association, School of Architecture and the
Aristotelion University of Thessaloniki, bringing to-
tries including the UK, Greece, China, Germany and
Cyprus. The participants' background varied in terms
of their architectural knowledge, spanning from un-
dergraduate students to professionals in the applied
field. The programme's pedagogical approach was
based on team-based design and learning by experi-
mentation, organized through a series of design stu-
dios, technical tutorials, and design lectures. The ob-
jectives of the research have been two-fold; complex
form generation and interaction respectively. Whilst
attention is given to the fabrication of the complex
architectural form that derives from design variations
of a singular geometric element, the prototype's abil-
ity to actively respond to people within its area is also
taken into account. It is therefore argued that the fi-
nal outcome is equally informed by the aim to act as

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 475

 a human communication node and to be generated
through the manipulation of a fundamental geomet-
ric element.
The final working prototype is described as a
canopy housed indoors, with dimensions of 3 me-
ters width, 3 meters length, and 2 meters height.
The design constraints of the prototype have been
governed by various factors including material, struc-
tural, and interactive aspects. One of the key objec-
tives has been to test the integration of hard and soft
material systems in an aggregate configuration. MDF
has been implemented as the material for the rigid el-
ements of the structural system, while Lycra has been
applied as the soft material as a skin to improve the
interactive features of the installation. As the whole
piece was devised to work as an aggregate system,
the connection details have been a significant con-
stituent in the design and fabrication of the overall
system.
PROGRAMME STRUCTURE
The research programme is formulated into two
stages; the first stage which runs for 5 days focuses on
creating various design models as early trials, while
during the second stage, the remaining 5 days, the
final 1:1 scale prototype is fabricated. The second
stage sees all the participants as one team, combin-
ing their knowledge gained from the first stage dur-
ing which they work as separate teams. Specifically,
the first stage has included 6 design teams address-
ing the research's objectives via the creation of mul-
tiple design iterations as a method which enabled
the teams to promptly investigate options and filter
through the most successful aspects from each de-
sign proposal. The purpose hasn't been to create a
single optimal solution, but rather to swiftly test vari-
ations that can provide insights via various pattern-
testing. The proposals were developed using Au-
todesk's Maya physics software as well as the para-
metric plugin Grasshopper for McNeel Rhinoceros.
Computational tools as such have been an integral
part of this approach emphasising the way in which
design and fabrication methodologies that govern
476 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1
the contemporary tendencies of architecture are in-
heritably interconnected with technology. Technol-
ogy has provided an investigation platform for archi-
tects for the analysis and simulation of complexity
observed in natural phenomena able to solve archi-
tectural problems. The origin of digital experimen-
tal methodology in natural phenomena proves that
complexity is not an end in itself but the mode and
style to solve complex problems of human inhabita-
tion in space using simple and specific rules (Gruber
2011, 110-115).
COMPUTATIONAL SETUP
The design brief of this research has been the pro-
posal and construction of a one-to-one scale proto-
type with kinetic and interactive parts that relate to
the community's liveliness in the city. Innovative in-
terventions which were informed by bottom-up rules
extracted from existing city conditions and activities
formulated the major focus of the design propos-
als. These activities focused mainly on the people's
movement within the city in different moments in
history, the traffic, the city seafront, the connection to
the University campus and the weather's local condi-
tions. Simulation tools were used to digitally contort
the city's layout and superpose a sequence of flowing
particles along the urban grid. Hence, digital tools
computed a translation of urban information into or-
ganic geometric compositions and fluid trajectories.
Furthermore, a diversity of analogue representative
models was produced during the form-finding phase
of the research. With the completion of this stage, the
next step dealt with the realisation of Eos, the final 1:1
scale prototype.
Critical aspect of the research's aim has been
the connection between form-finding methods and
form-making techniques based on a component-
type design strategy. Computational composition
and design analysis enabled the architectural solu-
tion of a sophisticated shell structure, whose com-
plexity was essential for the agency of space and
structural constraints (Terzidis 2006, 117). The pro-
totype's form emerges from a set of design explo-
 rations that follow the basic principles of digitally out the design explorations (Figure 3). These explo-
simulated pattern formations. More specifically, a se- rations included simulations of cloud particles flow-
ries of forms was investigated through the genera- ing through the city's fabric and were made possi-
tion of doubly-curved surfaces that were then sub- ble through the combinatorial use of computational
divided in triangular parts via recursive technique in design and mechatronic tools that acted as a com-
parallel with aggregation methods of components. mon platform (Maya, Grasshopper and Arduino). This
In detail, the entire form of Eos is based on a low- digital platform of investigation facilitated the incor-
poly design piece, which acted as the base model poration of a vast array of construction criteria into
for its' triangular subdivision with Grasshopper. In a seamless complex composition which was synthe-
turn, each triangulated surface produced the set of sised using the triangle as the starting singular geom-
edge pieces; these were created to act as the struc- etry. The parametric design strategies facilitated the
tural skeleton for every surface. Each edge was then differentiated application of this triangle to build a
aligned with its' opposite in a way that every point complex structural system of polygonal components.
on that side could be connected with a straight line
Figure 1 to the next. (Figure1) Hence, all components' edges
Eos prototype were parallel to each other and vertical to the ground
construction model, to facilitate this system of connections. The triangu-
material and lated subdivision continued onto every surface.
information Eos has been realised with soft malleable fabric
diagram. parts for every surface and hard MDF wooden ele-
ments for each structural edge (Figure 2). The pro-
totype has been originally installed in the city's Uni-
versity campus where it has been exposed to the
people who are visiting or passing through. Whilst
constructed in a fixed yet fluid-like form the struc-
ture keeps its' active character with the integration
of electronics embedded in its' triangular compo-
nents. The use of the open-source platform Arduino
on top of the sophisticated forms designed in Maya
and Rhino Grasshopper result in a shell reactive to ex-
ternal stimuli.
The research included the possible integration
of parameters and constraints, spanning from the
urban and physical environment to the local inte-
rior space. The available materials and computer-
aided fabrication machines played an equally inte-
gral part on the design strategy. Through the digi-
tal generation of component-oriented forms, multi-
ple applications of elements were explored in differ-
ent spatial configurations. Triangular patterns with
a gradational change in size respective to pinned-
pointed locations over a two-dimensional grid were
combined with and fabrication methods through-

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 477

 FABRICATION DETAILS Figure 2
In regards to the fabrication aspect of Eos, the analyti- Eos prototype
cal software plug-in Karamba for Grasshopper / Rhino fabricated in 1:1
was applied to inform the structure's cells detailed scale.
construction which subsequently led to the extrac-
tion of data for the computer-aided fabrication (Fig-
ure 4). Parametric relationships in reference to user-
oriented and material constraints guided the investi-
gation of the prototype's elemental geometry. Under
the scope of this methodology the application of spe-
cific digital design strategies facilitated the optimiza-
tion and refinement of the structure and its compo-
nents. Specifically, the design details of the connec-
tion system between the components' edges were
generated according to the thickness of the material
and the geometric relationships between the neigh-
bouring components (Figure 5). In regards to the
analogue and digital feedback, experimentation with
physical prototypes informed the digital model. The
minimum and maximum magnitudes and dimen-
sions of the polygonal components in the parametric
definition of Grasshopper were updated according to
the observation of the material's behaviour and the Figure 3
structural components' performance during testing. Eos lighting pattern
Furthermore, the geometry of the various polygonal detail.
planar parts was modified into double curved sur-
faces for the application of Lycra fabric. This dou-
ble curved surface was generated with a digital para-
metric transformation that was used to highlight the
intersections between the polygonal components.
The curvilinear geometrical variations of the edges
around each void intersection of components cre-
ated a dramatic effect in contrast to the components
edges which had a structural role (Figure 6). Addi-
tionally, the articulation of components in distance
to each other addressed as a detail the practical is-
sues of Lycra fabric application. The gap between the
polygonal components was used to fasten the fabric
after the process of assembly and as a design and de-
tail element to highlight the hypostasis of each com-
ponent. Hence, these design strategies combined
structural, constructional, user oriented and contex-
tual parameters in a unified entity under the scope of

478 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1

 a component oriented design. refractions in space. The differentiated orientation of
The parametrically generated structure of Eos re- components in space and the curvilinear shape of the
quired a file to factory continuum for its efficient re- overall geometry enhanced the organic distribution
alisation. The use of parametric software facilitated of light in the surrounding surfaces generating com-
the digital extraction of components in numbered 2- plexity from simple mechanical operations. More-
dimensional spreadsheets for computer aided fabri- over, the application of the laser cut pieces on the
cation in CNC and Laser machines. Engravings on fabric enabled the transformation to be more specific
each component edges and connection systems ac- and directed according to the patterns' orientation.
cording to the digital numbering were used for man- The actual pattern entails greater possibilities of light
aging the complex assembly in the short time frame effects "continuously variable and varying" (Kwinter
of the workshop. In this way, students with the 2002, 9). In this way, the sensorial attributes of the
help of the tutors were able to coordinate the com- installation integrate time in relation to geometry of
plex fabrication and construction of the components the polygonal patterns and real time data of prox-
in pieces and finally complete the assembly of the imity (Figure 8). Nonlinearity and indeterminacy are
entire installation throughout a systematic process. manifested through this system of movement in re-
Such a complex structure could not be realised with- lation to geometry, light and space generating juxta-
out the workflow of data between the digital model positions of lighting effects (Kwinter 2002, 9).
and computer aided fabrication techniques.
Figure 4 123 MDF pieces were connected mainly by using
Karamba a mortise system in combination to fixed steel ele-
screenshot with ments in the prototype's cellular structure. Initially,
displacement the linear MDF pieces were joined into the triangu-
values. lar and rhomboid components which were subse-
quently connected in the overall network of the shell
structure (Figure 7). During this stage, Lycra fabric
was applied on the components along with the pat-
terned cardboard elements. Soft, semi-transparent
fabric was attached to various cardboard opaque pat-
Figure 5 terns. This configuration was coupled to the kine-
Component matics of Arduino servos and sensors. Specifically,
connection detail. Arduino mechatronics were combined with the de-
sign of cut patterns on the Lycra to generate com-
plex lighting effects actuated by the distance sen-
sors. As the sensors send signals to Eos Arduino
"brain", a set of rotating servo motors, installed and
attached on the Lycra skin, begin to move. This mov-
ing mechanism has an immediate effect on the soft
Lycra skin which at first was designed to have a single
layer; however, after testing the overlaying of multi-
ple skins, the double skin was selected as the most ef-
fective one to filter the light with a more drastic effect.
The moving mechanism of servos behind the fabric
transformed the Lycra and generated triangular light

GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 479

 ing area for the moving mechanism. As the person Figure 6
moves closer, simulated projections of Thessaloniki's Detail of curvilinear
urban fabric are activated on Eos' Lycra skin. In par- edge versus
ticular, the city's grid appears initially mapped on Eos component linear
single rhombic component. As the distance sensors edge.
detect people moving the projected grid gets dis-
torted; city's roads and building blocks are gradually
deformed via fluid dynamics. In detail, the system
of interaction involves the detection of movement
while categorising each movement according to its
location. The detection field is distinguished in three
Figure 7
areas; each area correlates to a specific fluid simu-
Construction
lation that varies in scale according to the distance
process.
from the physical shell. Dynamic fluid simulations of
particle swarming the city grid and deforming its ge-
ometry are displayed while the Lycra fabric is physi-
cally distorted by a set of servos connected to it (Fig-
ure 8).

RESULTS
Digital and physical modelling facilitated the explo-
ration of part-to-whole relationships between the
overall structure and its components. This process Figure 8
contributed in the understanding of complexity in Detail of
different levels and scales. These different scales in- interaction.
clude the translation of contextual conditions into
projections that influenced the form-finding of the
overall structure, the user oriented interactive trans-
formations of the components' fabric with the use
of mechatronics, the composition of the shell struc-
ture in relation to the components' geometry and
the structural and constructional aspects of the con-
nection system. The continuum of design process
between large and small scale, digital and physical
realm was explored with the use of a digital work-
Regarding the interactive aspect of Eos, distance sen-
flow of data. Laser-cutting and CNC manufacturing
sors were placed to read people's presence within
techniques enabled a hands�on experience on the
the prototype's area. The sensors were positioned in
diverse range of digital fabrication systems and for-
a strategic part on the structure covering a sensing
mulated the starting point for the physical tests prior
distance of 450 cm. On the computational part, this
to realisation of the final form. The physical tests pro-
distance was divided in 3 different zones; each zone
vided a direct feedback for the prototype's final con-
correlating to a different simulation by Eos as well as
struction methodologies and set the guidelines for
the triggering of its' kinetic parts. The zone which
the translation of the 3-dimensional form into pla-
is the furthest from the prototype acts as the sens-

480 | eCAADe 34 - GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1

nar elements. A set of design rules was coded in
Grasshopper for the digital generation of triangular
and rhomboid cell details as well as for the extraction
of the 2D spreadsheets used during the fabrication
process with the digital machines. In this way, stu-
dents were able to process the assembly of the ge-
ometrically complex structure with the use of digital
parametric software.
In regards to the timeline of Eos' creation and
due to the prototypical nature of this architectural
project, the different aspects of interaction, simula-
tion, fabrication and analysis were running in paral-
lel. On the aspect of interaction, the different zones
in Eos' sensing and reacting abilities enables an ad-
ditional level of interplay where a person may at first
activate the shell's moving skin fabric and in turn the
shell may attract the person to get closer in steps
while different animations are on display.
CONCLUSIONS
At every point of the design, fabrication and the as-
sembly process, the ability to constantly readjust the
Eos's overall form respectively to the alterations of its
smallest detail has been a key driver in recognising
feeble aspects and putting forward design ideas for
refinement. Moreover, the choice of working with
low-tech material for a demanding, complex proto-
type provided useful insights to the unpredictable
limitations of a system that aims to act as communi-
cation node. The choice of MDF brought forward the
hands-on understanding of benefits between adhe-
sive and mechanical anchoring of the pieces. The set
of servo-actuators used to twist parts of the flexible
fabric skin heightened the prototype's active charac-
ter depending on the set's positioning and the simul-
taneous designing, fabricating and analysing pro-
cesses were critical for the design team to swiftly
adapt to the complexity of unexpected results. Over-
all, the purpose of the study has been to illustrate
architectural possibilities of altering in real-time the
built environment through the use of computational
design processes with digital fabrication techniques.
Furthermore, the active learning character of the
GENERATIVE DESIGN | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 481
programme's methodology empowered both partic-
ipants and tutors to deal with the complexity of con-
ceiving Eos' design and equally enabled the smooth
transition from the digital realm to the materiality
of the physical one. In combination with the pro-
gramme's limited amount of time, the entire process
contributed to the pedagogical aspect of this initia-
tive rendering students more engaged with various
design and fabrication methods.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work presented is part of the research under-
taken at AA Greece Visiting School 2015. We would
like to thank our tutoring team and students for their
great efforts. AA VS Thessaloniki 2015.
PROGRAMME DIRECTOR:Alexandros Kallegias
AUTH COORDINATORS:Nikos Kalogirou, Stavros
Vergopoulos, Anastasios Tellios
TUTORS:Alexandros Kallegias, Yue Shi, Eirini
Vouliouri, Elina Pattichi, Sylvia Georgiadou, Arsenios
Zachariadis, Alex A. Tsolakis
PARTICIPANTS:Evdoxia Besmerti, Dimitrios
Chatzinikolis, Maria Christopoulou, Marina Di-
mopoulou, Christos Kakouros, Stavros Grigorios
Kasimatis Voutyras, Dimitris Kollaros, Aikaterini
Maria Kotsampasi, Emmanouil Megalooikonomou,
Safi Omarov, Niki Papacharalampous, Maria Pet-
sani, Artemis Psaltoglou, Styliani Rossikopoulou-
Pappa , Anna Rizou, Eirini Dafni Sapka, Ioannis
Schoinas, Joanna Sotiriou, Joanne Spyridi, Georgia
Strinopoulou, Georgia Skartadou, Magda Triantafylli-
dou, Konstantina Stella Tsagkaratou, Georgios Grigo-
riadis
REFERENCES
Frazer, J 1995, An Evolutionary Architecture, Ellipsis
Gruber, P 2011, Biomimetics in Architecture: Architecture
of Life and Buildings, Springer-Verlag
Kwinter, S 2002, Architects of Time: Towards a Theory of
the Event in Modernist Culture, The MIT Press
Terzidis, K 2006, Algorithmic architecture, Routledge
COLLABORATION AND
PARTICIPATION
CumInCAD 2.0: A Redesigned Scalable Cloud Deployment
Towards higher impact with openness and novel features

Tomo Cerovsek1 , Bob Martens2

1
University of Ljubljana 2 TU Wien
1
tomo.cerovsek@fgg.uni-lj.si 2 b.martens@tuwien.ac.at

CumInCAD is a cumulative index of publications related to 'Computer Aided

Architectural Design' (CAAD). It includes bibliographic data of approximately
12K records, which were predominantly derived from CAAD-related conferences,
such as ACADIA, ASCAAD, CAADRIA, eCAADe, SiGraDi and CAAD futures. A
brief historical overview of almost two decades of collaboration between the
University of Ljubljana and the above-mentioned CAAD-associations is provided.
After years of successful operation the previous interface became gradually
outdated, which called for new developments to assure continuous support to
open access to scientific knowledge. In this contribution, we explain the existing
status of the systems, its use, and the transition process to a cloud deployment.

Keywords: Open access, Cloud deployment, Bibliometrics, Google Scholar

INTRODUCTION Limited access. Access to CAAD scientific works was

The main goal that propelled the 'Cumulative In-
dex of Computer Aided Architectural Design' (CumIn-
CAD) was: (1) to build a 'collective memory' of sci-
entific publications from conference proceedings of
CAAD-associations; and (2) to make this memory un-
conditionally accessible to the scientific community
as a web-based bibliographic repository of works.
The need for a digital repository of CAAD-related
publications was initiated by two important issues:
• Possible data loss
• Limited access
Possible data loss. There was a fear that valuable
scientific contributions would be lost or at least re-
searchers' time could be wasted on unnecessary re-
work, or time-consuming literature research and in-
formation retrieval.
very limited due to a small number (up to 250) of
printed copies of the proceedings. Conference pro-
ceedings are seldom stored in libraries as complete
series, but remain mostly in the participants' book-
shelves.
Almost two decades ago, we responded to the need
- to prevent data loss and to improve access to
the works - and set up a web-based bibliographical
repository, which used Perl as its programming lan-
guage and a Web Oriented Database (WODA). This
made bibliographic records and full texts available to
a wide spectrum of interested researchers and practi-
tioners. A positive response from the scientific com-
munity contributed to a growing reputation of the
CumInCAD. As the reputation of CumInCAD grew, so
did its content, encompassing today over 12,000 bib-
liographic records and more than 9,000 full texts.

COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 485

 Three important maintenance aspects for the status
of CumInCAD and its survival are:
Maintenance of bibliographic data. The driving
force for a continuing support for a commitment to
collect, organize and make the content available via
open access were volunteering activities by partici-
pating CAAD-associations and individuals. For quite
some time, conference organizers have been using
digital master files in pdf, which are later used for the
repository along with bibliographic data.
• Past status: A time consuming preparation of
bibliographic data with limited impact.
• Goal: To ease bibliographic data preparation
with a helpdesk and to improve the impact.
Maintenance of the technical solution. Almost 20
years is a considerable amount of time for any IT
system, especially in view of current developments
in web-based (electronic) publishing. A growing
user-base and amount of content on the one hand
and continuous technological changes and advance-
ments for the www on the other represent constant
technical challenges for CumInCAD.
• Past status: The hardware and software sys-
tem resided on a University of Ljubljana server
that wasn't dedicated to CumInCAD only; e.g.,
some services may require an update, which
could (and did) cause problems to CumInCAD.
• Goal: To migrate to a solution that is dedi-
cated and not dependent on the institutional
IT, but open, independent, and scalable.
Maintenance of the open access path. Over the last
few years, we established a culture of 'Limited Open
Access'. This means that CAAD-associations created
tangible "added value" by making their recent full
texts exclusively available to their members (read as
registered CumInCAD users). The intention was not
to generate business; on the contrary, the main aim
was to keep the repository on a shoestring budget.
• Past status: Limited Open Access
• Goal: Full open access to CumInCAD.
486 | eCAADe 34 - COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1
METHOD: TRANSITION STEPS
As a response to the identified problems of the past
status, the following line of action was set out:
Agreement on continuous support. We agreed to
extend the collaboration between the University of
Ljubljana and CAAD-associations to assure contin-
ued development, support and migration of the ex-
isting bibliographic repository. A migration plan was
set up for the second half of 2015. A preliminary we-
bometric and bibliometric analysis was performed to
assess relevance and impact.
Set-up of a helpdesk system. In order to support
both maintenance of the bibliographic data and mi-
gration, we set up a help desk that provides easy and
professional reporting and tracking. The helpdesk
system will also enhance end-user experience in the
future and will remain an integral part of CumInCAD.
From limited to full access. CAAD-associations de-
cided to upgrade the previous approach of Limited
Open Access and to progress towards 100% Open Ac-
cess. Open Access to everybody leads to enhanced
visibility. In order to increase impact, we also de-
cided to technically support google scholar crawling,
indexing and search engine optimization.
Porting the system to the cloud. In order to avoid
the problems related to the closed technical system
that is affected by the hardware and software limi-
tations and lack of portability, we decided to go for
a dedicated, standalone, flexible cloud solution that
will allow migration and scalable deployment.
Deployment, testing and re-launching. This part
of the project encompassed a complete technical mi-
gration of the entire database content, services that
were based on a common gateway interface, inter-
preters and supporting libraries, including tens of
GBs of data. Before a final re-launch we also did a
complete graphical re-design of the entire interface
and performed tests on different configurations
In the next two sections of the paper we provide
detailed information on the analysis and results, fol-
lowed by conclusions and the plans for the way for-
ward.
 ANALYSIS OF USE PATTERNS
The analysis of use patterns is important as it helps us
plan technical and organizational improvements of
the web repository. For this purpose we used Google
Analytics, a free web analytics service that provides
statistics and basic analytical tools for search engine
optimization (SEO) and marketing purposes. The ser-
vice is available to anyone with a Google account.
Once the Google Analytics is active, it starts to
collect, analyse and format the data to different visual
representations. The dashboard data on Figure 1 give
important information on the nature of CumInCAD
end-users: we have over 76,000 users per year, 20%
or approximately 15,000 returning users (i.e. they re-
turned to the CumInCAD web site at least once). The
y-axis shows page views (number of pages that were
viewed per week) in the period of one year, starting
Figure 1
An overview of web
access analysis for
CumInCAD from 1.
May 2015 to 30.
April 2016
COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 487
on 1st of May 2015. One significant low-use period
is during Christmas, and at the end of the time-scale
(April 2016), where we see that the number of page
views is approaching zero, because we completely
ported the system to a new cloud solution at that
time. Users usually view about three pages per ses-
sion, which means that they find what they are look-
ing for very quickly, or they quickly find out that the
content is not appropriate for them. End-users usu-
ally stay on the site less than 2 min. We identified
about 260 different sessions per day undertaken by
approximately 200 different users.
As visible on a diagram we have one significant
peak (high-use) of CumInCAD in September. As the
number of users is not proportional to the page-
views, we may assume that one of the end-users was
a bot.

As illustrated in Figure 2, almost 18% of the traffic
comes from US; in terms of use of the system per
capita, Austrians would be the most active end-users.
We can also conclude that CumInCAD is truly interna-
tional.
The referral analysis also shows that the end-
users did not come to CumInCAD from Google, but
they use direct referrals. This means that the imple-
mentation of Google Scholar would make an impact.
Based on the use patterns we may also predict
how scalable a technical solution should be. On the
other hand, we can use the Web analytics as an audit
trail of the activities on the web systems and allows
for the measure the affect the developments, and this
is what we did during the migration and final transi-
tion to CumInCAD 2.0.
488 | eCAADe 34 - COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1
RESULTS OF MIGRATION Figure 2
There are two important parts to migration: the work Demographic
either invisible to the end-users (back-end) or visible analysis of web
in other systems (e.g., Google), and the work that is access by country
visible to the end-users as an interface (front-end). from 1 May 2015 to
Figure 3 presents an example of an effort that 30 April 2016
is not visible to the end-users of the CumInCAD di-
rectly, but through a Google Scholar interface (once
CumInCAD was opened and ready for indexing, it was
crawled and indexed by Google robots).
Figure 3
Google Scholar
search results
containing
CumInCAD results
Back-end: Towards cloud deployment
We executed the following development steps to-
wards open cloud deployment:
• Open access search engine friendly solution;
• Standalone portable system implementation;
• Cloud deployment of the system with backup.
Open access search engine friendly solution.
Preparation of a pre-porting review, including bib-
liographic measures and review of web access stats
and impact. These steps included adjustments of
metadata. The indexing of the bibliography re-
quired adjustments of the metadata system, in addi-
tion we had to prepare dedicated index files for web
crawlers that connect bibliographic records. Testing
of the indexing on a Lucene Standalone Engine and
on Google Scholar; implementation of a novel data
model for indexing; preparation of initial indexing for
the whole repository using pre-processing and XML
records.
Figure 4 Selected cloud deployment - Amazon Elastic Com-
Google Scholar pute Cloud (EC2) - replaced the University server.
public display of The back-up is also provided as a part of the so-
author record with lution. Backups can be used for creation of new in-
the display of stances at different physical location or just for a re-
bibliometric store.
statistics Amazon virtual machines are called 'instances',
which may have different hardware configuration
that match specific requirements of the server. For
an initial set-up one can use Amazon Machine Image
Search Engine Optimization (SEO) that includes in- (AMI), which is a template that contains the software
dexing and referencing by way of the standard configuration (e.g. an operating system, an applica-
Google search engine to assure increased ranking. tion server, and applications). Amazon cloud services
A trial implementation of the customized search ap- allow for easy monitoring of the performance, pro-
proaches triggered technical decisions. We con- viding the benefit of elasticity.
cluded this phase of migration by sending an invita-
Figure 5 tion to CumInCAD users to create a Google Scholar
A cloud service account.
interface that Google Scholar Citations provide a simple way
provides an for authors to keep track of citations to their articles.
overview of An author can trace back information about who is
instance (top) and a citing his/her publications, graph citations over time
completely web and compute several citation metrics. Authors can
based management set up a public profile to appear in Google Scholar re-
of a virtual machine sults when people search for them (see Figure 4).
for CumInCAD 2.0 Standalone portable system implementation.
The second part of the transition was far more de-
manding as it required considerable technical mod-
ifications to be executed on time. This included
porting of a database system to a new standalone.
The database management environment used for in-
put and output (data entry and automatic index file
preparation) was adapted, tested and implemented.
Cloud deployment of the system with backup.
We used the Turnkey Hub implementation and im-
plemented TKLBAM portable backup. Adaptation of
the back-end solution(s) was made available to man-
age specific Linux deployment. The initial instance
was based on open source environment allowing
to be openly transferred to other cloud providers.
WODA is still being used for data entry and automatic
index file preparation for Google Scholar.

COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 489

 Figure 6
CumInCAD 2.0
selected instance
CPU utilization, Disk
I/O and network
traffic

Testing the ported version on Amazon EC2 was siveness and robustness of operations. In this phase
a significant task in order to determine which con- we analysed CPU utilization, read/write activities and
figuration matched the user requirements of respon- network traffic (Figure 6).

490 | eCAADe 34 - COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1

Figure 7
Redesign of the
start page
simplified with
minimal menu for
main features.

Figure 8 Front-end: Interface redesign

Listing of search Responsive design considerations guided the re-
hits: Example of design of visual representation and the relaunch of
eCAADe2015- the repository website. There were two main princi-
proceedings. ples in the redesign: (1) simplicity and (2) sufficient
quality of display on multi-modal devices.
Note that we also moved to a new domain,
cumincad.org, in the process of migration, while
all existing references to cumincad.scix.net are re-
directed to a new domain (papers.cumincad.org).
The focus of delivery by way of the interface is di-
rected towards multiple devices (also for mobile de-
vices - see Figure 9) and above all the interface fol-
lows typical search patterns, such as: Certain pro-
ceedings of a certain CAAD-association; All published
papers of a CAAD-association; Papers of a certain au-
thor (personal bibliography), etc.

COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 491

 CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
The CumInCAD 2.0 cloud deployment proved to be
efficient, scalable and independent. The solution is
not tied to an institutional IT infrastructure, but is
portable to either private or public clouds. We also
moved to a new web domain and assured smooth
transition with URL rewrite. As CumInCAD is "owned"
by the CAAD-associations without being a profit-
oriented enterprise intended to generate business,
CAAD-associations now have the power to fully con-
trol the technical part of the CumInCAD solutions, do-
main and content.
Finally, help-desk support services to the CumIn-
CAD end-user community and bibliographic data
providers (e.g., editors ) have been implemented.
492 | eCAADe 34 - COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1
Maximising attention to the publication output of
individual authors we strengthen the potential im-
pact by making the bibliographic content available
for crawling and indexing by Google and other search
engines. In this context, we have strengthened
the open publishing coverage and implemented ad-
vanced indexing and searching. We used the best
advantages offered by both worlds, independent de-
velopments, portable cloud solutions with integra-
tion to the most open commercial developments.
For example, a Google team does the daily develop-
ments on indexing, searching, ranking, integration,
and bibliometrics, while we still do some develop-
Figure 9
ments, e.g. Semantic Web, advanced clustering, data
Listing of search
mining, along with constant maintenance. We be-
hits: conference
lieve that the work invested in this project will result
series.
in higher impact through open access supported by
search engines and services like Google scholar.
Throughout the implementation we observed
the performance of selected configurations of in-
stance and the capacity of selected resources. One
of the great advantages of Cloud Deployment is scal-
ability and extensibility.
Cloud interoperability also prevents cloud ser-
vices and software lock-in. With the help of server
usage tracking and support the end-user experience
is enhanced and technical solutions can be scaled if Figure 10
needed. In order to assure safe operations in terms Advanced search
of data integrity and backup, we perform daily back- interface
ups which enable us to restore the systems to a spe-
cific date. This way we continue to assure two main
goals: safety of valuable bibliographic data and open
access.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We gratefully acknowledge the initial work by prof.
Žiga Turk and the support of Robert Klinc before the
transition, as well as the work conducted by Darko
Malić during and after transition.
REFERENCES
[1] http://papers.cumincad.org
Collaborative Design with Mobile Augmented Reality
Leman Figen Gül1 , Süheyla Müge Halıcı2
1,2
Istanbul Technical University
1,2
{fgul|halicis}@itu.edu.tr

In early design process, designers employ several media for externalizations of

their design ideas which facilitate decision making, discussion and evaluation.
Especially models are the most common representation tools and are used
generally to understand and make spatial reasoning on the design ideas. Besides
the traditional methods, today, the technological developments bring new ways
for collaboration and design in 3D; the mobile augmented reality (MAR)
technology is one of them. MAR is augmented reality technology which is
provided by mobile devices. This study focuses on the early design process of
collaborative designers' communication when they are working with the MAR
technology. We developed a MAR environment for designers, and conducted an
experiment to understand the key elements of the interaction of the designers with
the interface. The communication and interaction of the designers are analyzed
using the protocol analysis method. The results show that the MAR technology
supports the co-design activities encouraging the designers to manipulate the
created artefact. The results of the study would be indicative for future studies.

Keywords: collaborative design, mobile augmented reality, protocol analysis

INTRODUCTION the co-design situation have been studied by vari-

Augmented Reality (AR) technology combines the
real and the virtual by providing the 3D real time in-
teractivity (Azuma 1997). In the field of design, the
AR technology is mainly considered as a representa-
tion tool, which is crucial in a collaborative design sit-
uation. As the representation tool for co-designers,
design situations where several designers work to-
gether with a design problem, the AR technology
provides the virtual models which the discussions
would take place on. One of the important features
of the AR technology is that, the designers can in-
teract with the design artifact through the graphi-
cal user interface (GUI) and/or with gestures. Using
the AR technology as a representation tool during
ous researchers (Kim and Maher 2005; Seichter and
Schnabel 2005). While using the augmented reality
technology, collaborative designers would have op-
portunity to interact with each other during the de-
sign process which is essential in a co-design con-
text. In the urban design context, Seichter and Schn-
abel's (2005) indicated how designers could commu-
nicate and create early design ideas with the AR as a
medium (Seichter and Schnabel 2005). Another im-
portant features of the employment of the AR tech-
nology is for facilitating the spatial reasoning of the
design proposal. Kim and Maher (2005) compared
the spatial cognitive impact of the designers with the
co-design situation on the table-top augmented re-

COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 493

 ality system and the graphical user interface. Most
of those AR research used the desktops, monitor dis-
plays and built-in webcams or the displays projected
on the table-top systems for the collaboration. Over
the last decade, due to the emergence of smart-
phones and tablets, the cloud technology and the
wireless high-bandwidth internet, the use of the mo-
bile augmented reality (MAR) have increasingly be-
come a common tool. MAR technology provides aug-
mented reality technology through mobile devices.
This means users with MAR do not have to remain
their position due to fixed devices like desktops. The
mobile augmented reality technology gives an op-
portunity to the collaborative designers providing a
working environment where the designers are able
to freely move around the representation and are
able to visually inspect the design artifact. Although
there are some studies to employ mobile augmented
reality to understand the user's visual spatial cog-
nition (Shelton and Hedley 2004), we do not know
the impact of recent mobile augmented reality tech-
nology on designers' communication and interaction
with the design artifact.
The aim of this study is to understand the
changes of designer's communication and interac-
tion with the external design representation while
they are moving a physical model making to digi-
tal model making using mobile augmented reality.
In order to understand the changes of their interac-
tions, we analyze the verbal and visual data of the
co-designers that we captured during the design ses-
sions with the Protocol Analyses method (see, Er-
icsson and Simon (1993) for the protocol analysis),
which is widely used in collaborative design settings
(Maher et al. 2006; Gül 2007). In this paper, the result
of a pilot study is presented and discussed.
MOBILE AUGMENTED REALITY IN COLLAB-
ORATIVE DESIGN
Collaborative design activity involves effective com-
munication and working on the shared design pro-
posal in order to determine the design goals, in-
spect the problem space and the constraints, and
494 | eCAADe 34 - COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1
construct the design proposal together as a team
(Hennessy and Murphy 1999, Seitamaa-Hakkarainen
et al. 2000). In the field of collaborative design,
the provision of a more efficient communication pro-
cess, especially for the healthy communication, in-
teraction and fruitful presentation, is one of the key
elements. In particular, external design representa-
tions that have a significant role as the communica-
tive resources are the objects of interaction (Robert-
son 1996).
When design thoughts are externalized, each el-
ements of the design artefact contains both the prop-
erties of future interpretations and the negotiation
of further developments of the design idea (Gül and
Maher 2009). Sketches and physical models are com-
mon traditional external design representation tools.
In the collaborative design settings, the design rep-
resentations in the form of sketches or models that
can be pointed to, talked about (Perrya and Sander-
son 1998) would play an essential role both in one's
conversation with oneself and with others. In partic-
ular, Kvan and Thilakaratne (2003) pointed out that
models offer benefits of approachability, tangibility,
manipulability and collaborative engagement.
With the new developments in the advanced de-
sign technologies for the externalization of the de-
sign ideas, working with the augmented digital mod-
els become more common in the early stages of the
design process. In addition, the graphical user inter-
faces have been increasingly employed between ar-
chitects, designers and engineers as the representa-
tion and communication tools that become afford-
able, reliable and easy to use. Those environments
provide opportunities of the manipulation of the vir-
tual design artifacts that is not possible before in the
co-design situation. In continuum reality and virtu-
ality (Milgram and Kishino 1994), augmented reality
offers new possibilities for the collaborative design-
ers. Studies took attention to mobile augmented re-
ality with the interest of establishing mutual aware-
ness between collaborators (Rekimoto 1996).
Figure 1
The mobile AR
interface. The smart
phones and
Android-İOS tablets
can be used.

METHODOLOGY
In this study, in order to understand the interaction
Figure 2
and communication activities of the AR users, we de-
The pilot study: PM
veloped a marker-based mobile AR (MAR) platform,
(left) and MAR
as shown in Figure 1. In order to analyse and docu-
(right)
ment the collaborative behaviour of designers in two
environments-The
different design settings, the pilot study is conducted
tables’ view is
at the Department of Architecture in the Istanbul
projected on the
Technical University: 1) Co-design with the physical
glass table-top
modelling environment (PM), and 2) Co-design with
(bottom).
the enhanced marker-based mobile AR environment
(MAR). A pair of architects collaborating on two dif-
ferent design tasks with similar complexity are exam-
ined. The assumption of the study is that a compar-
ison of the same architects in two different environ-
ments would provide better indication of the impact
of the environment than using different designers
and the same design task. With these ideas in mind,
the pilot study with two design settings is conducted,
as shown in Figure 2.

COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 495

 A marker-based mobile AR environment is devel- the screen view of the shared tablet is also captured.
oped for the study by using the Unity3D [1] game All the video and audio data are fed into a DVR (Digi-
engine with the Vuforia [2] AR plug-in. In Vuforia, tal Video Recording) system. The data is analysed us-
the library of markers is adapted to match the tar- ing the protocol analysis method that requires tran-
get objects that are the basic primitives; the cube, scription, segmentation and coding the data. We
the sphere and the cylinder objects. In order to aug- have done the transcription and then, the data is seg-
ment the target objects on to the scene, Vuforia plug- mented. Finally, the segmented protocols are coded
in requires the definition of image targets for each of using the customized coding scheme, as shown in Ta-
the target objects. The image targets are the unique ble 1.
predefined 2D shapes, similar to the QR codes, which
are recognized by the device's camera. In the de- CODING SCHEME
veloped application, nine image targets are defined The actions and utterances are recorded, and then
and assigned to the primitive objects. The applica- the transcripts of their dialogue are segmented by
tion also has the interface components to manage using Suwa et al.'s (1998) action and intention rule.
the augmented objects, as shown in Figure 1. The The segmented protocol is coded and analyzed. Ta-
users are able to operate dragging, rotating, scaling ble 1 shows the communication and interaction cod-
and changing the colour of the objects. In addition, ing scheme which has six main categories. In this pa-
Vuforia enables extended tracking, once the image per, we present the results of some of the categories.
target is detected, it keeps the objects on the screen, These are highlighted with gray in Table 1.
even the image target is moved out of the vision of
the device's camera. Table 1
In order to have the collaborative working envi- Communication
ronment, both a shared view of the tablet's display is and Interaction
projected onto the glass-top table and each design- coding scheme
ers' tablet view is shared. A physical model of the site
in 1:500 scale is also provided to help the visualisa-
tion of the given design context. The designers are
able to inspect the site in both physically and virtu-
ally, as shown in Figure 2.
The first phase, (PM) co-design with the physical
modelling tools as the baseline study: the site model
is given in 1:500 scale. The cardboard plates and
small boxes in different sizes, pen, paper, knives, and
some other modelling materials are provided. The
second phase, (MAR) co-design with the enhanced
mobile AR platform: Android and İOS tablets, the
markers, the physical site model in 1:500 scale and
the glass-top table with the shared view of the AR in-
terface are provided to the designers.
The designers had a training session followed by
the experiment. During the experiment, three cam-
eras are used to capture the designers' actions and The first category is the 'design actions' that has
verbalization. In addition, in the second phase (MAR) "physical", "perceptual" and "semantic" codes. The
'physical' refers to discussions on the physical appear-

496 | eCAADe 34 - COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1

ance of elements; shape, size, texture, color. The
second code, the 'perceptual' contains the discus-
sions on the visual spatial relationships of elements.
The 'semantic' refers to both the functional and con-
ceptual information of the design idea; discussions
on the tasks; set up goals, proposing idea and re-
trieve knowledge. The second category contains the
generic design process actions: 'analysis', 'synthesis'
and 'evaluation'. Third category includes the content
of the communications that are the discussions on
the 'design' idea and the discussions on the 'mak-
ing' of the model. Based on the visual data, we
also analyzed the modelling activity with the cate-
gory 'making action', that has two codes: the 'creat-
ing a new element' and the 'revising the element' ac-
tions. The interaction with the given elements and
the tools-interfaces are also investigated: In the PM
session, the physical modelling activity consists of
two codes: 'w/module' and 'w/model'. The 'w/mod-
ule' refers to the given pre-modeled pieces that are
the basic prisms. The "w/model" refers to the cre-
ation of the model using the cardboards by cutting,
gluing etc. In the MAR session, the interaction oc-
curs with the interface and with the markers: 'w/-
marker' and 'w/UI'. The 'w/marker' refers to the ma-
nipulation of the marker's location and position on
the table. The 'w/UI' refers to the manipulation of
the virtual objects' properties on the user interface
on the mobile devices. The 'w/table-top' refers to
the design communication through glass-top table
. In both sessions, there are two more codes; 'note'
and 'sketch'. 'note' refers to taking quick notes and
'sketch' refers to design activities of any sketching or
drawing. The final category, the 'visual communi-
cation' includes the physical activities of the design-
ers that would support communication that are 'ap-
proval with eye-contact' and 'gesture'.
RESULTS
We observe differences in between PM and MAR ses-
sions. The communication content and the making
actions are shown along the timeline of the sessions
in Figure 3. Each horizontal bar represents the du-
COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 497
rations of each operation, the beginning of the ses-
sion is on the left, and the end of the sessions is on
the right. The analysis shows that in the PM session,
the 'making' and the 'creating new element' actions
are parallel to each other, on the other hand, in the
MAR session, the 'making' and the 'revising element'
actions are parallel to each other most of the time,
as seen in Figure 3. The analysis also indicates that
in the PM session, there are more the 'creating new
element' actions than the 'revising element' actions'.
On the contrary, in the MAR session, the 'revising
element' actions occur more, as shown in Figure 3.
We also observe that in the PM session, the design-
ers prefer to use the given modules that are cubes,
prisims in different sizes. They are able to revise them
by stacking up, moving, dragging or rotating. In the
MAR session, once the markers are introduced, it will
stay in the scene (on the physical model and on the
tablet's view) and then the designers are able to ma-
nipulate the elements from the user interface. Thus
we can speculate that the MAR technology encour-
ages the designers to manipulate the created arte-
fact.
The communication content and the interaction
with the design tool actions are shown along the
timeline of the sessions in Figure 4. In the PM ses-
sion, the design related communication content are
not parallel to any of the interaction operations, ex-
cept very little parallel actions (the 'w/module' and
the 'design' actions) occur as shown in Figure 4. In
addition, in the PM session, the 'making' and the
'w/module' - the 'w/model' actions are parallel to
each other. We may suggest that working on the
physical model interrupted the designers, thus there
is non-concurrent idea verbalization and interaction
actions. Thus the making and idea generation be-
come separated. In the MAR environment, the design
idea generation occurs parallel to the w/marker and
w/UI actions in longer time segments, as shown in
Figure 4. Thus, we can say that the MAR environment
supports the idea generation. A speculative finding
might be that the making and idea generation are
not interrupted with the MAR interface, thus the en-
 Figure 3
The communication
content and
modelling element
actions in the PM
and the MAR
sessions.

Figure 4
The communication
content and the
interaction with the
external design
representation
actions in the PM
and the MAR
sessions.

hanced MAR environment does not increase the cog- Figure 5

nitive load of the designers. This finding needs to be The duration
supported with the experiments with more partici- percentages of the
pants. visual
Figure 5 shows the duration percentages of the communication-
'gesture' codes in both design sessions. There is a the gesture codes
drop in the duration of the gestures in the MAR ses- in both sessions.
sion, as shown in Figure 5. Our observations show
that in the PM sessions, the designers gestured more
when they were explaining their ideas. In the MAR
session, on the other hand, the designers refers to vi-
sual design element on the screen by pointing, tap-
ping etc. Researchers argued that gestures appear
to aid in conceptualization, and in communication
(Kendon 1994). We can argue that the result supports
the findings of (Wesp et al. 2001: 595) that is: 'partici- CONCLUDING COMMENTS
pants describing a picture to an observer do not ges- We have studied designers using two modes of de-
ture as frequently if the picture is visible during the signing: the physical modelling as the baseline study
description'. In the MAR session, the 3D virtual de- and the marker-based mobile augmented reality en-
sign artefact is easy to inspect and communicate on vironment, allowing us to compare their communi-
the screens, thus the designers did not gesture fre- cation content and interaction within the environ-
quently. ments. Based on the results of the analysis and our

498 | eCAADe 34 - COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1

observations, we conclude that designers adapt to
the MAR environment showing different behavior
and communication patterns in each design sessions.
Our findings fall into two categories: 1. Facilitating
the idea generation 2. Facilitating the design devel-
opments.
The study shows that in the MAR environment,
the designers continuously generate design ideas
and work on the development of the design artefact
at the same time. They show concurrent and longer
time spans on both activities. Strategically, this is an
important finding because it implies that the intro-
duction of the enhanced mobile augmented reality
environment into the co-design process conserves
the essential aspects of designing and let the design-
ers communicate and interact within the tools and
each other while working on their tablets.
The second category of impact has to do with
the manipulation and the development of the design
proposal. We observe that while they were working
on the development of the visual design artefact by
manipulating the size, position, location of the ele-
ments etc. they are also verbally discussing the de-
sign related issues. This finding is also important be-
cause we can argue that the MAR environment does
not require extra cognitive load.
In conclusion, mobile AR technology is promis-
ing for co-designers as both today's and future's inno-
vative design platforms. This study would be a guid-
ance for the further developments for MAR usage in
design studies.
Acknowledgements
The research is funded by the Scientific and Tech-
nological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK), PN:
115K515.
REFERENCES
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ence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 6(4),
pp. 355-385
Ericsson, KA and Simon, HA 1993, Protocol Analysis, MIT
Press, Cambridge
COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 499
Gül, LF 2007, Understanding collaborative design in differ-
ent environments: Comparing face-to-face sketching
to remote sketching and 3D virtual worlds, Ph.D. The-
sis, University of Sydney
Gül, LF and Maher, ML 2009, 'Co-Creating External
Design Representations: Comparing Face-To-Face
Sketching to Designing in Virtual Environments',
CoDesign - International Journal of Co-creation in De-
sign and the Arts, 5(2), pp. 117-138
Hennessy, S and Murphy, P 1999, 'The potential for col-
laborative problem solving in design and technol-
ogy', International Journal of Technology and Design
Education, 9(1), pp. 1-36
Kendon, A 1994, 'Do Gestures Communicate?: A Review',
Research on Language and Social Interaction, 27(3),
pp. 175-200
Kim, M and Maher, ML 2005, 'Comparison of designers
using a tangible user interface & graphical user in-
terface and impact on spatial cognition', in Gero, JS
and Lindermann, U (eds) 2005, Human Behaviour in
Design '05, University of Sydney, Sydney, pp. 81-94
Kvan, T and Thilakaratne, R 2003 'Models in the De-
sign Conversation: Architectural vs Engineering',
Proceedings of the Second International Conference of
the Association of Architecture Schools of Australasia,
University of Melbourne, Australia, pp. 28-30
Maher, ML, Gül, LF and Bilda, Z 2006 'Studying design be-
haviour in collaborative virtual environments', Pro-
ceedings of 16th World Congress on Ergonomics
Milgram, P and Kishino, F 1994 'A TAXONOMY OF MIXED
REALITY VISUAL DISPLAYS', Paper presented at the IE-
ICE Transactions on Information Systems
Perrya, M and Sanderson, D 1998, 'Coordinating joint de-
sign work: The role of communication and artefacts',
Design Studies, 19(3), p. 273–288
Rekimoto, J 1996 'Transvision: A hand-held augmented
reality system for collaborative design', Paper pre-
sented at the Proc. Virtual Systems and Multimedia
Robertson, T 1996, 'Embodied actions in time and place:
The cooperative design of a multimedia educational
computer game', CSCW, 5(4), pp. 341-367
Seichter, H and Schnabel, MA 2005 'Digital and Tangi-
ble Sensation: An Augmented Reality Urban Design
Studio', Paper presented at the Tenth International
Conference on Computer Aided Architectural Design
Research in Asia, New Delhi, India
Seitamaa-Hakkarainen, P 2000, 'Collaborative designing
in a networked learning environment', in Scrivener,
SAR, Ball, LJ and Woocock, A (eds) 2000, Collabora-
tive Design, Springer-Verlag, London, pp. 411-420
 Shelton, BE and Hedley, NR 2004, 'Exploring a cogni-
tive basis for learning spatial relationships with aug-
mented reality', Technology, Instruction, Cognition
and Learning, 1(4), pp. 323-357
Suwa, M, Purcell, T and Gero, JS 1998, 'Macroscopic anal-
ysis of design processes based on a scheme for cod-
ing designers', Design Studies, 19(4), pp. 455-483
Wesp, R, Hesse, J, Keutmann, D and Wheaton, K 2001,
'Gestures maintain spatial imagery', The American
Journal of Psychology, 114(4), pp. 591-600
[1] www.unity.com
[2] www.vuforia.com

500 | eCAADe 34 - COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1

De Humani Corporis Fabrica - Fabricating Emotions
through Architecture
Maria da Piedade Ferreira1 , Andreas Kretzer2 , José Pinto Duarte3 ,
Didier Stricker4 , Benjamin Schenkenberger5 , Markus Weber6 ,
Takumi Toyama7
1
Fachbereich Architektur Technische Universität Kaiserslautern 2 Fachbereich Ar-
chitektur - Technisches Universitaet Kaiserslautern 3 Faculdade de Arquitectura da
Universidade de Lisboa 4,5,6,7 Deutsche Forschungszentrum für Künstliche Intelli-
genz GmbH (DFKI)
1,2
{m.piedade.ferreira|andreas.kretzer}@architektur.uni-kl.de
3
jduarte@fa.ulisboa.pt
4,5,6,7
{Didier.Stricker|Benjamin.Schenkenberger|Markus.Weber|Takumi.Toyama}@dfki.de

This paper describes an experiment that took place as the last day of the elective
course "De Humani Corporis Fabrica - Fabricating Emotions through
Architecture". The goal of the Experiment was to evaluate the emotional
experience of 1:1 scale architectural settings. The Experiment was part of the
research for a PhD thesis which describes the relationship between architecture
and the body since Vitruvius until the current theories of embodiment. The
referred to thesis proposes the incorporation of the corporeal practices of
performance art in the teaching of Architecture and combines these with the use
of emotion measurement methodologies in order to evaluate the experience of
architectural space and design objects during the design process.
Psycho-physiological changes in the body's sensory perception during the
performances were evaluated through the combined use of biometric technology
(e-health platform), a Presence Questionnaire and a SAM chart. The course was
attended by 4 students who participated as subjects in the Experiment. The
Experiment had the technical support of the DFKI - Deutsches
Forschungszentrum für Künstliche Intelligenz, which provided the machinery
necessary to collect the biometric data during the Experiment and the knowledge
needed to process them.

Keywords: Corporeal Architecture, Performance Art, Emotion Measurement,

Pedagogy

COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 501

 INTRODUCTION
This paper describes an experiment entitled "De trum für Künstliche Intelligenz, which provided the
Humani Corporis Fabrica - Fabricating Emotions machinery necessary to collect the biometric data
through Architecture" that took place as the last day during the Experiment (e-health platform) and the
of an elective course of the curriculum of students knowledge needed to process them.
of Architecture. The title of the experiment is a ref-
erence to the first anatomy treatise with the same Figure 1
name (from Latin to English, "On the Constitution of Subject prepared
the Human Body"), in which its author (Vesalius 1543) for performance
presents dissections of human bodies in order to ex- with biometric
plain its inner workings. This title was suitable for platform and
the experiment also because the original Latin word neutral mask
for fabrica can have the multiple meaning of "fab- installed.
rication, constitution, or construction". It was taken
as the motto of an experiment in which the subjects
would design, fabricate, assemble, and perform in ar-
chitectural settings, taking in consideration that the
design elements in such settings would produce spe-
cific physical and emotional effects on users, or as the
subtitle suggests "fabricating emotions through ar-
chitecture."
The course was attended by students of Architec-
ture and was hosted by the Digitale Werkzeuge at the
Fachbereich Architektur of the TU Kaiserlsautern dur-
ing the Winter Semester of 2013/2014. The goal of
the experiment was the evaluation of emotional re-
action to changes in the sensory perception when a
user is performing the same actions in settings that
have the same design but significantly different di-
mensions. The goal of the course was to increase stu-
dents' awareness of the direct effect that variation in
the values of basic design parameters, such as scale
and dimensions, produces on the human body, while
conditioning movement.
Psycho-physiological changes in the body's sen-
sory perception during the performances were eval-
uated through the combined use of biometric tech-
nology, a Presence Questionnaire (Witmer and Singer
1995) and a SAM (Bradley et al. 1994) chart. The
course was attended by 4 students who participated DESCRIPTION
as subjects in the Experiment. Experiment 4 took For the final presentation, during which the Experi-
place on the last day of the course and had the tech- ment would take place, students were asked to pre-
nical support of the DFKI - Deutsches Forschungszen- pare a performance that explored chosen actions in
settings designed and constructed at 1:1 scale. Stu-

502 | eCAADe 34 - COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1

dents also were required to wear black comfortable
clothing and a neutral mask, as was the case in the
previous Experiments undertaken on the course of
this PhD research. (see Figure 1) Experiment 1 eval-
uated changes in the sensorial landscape when the
body's range of motion is conditioned by the inter-
action with objects that work as extensions, Exper-
iment 2 evaluated changes in sensorial landscape
when the body interacts with architecture models
enhances with sound and smell (immersive mod-
els) and Experiment 3 evaluated changes in sensorial
landscape when the body interacts in space condi-
tioned by body extensions and restrictions. Experi-
ment 4 was therefore the last experiment and had the
aim to extend the previous research to 1:1 scale, rea-
son why the settings were built with real-life proper-
ties of weight, sound and texture. Experiment 4 was
chosen to be described in this paper as it is also the
one which is most related to the research tradition in
movement and ergonomic studies in a design con-
text.
The task that prepared Experiment 4 required
students to choose an architectural setting, for exam-
ple a basic unit such as a dining table and a bench,
and to design at least two variations of the setting,
for example one with a dining table 1 m high and the
other with a dining table 0.5 m high. (see Figure 2)
Students were encouraged to include movement no-
tations in the design process in order to analyse the
different stages of basic actions, such as working with
a laptop (see Figure 3) or baking a cake in a kitchen.
The settings were designed and produced with the
combined use of analog and digital tools and were in-
stalled in a cubic space. This cubic space is intended
to function as a living reference to Muybridge´s work
on the study of the human body in motion. The
performances with the objects were documented by
photography and film. Biometric and emotion mea-
surement tools were connected to a laptop via Wi-
Fi and installed on the performer's body to measure
while the body was performing with the objects. Re-
call that the main goal of this experiment was to clas-
sify users' response to corporeal stimuli, by analysing
COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 503
sensory data, having in mind that our main hypothe-
sis was:
• H1 - a user's emotional response as "com-
pelled or not compelled", "positive or neg-
ative", "aroused or not aroused" and "domi-
nant or dominated" to an architectural setting
can be evaluated through objective measure-
ments of emotion using the Presence Ques-
tionnaire, the SAM chart and the e-health
platform.
Two secondary hypotheses were formulated:
• H2 - the feeling of presence and emotional ac-
tivation can be induced through the perfor-
mance in analogical models, in this case, 1:1
scale architectural settings;
• H3 - the somatic techniques of "performance
art" and "emotional design" are an effective
strategy to develop corporeal awareness and
stimulate the creativity of students and de-
signers;
To verify these hypotheses, the experiment was de-
veloped considering four stages:
1. Identify the design characteristics that are
more suitable to induce certain sensations in
a user, such as "positive, aroused, dominant,
compelled" or "negative, not aroused, domi-
nated, not compelled";
2. Design an architectural setting so that those
characteristics are the most important aspects
of the design;
3. Perform experiments with users interacting
with such architectural settings, while being
monitored by camera and assess their emo-
tional experience through the use of a PQ, a
SAM chart, and a biometric platform;
4. Process and analyse the sensory data col-
lected to understand if significant differences
can be found in the classification and differen-
tiation between a "compelling-positive" expe-
rience and a "not compelling-negative" one.

RESULTS
Experiment 4 - De Humani Corporis Fabrica evaluated
the emotional experience of 1:1 scale architectural
settings by analysing changes in the sensorial per-
ception of the user while performing a pre-set chore-
ography of actions in settings built for the same pur-
pose but with significantly different dimensions. The
results of this experiment were the answers to the
Presence Questionnaire (Witmer and Singer 1995)
and the SAM chart, where recall of experience and
believability of simulation are systematized. Such
data depicts the subject's physiological response and
emotional activation and allows for the evaluation
of the setting's ability to condition the user's move-
ments and alter his emotional state and perception.
504 | eCAADe 34 - COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1
Figure 2
Subject performing
two variations of 1:1
scale setting "Eating
dinner".
Figure 3
Subject performing
two variations of 1:1
scale setting "Office
space".
The data is organized according to Presence Ques-
tionnaire's "Factors" and "Subscales" , as well as SAM's
parameters of "Valence", "Activation" and "Control".
As in the previous three experiments, the final
values considered in the analysis of the PQ results
were obtained by averaging the ratings assigned by
the subjects to each of the questions, according to a
1-9 point scale. The final values used in the analysis of
the data collected through the SAM charts were ob-
tained following the same principle, as the three pa-
rameters of "valence", "activation" and "control" also
were rated by the subjects using a similar 1-9 point
scale. After making these calculations, we obtained
values that qualify each subject's individual experi-
ence with the "De Humani Corporis Fabrica" settings,
regarding the parameters of "presence", "emotional
response", "valence", "activation" and "control". From
the data collected, we can also qualify the experience
of the group of subjects as a whole, by averaging the
results for the same parameters.
The average value of the answers given by the
group of 4 subjects to the Presence Questionnaire
(PQ) and the SAM chart shows that they have clas-
sified the experiment "De Humani Corporis Fabrica"
as "compelling", "worthwhile", "moderately pleas-
ant", "very exciting" and "dominating". These adjec-
tives relate respectively to the parameters of "pres-
ence", "emotional response", "valence", "activation"
and "control".
Out of the group of 4 subjects which participated
in the experiment:
• 4 subjects classified the experience of the per-
formance with the "De Humani Corporis Fab-
rica" settings as "compelling";
• 3 subjects rated the emotional experience of
the performance with the "De Humani Cor-
poris Fabrica" settings as "worthwhile" and 1
as "very worthwhile";
• 2 subjects rated the experience of the perfor-
mance with the "De Humani Coporis Fabrica"
settings as "very pleasant" and 2 as "pleasant";
• 2 rated the experience of the performance
with the "De Humani Corporis Fabrica" set-
tings as "very exciting" and 2 as "exciting";
• 2 rated the experience of the performance
with the "De Humani Corporis Fabrica" set-
tings as "dominating" and 1 "very dominat-
ing", while 1 rated it as "not very dominating".
Also, out of the group of 4 subjects:
• 3 could control emotional response to set-
tings "well" and 1 "very well";
• 2 were "able" to control objects in perfor-
mance and 1 "very able", while 1 was "not very
able";
• 4 found the experimental setting "very stimu-
lating" in imagining the performance to take
place;
COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 505
• 2 had their attention "very dedicated" during
performance and 2 "dedicated";
• 3 found the performance sensually "very en-
gaging" and 1 "engaging";
• 2 were "very involved" in the visual aspects of
the performance and 1 "involved", while 1 was
"not involved";
• 2 were "involved" by the haptic aspects of the
performance, 1 "very involved" and 1 "some-
what involved";
• 2 were "involved" by the auditory aspects
of the performance, while 2 were "not very
much";
• 3 found the performance settings "very con-
vincing" and 1 "convincing";
• 2 were "aware" of events around, while 2 were
"not very aware";
• 3 were "very aware" of the surrounding space
and 1 "aware";
• 3 were "very able" to anticipate use of settings
just by looking at them and 1 "able";
• 2 were "very compelled" to move in the set-
tings and 2 "compelled";
• 3 felt that settings and objects "really stimu-
lated" their imagination for the performance
and 1 just "felt" so;
• 3 could interact with settings and objects
"very well" and 1 "well";
• 3 could manipulate the surrounding environ-
ment "very well" and 1 "well";
• 4 were "very involved in the experiment";
• 2 were "very distracted" by the suit, mask, and
e-health platform, 1 was "distracted" and 1
"not very much";
• 2 felt the camera didn't interfere with perfor-
mance "at all", 1 "not much", while 1 thought
that it "interfered".
• 2 could concentrate "very well" on the perfor-
mance and not on the objects and settings
and 2 just "well";
• 4 thought that they had learned new tech-
niques which expanded their skills as design-
ers;
 • 4 found the experiment a "very good" learn-
ing experience;
• 2 "lost track of time" and 1 "almost com-
pletely", while 1 "not at all."
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Experiment 4 - De Humani Corporis Fabrica evalu-
ated the emotional experience of 1:1 scale architec-
tural settings by analysing changes in the sensorial
perception of the user while performing a pre-set
choreography of actions in settings built for the same
purpose but with significantly different dimensions.
The experimental results support the main research
Hypothesis H1 - a user's emotional response to de-
sign objects as "compelled or not compelled", "posi-
tive or negative", "aroused or not aroused" and "dom-
inant or dominated" can be evaluated through ob-
jective measurements of emotion. The results col-
lected through the Presence Questionnaire and the
SAM charts show that the majority of subjects ex-
perienced a high level of "Presence", "Pleasure" and
"Arousal". Most subjects describe their emotional re-
sponse to the performance with the objects as "pos-
itive". Results reveal that most subjects could con-
trol the emotional response to the setting and ob-
jects during the performance, but they experienced
a low level of control of the performance itself. This
indicates that the subjects probably didn't feel con-
fident with the stability of their designs or perhaps
their motor-skills got in the way and so they couldn't
perform at ease. Still, results show that the major-
ity of subjects didn't feel the camera interfered in the
performance and felt able to anticipate the use of the
experimental settings just by looking at them, as well
as compelled to move in them, and found them con-
vincing and very stimulating in imagining the perfor-
mance before it took place.
Most subjects reported to be very involved in the
experiment, found the performance sensually very
engaging, were very involved by visual aspects and
involved by haptic and auditory aspects, while re-
maining aware of events around and the surrounding
space. This suggests that subjects were focused on
506 | eCAADe 34 - COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1
the most important aspect of the experiment which
had to do with the movement of the body while per-
forming with the objects, the kinaesthetic sense. It
also suggests that they were involved by the sense
of vision and hearing. This confirms a high-level of
engagement and suggests that the experience was
immersive, although other results show that subjects
were somewhat distracted by the suit, mask, and e-
health platform. Therefore, results support Hypoth-
esis H2, which suggests that the feeling of "pres-
ence" and emotional activation can be intentionally
induced through the performance with analogical
models, in this case, architectural settings.
Results also show that most subjects were in-
volved in experiment and lost track of time during the
performance. This suggests that the feeling of "pres-
ence" and arousal situations can be intentionally in-
duced in real-space, but further research is necessary
to understand which specific design elements are re-
sponsible for this. All subjects rated the experiment
as a very good learning experience and found that
performance art techniques enhanced their creativ-
ity and capacity to design. Therefore, results also sup-
port hypothesis H3 which suggests that the somatic
techniques of "performance art" and "emotional de-
sign" are an effective strategy to develop corporeal
awareness and stimulate the creativity of students
and designers.
The amount of participants in the experiment
was only four which according to the quantitative re-
search tradition could not be understood and treated
as quantitative material. Although a qualitative re-
search approach would be possible to use in such
a context and eventually providing interesting re-
sults, the same methods used in the experiment can
be applied to a larger experimental context. Also,
the used approach can be understood as part of the
educational content of the course and as training
of research methods which incorporate innovative
methodologies in the teaching of design and sensi-
tize the students to the emotional impact of design
objects in the human body. The results can be seen,
for that reason as suggestive, as this experiment was
a pilot for future experiments which will involve more
subjects and means. For the same reason, the results
are presented in this paper as a list and not as graph-
ics since there would be one graphic per item ad-
dressed, which would mean 28 graphics to describe
each of the parameters taken in consideration. As the
participants in the experiment were only four, and
the results therefore do not represent a statistical im-
portance, the authors decided to present them in the
form of a list. The experiment described in this pa-
per shows that PQ, SAM, and biometric technology
can be used to objectively discriminate arousal re-
sponses related to "positive" or "negative" emotions,
from the neutral condition, when users experience
1:1 architecture settings. On-going research in the
fields of IT, psychology and marketing uses an es-
tablished range of values that also were used in ex-
periment. Results confirm that it was useful to in-
clude biometric machinery in the experiment, to ob-
serve how user emotions are triggered while experi-
encing design objects, as the participants in the ex-
periment, in this case students of architecture, could
see in the computer screen the live feedback of the
physical experience of performing in the design set-
tings. This feedback came directly from the analysis
of changes in skin conductance and cardiac acceler-
ations which are strongly correlated with emotional
arousal. Still, the machinery used posed problems,
namely of stability while collecting the results, there-
fore the data collected in the experiment is not pre-
sented in this paper. The aim in the experiment was
to observe peak and limit reactions that would pro-
vide for a wide scale of physiological measures. Nev-
ertheless, more work is necessary to establish solid
conclusions. In future experiments, it is planned to
integrate the use of EEG and to add to the experimen-
tal setting eye-tracking sensing technology to record
the position of the user and where s/he is looking at.
Damásio, A. 1999, The Feeling of what happens: Body and
Emotions in the Making of Consciousness, Harcourt
Books, Orlando
Eberhard, J.P. 2009, Brain Landscape. The Coexistence
of Neuroscience and Architecture, Oxford University
Press, Oxford
Gallagher, S. 2005, How the Body Shapes the Mind, Oxford
University Press, New York
Goldberg, R. 1988, Performance Art, from Futurism to the
Present, Thames&Hudson, London
Kim, M.J., Cho, M. E. and Kim, J.T. 2015, 'Measures of Emo-
tion in Interaction for Health Smart Home', IACSIT
International Journal of Engineering and Technology,
7(4), pp. 10-12
Lang, P.J., Bradley, M.M. and Cuthbert, B.N. 1998, 'Emo-
tion, motivation, and anxiety: brain mechanisms
and psychophysiology', Biological psychiatry, 44(12),
pp. 1248-1263
Mallgrave, H.F. 2010, The Architect Brain: Neuroscience,
Creativity and Architecture, John Wiley&Sons, West
Sussex
Vesalius, A. (1543), Garrison, D. and Hast, M. (ed. trans.)
2003, De Humani Corporis Fabrica, Northwestern
University Evanston, IL USA
Zeizel, J. 2006, 'Inquiry by Design - Environmental / Be-
haviour / Neuroscience', in J., Zeizel (eds) 2006, Archi-
tecture, Interiors, Landscape, and Planning, W.W. Nor-
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COLLABORATION AND PARTICIPATION - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 507

SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN
Responsive Systems: Foundations and Application
The importance of defining meta-systems and their methods

Goncalo Castro Henriques1

1
Universidade Federal Rio de Janeiro, LAMO, PROURB
1
gch@fau.ufrj.br

Responsive architecture is often considered as one that merely adapts to change.

This reflects its limited and still incipient application in architecture. Due to the
current resource crisis, systemic building management is essential. This article
argues that there are no established processes for creating and managing
responsive architecture. To establish a foundation in this area, it claims that it is
necessary to deepen knowledge about systems, computation, mathematics,
biology and robotics. Despite being a vast subject, it proposes a state of the art of
the systems, investigating how to operate them. A method for generating
responsive systems is tested and implemented in a practical case. Two methods of
adaptation are proposed and tested: static and dynamic adaptation. These
methods reinforce the point that responsive architecture can use not only active
mechanisms, but also passive methods embedded in its form as information. The
research concludes that information management is critical to define what is
designated in software engineering as architecture of the system. Thus, it suggests
that it is necessary to define meta-systems and to define their methods to support
the generation, fabrication, construction and operation of responsive systems.

Keywords: responsive systems, meta-systems, static adaptation, dynamic

adaptation, heuristics

INTRODUCTION building management after construction, which has

New technologies can enable better use of resources
that are scarce and finite. In architecture, the new
technological possibilities can allow a shorter, inte-
grated design process, enabling more efficient pro-
duction. However the most visible expression that
emerges from these new possibilities is geometric
differentiation. These technologies are also used to
manage the design process and digital fabrication.
But, seldom are technologies used to manage the
been less explored. Personal building(s) manage-
ment is still considered a luxury in the post-industrial
society, available for special buildings and accessible
only to few.
Buildings use a significant amount of energy,
not only during their construction, but also for their
maintenance. Precautions must be taken in build-
ing energy efficiency due to global warming. One
of the precautions is the use of shading devices sup-

SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 511

 ported by simulation tools (Kirimtat et al, 2015). This
article claims that, although shading devices are im-
portant, the use of simulation is not sufficient, as re-
sponsive systems should embrace a wider range of
information. Good resource management can only
be achieved with new technologies and data man-
agement. Integrated management of buildings is
more than a desire, it is a necessity. The develop-
ment of mathematics has allowed the formulation of
general laws described in the general systems theory.
Although the system concept has long been consid-
ered in architecture, it has benefited from the devel-
opment of the discipline that studies the control of
systems, cybernetics. In cybernetics, it is indifferent
whether a system is social, natural or synthetic (De
Landa 2011). To define a responsive building, it is
necessary to revise the concept of system. Although
there are references described in the literature about
responsive buildings, an inclusive state of the art is
lacking. This state of the art intends to relate the
concept of responsive building with the evolution of
mathematical principles that support these systems.
This paper argues that to define responsive
buildings it is necessary to design and develop inclu-
sive systems. It investigates how to develop a holistic
system and how to manage complex processes with
a large amount of information. It is expected that the
analysis of the state of the art can be useful for the de-
velopment of support systems for responsive build-
ings.
THEORETICAL-PRACTICAL METHODOL-
OGY
This article will first highlight the importance of en-
ergy in buildings, referring to the studies available.
Then it will investigate the mathematical origins of
the general systems theory and its development.
It will then address cybernetics, the discipline that
deals with the systems control. The purpose is to in-
vestigate the relationship between the system con-
cept and emergence of responsive buildings. Finally,
practical applications of these theories will be pre-
sented and discussed.
512 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1
Today's society faces serious environmental chal-
lenges. Edward Mazria studied the relationship be-
tween architecture, energy and the environment.
Mazria (2003) accounted energy use in three basic
sectors in the US: the architecture, transport and in-
dustry. According to that study, the architectural sec-
tor consumes 48% of the energy, while transport and
industry consume respectively 27% and 25%. Fur-
thermore, the architectural sector generates 46% of
CO2 emissions annually, a figure that is already sig-
nificant and likely to increase. If this trend spreads
to cities in general, then the architecture should re-
flect this impact. This justifies the growing concern
with reducing energy consumption in architecture
and construction. For a more sustainable environ-
ment, buildings should be more adapted to the envi-
ronment and use fewer resources. Digital processes
and tools can be used to improve buildings' adapt-
ability to the environment.
Developments in biology, computation, archi-
tecture and design enable the development of re-
sponsive buildings, which unlike traditional static
buildings, can adapt dynamically to the environ-
ment. This implies an ecological vision of popula-
tions, giving emphasis to the group process and in-
teraction, in a holistic vision. This can overcome a
partial view centred on the objects as separate en-
tities. To consider buildings in the city context new
tools are necessary to organise and regulate the flow
of information. The control of information systems
can support the development of responsive architec-
ture. A new class of envelopes can be developed to
adjust and adapt to the environment according to cli-
matic variations, time of day and geographical loca-
tion, with the potential to Customize buildings in or-
der to consume less energy.
RESPONSIVE SYSTEMS - STATE OF THE ART
After the industrial revolution, scientific and techni-
cal knowledge became specialised. The necessity
to regain a holistic vision of knowledge emerged.
The concept and the tools are presented in the Gen-
eral Systems Theory. This theory includes multiple
branches of knowledge, such as biology, sociology
or computation. Following the development of this
theory by Von Bertalanffy, many researchers from dif-
ferent fields have contributed to the development
of responsive architecture, such as Pask, Alexander,
Weinstock, Negroponte, Menges, Sterk, Mitchell and
Achten, among others.
Von Bertalanffy developed the General Systems
Theory applicable to living systems, social or me-
chanical (1950-68). This theory mathematically de-
fines adaptation mechanisms as feedback and equi-
finality. Gordon Pask developed the systems of con-
trol theory (Cybernetics 1969), completing the Berta-
lanffy control mechanisms with goal-oriented mech-
anisms. If the machines were regarded as closed
systems, with the development of cybernetics, they
could be considered as open systems if they were
able to learn and adapt to the environment as other
living systems. These definitions allowed a shift from
closed, unidirectional systems to open multi-causal
systems. This also supports the creation of collabora-
tive environments between man and machine to en-
able a responsive architecture.
Christopher Alexander in the text "Systems Gen-
erating Systems" (1968), reflects on the relevance of
the word "system" in architecture. It also reflects on
how to create holistic systems that guarantee forms
synchronised with their environment. Alexander ar-
gues that a system is only considered as such if it
has a generative system governing the relationship
of parts to the whole, and the whole to the parts. It
argues for the importance of generative systems for
the definition of holistic systems.
Nicholas Negroponte has been a pioneer of re-
sponsive architecture since the 70s, foreseeing how
digital technologies could improve the documen-
tation systems and design, generative systems and
support intelligent spaces with built-in computers.
Tristan-d'Estree Sterk argues that today, this theoret-
ical understanding is not enough to implement re-
sponsive architecture. According to him "The respon-
sive architecture is often defined as a type of archi-
tecture that has the ability to change its shape in re-
SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 513
sponse to changing conditions. While this descrip-
tion successfully captures the essence of the subject,
it does not provide a detailed understanding neces-
sary to build it". He argued that to do so is crucial
to associate architectural knowledge, artificial intelli-
gence, robotics and structural engineering. The lack
of knowledge by most architects in these areas jus-
tified them presenting proposals for responsive ar-
chitecture that are ambivalent, as they have difficulty
in overcoming an aesthetic that could be based on
something more than events.
Sterk also argues that it is necessary to under-
stand responsive architecture on different scales. Re-
ferred to as the previous model, Negroponte is in-
teresting conceptually, but computational models of
this theory are still scarce. It highlights the advances
in the fields of artificial intelligence and robotics,
in defining high-level control systems (deliberative)
and low-level (self-regulated). It proposes implemen-
tation of responsive architecture based on a hybrid
control system (Figure 2) combining high-level com-
putation (deliberative) with low-level computation
(self-regulated). However, it can be argued that Pask
proposes a goal-oriented approach that already con-
siders low-level loops within deliberative high-level
loops (Figure 1). This linkage allows associating the
deliberative decisions with self-regulation. The low-
level responses can be given via sensors, and when
a certain value is reached, a higher-level order is exe-
cuted. In this threaded process, the feedback loop is
essential.
Sterk aims to combine the deliberative con-
trol developed by Yona Friedman (1971) with the
self-regulated control proposed by Chuck Eastman
(1972). While the deliberative control requires high-
level computation (i.e. use of a coded language,
and the user knows the system's operation), the self-
regulated control does not require the use of a coded
language and may be controlled by machine code. In
self-regulated control, simple reflective procedures
are used, and the system state is determined by the
interaction among the parts. Mike Weinstock refers
to the importance of mathematics in the theory of
 Figure 1
Simple feedback
mechanism
(Adapted from:
Bertalanffy, 1969)
and goal-oriented
mechanism
(Adapted from:
Pask, 1969).

Figure 2
Hybrid Control
Model for a
responsive
architecture,
(adapted from
Sterk, 2006). It
combines
high-level
processes
(deliberative) and
emergence. Weinstock proposes application of this latest reference reinforces the need mentioned by
low (self-regulated).
theory (2004) to architecture to support a new mor- Sterk that architects need more extensive knowledge
From left to right: 1
phogenesis of form of various areas to define such systems.
Components of a
Henry Achten (2014) identifies an amount of
discrete model of
terms related to responsive buildings, such as: build- Generating responsive systems
architecture
ing automation system, smart home, sentient build- To support a responsive architecture, it is necessary
including the wants
ing, adaptive building, dynamic building, interac- to create systems that manage systems, i.e. meta-
and needs (n/w),
tive building, kinetic architecture, intelligent build- systems with the characteristics to be introduced into
with spaces (sp)
ing and portable building. Achten provides a def- these responsive systems. Pask, in the cybernetics
and structures (st);
inition for each of these terms, concluding there is theory, states that architects have to generate sys-
2 High-level user
no possibility of unanimous classification for each tems that generate buildings, rather than just de-
decisions (n/ w),
of these definitions, because each one is related to sign buildings. Alexander, analyzing systems archi-
space (SP) structure
a specific technological application. He states that tecture, agrees - arguing that, to generate systems, it
(ts) and , within
this may be related to the recent application of these is necessary to design generative systems that enable
each, there are
technologies, which have not been absorbed into the them. Authors from different fields of knowledge re-
low-level decisions;
common language. Achten seeks to characterise the fer to the need to define meta-systems and their gen-
3 Responsive
interaction of responsive systems with users. He ad- erative principles. Sterk draws attention to the point
architecture
vocates the use of recent developments in artificial that, to control these meta-systems, understanding
applied to network
intelligence, with the use of multi-agent networks ca- of different fields is needed. However, despite the
buildings, repeating
pable of supporting analysis, design and develop- model proposed by Sterk, it is not yet clear how this
the above
ment of complex systems in all project phases. This could be implemented.
combination, but
on a larger scale.

514 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1

 De Landa states that a system has capabilities that
arise from the interaction of the parts that exceed the
sum of the individual properties. He states that, for
these capabilities to emerge, it is necessary to define
the procedures and variables of the system. He also
states that the restrictions applied to the variables in-
creasingly define the systems. He refers to algorithms
as the essence of software, comparing mathematics
metaphorically to a type of software. He highlights
the definition of gravity proposed by Richard Feyn-
man in three stages: 1 - force and acceleration, 2 -
force fields, 3 - singularities and solution space (mini-
mum, maximum and variational characteristics). This
Figure 3 change is related to the move of quantitative math-
Proposal to ematics for qualitative mathematics, from values to
formalise a parameters. This change is also related to the move
responsive from Euclidean geometry and the metric systems to
meta-system the topological geometry of local spaces. This math-
(Henriques 2012), ematics allows setting associative behaviour among
defining the the parts through parameters that can be encoded
general search algorithmically.
space for the Examples of natural systems and biology have
particular been incorporated into computation to define open
(deliberative systems, which are necessary to establish a founda-
hierarchy), and the tion for responsive systems. Open systems have the
particular for the ability to retrofeed through feedback loop mecha-
general (distributed nisms and to conform, reconfiguring the relationship
logic, emergence). among the parts. Living systems possess a hierarchy
with different levels of definition, which allows con-
trol of complex systems, such as the human body,
skeletal system, muscular system, tissues and cells.
The relationship among systems is not only hierarchi-
cal, but also emergent, from the whole to the parts,
and from the parts to the whole.
METHOD FOR A RESPONSIVE ARCHITEC-
TURE
This study intends to contribute to the current state
of the art in the field by relating disperse contribu-
tions and by presenting a research about how to
define, support and generate a responsive system.
For this purpose, there will be a description of the
method used for generating a responsive system to
SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 515
be implemented in practice.
Meta-System
To generate a responsive system, a meta-system is
proposed that guides the search in the space of solu-
tions. The meta-system is organised at different lev-
els of abstraction. These levels have different mathe-
matical definitions, reducing the search space of the
problem. This method was developed with a practi-
cal application - the Tetra Script responsive system -
that mediates interior and exterior conditions to as-
sure daylight quality and quantity.
The meta-system proposed is organised at the fol-
lowing levels: General System; Specific System and
Practical Case. The dynamics of the meta-system is
multi-causal, from the general to the particular, and
from the particular to the general. At each of these
levels variables and restrictions are defined. Going
from the general to the particular, the variables are
progressively less abstract and have more restric-
tions: some shift from free variables to dependent
variables. However, the low-level variables (practical
case) can also influence the Specific and the General
Systems.
Thus, the meta-system has a hierarchical nature
(the whole to the part), and the emergent one (the
part to the whole). While the hierarchical nature is
associated with deliberative decisions, the emergent
nature is more associated with behaviour distributed
by self-regulation. The deliberative and distributed
nature of the system will be more explicit when ap-
plied. The keyword for defining meta-system, as in
natural systems, is feedback loop.
 A Practical Case, Tetra Script system
The Tetra Script responsive system proposes a mem-
brane to mediate interior and exterior space. It can be
defined as a set of components that control internal
daylight according to external factors (geographical
location, year, month, day, hour, sky type) and inter-
nal demands (functional requirements of illuminance
and visual contrast, daylight types and light-shadow
patterns). Responsive derives from the Latin "respon-
sīvu>> designating one that responds quickly and
appropriately to a situation. The proposed system re-
sponds in real time, which justifies the use of such an
adjective. The development of the system took place
in a PhD research. This article intends to reflect on
this previous research to draw useful conclusions for
the development other responsive systems.
This project required conceiving a meta-system
to define how to generate and design a daylight con-
trol system. The meta-system is defined by succes-
sive approximation levels, starting from a generic so-
lution with a large search space. The space of solu-
tion is constrained by progressive definition of the
variables, which become dependent in a less abstract
definition. The meta-system has three levels: general
system, specific system and practical case. The vari-
ables and factors used are progressively constrained
to find a discretization or solution to a particular sit-
uation, in a pavilion that was constructed, and where
the automation was tested.
Variables, domains and restrictions
The system organisation will be detailed together
with the variables, domain and restrictions used.
General System variables are more abstract; setting
the search space and focus: to develop architec-
ture with a protective membrane that establishes a
holistic relationship between the outer and the inner
space, which is customisable through digital tech-
nologies. It seeks to promote the explicit use of algo-
rithms by setting parameters, discarding the implan-
tation topography and context. This general system
can be used to define other objectives, such as the
organisation of interior spaces or to establish a dis-
516 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1
tributed network of building membranes.
As initial input, the specific system has a contin-
uous NURBS surface, and its local topological space.
The surface is populated with developable compo-
nents to assure change of the interior conditions.
These variables are parametrically linked through an
algorithm. When the specific system is bounded, it
can be instantiated in a family of solutions (Figure 4).
This family of objects, used in an oriented program-
ming language, is designed as a class for which ac-
tions and methods are defined.
The practical case can be instantiated in a specific
building. Tetra Script pavilion is an instantiation of
the specific case, attributing values to the variables.
To find these values, a static adaptation process is
used. To manage the goals of the system after con-
struction, dynamic adaptation is used, which will be
detailed further below. After setting the geograph-
ical location and the input surface, the number and
characteristics of the components are defined.
Figure 4
Tetra Script System
(Henriques 2013):
instances of the
same specific case.
As a specific case, Tetra Script is defined with a quad-
rangular pyramidal component with a base, with mo-
bile faces, easily manufacturable. Tetra Script pavil-
ion is an instantiation of a particular system, restrict-
ing the variables. The configuration process can find
the best relationship among the variables to satisfy
certain conditions, defining a progressively limited
search space of solutions. An emergent way to set
the system would be to first choose a type of mate-
rial, and then define the components, the base sur-
face and, finally, the general system objectives. But,
an emergent solution can also be achieved through
interaction among the components using dynamic
adaptation.
The meta-system levels are divided into sub-
levels. In the practical case developed, after set-
ting the values of the general variables, a specific
system was set containing sub-level groups of vari-
 ables that, for space limitations, are summarised as
follows. The interaction between each group of
variables determines a solution for each individual
case. The group of variables is defined thus: exter-
nal variables of the object (such as geographic lo-
cation, date, sky type and respective domains, con-
straints and dependencies), the specific variables of
form (surface type, dimensions, component type and
number), variables of the form in the practical case
(surface area, parametric space, domain, number of
pyramids, height and aperture value), and internal
variables or functional requirements (illuminance, vi-
sual comfort, thermal comfort and space heuristics).
To determine certain conditions it is necessary to find
algorithms to control the parts and set the relations
among variables.
System methods: static and dynamic adap-
tation
This research proposed two methods to control the
meta-system adaptations, which are referred to as
static and dynamic adaptation. Static adaptation
controls the generation of geometry until it is baked,
manufactured and constructed. The dynamic adap-
tation controls the relationship among the parts af-
ter the system is constructed and operating. It allows
a real-time adaptation of the system in the practical
case developed. This methodology can be used to in-
stantiate different solutions and to develop other sys-
Table 1
Definition of
meta-system levels
(Henriques 2013), in
the Tetra Script
case.
SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 517
tems. As the author presented in previous publica-
tions, these processes find parallels in living systems,
particularly in adaptation through natural selection
and behavioural adaptation.
In static adaptation, the relation among variables
is established progressively discretization values. As
mentioned, the general system level defines goals to
be enabled by the use of digital processes. To find
a solution using the system, an asynchronous pro-
cess was conducted using CAD-CAE-CAM-AUT digital
processes. Digital processes were used to generate
and manipulate surfaces using algorithms, to man-
ufacture components, to test component types and
groups, to simulate and assess environmental perfor-
mance of the solutions generated, and to automate
and develop implementation strategies for the com-
ponents. A diagram is proposed to describe the inter-
action among the digital tools and processes found
in previous publications (Henriques et al. 2012). The
search was made with a preference for using explicit
algorithms, but the search process for solutions can
be further automated and improved.
The dynamic adaptation controls the relation-
ship among the parts to ensure the systems' desired
performance. After construction of the Tetra Script
pavilion, the variable that can be controlled is the de-
gree of opening of skylight panels, which thus deter-
mines the formal setting of the pavilion. There is a
multitude of possible combinations of apertures for
 controlling the amount and type of daylight. The
dynamic adaptation allows finding aperture settings
that meet light requirements, including glare and vi-
sual contrast. A more detailed description of the pro-
cess can be found in previous publications.
Heuristics are used to find space solutions with
certain features that meet the desired requirements.
Heuristics are a mathematical rationale used to iden-
tify good solutions in a short time, rather than opti-
mal solutions that do not always exist and that take
longer to be identified. The set of heuristics to de-
scribe behaviour patterns is based on simple rules
and typify possible solutions, thereby reducing the
search space. The optimisation research could pro-
vide better solutions, but results would take a long
time to converge, since the search space of all pos-
sible configurations to undergo analysis is vast. The
proposed heuristic search method includes qualita-
tive and quantitative properties of natural daylight.
The 5 heuristics used are described graphically in Fig-
ure 5.
In the practical case, the interaction among groups
of variables is considered: the external variables (ex-
ternal to the object), the specific variables of form,
the practical case variables and the internal vari-
ables of space or functional requirements. For each
group, it is necessary to define the "sub-variables"
domain and bounds. In other words, it is necessary
to build a system that approaches a mathematical
model establishing relationships and boundary con-
ditions. Heuristics are defined parametrically, testing
the boundary conditions throughout the simulation
to find the system space of possible solutions. To find
solutions using this system, it is necessary to establish
the visual comfort requirements and external refer-
ence conditions.
The parametric system is used to find configu-
518 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1
rations, and, to assess performance, a daylight vali-
dated software (Radiance) is used. Simulations were
performed considering all the variables described
above. Values were assigned, and system perfor-
mance tested through illuminance program evalua-
tion setting the Tetra Script performance database.
An interpolation method was developed in order
to predict the illuminance behaviour at other dates,
times and in different sky conditions considered in
the studies. This method is used to evaluate and
choose the most suitable aperture setting for the
required indoor conditions. A visual interface was
developed to control the internal conditions of the
pavilion in real time by modifying the opening of sky-
light panels.
Shared Control Interface man / machine
Algorithm control, feedback and adaptation. The
user can choose what factors he values most to cus-
tomise the space, defining the quantity and quality
of light inside the pavilion through an interactive pro-
cess. The customisation was precisely one of the ob-
jectives of the research performed. To select a partic- Figure 5
ular factor, the user is informed of the range of pos- Heuristics rendered
sibilities of the system to achieve the same amount preview (above)
of light with different qualities. This choice may be and schematic
performed in real time using the proposed interface. representation
A control system is proposed to control the sky- (below). From left
light apertures (Figure 6). The system uses different to right : H0
types of inputs: from the user (manual) and from the uniform aperture,
computer (automated). The user can choose the ac- H1 maximum direct
tivity by defining the minimal illuminance required. light, H2 maximum
This information is transmitted to the algorithm that diffuse light, H3
then computes all the possible configurations. The incident sunlight,
computer has instructions to obtain the time and lo- and H4 Hybrid low
cation information from the computer that is running incident + diffuse
the program, and both inputs - required illuminance light. (Henriques et
and time-weather conditions - are fed into the heuris- al. 2012).
tic search calculation, where values are interpolated.
Then, the choice of the most adequate solution can
be made automatically or manually. But, the signifi-
cant feature of this scheme is to add a feedback loop
using light sensors to update the database. This pro-
Figure 6
Shared Control
System man /
machine Tetra
Script pavilion
(adapted from:
Henriques 2012).
cess would enable refinement of the expected values
for each situation. Although this process is not yet
implemented, it is expected that its use would allow
the system to correct values and, in a way, "learn with
experience."
The meta-system has a dual nature, which is de-
liberative and inductive, thereby creating space for
possibilities ("state spaces") enabling solutions that
are beyond the property of each part, but result from
the interaction of the parts. Thus, both the meta-
system, at different levels, as well as control algo-
rithms, seek to enhance the immanent, the virtual,
that only when explicit can become knowable, dis-
covering new uncharted possibilities.
SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 519
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This paper analyzed and synthesised contributions
seeking operational concepts for the development
of responsive architecture. A previous applied case
study was analysed looking for a general method to
design responsive systems. Although the proposed
task is complex and wide, the research aims to con-
tribute to this discussion. What becomes evident
during this attempt is the importance of computa-
tion for the development and implementation of sys-
tems.
The creation of responsive systems requires
meta-systems and the use of computation to con-
struct a formal model that can approach a proba-
bilistic model used in physics. While classical physics
 presents a model in which each object interacts
alone, the probabilistic physics tends instead to value
the interaction among the parts combined in a set
as a model. Probabilistic physics also considers sev-
eral causes simultaneously, ideally multi-causality
that is absent from deterministic models of restricted
causality (or single causality). The result of multi-
causal interaction is predictable within certain pa-
rameters, but is not determinable a priori. To enter
this discussion, architects need to know about organ-
ising information or meta-systems and their meth-
ods. Otherwise, they can only access systems as a
black box, entering information as an input receiving
only the output. In this framework, the simple use
of the computer - or computerisation (as defined by
Terzidis) is not enough, nor is it sufficient to define a
system as a model of representation of the reality. Al-
though the computer is still necessary as a tool, the
use of computation to define meta-systems, defining
methods and actions used to design and operate sys-
tems, becomes relevant.
Henriques, G.C., Duarte, J.P. and Leal, V. 2012, 'Strategies
to control daylight in a responsive skylights system',
Automation in Construction, 28, pp. 91-105
Kirimtat, A et al 2016, 'Review of simulation modeling for
shading devices in building', Renewable and Sustain-
able Energy Reviews, 53, pp. 22-49
De Landa, M 2011, 'Real Virtuality', in Menges, A and
Ahlquist, S (eds) 2011, Computational Design Think-
ing, John Willey & Sons Ltd
Mazria, E 2003, 'It’s the Architecture, Stupid!', maga-
zine Solar Today, American Solar Energy Society, May
/June, pp. 48-51
Menges, A and Ahlquist, S 2011, Computational Design
Thinking, John Willey & Sons Ltd, Chichester, United
Kingdom
Negroponte, N 1975, Soft Architecture Machines, MIT
Press, Cambridge, MA
Pask, G 1969, 'The Architectural Relevance of Cybernet-
ics', Architectural Design, September issue No. 7/6, ,
John Willey & Sons, London, UK, pp. 1-9
Sterk, T 2005, 'Building upon Negroponte: a hybridized
model of control suitable for responsive architec-
ture', Journal Automation in Construction, 14, pp.
225-32

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My gratitude goes to everyone who contributed to
the development of the Tetra Script system. With-
out their support this system could not exist. Part of
this research was funded by grant no BD/39034/2007,
awarded from Fundação Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT),
Portugal. The author acknowledges Tristan d'Estrée
Sterk kind permission to cite and republish his work.

REFERENCES
Achten, H 2014 'One and Many: An Agent Perspective
on Interactive Architecture', Proceedings 34th Annual
Conference of the Association for Computer Aided De-
sign in Architecture (ACADIA), Los angeles, pp. 479-
486
Alexander, C 1968, 'System Generating #Systems', in
Alexander, C (eds) 1968, Original Architectural De-
sign, December Issue, No. 7/6, John Willey & Sons Ltd,
London
Bertalanffy, LV 1969, General System Theory: Founda-
tions, Development, Applications, George Braziller,
New York

520 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1

Material Agency and Physical Boundaries
Christina Doumpioti1
1
Architectural Association | OCEAN Design Research Association
1
cdoumpioti@gmail.com

The research builds on the relationship between matter and energy and the idea
of boundaries as sentient interfaces capable of affecting our bodily experience
and perception of space due to their inherent physical attributes. Two key issues
addressed are firstly, the revisiting of the architectural boundary as a
thermodynamic zone and secondly, the identification of material behaviour in
relation to energy stimuli. It is argued that the transient behaviour of materials
can offer an instrumental reconsideration on how architecture establishes spatial
articulation through boundaries and this is demonstrated through a design-led
project.

Keywords: thermal field, responsive materials, passively active materials, heat

transfer, thermodynamic, matter and energy

INTRODUCTION: MATERIALITY IN ARCHI-
TECTURE
As architects one of our basic tools for organising
space is by constructing and distributing boundaries,
defined by facades, doors, walls, and floors among
others. Those boundaries control, converge and dis-
seminate activities within an enclosed defined space
that separates the inside from the outside. On the
other hand, the boundary for physicists is a dynamic
element, a transitional zone between matter and en-
ergy, which remains changeable over time (Adding-
ton and Schodek 2005).
According to Michelle Addington (2010), geom-
etry is privileged in architecture due to "an a priori be-
lief that perception is rooted in geometry". As a con-
sequence of that, the materiality of architecture be-
comes an "aesthetic artefact" rather than an "instru-
mental" agent intertwined with energy qualities.
Indeed, both the concept of Aristotelian hylo-
morphism -morphing of matter- and Plato's theory
on the purity of form are long-standing believes in ar-
chitecture (Thomas 2007). In this binary relation mat-
ter becomes a passive agent on which form is being
imposed.
Since the Renaissance and most recently in Mod-
ernism, architectural elements were conceived as
pure, texture less and geometrically recognisable ob-
jects. This perception has not changed a lot with the
advent of postmodernism and the current more ex-
pressional architectural formations.
The introduction and utilisation of technology -
such as the heating and air-conditioning systems- re-
sulted in a consequent separation between building
performance and building morphology while ampli-
fying architectural "discreteness" (Hensel 2013).
A primary assumption that this paper is mak-
ing is that any construct is not only the visible static
form, but also the invisible heterogeneous space that
it conveys through matter-energy relationship. The
choice of materials in relation to the environment be-
comes an important task for the creation and mod-
ulation of spatial characteristics informed by differ-

SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 521

 ences of light, temperature, sound and humidity.
RESPONSIVE ARCHITECTURE
In the current era, human, technology and nature
are fused together by exchanging information. The
pureness of each one is not discernible. The post-
human approach extends the notion of the body to
cyborg, the notion of nature to techno-nature and
the notion of materiality to meta-materiality.
This is similarly evident in architecture, where the
use of smart materials, ubiquitous systems and tech-
nological machines, "challenges the long-standing
conception of the building as an object autonomous
from its environment and governed by disciplinary
interiority" (Harisson 2013).
The desire for a responsive architecture capa-
ble of transforming, interacting and communicating
with the environment and its users is evident in differ-
ent periods of time within architecture, influenced by
systems theory and cybernetics. The architecture of
that period -mainly during the 60s- has been prone to
new materialism, which acknowledged the "diversity
and untidiness of the world as well as the social and
psychological experience" (Sadler 2005). Architects
have designed and prototyped the essence of an al-
tering architecture by integrating electronics, com-
puters and circuits in architectural components.
Through the investigations of the past and the
present it is often evident that material inertia has
caused a problem in realising dynamic, living archi-
tecture. Advancement in material science and engi-
neering paves the path towards conceptualising ar-
chitectural projects, which are open to communica-
tion with their physical environment.
RESPONSIVE MATERIALITY
Materials with computational logics, referred to as
smart, responsive, or active, are composite materi-
als where bits (computation) and atoms (material-
ity) meet (Ishii 2012) and which can easily change
between two or more states. They are mainly en-
gineered materials whose properties are defined in
labs, expanding the range of interaction that is pos-
522 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1
sible with natural ones.
They can be distinguished in two broad cate-
gories: 1) those that change their properties in re-
sponse to external stimuli, and 2) those that pro-
vide energy transformation functions. In the fist cat-
egory, materials have intrinsic response to specific
stimuli, while in the second the response can be com-
putationally controlled or enhanced (Addington and
Schodek 2005). Additionally, 3) a third category in-
cludes passive materials that without themselves un-
dergoing change, they display different effects under
altered environmental conditions, i.e. dichroic films
and fibre optics.
Attributes of responsive materials
With the aim of familiarising with their behaviour,
limitation and potentials, a series of testing was initi-
ated on readily obtainable responsive materials (Fig-
ure 1).
This change from one state to another can re-
veal the presence and concentration of various sub-
stances which are not otherwise perceptible. For
example photochromic materials illustrate change
of light intensities, thermochromic demonstrate
change in temperature gradients, hydrogels can ex-
pand in response to humidity levels or even to pol-
lution levels, and shape memory polymers change
shape in response to temperature or electricity.
These connections can be customised according
to different needs and wills. Especially nowadays that
data sensor networks are proliferating, the connec-
tion between materiality and urban environmental
data is becoming more crucial. Responsive materials
thus, can acquire a profound role on raising aware-
ness on environmental conditions by visualising in-
visible environmental agents.
Furthermore, this change of state can become
a mediator of passive microclimatic adaptation. Ex-
amples include the altering optical characteristics
of thermochromic materials which not only exhibit
temperature differences, but also have the potential
of enhancing thermal regulation due to the absorp-
tion or reflectivity of particular colours (Figure 2). For
Figure 1
Small-scale models
of different
responsive
materials such as
photochromic that
change with light
intensity,
thermochromic
applied on wood
and fabric,
phosphorescent,
shape memory
polymers, hydrogel
in latex and liquid
crystal
thermochromic.

Figure 2 Similar propositions have been made in the past but

Models based on have not yet been developed or applied further. The
thermochromic ink Cloudgel, a thermo-chemical device introduced by
mixed with plaster Day Chahroudi is based on chemical adaptation on a
(a,b,c) or silicon (d). molecular level. The main material, sandwiched be-
The colour changes tween two glass panels, changed from transparent
either due to when temperature was low to white when the tem-
directed hot air perature increased and it described "an autonomous
(a,b,d) or warm solar powered temperature control system" (Davies
water passing 1981).
inside model (c). Ultimately, a remarkable feature that responsive
materials have is that they behave similar to biolog-
ical systems: they are inseparable from the energies
they convey, the energies that change their state and
the energies they absorb and emit. They eventually,
configure autopoietic systems, which are open to in-
instance white is the best choice of colour for an ex- formation, while their organisation remains closed,
terior wall, to minimise heat gain in the summer, as and they do so through their one material make-up
it is a poor absorber. If the surface can turn black at and without being comprised by discrete mechanical
night it should radiate most of the energy absorbed elements (Doumpioti et al. 2010).
since black is the ideal emitter of long wave thermal
radiation, ε=1. This is applicable to buildings of arid
Material limitations and potentialities
At their current form however, available respon-
climates with large diurnal temperature variation.
sive materials exhibit the cause-and-effect behaviour

SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 523

 they were designed to have. They form determi-
nate systems whose transformation is closed, since
there is no new element being generated and single-
valued since they convert only to a single state
(Doumpioti 2011).
Although they comprise holistic systems with in-
tegrated sensing and actuating capabilities they can-
not process information and consequently they can-
not gain cognition. Their response is autonomous
and independent of user's will. By missing the pro-
cessor that a mechanical system has, smart materials
cannot exhibit multiple and versatile behaviours and
that limits their capacity for connectivity.
The establishment of multidisciplinary teams
that bring together designers, with engineers and
material scientists may give new directions to what
the material can do, and to attributes linked to
projected interaction at a larger scale. Recent re-
search, which takes inspiration from nature to de-
velop programmable 3d printed multi-materials with
self-transformational properties, is very promising to-
wards this end (Correa et al. 2015).
Moreover, open source information on the topic
with DIY processes and resources, is a means to open
up this field of research to a broader community
(Kretzer and Hovestadt 2015).
Passively Active Materials and Physical
Boundaries
While the initial aim of the research focused on the
potential utilisation of smart materials in architec-
ture, their transient behaviour has furthermore con-
tributed to new insights on materiality not necessar-
ily bound to dynamic response but to the capabili-
ties of all materials to be active even when no change
is noticeable. Any material construct is not only the
visible static form, but also the invisible heteroge-
neous space that it conveys through matter-energy
relationship.
In relation to this, architect Usman Haque makes
a distinction between the hardware and software of
architecture, where the walls, roofs and floors are
the static elements that define the hardware of archi-
524 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1
tecture, and the sounds, smells, temperatures, radio
waves are the ephemeral elements that define the
software (Haque 2004).
All architectural elements are dynamic in the way
their material make up mediates energies and al-
though they do not move or change position, they
are concurrently active since their behaviour results
"in the creation of qualities the world lacks... seem-
ingly at rest, they are secretly at work" (Leatherbarrow
2009).
Vernacular architecture and the distinc-
tion between logical, physical and sensorial
boundaries
From simple systems to more elaborated ones, ver-
nacular architectures around the world serve as pro-
found examples on the relationship between (pas-
sive) materials and climatic energies. Their geometry,
materials, openings and orientation are strategically
articulated for environmental mediation.
One such example, the Ondol, developed at
about 1,000 BCE was a radiant heating floor for the
traditional Korean house, the Hanok. The hot air
originating from the kitchen fireplace placed at the
exterior of the house was channelled through cav-
ities to the under floor area and finally it was ex-
hausted through a chimney. Cavities were shaped
by either clay or bricks and were covered by large
slabs of stone. The clay helped in sealing the combus-
tion gases from penetrating the living space, while
the stone slabs were becoming warmer by absorbing
heat and radiating it above (Figure 3).
Besides its functionality as a thermal system, the
Ondol stimulated the creation of social patterns with
the "eldest occupying the warmest zones of the floor"
(Moe 2010).
The under floor heating system has been utilised
extensively in vernacular architecture spanning from
the Roman hypocaust, to the Chinese Kang, and the
Spanish Floria, to name a few. Currently, the tech-
nology is becoming popular again with the develop-
ment of under floor heating system based on water
or electricity. What distinguishes the vernacular sys-
Figure 3
From left to right: i)
Perspective section
of the Hanok house
and the Ondol
system underneath,
ii) fluid dynamics
analysis of heat
flow, and iii)
thermal analysis.
The hot air tem though, is the synergetic relationship between
originating from different elements in order to achieve adequate inte-
the outdoor rior thermal quality. All, structure, materials, geom-
fireplace is etry, and other design decisions are interrelated as-
channelled through pects of the overall system.
cavities underneath The boundaries described by vernacular archi-
the living area. tecture are physical boundaries as opposed to logi-
cal or "discrete" ones (Hensel 2013). While the logical
boundary is an entity of visual demarcation and spa-
tial articulation delineated in static formations, the
physical boundary describes a zone of fluctuations
that emanate from the interaction of the material sur-
face and the energies that surround it. In the first in-
stance, form is untainted by matter and matter is sub-
ordinated to form. In the second, matter and energy
animate architecture and become perceptible from
all our senses.
CASE STUDY: THERMAL FIELD, PASSIVE
AND ACTIVE MATERIAL ENERGY TRANS-
FORMATIONS
The thermal field project is a study on radiant sur-
faces, similar to the Korean Ondol described above.
The research initiated by experimenting with ther-
mochromic materials and evolved into the idea of an
interactive version of a radiant thermal surface com-
prised by passive and responsive materials by consid-
ering their distinct yet complementary attributes.
Similar to Raynar Banham's (1984) renowned
parable of the fire as a source of spatial differentia-
tion, the project aims at the creation of a thermo-
dynamic field as a space of social interaction in ur-
ban settings. It aims at acting as a mediator between
SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 525
the users and the existing microclimate by altering
the temperature differences according to their pref-
erence and creating emergent climatic patterns.
While climatic control and regulation is most of-
ten associated with building interiors, the project as-
pires to its extension to exterior environments for the
amplification of public activities and social interac-
tion.
Although, as described earlier, heat transfer and
thermal modulation played an important role in the
past, there are only scarce examples in contemporary
architecture. Two profound representatives of this
field are Sean Lally (2009) and Philippe Rahm, who
foster through their ideas new relationships between
urban space and climate and propose through their
projects, activities -augmented by heat- that might
otherwise be assumed to need a conditioned interior.
Interface Components
The interface of the thermal field consists of a dis-
tribution of small heat sources (peltier units) acti-
vated by microcontrollers (arduinos). These devices
can cool down or heat up depending on the direc-
tion of the current running through them. When the
thermoelectric units are activated their heat is trans-
mitted through a highly conductive material (copper
sheets) to the upper ceramic surface, which is treated
with thermochromic ink (Figure 4).
The connection between matter and energy
alters according to the local materiality, ranging
from energy transfer (thermoelectric units and heat
conductive tiles) to phenotypical change (ther-
mochromic materials) and to energy exchange
 (through conduction, convection, radiation) be-
tween the surface, the environment and the users.
While at this stage the microcontrollers are pre-
programmed, the aim is for the system to be locally
defined by the users who, through their devices, can
select the range of temperature transferred to the
tiles and consequently conducted to their own body.
Thermal Behaviour
Due to its heat-sensitive qualities the interface be-
comes a data visualisation apparatus, revealing infor-
mation and affecting modes of occupancy (Figure 5).
The thermal behaviour of the interface -how fast
it gets heated, for how long and on which location-
526 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1
is always indicated visually by the emerging patterns
caused by the thermochromic ink.
The physical properties of the upper stratum are
crucial in relation to the thermodynamic behaviour
of the system. Their behaviour can be programmed
in their material properties and by altering two main
attributes: heat conductivity and specific heat.
While thermal conductivity refers to the ability of
the material to transfer heat, the specific heat prop- Figure 4
erty indicates how much thermal energy a material Components of the
can hold in its molecular structure for a given mass. thermal field
Different combinations of materials where tested interface: peltier
and placed in relation to their role within the system. unit, copper and
The peltier units were positioned within wooden thermochromic
frameworks, and star-shaped copper sheets were ceramic tile.
placed on top, as copper is highly conductive. Tiles
made of different material combinations then ab-
sorbed the heat transferred by the copper sheets.
The tiles were made by a) liquid crystal sheet b) plas-
ter, c) fibre composite plaster or, d) plaster with Phase
Changing Material (PCM), testing their heat transfer
behaviour. The latter is a material with unique phase
changing properties as it can change from solid to liq-
uid and vice versa according to temperature differ-
ences, and acts as a temperature buffer.
The material combinations and consequently
the thermodynamic behaviour of the overall surface
can thus, vary extensively (Figure 6).
Figure 5
Contribution and Further Development of Patterns emerging
Thermal Field due to the
Within a conceptual frame, the dual aim of the thermochromic
project is firstly to stimulate an interrogation of the paint on the tiles
purely formal perception of the architectural bound- and the internal
ary to a dynamic and sentient one and contribute to difference of
a field of knowledge that sees architecture beyond its material
static limitations towards one that is energy-related. conductivity.
In this sense the project aspires to combine the atmo-
spheric with the performative qualities of the matter-
energy relationship.
Further development will focus on the following
aspects: the first is the connectivity between user
and interface and furthermore the heat transfer at-
 tributes of the surface in relation to its materiality and envision a future reality where materials play a key
geometry. The latter is an investigation on how ge- role in defining highly dynamic and responsive envi-
ometry and spatial qualities affect heat transfer and ronments. Materials that grow and self-organise by
distribution. Finally, an additional aim is to rethink having integrated processing capacities may lead to
the current energy consumption of the interface with unseen possibilities on spatiality by overcoming the
the utilisation of distributed energy harvesting de- static and pre-determined qualities of the existing.
vices capable of converting ambient energy to elec- The second remark is that despite the utilisation
tricity. of responsive materials, architecture would profit by
reconsidering the attributes of traditional materials
Figure 6 and integrate their 'passively active' behaviour. The
Some variables that make up of materials at a micro-scale as well as their
affect the interface’s organisation and assembly at a larger scale can yield
performance, from highly heterogeneous thermal or acoustic and lumi-
top to bottom: a) nous spatial environments. Likewise the notion of
Difference of the boundary can shift to something that is dynamic
internal material and closer to the physicists' idea of an ever-changing
conductivity. The one.
star-shaped copper
transmits heat. b)
Difference of
REFERENCES
Addington, M and Schodeck, D 2005, Smart materials
external material and Technologies: for the architecture and design pro-
conductivity and fessions, Architectural Press, Oxford
heat capacity: Banham, R 1984, The architecture of the well-tempered en-
liquid crystal vironment, University of Chicago, Chicago
surface vs plaster, c) Correa, D, Papadopoulou, A, Guberan, C, Jhaveri, N, Re-
difference of ichert, S, Menges, A and Tibbits, S 2015, '3D-Printed
Wood: Programming Hygroscopic Material Trans-
internal formations', 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing,
temperature from 2(3), pp. 106-116
thermoelectric Davies, M 1981, 'A wall for all seasons', RIBA, 88(2), pp.
device. CONCLUSION 55-57
Thinking with responsive materials poses some in- Doumpioti, C 2011 'Responsive and Autonomous Mate-
rial Interfaces', Proceedings of the 31st Annual Confer-
triguing questions to architecture. Are we to con-
ence of the Association for Computer Aided Design in
tinue designing similar forms with new materials or Architecture (ACADIA), Banff (Alberta) , pp. 217-230
is it time to generate new connections between mat- Doumpioti, C, Greenberg, E and Karatzas, K 2010 'Em-
ter and form? Moreover, have we exploited the po- bedded Intelligence: Material Responsiveness in Fa-
tentialities stemming from traditional materials and cade Systems', Proceedings of the 30th Annual Confer-
their distinct properties in relation to acoustic, lumi- ence of the Association for Computer Aided Design in
Architecture (ACADIA), New York
nous and thermal energies? How can matter and en-
Haque, U 2004 'The choreography of sensations: Three
ergy define the formal aspects of architecture? case studies of responsive environment interfaces',
The paper poses a twofold observation: firstly is VSMM Conference Proceedings
that responsive materials can pave the path for new Harrison, AL 2013, Architectural Theories of the Environ-
connections between the static built form and sur- ment: Posthuman Territory, Routledge, Taylor & Fran-
rounding dynamic events. The steps taken by fields cis Group, New York
Hensel, M 2013, Performance-oriented design: Towards an
like material science and bioengineering make us

SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 527

 inclusive approach to the architectural design and the
environment, Wiley, Chichester
Ishii, H, Lakatos, D, Bonanni, L and Labrune, JB 2012,
'Radical atoms: beyond tangible bits, toward trans-
formable materials', Interactions, 19(1), pp. 38-51
Kretzer, M and Hovestadt, L 2014, ALIVE Advancements in
Adaptive Architecture, Birkhauser
Lally, S (eds) 2009, Architectural Design: Energies: New
Material Boundaries, Wiley
Leatherbarrow, D 2009, Architecture oriented otherwise,
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Princeton Architectural Press
Sadler, S 2005, Archigram: Architecture without Architec-
ture, MIT Press

528 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1

Using Tensegrity and Folding to Generate Soft Responsive
Architectural Skins
Sherif Abdelmohsen1 , Passaint Massoud2 , Ahmed Elshafei3
1
The American University in Cairo, Ain Shams University 2,3 The American Uni-
versity in Cairo
1,2,3
{sherifmorad|drpassaint|a.elshafei}@aucegypt.edu

This paper describes the process of designing a prototype for a soft responsive
system for a kinetic building facade. The prototype uses lightweight materials
and mechanisms to generate a building facade skin that is both soft (less
dependent on hard mechanical systems) and responsive (dynamically and
simultaneously adapting to spatial and environmental conditions). By combining
concepts stemming from both tensegrity structures and folding mechanisms, we
develop a prototype that changes dynamically to produce varying facade patterns
and perforations based on sensor-network data and feedback. We use radiation
sensors and shape memory alloys to control the prototype mechanism and allow
for the required parametric adaptation. Based on the data from the radiation
sensors, the lengths of the shape memory alloys are altered using electric wires
and are parametrically linked to the input data. The transformation in the
resulting overall surface is directly linked to the desired levels of daylighting and
solar exposure. We conclude with directions for future research, including full
scale testing, advanced simulation, and multi-objective optimization.

Keywords: Soft responsive systems, tensegrity, folding, kinetic facades

INTRODUCTION develop low-cost and energy-saving kinetic building

This paper explores the design of kinetic façade sys-
tems within the framework of soft architecture ma-
chines (Negroponte 1975), where advanced comput-
ing brings in possibilities for "living" in a "meaning-
ful" and responsive man-made environment, thus al-
lowing for a quality of architecture that incorporates
different needs of building occupants altogether, in-
cluding climatic comfort, spatial requirements and
social interaction. Our main focus involves a "soft re-
sponsive system" (Khoo et al. 2011) that capitalizes
on lightweight materials and tensegrity structures to
façade skins.
Early examples of responsive systems included
systems that enabled responsiveness by means of a
programmable façade such as the Aegis Hyposurface
by dECOi (Goulthorpe et al. 2001), programmable
audio-visual interior settings such as the Freshwater
Pavilion by NOX (Lootsma and Spuybroek 1997), and
responsive behavior through the changing form of
a cloud such as the Blur project (Diller and Scofidio
2002). These "hard" mechanical approaches were
challenging for adoption in large scale architectural

SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 529

 skins and façade systems in terms of reliability, effi-
ciency and durability. They also overlooked the func-
tional component of responsive architecture, espe-
cially that which relates to environmental and struc-
tural integrity (Sterk 2003).
More recent work on responsive architecture
capitalized on functional integrity, soft architectural
components and material properties as opposed
to highly mechanistic and complex components.
Oosterhuis and Sterk adopt functional approaches
to responsive architecture using actuated tenseg-
rity structures and pneumatic muscles, where archi-
tectural skins respond to actual structural, climatic
and spatial conditions (Oosterhuis 2003, Sterk 2005).
Khan capitalizes on the unique material properties
of elastomers to develop and construct responsive
structures computationally (Khan 2009). Other ap-
proaches use digital and physical computation to de-
velop elastic modular systems as a second skin to ex-
isting buildings (Khoo et al. 2011). This approach
capitalizes on material behavior exploration to de-
sign morphing skins that respond to climatic con-
ditions especially sunlight and provide aesthetically
compelling shading devices and building envelopes.
Other advanced approaches to soft responsive
systems implemented more sophisticated materials
and mechanisms, such as the ShapeShift project
(Kretzer 2011), which used electro-active polymers
to develop kinetic and responsive membranes, and
the Media-ICT building (Ruiz-Geli 2011), which re-
sponds to changing climatic conditions and moder-
ates sunlight to the interior space using an ETFE ki-
netic façade system. While these projects offer many
advantages for building skins and facades in terms
of performance and aesthetics, they tend to over-
look the full spectrum of necessary conditions and
criteria. Sterk devises a hybridized model of control
for responsive systems that extends to include: (1)
"user input", including the possibility of manipulat-
ing building responses, (2) "building structure", which
describes building responses to environmental con-
ditions, and (3) "spatial responses", which involves
the partitioning of internal space (Sterk 2005).
530 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1
We explore the use of soft responsive systems within
this holistic framework that extends beyond just per-
formance and aesthetics to satisfy user needs "as a
set of ever changing conditions" (Sterk 2005). We
put forward that architectural space is changing from
a static modular state into a fluid topological state
that continually responds to human activity, social
behavior and interaction, therefore addressing some
of Negroponte's initial inquiries concerning human-
environment relationship, user life style, and envi-
ronmental control. In this context, we focus on de-
signing building façade skins that are both soft and
responsive. We implement this soft responsive ap-
proach in order to respond dynamically and simul-
taneously to multiple objectives such as maximizing
daylight and minimizing solar radiation. We specif-
ically use the principles of tensegrity and folding to
generate a kinetic façade, where members in ten-
sion are triggered through the sensor-network mech-
anism to produce varying patterns and perforations
in the resulting façade system.
We describe our approach below. We first experi-
mented with tensegrity structures to build our mech-
anism logic. We then integrated a folding mechanism
to generate a working prototype with different sce-
narios that respond to sensor-network data.
WHY TENSEGRITY LOGIC?
In line with the main scope of this paper, which in-
volves exploring soft responsive systems, it was es-
sential to study structures that serve the lightweight,
efficient and dynamic nature of such systems.
Tensegrity, as a structural principle and logic, was
seen as potentially serving that purpose. Little liter-
ature exists that addresses architectural applications
of tensegrity structures in building skins and facades,
but rather it focuses on geometry, structural integrity
and aesthetic appeal. Tensegrity structures, as de-
scribed by the early pioneers Fuller and Snelson (Lal-
vani 1996), comprise struts or bars in compression,
in a network of strings, cables or tendons in contin-
uous tension. It is the properties of this integrated
system that give it its unique behavior of lightness,
foldability, deployability and strength. Another very
important characteristic of tensegrity structures is
the relatively flexible and easy shape control, where
the basic shape of a tensegrity structure can be con-
siderably altered and deformed with minimal change
in the potential energy of the structure based on a
given applied force.
Moreover, literature highlights a number of char-
acteristics and benefits that are specific to tensegrity
structures; namely natural inspiration, deployability,
efficiency, stability, and control (Skelton et al. 2001).
Tensegrity structures are mostly derived from natu-
ral and biological inspirations, where tensegrity be-
havior has been observed in cell biology. Transfer-
able characteristics from nature can therefore possi-
bly be seen in tensegrity structures at different scales,
where smart structures could be developed to con-
trol energy flow and motion by means of a proper se-
lection of geometry, parametric functions, and actu-
ators.
Deployability is another direct benefit that can
be easily achieved and is significant when attempt-
ing to design responsive systems. Typically, high
strength materials would tend to exhibit little deploy-
ability or displacement capabilities. However, in the
case of tensegrity structures, the ease of attachment
and detachment of the compression struts and their
connections renders the flexible and large displace-
ment of tensegrity basic components and their com-
pact assembly and storage a relatively light task with
considerable savings. This characteristic is highly sig-
nificant in complex buildings with sophisticated fa-
cade skins.
Another yet immediate benefit of tensegrity
structures is the efficient distribution of its members
and components through longitudinal members
which are usually organized in a non-conventional
and non-orthogonal manner to achieve maximum
strength with minimal mass. As material is typically
only needed in specific locations that address struc-
tural loading points, and not just arbitrary and un-
necessary locations, this would result in an efficient
three-dimensional configuration with high savings
SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 531
in terms of cost and resources. Simultaneously, the
overall configuration is highly stabilized, where com-
pression struts lose stiffness while tendons gain stiff-
ness upon loading.
One of the features that we capitalize on as well
in this paper is multi-functionality, where both com-
pression struts and tendons can represent different
and diverse elements simultaneously. For example,
they can be load bearing members. They can also be
thermal insulators or electrical conductors. They can
yet represent a sensing elements, where they are able
to measure length or tension, or actuating elements,
such as nickel-titanium wire. This feature allows for
a much larger role for the designed facade system,
where it can possibly - using the appropriate selec-
tion of material or geometrical configuration - regu-
late thermal and electrical properties of the building
envelope.
The aforementioned features allowed for an ex-
tensible set of properties, including (a) wholeness,
where surfaces have the ability of responding as
a whole rather than in parts, so local stresses are
transmitted uniformly and are absorbed through
the structure; (b) elasticity, where the overall struc-
ture could be deformed or displaced but retains
its original shape when necessary; (c) expandabil-
ity, where the structure is stable by itself, and so
its sub-components could be joined together to cre-
ate larger and more complex systems; (d) foldability,
where surfaces could exhibit folding as a property,
while requiring minimal energy in order to change to
a new configuration, and (e) uniqueness, where the
structure has no redundant parts, implying that all
the sub-components of the structure are completely
necessary for its overall stability.
PRELIMINARY TESTING WITH TENSEGRITY
In an attempt to reduce the highly mechanistic and
complex nature of kinetic facade skins, we first de-
veloped preliminary testing with basic concepts of
tensegrity. We used a 3-strut T-prism 30cm X 30cm
X 50cm tensegrity module to generate a linear sys-
tem surface and experiment with concepts of float-
 ing compression inside a net of continuous tension.
After a brief physical testing and experimentation
phase, we used Grasshopper and the Kangaroo plug-
in to simulate the 3-strut T-prism behavior, where
both the compressed struts and the prestressed ten-
sioned members, or tendons, were represented (see
Figure 1). In this simulation, we could alter the ten-
sion in each of the tendons to visualize the resulting
behavior in different orientations. The color code in
Figure 1 represents the tension values for each of the
tendons. This allowed us to explore the scope of vari-
ation in configuration and transformation that could
potentially take place within a building skin of depth
30cm.
In order to generate the required diversity of
patterns for the ultimate purpose of responding to
sensor-network data related to daylighting and so-
lar radiation, we introduced parametric variations
at three levels: (1) the modular level, (2) the one-
dimensional network of interconnected struts, and
(3) the two-dimensional network of interconnected
struts. At the modular level, each 3-strut module can
rotate and change its position and size, as shown in
the previous figure. At the 1-D network level, ma-
nipulating each of the three tendons per strut in-
duces transformation along the linear axis of connec-
tion (see Figure 2). At the 2-D network level, the ma-
nipulation of the tendons across the system surface
results in a holistic transformation in aesthetic and
shading patterns. This complex system of paramet-
ric variations results in a highly diverse range of pos-
532 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1
sible configurations of the responsive skin, with only
minimal alterations of input variables. This was seen
initially to lead to a variety of daylighting levels and
solar exposure inside the architectural space. As op-
posed to, for example, a group of hard mechanical
piston movement to move or rotate merely one sur-
face panel, a slight change in input tension values
across tendons of the overall structure could achieve
the same result more efficiently, with significant cost
and time savings.
Figure 3 shows the Grasshopper definition that
we used to define the transformation of the 3-strut
module according to altering the values of its three
tendons. We used the Kangaroo plug-in to identify
the resulting geometrical configuration of the mod-
Figure 1
ules. Input parameters included the length of each
The 3-strut T-prism
of the compressed struts, in addition to the length of
30cm X 30cm X
the tendons at rest and in tension. As the prototype
50cm tensegrity
was meant to stand vertically being a kinetic facade,
module used for
it was important to take into consideration many fac-
preliminary testing
tors. The plug-in allowed for accounting for many
and generating a
of these, including gravity, static and kinetic friction,
linear system
stiffness, plasticity, and others. This contributed to
surface.
an informed decision making process in the design
of the prototype module, the dimensions of its pan-
els, the location of its main anchor points, its weight,
and consequently the type of lightweight material to
be used in the construction of its final configuration.
In order to fully develop a framework for the ge-
ometry and control of a responsive facade prototype,
the paper builds on two main systems as a depar-
ture point: tensegrity structures, and folding. It is im-
portant to distinguish here between pure tensegrity
structures and geometrical configurations that share
tensegrity logic and characteristics. We are more in-
terested in tensegrity logic to generate the kinetic
surface properties using linear tensegrity structures
in a computational medium. It is not the aim of this
paper to stay within "pure tensegrity" per se. Tenseg-
rity structures are just considered as a basic departure
point to develop new designs, as they comprise sev-
eral interesting properties, especially when design-
ing a responsive surface.
Figure 2
Scenarios of
resulting
configurations as a
result of
manipulating three
tendons per strut,
allowing for
transformation
along the linear axis
of connection of
struts.

Figure 3
Extract from
Grasshopper
definition used to
define the
transformation of
the 3-strut module
based on
manipulating its
tendons (color
coded).

SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 533

 FRAMEWORK FOR PROPOSED SOFT RE-
SPONSIVE FACADE PROTOTYPE
After preliminary testing with tensegrity structures,
we came to the following conclusions. Working with
tensegrity allowed for producing a variety of curved
surfaces. The generated surfaces were not only two-
dimensional, but extended to three-dimensional sur-
faces. This was due to the fact that we used para-
metric variations at the modular level, and the one-
dimensional as well as the two-dimensional net-
works of interconnected struts. Controlling these
surfaces was allowed by manipulating the values for
each of the tendons in all panels. The main prob-
lem however, which did not allow for full control of
the panels, was that tensegrity behavior comprises
both tension and compression, and therefore does
not allow for control on each and every surface of
a given panel. We thus incorporated folding as a
mechanism for generating the prototype. We subdi-
vided the given panel into a group of surfaces and
applied the tensegrity logic together with a folding
technique on its 30cm X 30cm panels. Folding, within
tensegrity logic, allowed for a sequence of patterns
across the overall structure, and a hierarchical setting
where the overall panel was divided into a number
of surfaces that transform in geometry, leading to a
dynamic pattern that opens and closes, allowing for
different solid-void ratio along its folds and side aper-
tures.
We saw two components as key in controlling
the tensegrity mechanism to allow for the required
parametric adaptation: (1) radiation sensors, and (2)
shape memory alloys. Based on sensor data from
the radiation sensors, the lengths of the shape mem-
ory alloys connected along each of the 3-strut mod-
ules are altered using electric wires, and are para-
metrically linked to the input data. The transforma-
tion in the resulting overall surface is directly linked
to the desired levels of daylighting and solar expo-
sure, where the specific parameters pertaining to the
percentage of perforations, orientations of tensegrity
modules, and angles of solar exposure are fed in real
time to the system to continually acquire the desired
534 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1
levels according to time of day and year. See Figure
4 for a generalized framework for generating soft re-
sponsive facade prototypes.
The framework builds on three main stages: (a)
environmental analysis, (b) modeling and simula-
tion of facade prototype infrastructure, and (c) phys-
ical testing and control. In the first stage, daylight-
ing analysis using DIVA for Rhino, and solar radia-
tion analysis using Ladybug plug-in for Grasshopper,
are conducted in order to identify optimized values
for percentages of perforations for the given facade
screen. These values are given for both annual and
daily data and are fed into the Arduino microcon-
troller to physically control the facade prototype.
In the second stage, the mesh infrastructure of
the facade prototype is modeled using Grasshopper.
Simulation is conducted using Kangaroo plug-in for
the mesh and its folded mechanism , which is built
based on tensegrity logic. Scenarios of configura-
tions and folding behavior are explored within the
computational medium, and then the model is phys-
ically constructed. Shape memory alloys are used
as the prestressed tensioned members of the overall
surface.
Upon applying electricity to the shape mem-
ory alloys, their lengths are transformed to respond
to the environmental data coming from the sensor-
network. The Arduino microcontroller regulates the
general transformation logic of the folded mecha-
nism based on the input data, resulting in a spectrum
of configuration scenarios: (a) open mesh, (b) semi-
closed mesh, and (c) closed mesh (see Figure 5).
The configuration possibilities for the prototype
are constrained to the required panel depth in front
of the building exterior wall, which was confined to
30 cm in this example. Changing the depth would
typically increase the number of potential configu-
rations and the nature of the resulting curved sur-
faces, and consequently the solid-void ratio and per-
centages of perforations for the overall prototype.
A physically tested sample is illustrated in Figure 6.
The physical prototype comprises a number of fixed
points on each of the subdivided panels, in addition
Figure 4
Basic workflow of
the proposed
responsive facade
prototype.

Figure 5
Possible
transformations in
the surface of the
proposed
responsive facade
prototype. Left:
Open mesh, Center:
Semi-closed mesh,
Right: Closed mesh.

SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 535

 to a folding mechanism and anchor points. The outer
surface of the panel can be designed to host addi-
tional perforations for optimized daylighting consid-
erations.
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
This paper demonstrated the process of designing a
prototype and developing a framework for a soft re-
sponsive system for a kinetic building facade. The
prototype uses lightweight materials and mecha-
nisms to generate a building facade skin that is soft,
i.e. less dependent on hard and complex mechani-
cal systems, and responsive, i.e. dynamically and si-
multaneously adapting to spatial and environmen-
tal conditions. We built on tensegrity logic, rather
than a direct translation of pure tensegrity structures,
and incorporated a folding mechanism to develop
a lightweight prototype. We used radiation sensors
with Arduino to respond to daylighting and solar
radiation analysis in Rhino and Grasshopper simu-
lations. We tested the prototype physically using
shape memory alloys, where electricity is applied to
transform the solid-void ratio of the panel surfaces
based on the surrounding sensor-network data.
The scope of this paper is limited to digital sim-
ulation of folding and tensegrity using Grasshopper
and Kangaroo plug-in and their behavior under the
stimulus of preset values, along with some prelimi-
nary physical testing. This allowed for the genera-
tion of multiple iterations of façade patterns and test-
ing the resulting patterns against the multiple objec-
tives of radiation and daylighting. Further research
536 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1
aims at building a full scale prototype and conduct-
ing physical testing based on radiation sensors and
local weather data.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Figure 6
We would like to thank The American University in Physical prototype
Cairo for sponsoring this research under faculty re- of the proposed
search support grant agreement SSE-CANG-SA-RSG- responsive facade
FY16-18. system.
REFERENCES
Diller, E and Scofidio, R 2002, Blur: The Making of Nothing,
Harry N. Abrams, Inc., New York
Goulthorpe, M, Burry, M and Dunlop, G 2001 'Aegis Hy-
posurface: The bordering of university and practice',
Proceedings of ACADIA 2001, pp. 334-349
Khan, O 2009 'Elasticity - the case for elastic materials for
kinetic and responsive architecture', Proceedings of
the UbiComp ‘09, Florida, USA
Khoo, CK, Salim, F and Burry, J 2011, 'Designing Archi-
tectural Morphing Skins with Elastic Modular Sys-
tems', International Journal of Architectural Comput-
ing, 9(4), pp. 397-419
Kretzer, M 2011 'Towards a new softness: The aesthet-
ics of soft dielectric electroactive polymers and their
application in an architectural context', International
Adaptive Architecture Conference, London, UK
Lalvani, H 1996, 'Origins of Tensegrity: Views of Em-
merich, Fuller and Snelson', International Journal of
Space Structures, 11, pp. 27-55
Lootsma, B and Spuybroek, L 1997, 'Aquatic pavilion and
interactive installation', Domus: Architecture, design,
art, communication, 796, pp. 28-33
Negroponte, N 1975, Soft Architecture Machine, MIT
Press, Cambridge
Oosterhuis, K 2003, Hyper bodies - Towards an E-motive
Architecture, Birkhauser, Basel
Skelton, RE, Adhikari, R, Pinaud, J-P, Chan, W and Hel-
ton, JW 2001 'An Introduction to the Mechanics of
Tensegrity Structures', Proceedings of the 40th IEEE
Conference on Decision and Control, Orlando, FL,
USA, pp. 4254 - 4259
Sterk, TDE 2003 'Using Actuated Tensegrity Structures to
Produce a Responsive Architecture', Proceedings of
ACADIA 2003, Indianapolis, USA, pp. 85-93
Sterk, TDE 2005, 'Building upon Negroponte: A Hy-
bridized Model of Control Suitable for Responsive
Architecture', Automation in Construction, 14(2), pp.
225-232
Sensitive Shelters: Poetics of Interaction
Andrés Martin Passaro1 , Gonçalo Castro Henriques2 ,
Rodrigo Cury Paraizo3
1,2
Universidade Federal do Rio Janeiro, Laboratório Modelos e Fabricação Digi-
tal, Pós-Graduação Urbanismo 3 Universidade Federal do Rio Janeiro, Pós-Graduação
em Urbanismo, Laboratório Análise Urbana e Representação Digital
1,2,3
{andrespassaro|gch|rodrigoparaizo}@fau.ufrj.br

This paper describes and reflects about a workshop activity in the field of Digital
Manufacturing technologies to build responsive shelters that interact with their
users and the environment. It addresses a teaching strategy intended to overcome
tooling or the simple use of instruments and proposes instead to frame the
production of objects using a new language, or a new operative strategy, directly
linked to the production of the objects. It addresses a teaching strategy behind the
workshop two main levels: first, by the development of technical skills by means
of an operative action directly linked to the production of the object, and not
apart from the action of making it (as in learning first and applying later). And
second - and no less important -, it helped foster the maturation of critical
thinking arising from the creation of a dynamic object of architecture - with
moving parts and programmed to respond to its users.

Keywords: Digital Fabrication, Parametric Design, Responsive Architecture,

Sensitive Shelters

INTRODUCTION how to operate software or how to use digital cutting

Digital simulation and fabrication tools can empower
architects to regain awareness of how things are
built, understanding the architectural modes of pro-
duction. Traditional design process using analogue
methods seldom the person who designs manufac-
tures and builds the project is the same. With the
digital integration (Kolarevic 2003), processes can
have a wider interference in project. Indeed, visual
programming itself, commonly present in paramet-
ric design, with its intensive use of diagrams, helps
shift emphasis from form to process (just as diagrams
in contemporary architecture discourse so often do).
This workshop, therefore, was not about teaching
tools or 3D printers. To overcome a simple and empty
technical discourse implies the search for new lan-
guages, in order to explore the new operational pos-
sibilities of the new tools, maybe most notably the
embodiment of processes in architectural spaces. A
Flusserian approach of meddling with the "black box"
is used to subvert its "program" and re-appropriate
the technology from the artist's point of view (Flusser
2011).
The increased use of parametric design and digi-
tal fabrication technologies is not intrinsically bound
to produce any specific result - as with any tech-
nology, it depends on how we choose to use them.

SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 537

 Although new technologies can support the cur-
rent architectural production, that still oscillates be-
tween narrative fragmentation and super-modern
compactness (Moneo 1999); they may also become a
major tool in the service of bland real estate develop-
ments. The workshop intended to explore new tech-
niques searching for new paradigms to change (or
at the very least challenge) the current architectural
discourse. These tools can modify the modes of rep-
resentation, the use of the materials, the production
process and finally the very understanding of archi-
tectural form. The idea to couple visual abstract con-
cepts (diagrams) with construction, results that these
processes somehow subvert the Albertian separation
of notation and construction that once was essential
to the profession of Architecture (Carpo 2011). They
therefore place the current critical systems in a crisis
situation and provide a new path about Architectural
processes and the language associate with them.
DIGITAL DESIGN AND FABRICATION PRO-
CEDURES
When LAMO - Laboratório Modelos e Fabricação
Digital (Laboratory of Fabrication and Modeling)
acquired the first digital manufacturing machines,
learning parametric design would appear to solve
any problem regarding the production of innovative
contemporary architecture. However, after a while
we realized - with a feeling of déjà vu - that this
discussion was very similar to the one that started
some 30 years ago when the computer aided de-
sign (CAD) was introduced in professional practice
and academia. Now, as then, the simple use of more
technologically advanced tools does not mean that
the discipline has absorbed the specificity of the new
technologies.
The ability to automate design procedures to
respond to environmental demands also does not
mean by itself a better design. Exploring new meth-
ods to improve quality, social justice or the fore-
front of thought require, in addition to proficiency,
a methodological review of the act of design that
makes the practice. The new digital processes allow
538 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1
the exploration of parametric solutions that surpass
the traditional sequential logic of Problem> Project>
Building resulting in a single solution. The tradi-
tional mode of design, based on paper documenta-
tion produced by someone that is later used by an-
other one to fabricate the parts and eventually the
object is built by a third person, induces communica-
tion and learning gaps that can successfully be over-
come with digital integration (Kolarevic 2013). More-
over, as Carpo notices (2011, 44-45), digital fabrica-
tion challenges the Albertian principle of separation
between notation and building, as architects design
and build at the same time. As Dollens (2002, 106)
notes, in this scenario conceptual design and digi-
tal fabrication originate in the same intellectual and
representational gesture, as exemplified by the archi-
tecture explorations in digital fabrication and algo-
rithms of Bernard Cache's Objectile.
Parametric design can generate families of solu-
tions using new logics of modeling and modifying
the design sequence (De Landa 2011). Parametriza-
tion fosters new logics of modeling, thus modifying
the sequence of design with the use of mathematical-
geometric functions replacing notations based on
the identity between object and description; propos-
ing instead the development of series of objects
with parameter-controlled variations between them
(Carpo 2011). At the same time, tinkering with func-
tions and their parameters may be seen as an exter-
nalized black box, helping to develop the (meta) de-
sign feedback procedure proposed by Jones (1972),
as reported by Barki (2006, 95), and thus help shed
some light at design heuristics in general. It is also af-
filiated to the concept of "reflection-in-action", devel-
oped by Schön (1983), as commented by Barki (2006,
113), in the sense that those external representations
made by the designer, such as drawings and mod-
els, will be reincorporated as images feeding new de-
sign alternatives - only now we can also add functions
and algorithms as proto-imagetic material. Not only
they generate several new images, but they also al-
low some degree of randomness to be carefully intro-
duced in the whole process, increasing the chances
 of serendipitous findings.
It should be stressed that the possibility of cre-
ating an automated, optimal response of the form
to external demands does not necessarily imply in
a better design. Computation can also be used in
passive forms of optimization - like finding a specific
shape that can profit more from solar orientation, for
instance. In the end, the exploration of new meth-
ods that promote building quality, social justice or
an avant-garde design requires, apart from immedi-
ate knowledge about the use of tools, the ability to
think critically about the whole design process. It
is possible to relate this, along with the relative in-
stability of form that can be found in parametric de-
sign and the diagrammatic expression of visual pro-
gramming languages, to the multiplication of signi-
Figure 1
Tools and devices
from the Workshop
"Sensitive Shelters".
SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 539
fying processes characteristic of Somol's "diagram-
matic practice" (2010, 90). According to Somol, "the
role of the architect in this model is dissipated, as he
or she becomes an organizer and channeller of in-
formation", from vertical forces (gravity, for instance)
to horizontal ones (social, political, cultural and eco-
nomic).
Starting from these premises, uncertainty arises
on how to teach parametric design and digital fab-
rication in order to promote a significant paradigm
shift in the architectural production, and the present
research aims to improve the discourse and the
method of design including these new tools and
procedures. Using the CAD to emulate a manual
draft is not considered a paradigm shift, as it is also
no paradigm shift to simply substitute the utility
 knife for a laser-cutting machine. In order to have
a paradigm shift it is necessary to incorporate a dis-
course that legitimizes the interventions.The poetic
of architecture is present in the strategy used to de-
velop project, incorporating in the learning process
the tools and digital processes. The project strategy
to find design solutions requires the participants to
establish an 'image as a synthesis' of project (Cache
and Bergson). That image must be developed from a
diagram of a mechanism provided at the beginning
of the workshop. The participants are encouraged to
develop a design idea from these diagrams. Partici-
pants should therefore seek, instead of a priori solu-
tions, for solutions that derive from the use of new
tools and processes taught. In this sense a theoreti-
cal and practical search that is analogue-digital incor-
porates new knowledge in the design process (Dol-
lens 2002). In this sense, the culture of project instead
of generic solution of generic exercises is one of the
strategies used to overcome the pure instrumental-
ization and to go beyond exercises alien from the de-
sign context.
At the "Universidade Federal Rio de Janeiro", as
in most Brazilian universities there is little awareness
of the importance of the integration between digi-
tal design and manufacturing (Henriques and Bueno
2009). The training that exists is usually based on
uncritical learning of software without the actual re-
interpretation of design processes. Instead new tools
are used in the framework of traditional processes,
only aiming to improve the speed and efficiency of
project development.
THE WORKSHOP PRODUCTION
The demand for a discourse or a legitimate narra-
tive of the production is undoubtedly better than
the technical option. Only this understanding would
allow perceiving the change that these new instru-
ments can bring to the project, expanding the pre-
vious possibilities. In this sense, the workshop was
proposed and conducted with the intention to over-
come the stage of pure exploration of digital design
and manufacturing tools, and induce the search for
540 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1
a new conceptual method. The choice of the work-
shop format answered our needs to have less hierar-
chical relationships among participants, an intensive
participation over a short time frame, and to foster
quick, iterative responses from the students.
The workshop became an annual joint activ-
ity among three laboratories, LAMO, LAURD - Lab-
oratório de Análise Urbana e Representação Digital
(Laboratory of Urban Analysis and Digital Represen-
tation) and NANO - Núcleo de Arte e Novos Organ-
ismos (Nucleus of Art and New Organisms). The first
two are part of the Program of Post-Graduation in Ur-
banism of the School of Architecture, and the latter
from the School of Fine Arts, all from the Federal Uni-
versity of Rio de Janeiro.
The intention is to incorporate contributions
from different fields such as architecture, digital arts
and sciences. These different areas are exploring
the new possibilities of digital to integrate in their
practice. Because they possess different specificities,
they find different solutions of how to incorporate
the digital, therefore making it crucial to share ex-
periences and techniques. By including these differ-
ent areas, the intention is to mingle different modus
operandi on the use of digital processes and instru-
ments, thus helping redefine the design research.
Apart from the variations that accompany paramet-
ric design, the workshop brought also the multiplic-
ity of states of interactive systems to the design-
ers' tables. From the architects' point of view, deal-
ing with interactive structures increases the need for
hands-on experimentation; but it also adds a new
layer of meaning to the design. The structures not
only change over time, but they have a behavior,
and interact with users, forcing the participants to
develop the conceptual apparatus and aesthetic vo-
cabulary needed to design shapes, structures, feed-
back loops and (meaningful) movements. The under-
lying (diagrammatic) system must also possess a phe-
nomenological presence, capable of triggering sub-
jective responses from viewers. Relative to the tradi-
tional method such processes and instruments allow
intervening in all project phases in an asynchronous
sequence, unlike some previous (more traditional)
methods in which the characteristics of the medium
themselves favored more sequential and unidirec-
tional design processes (Duarte et al. 2011; Oxman
2006).
The workshop targets participants with minor
experience in digital design. Its public mixes un-
dergraduate students, Master and PhD candidates
and even professors, thus creating very interest-
ing interactions in each team. It was necessary to
reintroduce the concept of 'computer aided design',
along with notions of associative and parametric de-
sign, digital fabrication and new media like Arduino,
creating a different - and expanded - mindset for
the participants. Arduino is responsible for mak-
ing accessible the production of responsive mech-
anisms - and therefore the responsive shelters that
ought to be designed within the 2014 edition work-
shop. The tutorial sessions included digital model-
ing with Rhinoceros and basic visual programming
with Grasshopper, including various plug-ins to gen-
erate multiple design alternatives. The advantage
of computer-aided manufacturing, that is, the dig-
ital integration among these programs in order to
digitally control the production of physical objects,
was quickly perceived by the participants after some
training in the operation of the laser cutting machine
and the 3d printer, as well as some basic training in
carpentry techniques, metalwork and some experi-
ence with product assembly. In this context, the act
of design was experienced as a digital continuum,
which also influences the project itself and the se-
quence of operations used. The moment a line in
the design is no longer just a representation, but also
happens to be an actual cut line in a subsequent
operation, the integrated operation acquires a new
meaning.
However the starting point of the design exercise
is conceptual in nature. Certain primary responsive
mechanisms were suggested and the participants
should - within a short but intensive period - con-
ceive, fabricate, and assemble the solution. The de-
sign should include automated moving parts, what
SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 541
is only possible manufacturing and testing solutions
with physical models. Thus the teaching of these
different areas promotes not only the reflection dur-
ing the learning and use of these new processes and
tools but also requires the definition of a concept.
This method originates multiple proposals that are
perfected by trial and error, giving participants a valu-
able learning feedback. This experience can be used
in the future for the student to design, cut and man-
ufacture their projects. The participants of the ex-
ercise should develop interactive spatial sculptures
or 'follies' (for lack of a more precise denomination)
from five suggested primary responsive mechanisms,
essentially names and diagrams: curtain, octopus,
shell, Chinese lantern and fuchsia flower ("brinco-de-
princesa", in Brazil).
The workshop was immersive - and intensive; it
lasted for nine days, starting on a Saturday and fin-
ishing on the next week's Sunday. The first four days
had lectures in the morning sessions and software tu-
torials in the afternoon ones. Participants were di-
vided in five teams of six people. Each group was
installed in one of the working tables of LAMO, with
enough space for sketchbooks, laptops and the many
parts that constituted each prototype. Four teachers
were responsible for the workshop, three also acting
as instructors during the tutorial phase. Fifteen lab-
oratory monitors took part in the workshop to help
operate the machinery (digital and analogical) and
were also responsible for the daily organization of the
workshop itself. Undergraduate and graduate stu-
dents showed up and worked as volunteers as well.
One Lab monitor was designated for each group. The
more experienced with parametric design were con-
stantly rotating among the groups helping them as
difficulties came along.
The undergraduate students participation as
monitors cannot be underestimated when consider-
ing a workshop based on new technologies. Their ex-
perience arises from the daily operation of the Lab,
which gives them basic skills to safely operate with
different materials and techniques such as laser cut-
ters, 3D printing, CNC routers as well as traditional
 modelling hardware and tools. Besides, most of them
are enthusiastic - and usually self-taught - explorers
of parametric design.
The workshop also used several instructors for
the tutorials on parametric design and electronics.
Most of these instructors were recently graduated -
with a few holding a MA degree. Apart from the
software tutorials, they also gave lectures about their
works and the theoretical approach they were us-
ing. The tutorials of Victor Sardenberg, Orion Cam-
pos and Verônica Natividade discussed parametric is-
sues using Rhinoceros + Grasshopper. On the elec-
tronics sessions with Arduino and motion sensors,
Lucas de Sordi was in charge of robotic tutorials (Ar-
duino and sensors) and Marlus Araújo was responsi-
ble for addressing 3D printing and rapid prototyping.
The only lecturer with Doctoral Degree was Gonçalo
Henriques - who also was a tutor. He shared his
practical experience highlighting the importance of
computation, fabrication processes and digital inte-
gration, paving the way for new directions in future
workshops. Professor Guto Nóbrega, NANO coordi-
nator, introduced the issues of hybridization through
interactivity with living organisms. Professors Andrés
Passaro and Arthur Lara also presented their lectures.
We would like to consider a small digression
here, in order to illustrate issues typical of new tech-
nologies - at least in the digital age. This par-
ticular type of knowledge is more widely spread
among those recently graduated (or even under-
graduate students) than tenured professors, for in-
stance. There is not, at least in Rio de Janeiro, a con-
siderable number of academic researchers that mas-
ter digital fabrication and parametric design tech-
niques yet. This handicap leads to the situation
where instructional sessions have to be conducted
by those recently graduated. While it does not pose
a problem for those directly involved (on the con-
trary, it is healthy to invert the roles of teachers and
students from time to time), it is not easy to have
research agencies to fund transportation and hotel
costs for people that possess a knowledge highly
specialized but not formally acknowledged. That
542 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1
may indicate that those official financing and sup-
porting channels have not yet constituted mecha-
nisms to deal with this kind of demand linked to new
technologies and, perhaps, the very spirit of fabrica-
tion and the "maker revolution".
In short, in the first days, instructors conducted
basic tutorials on parametric design and digital fab-
rication with the participants, who also received ba-
sic training in the use of the laser cutter and the
3D printer. We presented five primary devices (cur-
tain; octopus; shell; Chinese lantern; fuchsia flower),
that served as an inspiration for five responsive de-
signs. From the fourth day of the workshop on, at
the end of each day, there as a small seminar where
each team would present updated information on
their concepts, ideas, mechanisms and shapes. This
schedule revealed itself paramount to the proper de-
velopment of each design, among other things be-
cause daily presentations demanded carefully elabo-
rated concepts, overcoming the illusionary charm of
techniques and tools. The results embodied both the
knowledge and the trial and error of the workshop,
going beyond the dichotomy shape-tooling.
WORKSHOP CHALLENGES: CONCEPTS,
ART AND TECHNIQUES
During the workshop five propositions were devel-
oped around the theme of "sensitive shelters", that
is, shelters composed of movable parts that should
embody a concept in the interaction with the human
presence, either with a mechanism of actuation or in
the underlying geometrical explorations. Each team
designed and built working mock-up prototypes.
The basic idea to go beyond basic and avoid
strict sequential design thinking (from idea to shape
to form, for instance) was the stimulation of inte-
grated action in several moments of the creative pro-
cess. The device - and its supporting concept - should
work beyond the rhetorical level, because it had to
be prototyped, that is, its parts should work properly,
turning design concepts into matter. The design thus
got scale and movement, and a narrative associated
that should include mechanical, sensorial and algo-
Figure 2
The "Ephyra" design
development (left).
Design
development of the
"Origami" (right).
rithmic concepts at its core. The design system com-
prises digital fabrication (CAM) on top of the simula-
tion of the mechanisms (CAE) and the design concep-
tion (CAAD), simultaneously dealing with the parts
and the whole.
Each design was conceived using algorithms
written in visual language (Grasshopper software
was used), taking into account the sensor's interfaces
that would trigger associated re-actions. Light and
presence sensors were used to capture data from the
environment so an Arduino-based interface could
transmit this data and processes the date in the CPU.
The algorithm here is understood as a "soft" inter-
face controlling the relationship between geome-
tries and their becoming, while transmitting actions
to Arduino. From this moment on, Arduino reports
instructions as a "hard" interface to activate engines
that spin cogs in charge of the movements of the
shelter. At first, the geometry resided only in the CPU
SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 543
and was affected via mouse (simulating data from
the environment); later the mouse was suppressed
in order to have actual readings from the sensors
trigger the responses on the computer screen. Fi-
nally, when the models were built, the computer's
role was reduced to convert data from the environ-
ment in instructions for the actual engines, operating
on a physical model, becoming thus an intermediate
operator in a responsive product.
The workshop lectures reinforced the construc-
tive issues and possibilities of built projects, connect-
ing architectural theory and practice, showing the
generation, simulation, fabrication and (responsive)
interaction of project from the physical and techno-
logical point of view of the maker. Each team then
tried to enhance their experiences with those solid
references acquired with the lectures, and the re-
sult was a growing enthusiasm of the participants,
even among those that did not master the mouse nor

the pliers. More than becoming proficient with new
tools, they dealt with new ideas reconfiguring them-
selves from an empirical process of trial and error.
Instructors encouraged symbiotic actions be-
tween physical and digital modes of creation and
production, while advising each workgroup. Each
team proposed new solutions and developments
and reviewed the results at a very fast pace as de-
signs were rapidly materialized thanks to digital fab-
rication.
DESIGN DISCUSSION: 5 DIAGRAMS, 5
MECHANISMS
The core strategy of the workshop derived from the
five diagrams and derived mechanisms. The five di-
agrams presented were also named. As Picon (2004,
118) stated, diagrams, in fact, are "inseparable from
courses of action" throughout "the world appears as
a field in which forces are manifest rather than static
geography", and the workshop presented the chal-
lenge of designing the object as a re-action to the
environment, as a kind of "live" diagram. The result
544 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1
Figure 3
Design
development of the
"Xtensão" (left).
Design of the
"Caterpillar" (right).
therefore should appear as an interaction between
the physical and digital worlds - and they even hap-
pened to extrapolate the original diagrams at times.
G1 - The ÉFIRA ("Ephyra"; Figure 2 Left) is a mech-
anism with a vertical axis in which dishes on both
ends rotate in opposite directions. This movement
creates a torsion in the exterior skin formed by stripes
connecting the dishes. An Arduino presence sensor
triggers the motion-controlling algorithm that acti-
vates the rotation engine in reverse directions at each
extreme of the axis. The proximity of the user there-
fore causes the skin of the object to rotate and open
up so he or she can enter.
G2 - The ORIGAMI (Figure 2, right) describes a
movement of simultaneous expansion from the cen-
ter to the four borders in the face of a transparent
cube. A leap motion potentiometer detects human
presence and makes the folds open up using pulleys
and cables activated by an engine. The system is me-
diated by an Arduino board that manages commu-
nication between sensors and the controlling algo-
rithm.
G3 - XTENSÃO ("Xtension"; Figure 3, left) is based
 on tensegrity structures, that is, a combination of
bars and cables forming a net of continuous tension.
Five pairs of bars and cables are grouped around a cir-
cle; the bars in each module stay up and are arranged
in a polar array. The movement of contraction and
retraction of the bars towards the center of the circle
reconfigures the whole structure. Human movement
and vegetable-generated impulses trigger responses
from the algorithm through the Arduino board, acti-
vating a rotating engine in the center. This engine
is connected to five pulleys placed along the circum-
ference, that contract and retracts the cables, thus re-
ordering the tension - and shape - of the whole struc-
ture, since bars are pushed towards the center or the
border. In the absence of stimulus, the structure re-
turns to its initial rest state.
Figure 4
Muscipullus
conponents
development.
G4 - The CATERPILLAR (Figure 3, right) is constituted
by longitudinal stripes that rest on the soil. They are
sensitive to human proximity and bend themselves
like a shell to welcome the visitor. The stripes mod-
ify themselves according to the distance of the stimu-
lus. They contract or expand from the borders to the
SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 545
center, becoming arches. Human presence triggers a
motion sensor that transmits the signal via Arduino
to the algorithm, where it operates the four fuse en-
gines that bend or stretch the stripes. As people ap-
proach the stripes, they progressively bend, relaxing
as people go away.
G5 - The MUSCIPULLUS (Figure 4) emulates a car-
nivore plant: this shelter opens up as the visitor ar-
rives. The shape derives from a set of vertical poles
arranged in a polar array. Each pole is part of a panel,
and the synchronized movement of the five panels
opens up the surface when visitors arrive and close it
as a trap when visitors reach the inside. The interac-
tion of sensors and information processing are simi-
lar to the previous cases. The algorithm commands
Arduino to start a central rotational engine, which,
through levers, transmits movement to each of the
five poles, making the carnivore plant open or close
in interaction with the visitor.
The emphasis on constructive signal-processing
issues in this section should not lead one to under-
estimate the role of the diagrams in the whole sys-
tem. Eitheras the work was an explanatory synthe-
sis of complex design situations or a visual rhetoric
argumentative device that helped developing the
designs. We should also mention the contribution
of visual programming languages with the use of
Grasshopper to the very possibility of designing and
fabricating the shelters. They make computation
with algorithms more accessible to architects, for in-
stance, but they also make them understand form as
a product of visual thinking and diagrams.
The daily observation of the rhetoric of each
group to describe their designs, even when talking
about their concepts, still reinforced the technolog-
ical aspects. They could only stray away from those
aspects as they mastered the technology. Therefore,
as the workshop progressed, instead of teaching new
tools, we focused on the research for new types of
mimeses, developing a discourse around the con-
cepts of bio-shapes and morphogenesis, based on
proto-mechanics, sensorial algorithms.
 CONCLUSIONS
The Sensitive Shelters workshop is just the starting
point of a broader discussion. In broad strokes, its
format tried to recover conceptual devices applied
to design, integrating procedures and technologies
connected to the act of building.
The intention was to overcome the mere training
on the use of new tools; it was not about doing the
same things with new tools, but about researching
new possibilities brought by new instruments. From
a Flusserian perspective (Flusser 2011), we could say
that, in order to subvert the programming of the de-
vice, the programming had to be rewritten, even if
using the device's own language.
This discussion ensues that training and tuto-
rials, and the new instruments themselves, do not
automatically imply meaningful changes in architec-
ture designs. The workshop focused in the perceived
need to find a novel narrative for those new instru-
ments, less literal and with stronger conceptual back-
bones to legitimate or effect an imminent paradigm
shift. If the results described sound more as curiosi-
ties than revolutions, albeit interesting curiosities, it
is because they indeed do not introduce enough el-
ements to justify such shift. However, each proposi-
tion sets solid grounds for their conceptual discourse,
and overcomes not only the mere "re-drafting" but
also the empty yet mesmerizing hedonistic formal
games.
Throughout two intense weeks, participants ac-
quired basic proficiency in algorithmic design and
digital fabrication, as well as conceived, fabricated
and assembled a reduced scale prototype of their
chosen design. Prototypes included mechanic parts
and electronic sensors in order to allow experimen-
tation (and troubleshooting) with actual movement
and motion and presence detection, refining the de-
sign through fabrication. More than promote the use
of digital tools or the reflection upon the design con-
cept, the procedure allowed the participants of the
workshop to understand how both systems can work
together, fostering new modes of enquiry based on a
deeper understanding of the algorithmic logic within
546 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1
architecture design. Apart from yet another digital
tool, the process induces working with multiple em-
pirical propositions, enhancing the usual trial and er-
ror of architecture design, something students can
later employ in their designs. The feedback from the
students, showing the importance of the design de-
cisions they had to face, helps corroborate the whole
experience, as demonstrated in this video recorded
in the end of the workshop [1].
The results, apart from questioning traditional
training as a matter of learning new tools, reinforce
the need to embed a critical approach and the artic-
ulation of techniques and concepts within these sys-
tems, bringing new areas of knowledge to the archi-
tecture practice. This type of learning goes against
specialized, compartmentalized knowledge: in the
workshop, design solutions were tested through
their construction, integrating digital and analogical
practices as a single continuum, without the artificial
divide that is usually imposed upon those domains.
As a challenge, we can define this workshop as
a work in progress that creates the conditions for us
to explore other ways of architectural production and
design. In LAMO, the laser cutter was first an im-
proved utility knife, but we soon realized that under-
stand it that way as a conceptual mistake. The tech-
nology was to be understood as an opportunity to
think differently, drawing upon the specificities of the
instrument to enrich the design process.
The workshop successfully produced a critical
discourse in this sense, gathering from the reunion
of several practitioners and thinkers under the same
roof, involved in a practical activity while bringing
and refining their own reflections upon this practice.
Participants were exposed to discussions from para-
metric design to hybridization of living organisms, in-
cluding robotics and 3D printing, at the same time
with the notion that these themes are all interrelated,
and that each of them has possible contributions to
the design of architectural objects.
This window of opportunity is in fact a network
that is woven little by little, through the acquisition
of technology and equipment as well as the slow yet
Figure 5
Sensitive Shelters/
abrigos sensíveis
group at LAMO,
Universidade
Federal do Rio de
Janeiro, July 2014.
progressive development of knowledge and a huge
will to do so. This account reminds us Benjamin's "An-
gel of History" (2012 [1940]), in the sense that, as we
look back, we perceive several modes of production
becoming obsolete. Ours is a less nihilist point of
view than Benjamin's, our Angel not looking back in
dismay but looking forward with enchantment.
(Note: cross-reference original text Angel of His-
tory: "A Klee painting named Angelus Novus shows
an angel looking as though he is about to move away
from something he is fixedly contemplating. His eyes
are staring, his mouth is open, his wings are spread.
This is how one pictures the angel of history. His
face is turned toward the past. Where we perceive a
chain of events, he sees one single catastrophe which
keeps piling wreckage upon wreckage and hurls it
in front of his feet. The angel would like to stay,
awaken the dead, and make whole what has been
smashed. But a storm is blowing from Paradise; it
has got caught in his wings with such violence that
SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 547
the angel can no longer close them. The storm irre-
sistibly propels him into the future to which his back
is turned, while the pile of debris before him grows
skyward. This storm is what we call progress." (Ben-
jamin 1969)
Future Work
This workshop is part of a series that aims to im-
prove upon previous experiences and further refine
the theoretical and technical framework along with
practical constraints of time and materials. It has
already been followed by another workshop, called
"Defying Gravity" (Henriques and Passaro 2016). New
experiences should address more focused concepts,
allowing faster response time (and more experimen-
tation with algorithms and fabrication) from partic-
ipants. Other themes include temporary interven-
tions and tactical urbanism.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank CAPES, CNPq and
FAPERJ for the funding of this project and related
scholarships.
WORKSHOP CREDITS
Coordination: Andrés Passaro & Guto Nóbrega. Orga-
nization: Clarice Rohde, Elisa Vianna, Gonçalo Castro
Henriques, Laura Basile, Rebeca Duque Estrada. Lec-
tures & tutors: Andrés Passaro, Arthur Lara, Lucas de
Sordi, Gonçalo Castro Henriques, Guto Nóbrega, Mar-
lus Araújo, Oríon Campos, Verônica Natividade, Vic-
tor Sardenberg. Scientific Committee: Andrés Pas-
saro (FAU-UFRJ), Arthur Lara (FAU-USP), Carlos Fe-
ferman (FAU-UFRJ), Luiz Felipe Cunha (FAU--UFRJ),
Gonçalo Castro Henriques (FA-UTL Portugal), Guto
Nóbrega (EBA-UFRJ), Naylor Vilas Boas (FAU-UFRJ),
Malu Fragoso (EBA-UFRJ), Rodrigo Cury (FAU-UFRJ),
Alexandre Pessoa (UFF), Verônica Natividade (PUC-
Rio); LAMO Monitors and Photographers: Diogo de la
Vega, Felipe Madeira, Filipi Dias, João Magnus, Jonas
Abreu.
Workshop Participants: Andrea Baran, Aydam de
Paula, Bruno Vianna, Carina Carmo, Fernanda Petrus,
Gabriela Castro, Guilherme Erthal, Isabella Costa, Ju-
liana Tobar, Karla Regina Coutinho, Klauss Borges,
Leroy Otto, Lisa Schweigert, Lucas Fontes, Lucas Pa-
cobahyba, Luciana Mayrink, Marcos Pavão, Mariana
Alvares, Mariana Lourenço, Pedro Henrique Oliveira,
Priscila Luzardo, Ricelli Laplace, Ricardo Lopes, Ro-
drigo Gurgel, Sérgio Porto, Tainá Motta, Thiers Freire,
Thomaz Vieira, Tiago Maciel, Yana Inoue, Filipi Dias de
Oliveira, Marlus Mendonça, Raissa Laban, Diogode la
Vega.
REFERENCES
Barki, J 2003, O risco e a invenção: um estudo sobre as no-
tações gráficas de conceção no projeto, Ph.D. Thesis,
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
Benjamin, W 1969, Theses on the Philosophy of History,
Illuminations (trans. Harry Zohn), Schocken Books,
New York
Carpo, M 2011, The Alphabet and the Algorithm (1st ed.),
Cambridge, Massachusetts, The MIT Press, London
548 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1
Dollens, D 2002, De lo digital a lo analogico, Gustavo Gili,
Barcelona
Duarte, J, Celani, G and Pupo, R 2011, 'Inserting com-
putational technologies in architectural curricula',
in Ning, G and Xiangyu, W (eds) 2011, Computa-
tional Design Methods and Technologies: Applications
in CAD, CAM and CAE Education, IGI Global, Hershey,
PA, pp. 21-55
Flusser, V 2011 [1983], Filosofia da caixa preta: ensaios
para uma futura filosofia da fotografia., Annablume,
São Paulo
Henriques, GC and Bueno, E 2009, 'Geometrias Com-
plexas e Desenho Paramétrico.', Vitruvius / Drops, 30,
pp. 30-37
Henriques, GC and Passaro, A. M. 2016 'Defying grav-
ity: From statics to dynamics, from objects to sys-
tems', Proceedings of Architecture In-play conference
2016 (Forecoming), Lisbon
Kolarevic, B 2003, Designing and Manufacturing Architec-
ture in the Digital Age, Spoon Press Taylor & Francis
Group, New York
De Landa, M 2011, 'Virtual Reality', in Menges, A and
Ahlquist, S (eds) 2011, Computational Design Think-
ing, John Willey & Sons Ltd, Chichester, United King-
dom, pp. 142-8
Moneo, R 1999, 'Los 90 entre la compacidad y la frag-
mentación', Arquitectura Viva, 66, pp. 17-24
Oxman, R 2006, 'Theory and Design in the First Digital
Age', Design Studies, 27(3), pp. 20-40
Picon, A 2013, 'A arquitetura e o virtual: Rumo a uma
nova materialidade', in Sykes, AK (eds) 2013, O
campo ampliado da arquitetura: Antologia teórica
(1993-2009), Cosac Naify, São Paulo, p. 205–220
Somol, RE 2010, 'Dummy text, or the Diagrammtic Ba-
sis of Contemporary Architecture', in Garcia, M (eds)
2010, The Diagrams of Architecture: AD Reader, John
Willey Sons Ltd,, Chichester, United Kingdom, p.
88–91
Vider, A 2013, 'O campo ampliado da arquitetura', in
Sykes, AK (eds) 2013, O campo ampliado da arquite-
tura: Antologia teórica, Cosac Naify, São Paulo, p.
242–251
[1] https://vimeo.com/127316023
Adaptive Pneumatic Shell Structures
Feedback-driven robotic stiffening of inflated extensible membranes and
further rigidification for architectural applications

Paul Poinet1 , Ehsan Baharlou2 , Tobias Schwinn3 , Achim Menges4

1
CITA - Centre for Information Technology and Architecture | ICD - Institute for
Computational Design 2,3,4 ICD - Institute for Computational Design
1
paul.poinet@kadk.dk
2,3,4
{ehsan.baharlou|tobias.schwinn|achim.menges}@icd.uni-stuttgart.de

The paper presents the development of a design framework that aims to reduce
the complexity of designing and fabricating free-form inflatables structures,
which often results in the generation of very complex geometries. In previous
research the form-finding potential of actuated and constrained inflatable
membranes has already been investigated however without a focus on fabrication
(Otto 1979). Consequently, in established design-to-fabrication approaches,
complex geometry is typically post-rationalized into smaller parts and are finally
fabricated through methods, which need to take into account cutting pattern
strategies and material constraints. The design framework developed and
presented in this paper aims to transform a complex design process (that always
requires further post-rationalization) into a more integrated one that
simultaneously unfolds in a physical and digital environment - hence the term
cyber-physical (Menges 2015). At a full scale, a flexible material (extensible
membrane, e.g. latex) is actuated through inflation and modulated through
additive stiffening processes, before being completely rigidified with glass fibers
and working as a thin-shell under compression.

Keywords: pneumatic systems, robotic fabrication, feedback strategy,

cyber-physical, scanning processes

FROM PHYSICAL POST-PROCESSES TO
CYBER-PHYSICAL FORM GENERATION
The global design of a free-form inflatable structure
typically needs to be divided into developable strips
(Figure 1 - left) or triangulated patterns in order to
avoid any wrinkles that would diminish the aesthetic
qualities of the final product. Each piece needs to be
post-processed uniquely and separately (with differ-
ent offsets and resizings) in order to consider differ-
ent assembly situations (different valences) and var-
ious pressure conditions. This post-process - most
of the time partly empirical - often leads to an accu-

SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 549


mulation of tolerances that are difficult to tackle and
avoid during the assembly phase. The assembly pro-
cess also presents some logistical difficulties as it is
necessary to sort all the pieces and find their respec-
tive locations on the construction site.
The aim of this research is to create a self-
supporting structure that is not given and further dis-
cretized for fabrication purposes but generated from
the material behavior which is modulated by exter-
nal constraints and forces applied iteratively on the
inflated membrane. Those local stiffening and mod-
ulations would participate in the intricacy of the final
design that would allow creases and wrinkles.
Contrary to established methods where a given
form is meant to be perfectly approximated (Ant
Farm 1971), those local deformations are not seen as
negative outputs but as positive ones, as they fully
participate in the formation process (Menges 2010).
The form would be modulated and generated until
it finds an equilibrium state between design targets
(set by the user at the beginning of the process) and
structural requirements and performances. We can
speak here of a "steering of form" (Kilian 2014), a con-
cept introduced recently that argues for digital simu-
550 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1
Figure 1
A traditional
post-rationalization
of a free-form
inflatable
membrane (left) is
replaced by a
cyber-physical
environment
(right).
lations to fulfill contradictory purposes. The "steering
of form" is mostly used in a digital context. The pre-
sented research tries to translate it at full scale in a
cyber-physical environment (Figure 1 - right), where
physical matter and digital analysis interact together
until the inflated membrane satisfies both structural
and spatial conditions.
A cyber-physical setup
To achieve the stated purpose, the global setup (Fig-
ure 2) consists of:
• An extensible membrane (e.g. latex) clamped
to a steel frame (1x1 meter) that is fixed on a
vertical turntable KPF1-V500.
• An external 6-axis industrial robot arm KUKA
KR 125/2 equipped with a carbon fiber ex-
truder as an end-effector that helps to modify
the stiffness of the inflated membrane.
• A scanning device (Microsoft Kinect V1)
mounted near the rotating table that will
record and analyze in the current shape
adopted by the membrane.
• An air compressor (connected to the steel
Figure 2
The global setup for
further digital
fabrication and
actuation of the
inflated membrane.

frame) that can be controlled digitally from a the fibers in tension.

user interface.
• A user interface developed within the
Grasshopper plug-in for Rhinoceros 3D - com-
puter graphics and computer-aided design
(CAD) application software - that integrates
both the simulation and generation of robotic
paths, scanned data coming from the Kinect
sensor and structural analysis performed by
the Grasshopper add-in Karamba3d.
Iteratively, the membrane is inflated. Each itera-
tion is followed by a local stiffening and reinforce-
ment achieved through the placement of carbon
fiber threads helped by the robot arm and its end-
effector. The latter is composed by a spool and two
hooks mounted on a steel bracket that helps to keep
During the time of reinforcement, the setup ro-
tates according to the robot movement in order to lay
a carbon fiber thread along a path created between
two hooking points placed along the steel frame (Fig-
ure 5). This particular method has been adapted from
the fabrication process of the structural components
of the ICD/ITKE Research Pavilion 2013-14 (Dörstel-
mann et al. 2014).
Once the current shape is entirely reconstructed
by the external scanning device (using the com-
mercial software ReconstructMe and its Software
Development Kit (SDK)) and further digitally post-
processed, it is possible to run a structural analysis,
which considers the physical scanned membrane in
its final state as a self-supporting shell structure. It
is important to mention that during the fabrication

SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 551

 Figure 3
Comparison
between the digital
simulations (left)
and the material
experiments (right).

the membrane surface is under tension - the inverse 1964) and the Binishells (Bini 1978) were the first pro-
structural state of the final shell. If it fulfills both totypes that used shotcrete techniques for convert-
structural performance and design targets asked by ing tension based inflatable structures into compres-
the user, the process stops. If not, a new reinforce- sion based thin-shells.
ment path is created and a new specific pressure is re-
leased. This form generation process continues until MATERIAL EXPERIMENTS AND DIGITAL
all the conditions (spatial and structural) are fulfilled
SIMULATIONS
(Figure 7).
In order to calibrate the system, both digital simula-
Once the form generation process stops, the
tions and physical experiments have been made.
rigidification process starts. The latter consists of
Initial physical experiments (Figure 3 - right)
spraying chopped glass and/or carbon fibers impreg-
only involved material investigations which aimed to
nated with resin on the final physical shape. In the
prove the ability of the latex to shape itself under pre-
context of the present research, the spraying process
determined conditions (local stiffening) and to serve
has been achieved manually. However, the same
as a formwork during inflation. A small clamping de-
robot mounted with a different and suitable effec-
vice has been used to conduct those experiments
tor could realize the same operation. When the resin
(Figure 4).
dries, the inflated membrane starts working as a thin-
Parallel digital simulations (Figure 3 - left) proved
shell under compression.
the potential of representing precisely the behavior
Existing precedents already proved the ability of
of inflated latex membranes under predetermined
inflatable structures to work as compression shells af-
conditions. In order to achieve this, the Grasshopper
ter rigidification processes. The Bubble Houses (Neff
add-in Kangaroo (Piker 2013) has been used to set-

552 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1

Figure 4
Physical setup for
small scale
experiments.
up differentiated stiffening strategies. First, the de-
sired surface to inflate is discretized into a square grid
with each cell containing specific information related
to its local stiffening condition (Otto 1983). A stiffness
gradient is then applied through all the mesh and is
modulated with multiple attractor points. This same
gradient is partitioned through a K-Means clustering
algorithm which outputs data for further fabrication
strategy - in particular for the differentiated layering
technique (Figure 3).
In order to perform physical local stiffening, dif-
ferent methods have been used, such as:
• Spraying glue on top of the membrane.
• Differentiated layering technique (Figure 3).
The different layers have been glued together
using latex gel.
SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 553
• Laying tape locally on top of the membrane.
• Laying carbon fiber thread locally on top of
the membrane.
Laying carbon fiber threads directly on top of the
extensible membrane allows a direct, quick and very
efficient differentiation of the material compared to
the gluing processes that need long curing time in
order to reiterate the process. Also, the third option
caused a lot of problems related to the friction be-
tween the tape and the membrane, which often led
the latter to break. Thus, the last option - laying car-
bon fiber thread locally on top of the membrane -
showed the best potential to differentiate iteratively
and locally the extensible membrane. It has been
chosen and used in the following experiments (Fig-
ures 5-6).
 Figure 5
Carbon fibers are
robotically placed
on top of the
inflated extensible
membrane.

554 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1

Figure 6
Fabrication process
of the final
prototype (left) and
the corresponding
rigidified shell with
its scanned data
alignment (right).

Figure 7 3D SCANNING AND FEEDBACK LOOP

Flowchart From the initial experiments that investigated only
describing the material performances, new prototypes have been
overall form fabricated involving 3D scanning, incremental infla-
generation process. tion and robotically controlled stiffening processes
- without implementing any feedback strategy yet.
The step-by-step process unfolds as follows:

• First, an initial inflation activates and tensions

the membrane.
• Then, a predetermined path actuates and
modifies its current state.
• This path is reinforced until the membrane
fully stabilizes under the additional tension
exerted by the carbon fiber threads.
• The process presented here can be repeated
once again along another predetermined
path. During this process, the user could
choose when to increase the pressure and the
duration of inflation.

Further experiments have partially implemented the

feedback-loop strategy within the process. Before
starting the latter, the user can assign a design tar-
get in space (Figure 8) that the membrane needs to
reach in order to achieve the desired spatial require-
ment. After each iteration, the Kinect is automatically
triggered and the turn-table - on which the mem-
brane is standing - rotates 360 degrees. The shape
of the membrane is then digitally reconstructed and
the resulted mesh object can be used and controlled
against two parameters: the initial design target

SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 555

 and structural requirements (self-supporting struc-
ture under its own compression loads). If both are in
accordance with the expectations of the user and the
machine, the process stops. If not, it continues until
all conditions are fulfilled and the membrane finds its
equilibrium state.
Man-machine interaction
The role of the user is to guide the robot actions dur-
ing the fabrication process so the latter can achieve
the design intentions dictated by the former. A de-
cision made by the machine based on an external
signal coming from the scanned data generated by
the Kinect might be contradictory with the user's ex-
pectations. Therefore, the designer is able to inter-
vene in the form generation process and to overwrite
the next generated fiber path by an alternative action
(e.g. path correction or new pressure input). Thus,
the user is involved in the form generation process
where he negotiates directly with the machine each
action for further actuation (Negroponte 1969).
RESULTS
From the material experiments investigated in this re-
search, the option using carbon fiber threads showed
the best potential to iteratively differentiate locally
556 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1
the membrane (Figure 6). It has been used for the
next experiments involving 3D scanning and feed-
back strategies that enabled both the user and the
machine to reiterate the process after analysis.
From the different methods described above, it
has been possible to achieve successful prototypes
and a 1x1 meter rigidified thin shell initially con-
strained with carbon fiber threads (Figure 6 - right). Figure 8
These prototypes proved the feasibility of achieving The membrane is
self-supporting structures generated within a cyber- iteratively
physical environment through iterative stiffening, in- constrained in
flation and scanning processes. order to reach a
design target set by
Discussion the user at the
The complexity of physical post-processes in tradi- beginning of the
tional design methods for inflatable structures can process.
be replaced by a cyber-physical setup that enables
the user to iteratively interact and robotically modu-
late the physical membrane until it fulfills design and
structural requirements.
The feedback loop strategy explained in this pa-
per could be improved by letting the machine make
more autonomous decisions when scanning analysis,
fiber laying or inflation processes need to be oper-
ated. The user would still be able to monitor or mod-
ify the actions taken by the machine if the latter does
not operate as one would expect.
Outlook and architectural applications
The experiments featured in this paper do not scale
up beyond the boundary reach of the robot-arm.
One could solve this problem by using mini-robots or
even drones that would operate in a similar manner
(Figure 9). Successful architectural research projects
have shown potential for fabricating rope bridges us-
ing flying machines (Augugliaro et al. 2014). It is most
feasible than such techniques could be investigated
further in order to interact directly with dynamic ma-
terial behaviors and processes.
Another type of architectural application might
be component-based, where each module could be
fabricated within the design framework described
above, before being aggregated together in order to
produce larger spatial structures.
Figure 9
Expanding the
cyber-physical
setup described in
this paper by using
drones in the form
generation process
of an inflatable
structure.

CONCLUSION
This paper presented the potential for an au-
tonomous cyber-physical fabrication setup that can
generate differentiated pneumatic membranes and
analyze it during the process until the physical shape
satisfies both design and structural conditions. The
membrane is further rigidified and finally acts as a
thin-shell structure.
Acknowledgement
This paper presented the research development of
a master thesis project realized within the Integra-
tive Technologies and Architectural Design Research
(ITECH) master program at the University of Stuttgart.
REFERENCES
Augugliaro, FA, Lupashin, SL, Hamer, MH, Male, CM,
Henn, MH, Mueller, MWM, Willmann, JSW, Gramazio,
FG, Kohler, MK and Andrea, RA 2014, 'The Flight As-
sembled Architecture Installation: Cooperative con-
struction with flying machines', IEEE Control Systems
Magazine, 34(4), pp. 46-64
Bini, DB and Morelli, GM 1978 'Cassaforme Pneumatiche
per la Costruzione di Cupole in Cemento Armato',
L'Industria Italiana del Cemento. Anno XLVIII, Giugno
1978
Dörstelmann, MD, Parascho, SP, Prado, MP, Achim
Menges, AM and Jan Knippers, JK 2014 'Integrative
computational design methodologies for modular
architectural fiber composite morphologies', Pro-
ceedings of ACADIA 2014 Design Agency
Ant Farm, AF 1971, Inflatocookbook, Ant Farm, Sausalito

SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 557

 Kilian, AK 2014, 'Steering of form', in Adriaensses, SA,
Block, PB, Veenendaal, DV and Williams, CW (eds)
2014, Shell Structures for Architecture, Form Finding
and Optimization, Routledge
Menges, AM 2010, 'Form Generation and Materialization
at the Transition from Computer-aided to Compu-
tational Design', DETAIL, Review of Architecture and
Construction Details, 4, pp. 330-335
Menges, AM 2015, 'The New Cyber-Physical Making in
Architecture, Computational Construction', Architec-
tural Design, 85(5), pp. 28-33
Neff, WN 1964, Architecture of Southern California: A Se-
lection of Photographs, Plans, and Scale Details from
the Work of Wallace Neff, Rand McNally, Skokie, Illi-
nois, United States
Negroponte, NN 1969, 'Toward a Theory of Architecture
Machines', Journal of Architectural Education (1947-
1974), 23, pp. 9-12
Otto, FO 1979, Growing and Dividing Pneus, Institut für
leichte Flächentragwerke (IL), Stuttgart
Otto, FO 1983, Air Hall Handbook, Institut für leichte
Flächentragwerke, Universität Stuttgart
Piker, DP 2013, 'Kangaroo: Form finding with computa-
tional physics', Architectural Design, 83, pp. 136-137

558 | eCAADe 34 - SMART AND RESPONSIVE DESIGN - Volume 1

MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts
Model Translations
Studies of translations between physical and digital architectural models

Ashish Mohite1 , Toni Kotnik2

1,2
Aalto University
1,2
{ashish.mohite|toni.kotnik}@aalto.fi

With the rise of the digital in architecture and the availability of digital
fabrication tools, the interest in the material aspect of the model has intensified.
At the same time, the design space for exploration of material behavior and its
design potential has been extended from the physical into the digital. This has
resulted in a cyclic set of translations from the physical realm into the digital by
means of mathematical descriptions and back from the digital realm into the
physical by means of digitally controlled fabrication processes. Despite the
availability of more and more computational power and improvement of precision
in simulation, these translations from the physical into the digital and vice versa
can never be exact (Eco 2006), the translations from the physical model into a
digital model and from the digital into the physical are "spaces of instability"
(Evans 2000). The current paper explores in more detail this space of instability
between physical and digital models, its potential for architectural design, and the
central role of the mathematical description in this reciprocal set of translations.

Keywords: Architectural model, simulation, digital fabrication, material

computation, material behavior

Cardboard physical model turns into a digital mesh or
a NURBS surface that is then 3D printed in a myriad of
plastic filaments, stuck together or formed out of liq-
uid resin, which is exposed to UV light in order to so-
lidify. And finally the building is built out of concrete
and steel. The translation from physical to digital to
process to actual edifice means placing avatars of the
same model in different domains. Inevitably discrep-
ancies arise. It occurs due to a variety of factors such
as physical conditions and requirements of the space
in which model is situated, or intended to be situated
as well as material and its properties, actual and sim-
ulated. The way a model behaves and interacts with
the world, its geometry and structure, its physicality
is continuously augmented by the necessary adapta-
tions of the 'same' characteristics to different realms.
Models are used to test concept, geometry,
structure, they do not merely represent what archi-
tecture could be or explain an idea or subjugate to
buildings as by-products (Abruzzo et al. 2007). They
are often instrumental and generative and contribute
enormously to the design process. So when a model
plays an active part, its materiality (chosen material,
its properties and effects as well as physical forces in-
fluencing model's behaviour) plays an active part too.
However, material qualities and their effects are often

MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 561

 an after-thought and are rarely a catalyst for geome-
try. According to Lars Spuybroek (2010) architectural
models are pure abstraction of forms, independent of
material notion. Nevertheless, in past years there has
been a rise of interest in architectural techniques and
production that focus on material performance. Ar-
chitectural discipline has once again started to form
a direct relationship with materials (Schröpfer 2011).
In both physical and digital models and their
translations into architectural scale there are inter-
ruptions in terms of proportions, structure, and for-
mal geometric performance. This paper seeks to find
out how material performance affects geometry and
structure and what is lost and gained in this process
of adaptation from physical understandings of mate-
rial properties to digital simulation and back to phys-
ical material geometry through digital fabrication.
Finding form and structure
"Whether labelled material form-finding, material
self-organisation or material computation, designers
such as Gaudi, Otto, Isler and others have developed
approaches that instrumentalised the complex re-
lationships between top-down (form) and bottom-
up (material properties) within the design process"
(Nicholas 2012).
Let us look at historical examples of the relation-
ship between a model, its materiality and ensuing
form and structure. For centuries builders used to
make material models to test structure and for form
finding. One of the central structural problems were
compression systems, such as arches. Before 18th
century they had to be developed through trial and
error of successive scale models. In the 18th cen-
tury due to the interest in this problem of mathe-
maticians, such as Leibnitz, the similarity of compres-
sion systems to tension systems became apparent.
That allowed to test arches through cable models.
The first such model was made by Giovanni Poleni in
1748 when he was asked to analyse the structural in-
tegrity of St.Peter's dome in Rome (Addis 2015). In
the 20th century Antonio Gaudi continued the work
with cable models, but approached it from a differ-
ent angle. He was finding form through material
562 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1
models, in his experiments the model's materiality in-
formed the form of the actual geometry. Gaudi, in
his quest to find the structural arch, made a model
out of hundreds of threads weighted with sandbags;
carefully choreographed interdependency between
weight, gravity, and tensile strength generated the
approximate form of arches of Sagrada Familia. How-
ever, actual buildings are constructed in completely
different materials, so, once the form was informed
by specific make-up of a specific material, the ini-
tial material was abandoned and it's qualities force-
fully imposed on a different one. Another problem
lies in that a chain model can perfectly account for a
multidimensional gravity field, but not for many lat-
eral forces that occur in any building. There is no
documented account of exact translation between
Gaudi's models and Sagrada Familia's actual geom-
etry, but it is rather safe to assume, that it was not a
direct and easy one. Frei Otto was also interested in
arriving at form through structural simulation mod-
els (Erdinger 2005). "Most of Otto´s analog machines
consist of materials that process forces by transfor-
mation, which is a special form of analog comput-
ing" (Spuybroek 2010). Otto, in his form finding exer-
cise of three-dimensional cancellous bone structure
and branching column systems, used a wool-water
technique. This involved using tension caused by
gravity between woollen threads, dipped in water.
In both cases the understanding of material prop-
erties leads to the development of form. In case of
Mannheim Multihalle, a wire mesh hanging model
was made for form-finding by Otto, whereas struc-
tural analysis models were developed separately by
engineers using different materials and techniques,
including a digital model. As final structure was
made out of wood, which changes its behaviour de-
pending on scale and exact composition, a linger-
ing doubt in Multihalle's stability remained until af-
ter it had been constructed. Engineers designed a
test that consisted of hanging multiple municipal
garbage bins, filled with water, onto the structure.
Multihalle bowed less than was expected and it is still
standing.
Model as driver for both geometry and structure can
be found in works of Heinz Isler and Sergio Musmeci.
Isler was the first one to build structures based on sus-
pension method, where forms for shells are found by
hanging and fixating cloth. During the early part of
his career, simulation programs capable of analyzing
his shells were not existent. Hence, he used physical
models to prove the structural robustness and stabil-
ity of his forms (Kotnik and Schwartz 2011). He first
built models for form-finding and then, several itera-
tions of the models were made to test lateral stresses,
and finally, the model that passed all his tests would
become a building. Musmeci´s work was a quest for
unity between structure and form, which led to im-
mense amount of experiments, designed to find an
integral structural form. His main focus was mould-
able concrete surface structures, he strived to test
plastic potential of concrete while minimising mate-
rial and optimising the form. His approach can be
summarized in his own words "the form is the un-
known, not the inner stresses" (Musmeci 1979). His
form-finding models were based on soap film be-
haviour and stretched textile membranes. In case of
Basento Bridge he built final physical model in con-
crete, one tenth the size of the actual bridge in order
to test his system in authentic material and at a rela-
tively close to final scale.
In terms of expansion of the space of an object,
once it starts manifesting in different media, the most
significant occurs when multiple factors come into
play. When a designer is concerned with creating a
structure that performs in a specific way in a specific
context, rigorous modelling, as in case of Musmeci,
is likely to achieve the goal without much significant
(for the goal) deviation between models and build-
ing. However, once the spectre of demands that a
building must fulfil grows, so does the deviation, re-
sulting in compromise and augmentation of initial
design. "It is extremely difficult to carry out architec-
tural design with the self-formation processes. The
experiment does indeed lead directly to the form,
which in itself has already passed through an opti-
mization model, but a design work can only be seen
with reference to the complexity of a building project
and to the way the building integrates into its sur-
roundings and into society" (Otto 1990).
The question of scale
Scalability of the structural performance still remains
a problem in both physical and digital models and
this can be attributed to the difficulty of scaling phys-
ical properties in and out. In pure analog models
the limitations of the techniques rarely have impli-
cation on the structural performance but can have
real implication on the proportions at architectural
scale. Historically, this problem of scaling was one of
the main obstacles in the activation of form for struc-
tural purposes. The results of experimental methods
of form-finding could not just simply be scaled up to
provide proof of structural soundness under various
load-conditions. And the underlying mathematical
description of the form often was to complex to be
handled by hand-calculation (Billington 1980). It was
this situation that in the 1930s motivated the found-
ing of institutes with research focused on the ques-
tion of scalability of structural behavior from model
scale to building scale like for example the Instituto
Técnico de la Construcción y Edificación in Madrid by
Eduardo Torroja in 1934 or the the Model and Con-
struction Testing Laboratory by Arturo Danusso at
the Politecnico di Milano in 1935, a lab that worked
in close collaboration with Pier Luigi Nervi (Olom and
Chiorino 2010). In the same way, Frei Otto's famous
Institut für leichte Flächentragwerke at the Univer-
sity of Stuttgart was not only exploring self-forming
processes in material systems but also developing ex-
pertise in scaling up of the observed phenomena to
building scale. An expertise that was crucial in the
realization of the roof of the Olympic Stadium in Mu-
nich in 1971. This project is one of the last that de-
pended still to a large extent on the use of physical
models for the validation of the structural behavior
of the roof. In the 1970s, more and more computa-
tional methods took over the task of structural vali-
dation and replaced the labor-intense use of physical
scale models.
MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 563
 Nowadays, when digital model is a dominant form
of modelling, the issues of scale have been some-
what alleviated due to the capacity of digital soft-
ware to imitate a multitude of parameters at a mul-
titude of scales simultaneously. Nevertheless, some-
times the simulation is limited or desired architec-
tural performance comes into conflict with structural
behaviour. Sometimes the geometry of a digital,
weightless model is forced onto reality.
(Figure 1) serves as an instance of that. The desire
to literally translate laser cut scale model into archi-
tectural dimensions resulted in the necessity of ad-
ditional load bearing structure underneath the sur-
face. In scale models the 3D surface was structural,
in blown-up version it is a skin. In case of (Figure
2), metal panes are a direct reproduction of surface
simulation in CAD model. This representation, when
translated into architectural scale, creates an exact
replica visually. In computer simulation, the pattern
was designed by algorithmic calculations to reduce
consumption of memory and time and had structural
implications, at architectural scale, it increases time
and consummation of material and has no real struc-
tural consequence. So, in terms of structural perfor-
mance and cost-efficiency it could be argued that the
translation from model to building resulted in a com-
promise. On the other hand, polygon modelling that
was used to create double curved surface allowed
for geometric precision due to variable size and den-
sity of panels based on surface curvature. As a re-
sult, Dongdaemun is architecturally an example of
gain, where digital modelling made possible the ex-
act form that designer envisioned.
Digital simulation and fabrication
The process of adaptation between the digital and
the physical has been a driver for development since
the Renaissance and the work of Galileo Galilei.
Driven by the idea of a mathematically ordered
world, Galilei replaced the qualitative explanation
for the necessity of a specific effect from a given
cause, which had been common until then, by the
quantitative ascertainment of the phenomenon. For
564 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1
Galilei, the essential characteristic of the mathemat-
ical description of natural phenomena is the reduc-
tion of the phenomenon to measurable sizes such
as lengths, surfaces, volumes, or temporal distances-
that is, the quantification of the phenomena (Kotnik
2011).
Figure 1
Construction
picture of Metro
Parasol [1], Jürgen
Mayer H, 2011.
Figure 2
Dongdaemun
design plaza [2],
Zaha Hadid
Architects, 2014.
By using this abstracting approach he was able to
express the assumed causality between cause and
effect in an idealized form by means of a mathe-
matical function. The logical combination of math-
ematical descriptions that had been inductively at-
tained allowed him, furthermore, to draw conclu-
sions and make prognoses about the more complex
inter-relationships in nature. What Galilei started to
establish is a process of simulation of reality by means
of a formal description that lies at the heart of our
contemporary ability to blur the digital and the phys-
ical (Lorenzo-Eiroa and Sprecher 2013).
 "The development of digital design is often pre-
sented as a threat to one of architecture's essen-
tial dimensions: the concrete aspects of construction
and building technologies, in a word, its materiality"
(Frampton 1995). In the past, computer-based de-
sign used to appear to neglect the materiality and its
relationship with architecture. Properties like gravity,
Figure 3
Remote material
deposition [3],
Gramazio Kohler
Research, 2014.
Figure 4
Remote material
deposition
installation
[4],Gramazio Kohler
Research, 2014.
active force, densities are immanent to materiality
of architecture, however, in the earlier days of dig-
ital design forms floated freely in the digital space,
without any constraint. The only limitations were
software capacities and imagination. In the current
age of digital design, forms can still float in the vir-
tual space, yet they are programmed to respond to
simulated constrains of gravity, weight, force, scale,
and material. By coming close to replicating the
real world constrains 3D software approaches the
ability to redefine materiality and not just imitate it.
The process of adaptation between digital and phys-
ical could be used to discover ingenious solutions
to geometric and structural problems. "Computer-
aided material production seems to abolish the dis-
tance between representation and materiality, pro-
vided that one defines materiality in other terms than
traditional tectonics" (Picon 2004).
Technological advances promise new horizons:
´digital fabrication allows to control manufacturing
through design data. Material is thus enriched by in-
formation; material becomes " informed" '(Gramazio
and Kohler 2008). If that is true, we should already
be able to design materials, to deconstruct their logic
and properties and then reconstruct them. It ap-
pears, looking at the work of Gramazio and Kohler
themselves that a different phenomenon could be
taking place. Namely, that information gets 'in-
formed' by material, its properties and behaviour af-
fect design process.
In (Figure 3) Gramazio and Kohler tried to inves-
tigate the translation between the digital simulation
and materiality by designing the path along which
foam material was projected from a distance. They
attained an architectural form out of this process, but
rigid properties of foam and its light weight were not
sufficiently affected by the force of projection. With
this experiment they interestingly take up the ini-
tial experiment of Galilei in which he deduced the
parabolic flight path of an object based on the de-
ductive interlocking of simple laws of motion. Galilei
used this example of the flight path to demonstrate
the power of his method and the superiority of the
mathematical description over reality. A superiority
which is questioned by the 'remote material deposi-
tion'.
In (Figure 4) they took the fabrication to ar-
chitectural scale, changed the material to claylike
slurry, added more gravity by increasing distance and
achieved a complex and dynamic deposited form.
Viscosity of claylike material played an important role
in the experiment. In both experiments the process
of amassing was judiciously designed and was in-
formed by two different materials, which then were
aggregated into two topologically adjacent, yet dif-
MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 565

ferent structures. The discrepancy came from mate-
rial properties. In order to achieve a comparable re-
sult with a different material they had to change the
parameters of system. While both models were geo-
metrically similar, architecturally they created a gra-
dient from an unstable, light, unitary structure to a
wall-like, heavy and stable formation.
Another example of utilising specific material
properties in conjunction with specific technique is
Monolithic process studies project by Andrew At-
wood. He worked with plastic deposition, which is
the most common technique in 3D printing. Some-
times during printing a glitch occurs and printer
pauses while plastic continues to pour out, thus cre-
ating thin strands stemming from the body of the
model. That imperfection produced fascinating ge-
ometry and motivated Atwood to try and replicate
it in a controlled manner. In his studies (Figure 5)
Atwood manipulated calibration of material control,
fabrication precision and process fidelity through a
formal technique of offsetting and material process
of layering of plastic filaments on top of each other
layer by layer. Atwood designed a custom simu-
lation engine for the purpose of modelling the ex-
periment. This simulation was able to predict the
material successes and failures within tolerances ac-
566 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1
Figure 5
Monolith, Andrew
Atwood, 2012.
ceptable in the framework. Glitches occurring in the
printing process were recorded, studied and brought
under control in order to replicate the desired ge-
ometry and be able to work with it further. In both
Gamazio's and Atwood's cases materials drove the
apparatus even though in one instance the objec-
tive was to automate building process and in an-
other it was a form-finding exercise and an attempt
to harness the unexpected by-product of rapid pro-
totyping. The difference between Gramazio's digital
model and both physical models is architecturally im-
mense even though all three of them perform exactly
the same function. Atwood's process focused on the
geometrical difference between initial digital model
and its erroneous 3D printed version, which became
the goal.
Experiments with materiality
According to Sanford Kwinter (1993), form is an in-
stance of structural stability in a system as it seeks
homeostasis, thus all form is the result of growth
and resistance, it is the convergence of material and
force. We set to explore the implications of materi-
ality on reciprocal translations from digital to phys-
ical. There is not a fully fledged hypothesis yet, as
experimentation is in early stages. What could po-
tentially be the focus is a technique, involving usage
 of performance logic of a specific material and trans-
fer of that logic onto another material. The tentative
objective of such material studies would be arriving
at a pattern of interdependence between materiality
and data(simulation) process. Each following exper-
iment operates at a small scale, with a yet unknown
potential at architectural scale. All experiments con-
sist of several stages: digital modelling, import of
the digital model into fabrication simulation, addi-
tive manufacturing. At each stage specific parame-
ters are changed in order to learn the interdependen-
cies. Specifically, the viscosity of the material, depo-
sition layer heights, speed of fabrication, the ratio of
bridge speed to print speed. Material employed is ce-
ramic and method of fabrication is layer deposition,
using a modified plastic printer as a universal paste
extruder. The first phase was to record the deviations
and try and discern the parameters and their combi-
nations that led to them. The second phase consisted
of reverse engineering the first phase and exaggerat-
ing the determining factors in order to confirm and
establish further the pattern of interdependency.
Figure 6
Viscosity, Ashish
Mohite.
As this research is just beginning, the set of experi-
ments is limited to studying the correlation between
geometry, a single material (ceramic) and a single
fabrication technique (paste extrusion). What they
show, however, is that there is a way to design a spe-
cific geometric effect by manipulating not the geom-
etry itself, but the parameters defining its translation
into physical domain. Such geometric articulation as
achieved in Speed of bridging (Figure 9) or Viscosity
(Figure 6) experiments is hard to model digitally and
even harder to control.
Analysis of Speed of bridging experiment led to
its reverse engineering (Figure10, Figure 11), which
shows the potential of control over such geome-
tries. The next phase of the project will be ad-
dressing the way materiality affects structural perfor-
mance of a model. Once both experiments geared
towards form-finding and the ones concentrating on
structure-finding are carried out and evaluated, we
intent to start applying the results to other materials
and processes.
Conclusion
This translation from digital simulation to digital fab-
rication simulation to digital fabrication and back will
be documented in diagrams, physical models, and
digitally fabricated models at various scales using an
array of materials. The essential goal is to study the
translational transformations in order to, on the one
hand, gain more control over material behavior and
conditions of the physical environment, and, on the
other hand, allow for materiality to exercise creative
influence on the design process. This dual action and
its consequences have the potential of being an aide
and a tool for designers. A final dissertation will orga-
nize and analyze the results of experiments and sim-
ulations and attempt to build a comprehensive ap-
paratus that will enable fluent translations between
various modelling realms and offer more control over
new design processes.
Instead of aiming for increasing complexity and
precision in the description of material behavior,
therefore, the topological nature of the relationship
between the digital and the physical could be used
to simplify the geometric description and reduce the
amount of information necessary for control. This pa-
per can be seen as a first attempt towards an under-
standing of the digital as a reduced set of essential in-
formation that is used to govern the design develop-
ment already at the conceptual level. Material is used
as an active agent that is not fully controlled but acti-
vated and is allowed to compute its position in space
through local interaction. Such diagrammatic use of
the digital could enhance design freedom and flexi-
bility.
MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 567
 Figure 7
Speed of
deposition, Ashish
Mohite.

Figure 8
Scale in fabrication
simulation, Ashish
Mohite.

568 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1

Figure 9
Speed of bridging,
Ashish Mohite.

Figure 10
Reverse engineered
geometry 01,
Ashish Mohite.

Figure 11
Reverse engineered
geometry 02,
Ashish Mohite.

MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 569

 REFERENCES ture by Materiality, Birkhäuser
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architecture, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 276.html
Garber, R 2014, BIM Design: Realising the Creative Poten-
tial of Building Information Modelling, Wiley
Gramazio, F and Kohler, M 2012, 'Digital materiality in ar-
chitecture', Space, 537, pp. 100-107
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possibility of the integration of the methodology of
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AK and Kirchengast, AL (eds) 2011, Experiments: Ar-
chitecture Between Sciences and the Arts, Jovis, pp.
24-53
Kotnik, T and Schwartz, J 2011, 'The Architecture of Heinz
Isler', Journal of the IASS, 51(3), pp. 185-190
Kwinter, S 1993, 'Landscape of Change:Boccioni´s ´Stati
dánimo´as General Theory of Models', Assemblage,
19, pp. 50-65
Lorenzo-Eiroa, P and Sprecher, A 2013, On the nature of
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Musmeci, S 1979, 'Le tensioni non sono incognite',
Parametro, 80, pp. 36-46
Niccholas, P (eds) 2012, Persistent modelling:Extending
the role of architectural representation, Routledge,
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Schröpfer, TH 2010, Material Design: Informing Architec-

570 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1

Knitflatable Architecture
Pneumatically Activated Preprogrammed Knitted Textiles

Yuliya Baranovskaya1 , Marshall Prado2 , Moritz Dörstelmann3 ,

Achim Menges4
1,2,3,4
Institute of Computational Design (ICD), University of Stuttgart
2,3,4
http://icd.uni-stuttgart.de
1
yuliya.baranovskaya.itech@gmail.com
2,3,4
{marshall.prado|moritz.doerstelmann|achim.menges}@icd.uni-stuttgart.de

Textiles are widely used in architecture for tensile structures, as they are
lightweight and can easily span large distances. These structures typically
require an external framework for a support. Inflatable structures are
self-supporting but are limited to relatively simple forms or require complex and
predetermined cut patterns. The development of an adaptive and programmable
textile system with an integrative method for pneumatic activation would create a
novel self-supporting structure with high degree of design and architectural
potential. This creates a highly integrative hybrid system where the generic
pneumatic membranes are constrained by the differentiated knitted textile skin
that is stretched in several directions under air pressure. This allows for an
innovative, lightweight, easily transportable design, where the preprogrammed
knitting pattern defines the structure, geometry and formation, activated under
pneumatic pressure.

Keywords: programming textiles, binary textiles, analogue computing, air

inflation, grading textile properties

INTRODUCTION ates the potential for manufacturing at an architec-

Textile sheet materials can be divided into two large
groups based on manufacturing processes. Either
they are made with a single filament of a continu-
ous length (e.g knitting) or with sets of filaments of a
limited length (e.g weaving) (Seiler-Baldinger 1979).
This research focuses on knitting techniques due to
the several key advantages. Zero waste fabrication
and re-usability of filament makes it sustainable tech-
nology, fiber can be extended infinitely, which cre-
tural scale. Current industrial knitting technologies
are programmable and provide a high level of con-
trol over the production.
Research in the field of knit-activated textiles
is rather extensive in fields other than architecture.
There are already some highly developed projects
which challenge the boundaries of knitting as a per-
formative smart technique. Nike Flyknit shoes are an
example of a knitting in a single continuous process

MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 571

 for commercial production. The differentiation of the
shoe textile is made according to the foot perfor-
mance during running: predefined areas of indura-
tions and elasticity as well as details for lace inser-
tion. The foot activates this textile to adapt and re-
spond in various performative ways. The seamless
nature of knitting technique resolves potential con-
nection complications in a smooth transition of a fil-
ament topology. Knitted textiles unlike solid materi-
als are capable of re-adjusting and stretching due to
the loop based structure, which has inherently high
tolerance for assembly. Earlier mentioned continu-
ity of the fabrication makes possible to produce el-
ements with the endless length and introduce knit-
ting on an architectural scale as shown in the instal-
lation commissioned by Nike Flyknit Collective (Sabin
2013) Textile Hybrid Tower by CITA (Thomsen 2015)
or KnitWit textile canopy build at EASA 2015 (Bara-
novskaya et al 2015). It is possible to control the ma-
terial property distribution through access to tech-
niques and digital technologies, even on the level of
domestic craft tools (Knitectonics 2013). Now the ar-
chitectural material becomes a library of storing data
and performing data (Thomsen 2016). Continuously
developing textile producing machinery allows for
the manufacturing of highly performative materials
with the integration of various properties within one
piece. There is no longer any need to change ev-
ery component in order to achieve various perfor-
mances within the single system (Scott 2013). Hier-
archical relations within the systems are becoming
a solution for multi-performative hybrid structures
(Ahlquist and Menges 2013).
Inflatable architecture is known for its generous
scale to material proportion, as well as for deploya-
bility. However, in order to achieve architectural de-
signs, beyond that of simple typologies, a specific cut
pattern is required as well as an understanding of the
membrane material performance to accommodate
differential stresses which occur during inflation. In
contrast, knitted fabrics can be programmed to adapt
to a variety of geometric applications with heteroge-
neous material arrangement capable of dealing with
572 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1
differential forces, whilst allowing for a much higher
level of the surface differentiation (light transmitting,
texture, tactile experience). By understanding the
limitations of pneumatic and knitting systems and
combining the advantages of both, the new hybrid
system is introduced. In this scenario, the knitted ma-
terial is used in tension as a surface and shape defin-
ing structure, preprogrammed through the manufac-
turing process, and actuated by an aggregation of
generic pneumatics that are simultaneously inflated.
CONTINUOUS FILAMENT
Although there is a wide diversity of filament materi-
als with varying performative characteristics, the re-
search presented here focusses on the fiber arrange-
ment and distribution, rather than on its material
properties. The system could be framed within Mas-
ter Framework for Spatial Design (Vrouve 2015) as
surface-active structural system made out of material
of a the rod section profile (filament) with the biaxial
material orientation in the outer skin and amorphous
arrangement within the internal structure (latex ex-
pandable membranes). Containing knitted elements
are stitched together in order to accommodate mul-
tiple inflatable aggregates. Fiber properties are as-
sumed to be relatively non-elastic, and 100% poly-
acrilyc yarn is being used.
Figure 1
Inflatable units
non-restrained (A.),
restrained by solid
boundary (B.) and
by soft boundary
with differentiated
surface properties
(C.).
Figure 2
Abstraction of the
loop-based knitted
mesh into
quad-based mesh.
SOFT BOUNDARIES
Behavior of the individual inflatable unit under an air
pressure could be described as an external expan-
sion: latex material due to its isotropy and chemi-
cal structure stretches in outward direction as long
as there is air pressure applied and as long as mate-
rial has a capacity to stretch. When the same units
are placed together they share only one tangential
point of contact and under air inflation would expand
outwards becoming larger in volume and remaining
a single point of contact. When constrained within a
fixed or flexible boundary, the inflatable aggregates
behave differently. A solid boundary (e.g. rigid box)
will be directly affecting the balloons: they will take
a shape of a solid boundary and the expandability of
balloon is limited to the free space between the rigid
box and the inflatables. Shared contact area would
transform from a single point to a planar surface: bal-
loons will try to negotiate any free unexplored space
within the solid boundary. In the situation with a
soft boundary (e.g. textile membrane), the balloons
and the boundary skin are dynamically affecting each
other. The soft boundary with the differentiated sur-
face elasticity property would deform under the pres-
sure of expanding balloons and will change in dimen-
sions (Figure 1) and shape till the locking point of the
knit structure, which means that all loops reached
their final state of the structural extension. A flexi-
ble boundary provides more freedom for the inflata-
bles to rearrange in space and affect the global shape.
Both systems have an interdependent reciprocal re-
lationship and jointly determine global morphology.
The textile transitions from a flat fabric to a three di-
mensional volume, and balloons are constrained in
place rather than being dispersed.
FABRICATION
Physical prototyping was carried out with the com-
puter programmed domestic electronic knitting ma-
chine Brother KH 930. Internal floppy disc of the ma-
chine was exchanged with Arduino + AYAB Schield
[2], which allowed to gain a high level of control
over the fabrication and apply custom generated pat-
terns. The mentioned knitting machine is able to pro-
duce a canvas up to 200 stitches in width (100 ± 10
cm) and unlimited in length. Continuity of the pro-
cess is the way to an articulated linearity which intro-
duces a linear design element.
In order to establish a connection between the
user and machine, a graphic interface was utilized
and integrated into a digital workflow. The knit-
ting loop based mesh was abstracted into a quad-
mesh.Each quad was represented as a correspond-
ing pixel in a bitmap image (Figure 2). Each pixel
would carry an information about the location and
the position of the needle on the knitting bed during
MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 573

the process. The fabrication setup utilized two nee-
dle beds, which could be used to create a variety of
stitch configurationsand corresponding material be-
haviors. Though several techniques were explored
and show potentialfor architectural exploration, the
process explained in this paper utilizes this setup to
create variation in the stitch size. The pattern was
programmed as a binary message containing two
types of information - A andB. Stitch A, the white
pixel, is a standard knit stitch, while stitch B, the black
pixel, is structurally the same as stitch A (knit stitch)
but twice as large in dimensions. Those two would
become the main variables for the pattern genera-
tion. Combined together into a textile, the stitches
would create areas of expandable or constricted sur-
face (Figure 3).
574 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1
Figure 3
A. Binary syntax, B.
Abstracted stitch
bitmap, C. Resulting
knit fabric .
Figure 4
Comparison of
various knitted
surface porosities
and respective
curvature sequence
during inflation.
INITIAL PHYSICAL PROTOTYPING
The series of empirical tests were carried out to un-
derstand the relation between surface assigned knit-
ting patterns and the performance of the geometry
while inflated. The position and the ratio of the A
and B stitches in the pattern would create areas in the
inflated cushion that expand or keep initial stiffness.
Therefore, the inflated geometry would perform a
bending action under the expansion of the fabric ar-
eas formed out of B stitches. That means, that lin-
early distributed expandable pattern along the can-
vas will create linear expansion along the side of the
inflated fabrics, which will lead to the single plane
equal bending of the geometry. Respectively, the
more converging distribution of the B stitch pattern
would perform local sharper kink curvatures of the
geometry (Figure 4).
 The set up for the conducted initial physical exper-
iments contained a linear piece for testing that was
constructed out of a single knitted textile surface
with the differentiated density of stitches along the
central axis. The surface was folded and stitched into
the tube geometry that was filled with 8 inflatable
aggregates that were placed linearly inside the cush-
ion and inflated simultaneously. Changes in the be-
haviour of the knitted inflated element depend on
the porosity ratio of the knitted surface: 1:8 (less
amount of porous stitches) shows much smaller cur-
vature rather than the one with 1:4 ratio of surface
porosity (Figure 4). Promising results of the initial
physical experiment engaged to the further digital
explorations of the investigated material system.
COMPUTATIONAL MODELLING
With the purpose to control the resulting bending
curvature of the inflated hybrid geometry - a pattern
generator was developed and computational simula-
tion model. All the observations obtained in an initial
Figure 5
Bottom Up
approach in
representing hybrid
system: from
pattern to the
shape.
prototyping mode were integrated into a computa-
tional model development. It was taken into consid-
eration the following parameters such as the dimen-
sions of the tested elements and the location of ex-
pandable textile properties within the piece. In the
first set of digital exercises the aim was to represent
investigated material system properties digitally and
to achieve the similar behavior as was observed in
a physical experiments (Figure 4). This implied the
furling behaviour of the linear tubular element under
the air inflation force with the particular set of sur-
face properties conditions (Figure 5). The following
set of surface conditions could be described as a va-
riety of simple geometrical distributions of the A and
B stitch areas within a linear canvas: A - 0% porosity,
(420 A stitches), B - 8% porosity, (33 B stitches to 387
A stitches). C - 24% porosity (99 B 321 A), D - porosity
47% (198 B / 222 A), E - porosity 24% (102 B / 318 A), F
- porosity 47% (198 B / 222A), G - porosity 49% (204 B
/ 216 A) , H - porosity 36% (152 B / 268 A) , I - poros-
ity 56% (236 B 184 A). Interesting rules were drawn
from this digital exercise. The surface that was made
MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 575
 out of 100% stitches of same elasticity was not per-
forming any geometrical three dimensional furling.
The element remained straight. By gradually rais-
ing the percent of B stitches represented in the mid-
dle of the surface by black pixels, the entire element
started to perform planar bending in accordance to
the percent of present stitches B in the surface (Fig-
ure 5, A - D). Even though the mentioned examples
have an equal percentage of surface porosity (both
47%), the more condensed distribution of expand-
able stitches in example D, are resulting in more ex-
treme curtailing rather than in F, when A and B (dense
and porous stitches) are equally distributed stripes
along the surface. For stimulating the geometry to
bend off the plane the condensation of B stitches was
placed asymmetrically to the surface axis (Figure 5H).
The described digital experiment was conducted
in bottom up approach, where the user designs the
knitting pattern and utilizes computational tools for
simulating the emerging shape. In order to be able
to use the discovered material system and the pat-
tern related geometrical behaviors for the design, the
computational model was developed further to the
next step to be able to generate pixelated surface
576 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1
patterns from the target curvature of the geometry.
An alternative approach was also tested where the in-
put for the top down computational model was an
axial curve of the target geometry. The target is a
base element for tubular geometry to be built along
the curve axis. Depending on user input values for
dimension and resolution, the pipe is divided into
quad based mesh. All quads carry the same informa-
tion about a spring strength, length relaxation factor
etc, meaning no geometric bending would happen
during inflation. In the physical world this would be
a textile tube knitted out of only A stitches. In or-
der to bring in a surface differentiation of the tube
quad-base membrane - the target input curvature
was analyzed and based on resulting values the quad
mesh faces are extracted into a separated cluster of
B stitches. The computational simulation tool was
feed two data flows with two different setting for the
mesh, which results in a bending behavior of the sim-
ulated elements. After the geometry is simulated -
the unrolled 2D non-distorted bitmap pattern is gen-
erated and later saved as jpeg. file to be transferred to
the numerically controlled knitting machine for man-
ufacturing (Figure 6).
Figure 6
Top Down
approach in
representing hybrid
system: from target
curvature to 2D
pattern.
 Due to the programmability of the described knitting
technique fabrication details needed for the combi-
nation of the knitted textile and the pneumatic struc-
tural system could be integrated. Multiple openings
were introduced into the knitting pattern in order to
interface the pneumatic network (stitch C, single lace
opening, Figure 7). The computational model also
able to calculate the intersection of several elements
and creates a denser area (stitches A) where those
could be connected.
Figure 7
Details for
pneumatic network
integration, lace
openings, Stitch C.
Due to the complexity of the modeling process,
the inflation was simplified and represented digitally
as a single internal volume rather than set of indi-
vidual reconfigurable pneumatics. The simulation of
the pneumatic system assumes that the cushion is
air tight and inflated with the single air volume. As
the current stage of the research focused on the de-
velopment of the knitting processes, it was not im-
portant to refine the simulation of individual pneu-
matic elements inside of textile formwork. It is clearly
understandable that the digitally modeled and the
build environment on the current stage of the re-
search project remains uncallibrated. Nevertheless
the digital tool was precise enough to generate dig-
ital messages for communication with the domestic
knitting machine to be able to knit and build topo-
logically similar geometries.
After the pattern is generated, the machine is
ready to fabricate a custom differentiated textile sur-
face (Figure 11). When the textile is finished, a pneu-
matic network of tubing is inserted into the fabric for
simultaneous inflation and the cushion is sewn into
the enclosed volume with the pneumatic aggregates
embedded inside. When inflated, the flexible and
soft hybrid textile system transforms into the rigid 3D,
semi-transparent articulated geometry with the co-
herent differentiation between expanded reticulated
and the dense constricted surfaces (Figure 8).
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
For the proof of concept a 1:1 hybrid prototype was
built. It was constructed out of 3 linear elements that
formed three-dimensional arch-like structure. Each
element had a unique predefined pattern of the tex-
tile skin according to the target bending of the geom-
etry. Due to the width limitations of the machine and
the diameter of the pneumatic units, knit dimensions
were 147 stitches wide and up to 1500 stitches long.
Those knitted fabrics were shaped into enclosed lin-
ear cushions and inflated (Figure 10). Digitally pre-
programmed patterns proved their reliability. The
physical knitted modules of the prototype performed
a relatively precise three-dimensional bending com-
paring to the computational simulations. The abil-
ity to differentiate shapes and reach a precise level
of surface property control leads us to new stan-
dards of production. Two-dimensional, computer
controlled fabrication allows to produce large three-
dimensional pieces. The design target user input al-
lows for the direct calculation of the code data for the
machine and to be ready to start fabrication immedi-
ately. The high level of surface articulation admits the
control of the global geometry's behavior while in-
flated, as well as the surface articulation for the trans-
parency and the light transmission. The highly intri-
cate nature of the knit could contribute to design so-
lutions for lightweight architecture.
The flexible yet tensile nature of the knitted fab-
rics in combination with pneumatics has a high ar-
chitectural potential. Both materials can easily be
folded and packed into a small volume and trans-
ported, which is a great advantage for a temporary
or deployable structure. Flexibility and the conti-
MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 577
 Figure 8
Physical
experimentation
with distribution of
expandable and
tight stitches in the
knit surface.

Figure 9
Design of 1:1 scale
prototype. A.
Perspective. B.Top.
C. Unrolled 2D pixel
map for fabrication.

578 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1

Figure 10
Above: 1:1 Scale
prototype (Photo: Y
Baranovskaya.
Model: O Kalina) .

Figure 11
1:1 Scale fabricated
textiles.

MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 579

 nuity of the filament flow allows to merge elements
with the single fiber. This opens up opportuni-
ties to use the system for compliant kinematic de-
signs, where usually a sophisticated joint system is re-
quired. The synthesis of the air and a textile filament
is a combination of materials, with the zero waste fab-
rication logic, which makes it very sustainable.
The programmability of knitted textiles makes it
a promising technique for fabricating differentiated
surfaces that perform various property of a shape
generation under the external/internal force applica-
tion. A traditional technique for making textiles that
is accompanied with evolved modern tools could be
another alternative for moldless production: 2D pro-
duced differentiated textile membrane activated by
expandable latex sheet under air pressure will be a
good reusable formwork for light weight composite
material. This could also further be used to reinforced
the air supported knit structure into a self-supporting
fibrous structure.
However the fabric structures are more suitable
for flexible temporary architecture solutions, there is
a possibility to transform them into permanent by
stiffening them. Impregnation the yarn with epoxy
polymer would solidify a knitted mesh into a rigid
surface. A better structural performance would be
achieved if continuous non-knitted roving are inter-
woven into the knit mesh in the direction of the load.
Further investigations on the following topic can
focus on the more integrated interrelation between
inflatable aggregates and textile in digital and phys-
ical environment. Digital environment could be im-
proved drastically by introducing a separate layer
for simulation the individual inflatable aggregates
within the flexible membrane. The process from
3D membrane patch to the unrolled flattened stage
could correlate with the more specific membrane
properties such as strain deformation factor in course
and wales direction which will imply the distortion of
the pixelated image in according to those. The con-
cept of using aggregates within textile cushion could
lead to deeper investigations on aggregate shape de-
velopment and activation, as well as introduce a mul-
580 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1
tiple stage activation for more dynamic architectures.
REFERENCES
Ahlquist, S and Menges, A 2013 'Frameworks for Com-
putational Design of Textile: Micro-Architectures
and Material Behavior in Forming Complex Force-
Aactive Structures', ACADIA 2013, Cambridge, On-
tario, Canada, University of Waterloo, University at
Buffalo, SUNY, University of Nottingham, pp. 281-
291
Chaturvedi, S, Colmenares, E and Mundim, TS 2011
'Knitectonics', Proceedings ACADIA 2011, Cal-
gary,Canada, The University of Calgary, pp. 186-195
Sabin, JE 2013 'myThread Pavilion: Generative Fabrica-
tion in Knitting Processes', ACADIA 2013, Cambridge,
Ontario, Canada, University of Waterloo, University
at Buffalo, SUNY, University of Nottingham, pp. 347-
354
Scott, J 2013 'Hierarchy in Knitted Forms: Environmen-
tally Responsive Textiles for Architecture', ACADIA
2013, Cambridge, Ontario, Canada, University of Wa-
terloo, University at Buffalo, SUNY, University of Not-
tingham, pp. 361-366
Seiler-Baldinger, AM 1979, Textile: A Classification of Tech-
niques, Crawford House Press
Thomsen, MR, Tamke, M, Gengnagel, C, Faircloth, B and
Scheuer, F (eds) 2015, Modelling Behaviour, Springer
International Publishing, Switzerland
Vrouwe, I and Pak, B 2015 'Framing Parametric and Gen-
erative Structures: A Novel Framework for Analysis
and Education', eCAADE 32 2015, Vienna, Austria / Vi-
enna University of Technology, pp. 365-371
[1] http://www.nike.com/us/en_us/c/innovation/flykn
it
[2] http://ayab-knitting.com/
Natural Complexity
Embedded Fabric Materiality in Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Fabrication

Arielle Blonder1 , Yasha Jacob Grobman2

1,2
Technion Institute of Technology
1
arielleb@tx.technion.ac.il 2 yasha@technion.ac.il

Fibre composites are synthetic in their composition, but structured similarly to

biological materials, as fibre and matrix. While the fibre constituent in
Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) is mostly used under the form of fabrics, its
standard fabrication processes do not rely on its inherent textile attributes.
Embedding the fabric qualities in the fabrication of architectural FRP can
potentially introduce concepts and properties of biological materials into
engineered fibre composites; it can promote and enable the generation of an
architectural complexity of a biological nature. The paper presents Fabric
Materiality as a framework for a new design and fabrication process and
demonstrates through a case study its integration in the fabrication of
architectural FRP elements to achieve a complex structure with bio-inspired
properties.

Keywords: Textile, Materiality, Self-organisation, Resilience, Composites, FRP

INTRODUCTION (Satterfield and Weinstock 2015). Within the archi-

Man has always been impressed and amazed by na-
ture's beauty and complexity. Advances of technolo-
gies, sciences and theoretical paradigms, along with
the increasing fragility of our ecosystem, have trans-
formed our attitude to nature in the past decades.
From astonishment and inspiration we have shifted
to the sophisticated study of complex natural sys-
tems, under the general approach of Biomimet-
ics (Mazzoleni and Price 2013), and the blurring of
boundaries between the synthetic and the natural, in
practices such as Bio-design. In both academia and
practice and across disciplines, from material science
to architecture, spreads the conviction that nature
holds a simple answer to complex issues and holds
the keys for advancement of technology and design
tectural discourse, the natural interrelation of matter,
form and performance sets the ground complex sys-
tems of material and form (Hensel et al. 2010).
The paper presents the results of a research that
develops alternative approach to architectural FRP. It
presents Fabric Materiality as a framework for a new
design and fabrication process that introduces con-
cepts and properties of biological materials into en-
gineered fibre composites, enhancing the material's
natural capacities to generate complexity.
The following paper starts with the definition of
the concept of Fabric Materiality, with its three main
characteristics of fabric manipulation, self- organisa-
tion and resilience. It then follows with the case study
of The LifeObject, demonstrating the integration of

MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 581

 Fabric Materiality in the design and fabrication pro- performance materials, the use of FRP has spread ex-
cess of a FRP installation structure, through the three tensively over the past decades to almost every in-
characteristics, achieving material and formal com- dustrial field, from aeronautics to automotive, naval,
plexity. infrastructure and design. In architecture, there is a
renewed interest in the material in recent years, in-
NATURALLY COMPLEX fluenced by the introduction of digital tools for de-
sign and fabrication and by the quest for complex
Naturally Complex Material
free-form morphologies (Kolarevic 2005) . Biological
The inconceivable variety and complexity of natu-
paradigms and characteristics of natural systems can
ral living forms, shapes and structures is actually
be of high relevance in the design and engineering of
the product of several low-atomic building blocks;
architectural FRP, and can be relatively easily applied
the constituents of biological materials are very few,
(Knippers and Speck 2012).
mostly combined as composite fibre structures (Chen
et al. 2012). Only four main fibrous structural mate-
rials constitute the core of living materials: cellulose
Naturally Complex Form
On-going developments in technologies of visuali-
for plants, collagen for animals, chitin for insects and
sation and parametric design tools in the past two
crustaceans and fibroin silks. With a material den-
decades have fuelled a strong drive for the gen-
sity and relative stiffness that is typically much lower
eration of complex surfaces of free-form nature.
than engineered materials, their structural capacity
The challenge in bringing virtual complex-curved
is achieved by their geometrical and hierarchical fi-
geometries into materialisation at the architectural
bre architecture. By different spatial arrangements,
scale is supplemented by the parallel architectural
elements of very different properties are constructed
practices aiming for variation, differentiation and or-
using the same fibre material; collagen composes the
namentation of the surface. Such tectonic aspira-
stiff bone as well as the flexible tendon and the soft
tions are somewhat difficult to achieve in a top-
blood vessel, in the form of a fibre composite material
down fabrication system, relying on sheet materials
(Hensel et al. 2010).
or moulds; on-going developments and research in
Fibre based composite materials have been used
the field of full-scale 3D printing attest for this need
by man since antiquity, when wood and straw were
and interest. Tackling this issue from a different an-
coupled with mud, to produce the brick. From the
gle, bottom up processes of self-organisation allow
1950's and until today, advanced fibres such as glass,
for a complex outcome by simple means. In form-
carbon and aramid, are combined with polymers, to
finding design methods, either physical or digital,
make an extremely strong and lightweight material
form is not defined by the designer but rather gener-
commonly referred as composites, or FRP (fibre re-
ated by the definition of boundary conditions (Burry
inforced polymers). Structured by fibre and matrix,
1993); nature's patterns of tight relationship between
similarly to living materials, FRPs introduce biologi-
form, force and mass lead to optimisation and sta-
cally inspired design paradigms; like in nature, a wide
bility features. Controlling self-organising materials,
range of functional properties can be achieved by the
under tension or compression, can easily generate
careful design of the two components, varying spa-
forms of high complexity and intricacy.
tial and hierarchical organisation. It suggests engi-
Textile is a material system with a capacity for
neered continuous variation, local deposition of ma-
self-organisation in three-dimensional space; the
terial in accordance with structure and performance,
fibre-based structure of the material and its resilient
as opposed to conventional and uniform mechani-
character enables the generation of complex forms
cally engineered quality.
by simple means. The spatial arrangement of fibres
As part of the ever-increasing quest for high-

582 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1

by mechanical interlocking only allows for the dy-
namic reaction to extrinsic forces, such as gravity,
and to the induction of low-stress forces on the ma-
terial by its manipulation. Garment-making has de-
veloped, through millennia, the art of creating 3D
complex surfaces and volumes, by simple manipula-
tions and low-stresses through pattern-making and
needlework. Being an engineered fibre-based mate-
rial, its properties and behaviour are defined by its
fibre architecture; as in natural materials, variations
in fibre type, density or spatial configuration (such as
knit, weave, braid and more) define its performance.
Naturally Complex FRP
While the fibre constituent in FRP is mostly used un-
der the form of fabrics, its standard fabrication pro-
cesses do not rely on its inherent textile attributes.
Standard FRP fabrication processes press fabrics onto
rigid moulds, utilising the fabric's ability to adhere
to the given rigid form in an optimal way; mechan-
ical pressure over the mould overrules the fabric's re-
silient character and its capacity for self-organisation.
The resulting morphology reflects only this of the
rigid mould, with no presence of any typical textile
form (Mallick 2008).
While FRP is structured similarly to biological
composite materials, standard architectural FRP ap-
plications do not relate to biological design princi-
ples. Experimental research, mainly conducted by
ICD Stuttgart (Institute for Computational Design)
with the ITKE (Institute of Building Structures and
Structural Design), focuses on the integration of prin-
ciples of biological composites into the design and
fabrication of architectural FRP (Parascho et al. 2015).
This research tackles the material on the fibre level,
mainly dealing with direct robotic fibre placement
FABRIC MATERIALITY
The term of Fabric Materiality is coined to represent
the unique properties of textile materials and their
processing techniques, together with the inherent
design approaches these introduce. Treating mate-
riality as part of a larger design paradigm (Oxman
2012), Fabric Materiality is an approach to tightly re-
lated design and fabrication, originating from mate-
rial properties. In this research the general concept
of Fabric materiality is developed with regards to fi-
bre composites.
Three main characteristics of textiles were identi-
fied as defining the essential properties of Fabric Ma-
teriality: fabric manipulations, self-organisation and
resilience.
Fabric manipulation refers to the multitude of
parameters that affect the physical properties of the
fabric, from the fibre itself to its spatial structuring by
weaving, felting, knitting etc. Being and engineered
material, its build-up is controlled by a great number
of parameters; density, pattern, tension, fibre con-
struction and type of machinery are just a few exam-
ples of parameters that affect the characteristics and
behaviour of the resulting surface, enabling its ma-
nipulation.
Self organisation refers to manipulations on an
higher level of hierarchy, dealing with the fabric it-
self. It refers to the ability of fabrics to embrace com-
plex form as a result of their manipulation. The ability
to apply low-energy stresses upon fabrics and gener-
ate complex three-dimensional structures is a unique
property of the material, which has been the found-
ing principle of fashion along history. This ability to
easily manipulate the material, by needlework (Wolff
1996), heat and pressure (Wada et al. 2012) or by
pattern, is another level of the infinite variation of
forms in garment making. It relies on the capacity
of the material for self-organisation, the spontaneous
organisation in space as a three dimensional struc-
ture, as a result of the internal local interactions be-
tween the fibres, and the external forces applied on it.
This emergent behaviour of the material holds within
it the capacity for natural optimisation, relying on the
multitude of elements on the lower level of hierarchy
of the material, namely the fibres.
This multitude of simple and weak elements that
interact and construct a greater whole is a key factor
of the fabric's resilient properties. It gives the mate-
rial its flexibility and ability to recover to an initial or
MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 583
 improved state after an event of stress, demonstrat-
ing soft stability and robustness.
Fabric Materiality in FRP
Fabric Materiality could be embedded in the process
of fabrication of FRP, enhancing textile attributes and
biologically inspired design methods. Integrating
textile-related techniques of form-making and mate-
rial construction from the world of garment making
as well as from the architectural form finding disci-
pline suggests the freedom from moulds, and pro-
poses ways for local differentiation for performance,
optimization and ornamentation (Blonder and Grob-
man 2015). Relying on the natural properties of fi-
bre architecture, both at the material level and on
the structural level, enables simple the generation of
complexity.
Trying to embrace Fabric Materiality and take ad-
vantage of its unique qualities, potentially affects all
level of the process, from design to fabrication and
construction. When integrated, the characteristics of
fabric materiality are reflected in the resulting struc-
ture across levels, from its design to its performance
and structural behaviour. Embedding Fabric Materi-
ality in the fabrication and design process of archi-
tectural FRP to achieve a complex structure with bio-
logical attributes was the purpose of the case study,
demonstrated hereby through the three features of
Fabric Materiality.
LIFEOBJECT, A CASE STUDY
LifeObject is an architectural installation for the Is-
raeli pavilion of the Venice architectural biennale
2016 ; it serves as a case study for the demonstra-
tion of embedded Fabric Materiality in the fabrica-
tion and design process of FRP, and its ability to in-
herently enable complexity and variation of structure
and design, as a parallel to natural composite sys-
tems. "LifeObject" is a structure that originates from
the analysis of a bird's nest, aiming to transpose its re-
silient properties into an architectural installation. As
part of the overall biology-oriented design approach
to the structure, the choice of material was oriented
584 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1
towards one that is synthetic, yet follows that struc-
ture of biological materials, as fibre and matrix. Com-
posed out of over 1500 tubular elements, the tubu-
lar elements were made of fibre composites, embed-
ding Fabric Materiality in their fabrication and assem-
bly process, to enable the assimilation of biological
principles in the overall design. The focus of this pa-
per is on the fabrication process of the components
and the way by which it contributes to the resulting
structure.
Several quantitative and qualitative principles
were extracted from the nest, setting the require-
ments from the individual composite components.
The structure is composed out of a multitude of light
elements that are similar yet varied; the components
therefore should be light and their fabrication pro-
cess should afford easy variation. Moreover, differ-
entiation of the components should be obtained by
the variation of material properties. The overall form
is achieved by the combination of random elements
with no additional glue or joints, but by bending
forces; the components should therefore be flexible
to a point that enables bending while maintaining
some resistance that generates internal stresses. Fur-
thermore, details in the components should be inte-
gral to the fabrication process.
Embedding Fabric Materiality in the process en-
ables to meet the above-mentioned design and fabri-
cation requirements in a coherent way, which would
have been difficult or even impossible by traditional
fabrication processes of FRP. The basic process con-
sisted of the fabrication of fabric sleeves, their im-
pregnation with resin, curing in ambient tempera-
ture and short post-curing in low-temperature oven.
The following section will describe the imple-
mentation of the three key features of Fabric Mate-
riality in the case study: fabric manipulation, self-
organisation and resilience.
Fabric Manipulation
The components of the LifeObject were made as con-
tinuous sleeves of two types of fibres, fiberglass and
aramid. Knitting or braiding processes were chosen
Figure 1 for the material construction, according to the na-
Para-aramid sleeve ture of the fibres, their fibre breakage and internal
knit in circular structure (flat or twisted). Fibreglass' fibre breakage
knitting machine. is high and present difficulties for knitting. As fibre-
glass braided sleeves are readily available in the mar-
ket, these were used in different diameters and den-
sities. The para-aramid fibres are soft and can easily
be knit, with minimal adaptation of settings of the
knitting machine to the fibre's strength. Two grades
of fibres were knit, (3600Denier, 200Denier), both in
flat and circular knitting machines (Figure 1). Circu-
lar knitting machines are mainly used by the indus-
Figure 2 try for the fabrication of stockings and socks. Assur-
Variants in knitting ing speed of production and homogeneity of surface,
patterns, circular they are limited in their diameter and the grade of fi-
machine. bre they allow. It was therefore used for the lighter
fibre grade only.
Several knitting parameters were varied, affect-
ing the mechanical properties of the resulting fab-
ric sleeve and its behaviour under forming process.
Different knitting parameters were explored, in the
search for sleeves that would have homogenous sur-
face quality, the ability to deform and take shape un-
der minimal tension while holding in bending forces
Figure 3 without collapse. Major variations included fibre
Knitting variants, composition (fibre grade, number of filaments, ad-
formed and cured. dition of other fibres), number of needles, tension,
and knitting patterns (single, tuck and miss for the
flat machine, single, various ribs and piqués for the
circular). Out of the complex web of interrelated pa-
rameters, all affecting the final outcome, a few simple
examples can be given:
Additional Material. The addition of a different fibre
in the knit, such as nylon monofilament, transformed
the fabric to a thicker and more rigid one. While im-
proving significantly the performance of the lighter-
gage knit, the nylon filament introduced in the heav-
ier gage knitting made it harder for the sleeve to em-
brace form under tension, collapsing into a flat shape.
This option was therefore eventually discarded.

MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 585

 forces, with pattern lines acting as lines of reinforce- Figure 4
ment or as hinges. Some elements were designed Knitting patterns,
with alternating patterns within them, locally opti- input through the
mising to adhere to the forming elements (Figure 5). knitting machine's
Knitting technology allows for the simple varia- internal software.
tion of parameters within the continuous material, by
changing densities, patterns or even materials with
the addition of threads. It enables the easy genera-
tion of variation within the element, differentiating it
in shape and performance.

Figure 5
Changing pattern
within the element
for local
optimization.

Density. The amount of tension applied on the fab-

ric during its knitting process affects the density of
the resulting fabric. While a looser knit allows for
easier deformations and better embrace of the nat-
ural form, it encapsulates within it a lesser amount of
resin. While such a component might perform better
for forces applied on its axis, it is mechanically weaker
and will more rapidly collapse when bending forces
are applied. The knitting tension was defined opti-
mising both targets, in accordance with the knitting
pattern,
Knitting Pattern. The knitting pattern acts as inter-
nal material structure, affecting its overall mechanical
behaviour. Different knitting patterns were tested for
the circular machine, as variations of piqué and rib
structures by an alternating Lycra filament that was
introduced in the knit (Figure 2 and 3). Apart from the
aesthetic value of the pattern, it affected the stiffness
of the tube's wall and its behaviour under bending

586 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1

Figure 6 Self-Organisation
Resin impregnation. Biological material is synthesized with low-energy in-
vestment, and the generation of variations does not
require additional resources. As standard composite
fabrication process do not enable the easy variation
of form, requiring the costly changing of the mould,
Fabric Materiality was integrated in the forming pro-
cess, through self-organisation of the fabric material.
The knitted sleeves were impregnated with resin (Fig-
ure 6), and hung in tension for their curing, with no
moulds (Figure 7).
Simple means such sections of standard plumb-
ing tubes and rings were used as end-parts for the
tensioning of the component during curing, and to
create 'stoppers' along the tube, for the interlocking
of the components in the structural assembly. The
placement of the rings inside the sleeve and the ma-
nipulations on it (such as torsions, or the tension ap-
Figure 7 plied on the extremities) controlled the resulting el-
Forming by tension. ement in terms of overall shape and articulation of
details and stoppers, as boundary conditions. This,
in addition to the fabric manipulations mentioned
above, (such as density and pattern), together with
geometry parameters (sleeve diameter, length).
Using self-organisation as a fabrication process
enabled endless variations in length and placing of
stoppers within the elements, while keeping similar
characteristics of global appearance and behaviour
of elements. Similarly to biological material, a mini-
mal energy is invested in the generation of variants
(Figure 8). The resulting structure is comprised of
1500 varied elements that are extremely light and its
density is of 10kg/m3 only.

MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 587

 in The LifeObject both on the component level and Figure 8
on the level of the overall structure (Figure 9). Variation of
The internal knit and braided structure of the components.
components gives it its flexibility and strength while
being extremely light. The overall structure is also
the outcome of the interconnected components, rel-
atively weak by themselves, but globally stable and
strong as a whole. Relying on a multitude of weak
elements, which are of similar type but varied, the
structure demonstrates properties of resilience. It en-
ables local errors, withstands local failures without
global damage and springs back to a stable state af-
ter stress is applied. Self supportive and with no ad-
ditional joints or gluing agent, the structure can with-
stand several parallel lateral loads of 50 kgs.

Figure 9
LifeObject overall
structure.

Resilience
The resilient nature of fabrics is the combined prod-
uct of its internal material structure across levels of
Figure 10
material hierarchy and its material properties. At the
Finalised structure.
fabric level, the textile sleeve is composed out of a
Photo: Dacian
multitude of elements, the fibres, which are intercon-
Groza.
nected by friction in their spatial arrangement, while
maintaining some freedom and independent move-
ment. Going down in scale into the fibre itself, it is
also an assembly of filaments, interconnected by tor-
sion and friction while keeping relative freedom of
movement. At both levels, the single element - be
it the filament or the fibre - is light and weak, and
strength is achieved by multitude and spatial config-
uration. These principles of interconnected elements
with relative independence of freedom are reflected

588 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1

CONCLUSION
The term of Fabric materiality is coined to repre-
sent the unique properties of textile materials and
their processing techniques, together with the inher-
ent design approaches these introduce. It is char-
acterised by the capacity of the material system to
self organise, its ability to generate complex form
by low-energy manipulations, and its resilient prop-
erties. The notion of Fabric Materiality as a design
and fabrication process was tested in The LifeOb-
ject case study, demonstrating its ability to gener-
ate complex form and material, which are biologi-
cally inspired. Fabric is manipulated by the variation
of several knitting parameters, and form is achieved
by self-organisation on the component level. By
simple means, a high level of complexity and intri-
cacy is achieved, demonstrating biological proper-
ties. The manual fabrication of elements without
moulds together with their fabric manipulation en-
ables easy variation between the similar elements, in-
troducing singularity within the types. The naturally
optimised form with embedded stoppers, achieved
by self-organisation, generates differentiation within
the element. Being light, relatively weak and requir-
ing minimal fabrication efforts, the structure is com-
prised of a multitude of elements, based on a logic
of redundancy rather than optimised minimalism. It
achieves form and stability by its hierarchical material
construction, from the fibre to the overall structure.
Based on simple fabrication processes, an ex-
tremely light and stable structure is constructed.
Comprised of 1500 varied elements, its density is of
10kg/m3 only (lighter than feather). It is self support-
ive, with no additional glue or joints, and is capable
of withstanding several parallel lateral loads of 50kg.
Thanks to the inherent resemblances between
Fabric Materiality and characteristics of biological
materials, the integration of Fabric Materiality in the
fabrication process of FRP can lead to a material
and structural complexity of a biological nature. It
suggests an alternative to the standard architectural
means for achieving complexity, relying on material-
ity.
REFERENCES
Blonder, A and Grobman, YJ 2015, 'Design and fabrica-
tion with fibre-reinforced polymers in architecture:
a case for complex geometry', Architectural Science
Review, 59(14), pp. 257-268
Burry, M 1993, Expiatory Church of the Sagrada Família:
Antoni Gaudí, Phaidon Press, London
Chen, PY, McKittrick, J and Meyers, MA 2012, 'Biolog-
ical materials: Functional adaptations and bioin-
spired designs', Progress in Materials Science, 57(8),
pp. 1492-1704
Hensel, M, Menges, A and Weinstock, M 2010, Emer-
gent Technologies and Design: Towards a Biological
Paradigm for Architecture, Routledge
Knippers, J and Speck, T 2012, 'Design and construction
principles in nature and architecture', Bioinspiration
\& Biomimetics, 7(1), p. 015002
Kolarevic, B (eds) 2005, Architecture in the Digital Age: De-
sign and Manufacturing, Taylor \& Francis, New York
Mallick, PK 2008, Fiber-reinforced composites: materials,
manufacturing, and design, CRC Press, Boca Raton,
Fla
Mazzoleni, I 2013, Architecture Follows Nature-Biomimetic
Principles for Innovative Design, CRC Press, Boca Ra-
ton
Oxman, R 2012, 'Informed tectonics in material-based
design', Design Studies, 33(5), pp. 427-455
Parascho, S, Knippers, J, Dörstelmann, M, Prado, M and
Menges, A 2015, 'Modular Fibrous Morphologies:
Computational Design, Simulation and Fabrication
of Differentiated Fibre Composite Building Compo-
nents', in Block, P, Knippers, J, Mitra, NJ and Wang, W
(eds) 2015, Advances in Architectural Geometry 2014,
Springer International Publishing, pp. 29-45
Satterfield, B and Weinstock, M 2015, Hypernatural: Ar-
chitecture's New Relationship with Nature, Princeton
Architectural Press, New York, New York
Wada, YI, Rice, MK and Barton, J 2012, Shibori: The Inven-
tive Art of Japanese Shaped Resist Dyeing, Kodansha
America, Inc, New York
Wolff, C 1996, The Art of Manipulating Fabric, Krause Publ,
Radnor, Pa
MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 589
"Free Skin" Collaboration
Negotiating complex design criteria across different scales with an
interdisciplinary student team

Timo Carl1 , Frank Stepper2

1,2
University of Kassel
1
www.uni-kassel.de/fb06/fachgebiete/architektur/experimentelles-entwerfen-
und-konstruieren

1,2
{tcarl|stepper}@asl.uni-kassel.de

The complex nature of architecture requires often planning teams with specialists
from multiple disciplines. Architectural education however, addresses this
interdisciplinary modus operandi rarely. This paper presents the design and
production process of a real world solar façade installation realized at the
University of Kassel to illustrating the potentials of such an approach.
Interdisciplinary teamwork allowed students not only to solve complex problems,
but also to produce knowledge and to advance into design research. Student
exploration resulted in a unique fabrication technique, combining tensile fabric
and resin to facilitate the fabrication of multifunctional, monocoque shells;
combining all necessary technical components in a single building element. This
paper discusses the success of student collaboration and teaching strategies for
key parts of the design process at different scales. Moreover, it highlights the
importance of physical form-finding models and an analogue - digital workflow
for collaborative communication. The Free Skin project offers both insight into
applied use of interdisciplinary teamwork, and a proposal for incorporating such
collaboration into architectural education.

Keywords: interdisciplinary collaboration, design-build, form-finding, reactive

design, shell structures

ENGAGING COMPLEXITY ments concerning material, structure, design, and

Complexity is defined as "[...] the state of being function are all part of a coherent concept. An en-
formed of many parts" (Oxford Advanced Learner's deavor which often cannot be solved by one disci-
Dictionary 2016). Architectural design is by defini- pline alone anymore, but involves inter-, multi-, trans-
tion a complex subject matter as multiple require- , or anti-disciplinary (i.e. designers and scientists)

MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 591

 teams. The "comprehensive" nature of architecture
requires in practice often planning teams, which con-
sist of multiple specialists. The New European Central
Bank project by Coop-Himmelb(l)au for instance in-
cluded about 40 different planning disciplines, all co-
ordinated by the architects (Mönninger 2010). Multi-
disciplinary work among professionals is the modus
operandi in practice. In the educational context how-
ever, neither multidisciplinary teamwork (collabora-
tion among disciplines) nor collaboration between
disciplines (interdisciplinary work) are yet widely
spread. Therefore, the authors present their investi-
gations into collaborative work to promote a poten-
tial framework for interdisciplinary teams in the ed-
ucational context. Due to its innovative nature and
the integration of science and art concepts, the com-
plexity of this project was rather high. Collaboration
was the key for successfully realization, as the integra-
tion of solar energy and reactive behavior required
new skills and methods in design. We argue in this
paper, that interdisciplinary design teams are more
successful in solving real-world and complex archi-
tectural problems, because "The integration of the spe-
cialist´s diversified approaches, methods and strategies
ideally enables a multifaceted view of a given problem
and therefore enhances the creative potentials of the
team members" (Sakatani 2005). This paper serves
to show that an inter-disciplinary team aided better-
informed design decision across different scales for
developing and indeed building this Free Skin instal-
lation. Furthermore, we discuss how students en-
gaged in experimentation and questioning of con-
temporary architecture as team and reflect on this
based on the design and fabrication process. We
emphasize the role of interdisciplinary teamwork as
a critical endeavor, not only to master complexity,
but also to stimulate novel inquiries into form and
structure: A construction method for double curved
composite shells, not yet widely explored was devel-
oped for this project. The students managed to in-
tegrate thereby multiple functional layers such as so-
lar cells, sensors and fiber optics into a single build-
ing component. Free Skin is part of an ongoing in-
592 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1
terdisciplinary research project at the Department of
Experimental Design and Construction at University
of Kassel, investigating architectural strategies for the
activation of urban spaces through sensor activated
real time interventions. For the design and fabrica-
tion of a functional real scale prototype, we are build-
ing upon experiences of the previously realized Ur-
ban Glow installation (Carl and Juric 2015). A research
class with senior undergrad students featuring mate-
rials and structures in architecture formed the frame-
work for design and production. The studio acted as
real world laboratory for design and experimentation
and the production of prototypes as testing ground
for interdisciplinary collaboration. The Free Skin stu-
dent team included architects, electrical engineers,
and an information scientist. The team exhibited a
functional demonstrator in an outdoor museum set-
ting. It is helpful to set the stage by outlining first the
project brief of the Free Skin project as a conceptually
open framework encouraging complexity and inter-
disciplinary teamwork. We will then discuss educa-
tional strategies and the influence of digital and ana-
logue tools for the creative process and team com-
munication. Finally, we reflect on the success of stu-
dent collaboration and evaluate teaching strategies
for key parts of the design process at different scales.
FREE SKIN
The pedagogical context focused not only on build-
ing performance issues, but rather on their relation to
theory, form, technology and build object. The aim
was to expand the skill-set of students while main-
taining the focus on design and built form. One
the one end the brief encouraged students to ex-
plore second-degree auxiliary structure as described
by Michael Hensel for their use as sun shading sys-
tems (Hensel 2013). Such systems can be retrofitted
to existing buildings and constitute a supplementary
layer of material systems (Hensel). On the other end,
second-degree auxiliary facades correspond to the
architectural idea of the Free Skin as postulated by
Silvia Lavin: "The idea of the Free Skin gives new in-
telligence, instrumentalities and plasticity to surfaces"
 (Lavin 2009). The performance of the realized instal-
lation unfolds during the day from the interplay of
the architectural structure with the dynamic effects
of light and shadow and at night from intricate mate-
rial effects and reactive behavior.
Figure 1
Showing material
effects for night and
daylight.
It is a free-form lightweight structure, reducing heat
loads for south facing facades by means of solar shad-
ing, while actively generating energy by implement-
ing solar cells. The generated energy was then used
to explore material effects by powering the imple-
mented High Power LEDs and fiber optic cables. The
brief of the Free Skin project was complex in its mul-
tiplicity of requirements but also conceptually open
enough to act as an excellent design objective, as
"Creativity can only occur when a task involves com-
plex and ill-defined problems that require the develop-
ment of novel and useful solutions" (Sakatani 2005).
We wanted to create a situation where interdisci-
plinary teamwork would assist students in exploring
the breadth of issues of such a Free Skin. To support
this, we made a deliberate decision to engage stu-
dents to use textile membranes for their design ex-
plorations. Thus, we could fall back on a rich body of
previous work and rely on freely accessible off-the-
shelf software. Moreover, textile membranes facili-
tated not only the production of complex geomet-
ric formations but their use resulted also from a de-
sire to explore material qualities and to exploit them
for their particular effects. Previous work such as the
Toroidal textile hybrid installation by Sean Ahlquist
(Ahlquist and Menges 2012) or the Entry Paradise
Pavilion by Lava (Lava 2007) demonstrate the po-
tential for geometric differentiation and the capac-
ity for color- and transparency modulation. However
both projects do not transgress a certain scale, are
designed for indoor use and do not embed multi-
ple functional layers in one component. Inspired by
Heinz Issler´s fabric formed ice sculptures, students
combined tensile membranes with glass fiber rein-
forced plastic (GFRP´s). By eliminating the need for
tension cables or anchoring, students also investi-
gated a material system, which facilitated the inte-
gration multiple components. Students used ten-
sioned membranes for form-finding strategies, but
also as textile formwork to unify solar cells and other
components into one multi-layer surface. Thus, the
fabrication process could be easily applied in an ed-
ucational context and individual free-form molds be-
came expandable, saving substantial resources and
money. The resulting GFRP shells are weatherproof,
resisting environmental forces of sun, wind and rain.
STRATEGIES OF REIFICATION
We as educators are interested in a design culture of
experimentation, investigating alternative notions of
form and space not only on paper, but also in real
scale. This emphasis on design led to a complex
project, making it necessary to expand the pool of
knowledge beyond computational tools, methods or
skill sets typically found in architectural design stu-
dios. The architecture studio is an environment of
synthetic activity, negotiation formal, aesthetic and
functional aspects of design. Technology and design
are in the Free Skin project inexorably linked. Our
goal was to help architecture students to focus more
on design potentials instead of struggling to mas-
ter technical necessities. However, collaboration al-
lowed not only for expanding the focus on function,
but also on design. By crossing disciplinary bound-
aries, an interdisciplinary team advances in other ar-
eas of knowledge and can make more informed de-
sign decisions. "The integration of the specialists' diver-
sified approaches, methods and strategies ideally en-
ables a multifaceted view of a given problem and there-
for enhances the creative potentials of the team mem-
bers" (Steinheider and Legrady 2004). An interdisci-
plinary Team can pick methods most suitable for de-
MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 593

sign, construction and fabrication processes. Specif-
ically for this reason, it was necessary to integrate
the other disciplines into the design process by en-
couraging interdisciplinary teamwork. For the suc-
cessful realization of this reactive installation, all team
members involved had to define problems, gather
information, and then progressively refine and ex-
tend their initial ideas towards successful implemen-
tation. "A multifaceted view is only possible, if there is
a shared understanding of the problem and the vari-
ous approaches to solve it" (Steinheider and Legrady).
Strategies and methods to support this process are
common in architectural practice, but not in edu-
cation. Therefore, it was necessary to develop a
common ground for communication and to define
tools and methods for the team. The psychologists
Brigitte Steinheider and George Legrady call this pro-
cess knowledge sharing: "Teams must develop con-
sensus about a project´s goals, have a clear under-
standing of team members´ diverse professional areas
of expertise and acquire a meta knowledge connecting
the areas of expertise" (Steinheider and Legrady).To
594 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1
Figure 2
Showing
form-finding
modells, GFRP
lamination tests
and construction
process.
achieve this goal the scope of the project had to be
well defined (project brief ); team setup had to allow
for cross- pollination of ideas (integration of engi-
neering students) ; representation and communica-
tion needed to be understandable for all team mem-
bers (physical models). As there were only two stu-
dents from electrical engineering participating in the
project, we formed three teams at the beginning of
the project. The teams consisted at first only of ar-
chitecture students and self-organized the division of
work with guidance form the instructors. The elec-
trical engineering students provided technical exper-
tise for the three teams, but conducted also their own
research into lighting options. They presented the
results at regular intervals to the teams, and started
to actively influence design decisions; the team owes
for instance the utilization of fiber optic cables to the
design interests of the electrical engineers. The me-
dia artist Olaf Val acted as adviser to pollinate the
teams during informal pinups with ideas for reactive
design options. All students participated in short in-
troductory workshops covering the basics for ana-
logue form-finding, solar analysis and optimization, Moreover, physical scale models were paramount for
spring particle system modelling, and introductory the success of collaborative work and played a key
programming for Arduino and Processing. Before stu- role for finding a common language for the different
dents moved to fabrication and production only one disciplines, as "prototypes [...] are the core means by
design option was chosen by the whole team for ex- which the designer builds the connection between fields
ecution. The two electrical engineers worked from of knowledge and progresses towards a product" (Stap-
then on in close collaboration with their peers to de- pers 2007). This interchange was critical in mastering
sign, build and fabricate the Free Skin installation. The not only the complexity of the task, but also for the
educators organized funding, overall organization, creative development of the project, and of a com-
schedules, company contacts for the project. mon team language. Students not only used proto-
types for testing technical feasibilities and design po-
MACRO SCALE: SIMPLICITY OF FORMA- tentials, but also as representational tools to convey
and to promote their ideas to the team members of
TION
the other disciplines. All students were able to collab-
During the first phase, the overall design ambition
orate closely across disciplinary boundaries through
was investigated by the use of analogue form-finding
the intuitive nature of physical models. Working with
strategies and through learning by doing, as not
physical models facilitated quick results and allowed
enough computational knowledge was available to
for rapid feedback, ensuring that all team members
the team in the beginning. Physical form-finding
could participate in the design decisions.
experiments have a long tradition in architecture
and engineering ranging from Gaudi´s invention of
an analogue computer for the design of the Colo-
nia Güell, to the scientific research of Frei Otto and
Heinz Issler. Especially Issler´s ice experiments pre-
cede several contemporary tendencies in architec-
tural discourse for the design of efficient and perfor-
mative architecture. Working with elastic textile ma-
terials students could generate minimal surfaces by
the simplicity of form finding. Based on the observa-
tions of the Belgian physicist Josef Plateu (1895) min-
imal surfaces fulfill the condition of a disappearing
mean curvature, which implies that in each point of
the area the sum of positive and negative curvature
is zero (Finsterwalder 2015). The resulting double
curved geometry stabilizes the membranes and fa-
vors a minimal use of material. Students experienced
an instant feedback of their design decisions by ob-
serving the interplay of tension forces, curvature and
boundary conditions. The material itself "computes"
form (Landa 2010). Pedagogically this is interesting,
because students not only learn to understand the
principles that generate form, but also to appreci-
ate architectural models as design method, which
places behavior over representation (Menges 2012).

MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 595

 tational setup. While spring particle systems, based Figure 3
upon the principles of Hooke´s law, simulate mem- Showing physical
brane behaviors, not all parameters of material stiff- models for
ness and plasticity do equate to real world param- investigating
eters. However, the results of the physical model material effects and
testing can be used to calibrate the correct material reactive behaviour.
settings, establishing a feedback loop between dig-
ital and analogue models. The digital model facil-
itated performative optimizations for solar shading,
programmatic distribution (amount of light required)
and social functions (views and privacy) and these
parameters became the drivers for the local differ-
entiation of the geometry. Linking the spring par-
ticle system with Autodesk Ecotect Analysis through
the Gecko plugin (Grabner and Frick 2013) the stu-
dents interactively manipulated the parameters of
the overall system with instant visual feedback for so-
lar optimization. This workflow supported collabora-
tive design decisions for calculate energy production
and for determining solar cells layouts and distribu-
tion. This workflow supported collaborative design
decisions for calculating energy production and for
determining solar cells layouts and distribution.

Figure 4
Showing visual
feedback analysis
for solar radiation.

MESO SCALE: COMPUTATIONAL DESIGN

AND LOOSE FIT
Analogue form-finding procedures facilitate struc-
tural formation and expedite design decisions re-
garding shape and material qualities like translu-
cency and interplay of light and shadow. Whereas a
computational approach is more useful for geomet-
ric optimization, the generation of multiple design
variations, and the production of fabrication data. As Students established a parametric framework for the
the team had no prior knowledge in simulation tools, design of the overall façade system, and had to
easily available visual algorithms such as Kangaroo3D solve the penalization of this tension active system
(Piker 2013) helped to transfer the underlying gener- (Menges 2012). Each tensile unit is thereby defined
ative principles of the analogue models to a compu- through a boundary frame. This frame could be eas-

596 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1

 ily adapted to specified design criteria and translated
into precise geometric entities for production. In
contrast to the linear components of the boundary-
frame, the minimal surface geometries of the mem-
branes could not be "unrolled" as they are double
curved and constructed of a pre-stressed material.
Nevertheless the tubular approach of the cell setup
facilitated a "loose fit" accurate enough for the defi-
nition of inner and outer radii for production. The pa-
rameters for this "loose fit" was determined through a
series of analogue scale models, carefully testing and
documenting the stretching behaviors for different
cut patterns and textiles.
Figure 5
Showing
Grasshopper
defintion defining
cell openings and
orientation.
The high degree of three-dimensionality in the mem-
brane design was deliberately designed to mini-
mize undesired wrinkling trough pre-stressed ten-
sion. The membrane, surfaces were then used as
molds for the glass fibers, fiber optics, solar cells,
sensors and other elements. With the application
of resin, the discrete components could be unified
into a single monocoque shell structure, combin-
ing tensile and compressive behaviors. The linear
components of the cell frame formed a bending ac-
tive boundary, gaining stiffness through the tension
forces of the elastic bi-axial fabric, similar to a spoke
wheel. This material efficient production process
could be easily applied in an educational context. We
as educators think, that it is important for students
to understand not only the benefits of digital design
tools, but also the limitations of available computa-
tional simulations. We encouraged students rather
to develop their own solutions, instead of learning
complex software. The team solved a number of
problems collaboratively by utilizing physical mod-
els. This included specific investigations for cable lay-
outs, integration of technical components into dou-
ble curved surface geometry, as well as the integra-
tion of reactive components like sensors and Arduino
boards. The use of new modelling and simulation
tools supported the overall workflow, but was not
paramount for the overall success of interdisciplinary
collaboration. Nevertheless, the Free Skin project de-
manded participation of an interdisciplinary team of
specialists to resolve investigations into reactive be-
havior at micro scale.
MICRO SCALE: CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
AND THE IMPORTANCE OF FAILURE
Constructions details as well as Arduino program-
ming, sensors and optical fibers were all tested in
real world settings. Team Size and increasing com-
plexity led to the development of sub teams solv-
ing problems in close collaboration. Students used,
for instance, different 3D printing techniques for cus-
tomized casings to integrate electrical components,
resulting in close cooperation between architects
and electrical engineers for design and fabrication.
This led to discussions for a particular design deci-
sion, for instance the integration of cables, involving
not only the technical material aspects of this, but
MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 597

also the phenomenological and conceptual implica-
tions as it applied to the overall project.
This dynamic served to demonstrate to students
that the actions of one discipline within the team af-
fected the actions of another as they coordinated the
production process and the integration of complex
building components. Students focused not only on
their respective field to solve problems, but collabo-
rated with other disciplines for design decisions and
defined goals together. At the core of the reactive
concept was the idea, that solar generated energy
could be stored during the day and then used to
generate intricate lighting effects. As the Free Skin
installation was part of an outdoor Museum event,
the team designed and programmed a slowly puls-
ing light effect, which spectators could influence by
varying their distance to the object. Most artists en-
gaging with reactive installations value Arduino for
its simple interface. However, the design decision
to use 36 RGBW LED´s required programming the
micro controllers in C language to compute signals
from the sensors and to handle the amount of out-
put data. This posed a problem for the electrical en-
gineering students, as the project was far more com-
plicated than their usual tasks and resulted in a new
598 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1
Figure 6
Left: showing
electrical
components and
customized casings,
Right: showing
material stress tests
and connecting
node details.
team member from the information science depart-
ment. As designers, we accept challenges without an
a priori solution and that it is the process of experi-
menting that generates knowledge and solves prob-
lems. Another important aspect of this approach is
to understand that "any investigation which attempts
to challenge conventional notions of architectural form
must also accept the importance of failure within the
process" (Enright 2009).
This is however fundamentally different than at-
tempting to teach technology through proven meth-
ods and presented especially for the engineering
students a new way of learning. In the course of
the project occurred several investigations, which
started as failure, including 3D printed construction
knots, solar cell configuration and weather proofing,
as well as electromagnetic sensor shielding. Never-
theless, most failures led eventually to novel knowl-
edge production within the team and constituted an
important learning model for all disciplines.
DISCUSSION
Students managed to establish an interdisciplinary
workflow across different scales and were able to ac-
tivate realms of learning beyond their usual com-
Figure 7
Detail of final 1:1
prototype showing
integration of light
fibers and electrical
components .
fort zones. The inherent complexity of the Free Skin
project was instrumental in challenging the students
to go beyond their knowledge of built form; ad-
vancing the skills of all participants. Categories typ-
ically associated with knowledge sharing resulted
from this collaborative teamwork, including shared
understanding of objectives and problems, shared
terminology, and adopting the other´s perspectives.
By hindsight, the schedule for the Free Skin installa-
tion was rather tight, as it was taught in a research
seminar setting over the course of two semesters.
This resulted for some team members committed to
other projects in a lack of time, as they did not re-
alize the complexity of integrating multiple require-
ments. Nevertheless, students were highly dedicated
and applied multiple methods for design and fabrica-
tion, including analogue form-finding experiments,
off-the-shelf software for spring particle system mod-
elling and solar optimization, physical computing
components to control interactive behavior and for
testing material effects on physical scale models.
Consequently, the team negotiated differences in
design cultures and knowledge through design ex-
perimentation and made informed design decisions,
solving complex problems. In the end, an interdisci-
plinary student team investigated a novel construc-
tion process, combining tensile structures and GFRPs;
though significant post-production in sewing, edge
detailing and assembly needs still to be optimized.
The Free Skin installation will be placed on the roof of
the department for Energy and Information Sciences
for further experimentation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project was made possible through the gen-
erous support of the CDW Foundation, the Pfeiffer
Foundation and 3M(TM). The seminar was co-taught
by Vanja Juric, who deserves equal credit for the
MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 599
 work achieved. Special thanks goes to Olaf Val who [1] http://www.l-a-v-a.net/projects/entry-paradise-
generously assisted the course, advising on reactive pavilion/
design strategies and to Line Umbach for her dedi- [2] http://www.cluster.eu/2010/10/08/materialism-fo
r-architects-a-conversation-with-manuel-delan
cation and endurance. We would like to thank all the
da/
students who participated in the Free Skin project
2015-2016 for their hard work: Line Umbach, Tim
Stöhr, Eric Wiederhold, Lena Henriette Neuber, Anne
Liebringshausen, Oliver Raderschall, Philipp Kern,
Jonathan Schmidt, Christian Slama, Cagdas Alakus
Department of Experimental Design and Con-
struction (eek) - University of Kassel - www.uni-
kassel.de/fb06/fachgebiete/architektur/experimentelles-
entwerfen-und-konstruieren

REFERENCES
Ahlquist, S and Menges, A 2012, 'Physical Drivers: Syn-
thesis of Evolutionary Developments and Force
Driven Design', AD, 83(216), pp. 61-67
Carl, T and Juric, J 2015, 'Urban Glow- Interaktive Stad-
trauminterventionen', Archimaera, 6, pp. 135 -138
Enright, J 2009, 'Applications in Cross-Curriculum Teach-
ing The Synthesis of the Design Studio and Building
Technology Seminar', ARCC JOURNAL, 6(1), pp. 14 -
22
Grabner, T and Ursula, F 2013, 'Architectural Design
Through Environmental Feedback', Architectural De-
sign, 83(2), p. 142–143
Hensel, M 2013, 'Performance-Oriented Architecture: Re-
thinking Architectural Design and the Built Environ-
ment, Wiley, Chichester, UK
Lavin, S 2012, 'Performing the contemporary, or: to-
wards an ever newer architecture', in Grobman, Y
and Neuman, E (eds) 2012, Performalism. Form and
performance in digital architecture, Routledge, pp.
62 - 64
Menges, A and Ahlquist, S 2012, 'Physical Drivers: Syn-
thesis of Evolutionary Developments and Force
Driven Design', Architectural Design, 216, pp. 61-67
Mönninger, M (eds) 2010, Coop Himmelb(l)au Complete
Works 1968-2010, Taschen, Cologne
Sakatani, K 2004, 'Harmony Quest: An Interdisciplinary
Arts-based Project Incorporating Virtual Reality', Vi-
sual Arts Research, 31(1), p. 53–62
Steinheider, B and Legrady, G 2004, 'Interdsiciplinary
Collaboration in Digtial Media Arts: A Psychological
Perspective on the Production Process', Back Matter,
63(63), pp. 315 - 320

600 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Concepts - Volume 1

MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications
Bio-Enabled Façade Systems
Managing Complexity of Life through Emergent Technologies

Martina Decker1 , George Hahn2 , Libertad M. Harris3

1
College of Architecture and Design | New Jersey Institute of Technology 2 Department
of Computer Sciences | New Jersey Institute of Technology 3 School of Architecture
| New Jersey Institute of Technology
1
www.materialdynamicslab.com
1,3
{decker|lm229}@njit.edu 2 george@genericmaker.com

The abundance of vertical surfaces in urban environments and their use for green
installations have been of great interest in the architectural community. This
paper discusses how vertical gardens and urban farming can be spurred on and
enabled by two emerging fields of investigation: Material Science and the
Internet of Things (IoT). This paper discusses how two emerging strategies, smart
materials and novel sensing and actuation systems linked to the IoT, can facilitate
the creation of a stable environment or zone along architectural facades for the
creation of new ecosystems. Furthermore, this paper will contemplate future
trajectories for the integration of living matter into buildings and propose an
open source database that will facilitate the exchange of collected data and
knowledge to spur on further developments.

Keywords: Microalgae, Nanotechnology, Internet of Things, Bio-Enabled

Design, Microcontrollers, Sensors

INTRODUCTION: BIOMIMICRY AND BIO- an increasingly fragile natural environment, design-

ENABLED SYSTEMS
Biomimicry in architectural design has enjoyed a lot
of attention in recent years and is now going beyond
the adaptation of geometric and formal similarities
(Brownell et al. 2015). The performative adaptation
of biological systems is inspiring smart building sys-
tems (Park et al. 2013) that are emulating biologi-
cal processes and are incorporating them into active
and reactive building components (Decker 2015).
To counteract the negative effects of unsustainable
building practices, and to alleviate their impact on
ers and scientists alike are looking towards biological
systems and processes once more for inspiration.
Biomimetic artificial leaves that strive to match
the performance of photosynthesis in plants are be-
ing developed. The solar-to-fuel converting devices
are using solar powered catalytic processes that are
inspired by the complexity of photosynthesis that
has evolved over millions of years. Though the de-
velopments are very promising, scientists are con-
stantly trying to improve the efficiencies of these de-
vices while using earth-abundant materials to con-

MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 603

 Figure 1
Hydrogel at various
Stages of Water
Absorption, tested
at the Material
Dynamics Lab.

vert widely available resources such as CO2 and wa- to urban agriculture and food production (Specht et
ter into renewable fuels (Joya et al. 2013). al. 2014).
Rather than emulating biological processes,
other investigations are driven by bio-enabled strate- FROM HORIZONTAL TO VERTICAL INSTAL-
gies that directly integrate biologically derived mat-
LATIONS
ter or even living organisms. Examples, demonstra-
The same positive effects on cities that are attributed
tive of this strategy on the scale of products and de-
to green roofs, can also be true for green walls. One
vices, include another artificial leaf design that incor-
of the major challenges that green walls face in com-
porates biologically derived chlorophyll into a soft
parison to the horizontally planted structures is that
material matrix (Koo et al. 2011) or the Phillips' light
moisture retention is notoriously inadequate due to
fixture that is making use of bioluminescent bacteria
gravity induced runoff of water and nutrients. Ad-
that emit a soft glow in dark conditions [1].
vancements in the material science that have been
In Architecture we can build on a rich history
greatly spurred on by nanotechnology are offering
of both strategies for centuries. Biomimicry for es-
solutions for new green roof assemblies that can
thetic and decorative features have been mentioned
greatly influence the development of plant life.
in Vitruvius' deliberation on the origin of biomimetic
ornament design and the inspiring features of the Figure 2
acanthus plant (Vitruvius and Morgan 1960). First ex- Hydrogel
amples that are indeed integrating plant life into ar- Evaporation Study.
chitectural environments may be found referenced Credit: Material
as early as in the example of the Hanging Gardens Dynamics Lab.
of Babylon. Even though little references remain of
the description of the Hanging Gardens they have
been said to consist of a series of green roofs and ter-
races, resembling lush mountain surroundings (Clay-
Hydrogels that can hold between 400 to 1400
ton 2013).
times their own weight in water (Abedi-Koupai et al.
Contemporary green roofs are being praised for
2008) (see Figure 1) have been proven to support
their positive effects on urban ecologies. They are
plant life on green roofs especially during the early
being recognized to improve air quality (Speak et al.
growth stages (Savi et al. 2014) . In a series of stud-
2012) and boost the thermal performance of roof as-
ies that are currently conducted at the Material Dy-
semblies (Niachou et al. 2001) , and can alleviate the
namics Lab [2] at the New Jersey Institute of Technol-
urban heat island effect (Santamouris 2014). They
ogy, the application of these smart materials is being
provide green space for human use and support bio-
studied in order to sustain vegetation in vertical ar-
diversity and wild live in city settings (Brenneisen
rangements. While early test results seem promising,
2006). They also have a great potential to contribute
the hydrogels that expand in the presence of water

604 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1

Figure 3
Microalgae
Samples. Credit:
Material Dynamics
Lab.
(Figure 1) have a bigger potential as a supporting fea-
ture for vertical vegetation arrangements. Since nat-
ural precipitation is rarely driven towards the vertical
structures more elaborate irrigation systems are still
necessary, even though the emergent material can
assist in reducing the loss of moisture due to evapo-
ration. (see Figure 2)
Successful green wall installations such as the
vertical plantings of Patrick Blanc's Mur Végétal [3],
ensure the growing of ornamental plants through a
quite extensive irrigation system that has to be uti-
lized to maintain a livable environment for plant life
(Gandy 2010). Blanc's work, akin to hydroponic sys-
tems, features continuously circulating water and nu-
trients through a vertically installed felt structure that
is substituting the earth and soil that plants usually
rely on.
Water retention is only one of the challenges
that we face when integrating living matter such as
plant life into the architectural context. The difficul-
ties lie in the placement of the organisms under new
and sometimes entirely artificially controlled envi-
ronmental conditions. Organisms that have evolved
over millions of years, integrated in very specific
ecosystems, often resist being subjected to reloca-
tion. In order to establish the conditions that are nec-
essary to sustain life in a façade system the environ-
ment has to be controlled quite precisely.
MICROCLIMATES AND CLIMATE CONTROL
To establish a boundary layer ecosystem between the
surrounding climate and the human interior climate,
MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 605
calls for careful consideration of all constituencies.
In architecture, we can build on a rich history of cli-
mate conscious building practices and special atten-
tion has to be given to how buildings can mediate be-
tween the fluctuating conditions of the exterior sur-
roundings and an ideally stable interior climate. The
cyclical movement of the sun and insolation in par-
ticular greatly influences many design decisions such
as location, orientation, or the shape of the building.
With these passive techniques the building itself is in-
strumental in shaping its own microclimates.
The advent of HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and
Air-Conditioning) systems has led to manufactured
interior climates and environments that can be
mostly independent from the location of the build-
ing, its climatic zone, or the time of day. One of the
first built examples that features a successful cooling
system was the New York Stock exchange (Nagen-
gast 1999), designed by Alfred Wolff in 1901. This
building aspired to create an interior environment
that is "superior in atmospheric conditions" in com-
parison to anything that existed at the time (Wolff
1901). Since this early air-conditioning engineering
milestone, the access to cheap energy from fossil
fuels and the further development of sophisticated
HVAC systems play a significant role in the energy
consumption in buildings, which makes for roughly
40% of all the energy that is being produced in the
United States (United States Energy Administration,
DOE 2014).
Through next generation façade technologies
that have the capability to control shading systems

and ventilation, we have been able to gain even more
control over the interior environment without hav-
ing to rely as heavily on contemporary HVAC systems
that are known to be energy intensive. Many of the
early dynamic façade elements that can mediate be-
tween interior and exterior conditions are currently
driven by pre-set schedules (Krietemeyer et al. 2015).
New technologies are being developed at the Uni-
versity of Syracuse that hold the promise to not only
stabilize the interior climate, but can also cater to the
specific needs of the individual users (Krietemeyer et
al. 2015). Besides the mitigation of heat gain, day-
light and views, the system would also have to ac-
commodate the needs of the integrated living matter
in a bio-enabled façade system. Green wall ecosys-
tems require for example specific temperatures, light
exposure, and supply of other resources such as nu-
trients, carbon dioxide, or oxygen. Human expecta-
tions on the other hand also have to be met on the
interior. The input parameters of both user groups
have to be in constant negotiation with climatic con-
ditions that fluctuate seasonally and diurnally and
have been increasingly hard to predict due to climate
change.
MICROALGAE IN THE ARCHITECTURAL
CONTEXT
Photobioreactors (Singh 2012) that are used in the
farming of microalgae (Figure 3) for example create a
very specific ecosystem that are slowly finding their
way into the urban setting (Hemmrich et al. 2014).
When the photosynthetic organisms are being culti-
vated in architectural context a constant and finely
606 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1
Figure 4
Scenedesmus in
Photobioreactor.
Credit: Material
Dynamics Lab.
tuned supply of water, nutrients, light, and CO2 is
of the utmost importance. Crop yields can also be
greatly influenced by temperature fluctuations or hy-
drodynamic forces within the reactor.
Figure 5
Scenedesmus in
Bioreactor on Day
10 of a 14 Day Grow
Cycle. Credit:
Material Dynamics
Lab.
Emergent investigations are envisioning the benefits
of integrating microalgal photobioreactors directly
into the constructed environment (Prokssh 2013) in
order to capitalize on the symbiotic potential be-
tween the photosynthetic organisms and the human
users. In closed loop systems, the carbon dioxide
contained in the building's exhaust can be utilized to
supply the bioreactor which in turn can provide the
building with oxygen. Algae that is being said to sig-
nificantly contribute to earth's oxygen supply has the
potential to bring us one step closer to carbon neu-
tral architectures. A building's greywater can serve as
the water and nutrient supply for algae in the biore-
actor. Instead of being considered waste, the build-
ing's greywater can be utilized to purify water on site.
Furthermore, much like the green walls, the algae re-
actor panels can serve as a thermal buffer when ap-
 plied in a double skin façade system. Besides the po-
tential to mitigate the negative effects of unsustain-
able building practices, the bio-enabled façade sys-
tems are being scrutinized for their capacity to aid in
the production of renewable energy, or as new future
food and feed supplies.
CASE STUDY PROTOTYPE
In a case study conducted at the Material Dynamics
Lab at the New Jersey Institute of Technology the po-
tential integration of algae in a façade system is be-
ing scrutinized. The design experiments specifically
look at the use of flat panel reactors applied in a dou-
ble skin façade system. Integrating this very specific
ecosystem in the building context has a great im-
pact on the overall translucency and transparency of
a building skin.
Figure 6
Algae Bioreactor in
Test Environment at
the Material
Dynamics Lab
Figure 7
Photobioreactor
Test Setup. Credit:
Material Dynamics
Lab.
MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 607
The fabricated prototypes consist of a test environ-
ment that allows for the monitoring of translucency
as well as transparency (see Figure 6). It integrated
two bioreactors that are designed to swivel by 90
degrees to rotate the reactor into position for maxi-
mum light irrigation of the algae medium or to allow
the human users access to views and direct sunlight
at times. Scenedesmus, a genus of green algae was
tested in this reactor, that requires roughly a 14-day
cycle before the algae solution is mature enough for
harvest. In the beginning stages of the grow cycle,
the algae solution appears nearly clear before turn-
ing dark green near harvest (see Figure 4) Depend-
ing on the grow cycle, daylight penetration as well as
varying quality of views have been the main concern
of this first study.
To monitor the environmental conditions, this
design experiment that was conducted under labora-
tory conditions has integrated a series of sensors and
actuators into the prototype. Four lux sensors are uti-
lized in this design experiment. One is placed in the
interior of the test environment, two sensors are di-
rectly located on the reactor panel sensing the light
levels through the algae medium, and a control sen-
sor is located on the outside of the reactor measur-
ing the incoming light before it enters the prototype.
The RGB sensors are monitoring the interior light dis-
tribution of the environment.
The experiment explores a platform that allows
for the integration of the prototype into the Internet
of Things (IoT). This setup is well suited for the nec-
essary sensor monitoring and data logging as well as
device automation and orchestration, to facilitate the
ecosystem controls necessary to maintain the health
of the algae colony. A major benefit of this setup is
that it allows researchers to access the environment
remotely.
The platform includes a Raspberry Pi SD-Card im-
age that serves as the hub of the system, which boots
to a fully configured Linux system. This system pro-
vides essential services such as data storage, graph-
ing, and analysis along with an easy to use visual pro-
graming environment. The provided SD-Card image
 includes a number of useful preconfigured services: a
web-based visual programming tool (Node-Red [4]),
(see Figure 8) a web-based graphing tool (Grafana
[5]), a timeseries database (InfluxDB [6]), a communi-
cation server (Mosquitto [7]), and an auto-discovery
service (Avahi [8])
Node-Red (see Figure 8) can be described as "a visual
tool for wiring the Internet of Things" [4]. It provides a
drag and drop interface to configure the behavior of
the prototype by facilitating the control of actuators
operating the swivel function of the bioreactor. The
various sensors that monitor the environment are
placed onto the Node-Red canvas, allowing it to di-
rect its data through various operations like smooth-
ing or sending it to be stored in a database. The uti-
lized InfluxDB timeseries database that receives the
environmental data is designed from the ground up
to store and query temporal information. The web
based graphing tool Grafana connects to InfluxDB to
display the live data inside any web browser.
Furthermore, the communication protocol
MQTT [9], which is a publish-subscribe communi-
cation protocol originally developed at IBM, was uti-
lized. MQTT is particularly well suited for the commu-
nication between the sensors, actuators, and control
software, since it was designed with low-power, low-
bandwidth devices in mind and hence has minimal
608 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1
bandwidth overhead. The various sensors, that in-
clude lux, RGB, temperature and humidity sensors,
publish their data to various topics, such as "bioreac-
tor/1/interior/left/lux".
Finally, the Avahi auto-discovery service allows
the sensors to locate the Raspberry Pi computer on
the local network and connect to it. This tool is in-
valuable for a timely setup, as no hardcoded IP ad- Figure 8
dresses are involved. The sensors as well as actua- Node-RED
tors can be simply attached and will start communi- Interface.
cating. All user-facing systems run in a web browser
and can be potentially used on any local computer
or mobile smart device. The sensors and actuators
in the presented prototype use microcontroller sys-
tems that are capable of internet connectivity such as
the ESP8266 [10] system-on-chip. In a future devel-
opment of this prototype setup, a necessary update
will add security and authentication to enable inter-
net access of the graphing and programming tools.
PRELIMINARY TEST RESULTS
Figure 9
Light Condition in
the Test
Environment
depending on
Growth Cycle
documented at the
Material Dynamics
Lab.
The data that was collected during this early labora-
tory testing stage (See Figure 10) was mainly focused
on the varying lighting conditions in relationship to
the geometric configuration of the reactors. The pre-
liminary findings show that upon rotating the flat
panels away from the ideal relationship to the light
Figure 10
Bioreactor Test
Data: Credit:
Material Dynamics
Lab.
source an immediate drop of the light levels within
the reactor is observed due to the specific geome-
try of the reactor frame. Furthermore, the light inten-
sity inside the reactor was not even due to the frame
details of the flat panel reactor as well as some algal
residue on the reactor's interior. The conditions on
the interior of the test environment respond to the
panel rotation at first with a slight drop in the lux lev-
els due to the opaque framing detail of the reactor,
which is followed by a rapid increase once the panel
is rotated by more than 40 degrees.
The testing cycle was repeated during the vari-
ous stages of the algae grow cycle as shown in Fig-
ure 10. The collected data clearly showed that the
density of the algae colony had a great impact on the
light levels inside the testing environment.
MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 609
DISCUSSION AND FUTURE OUTLOOK
Architectural simulation software could have
brought on similar results if the bioreactor was an
inert and static material. This experimental set-up
is designed to achieve long term testing of the inte-
gration of living organisms. The long term studies
that are being currently conducted at the Material
Dynamics Lab is observing the growth of microalgae
in the test environment, simulating a series of con-
ditions that might arise in the architectural context.
Each test includes a full 14-day growth cycle from
incubation to harvest. Various settings that are sim-
ulating southern, northern, and western exposures
are going to be tested. This will help explore the algal
growth rate under the varying conditions and docu-
ment the impact on interior spaces simultaneously.
The integration of the architectural prototypes with
 the IoT is of great importance to the success of this
study. It not only enables an effortless way to collect
data it also allows for remote management and mon-
itoring of the lifeform. Even though microalgae are
considered to be among the fastest growing, most
efficient and adaptive organisms on the planet, the
attempts of integrating them into buildings holds its
challenges. Through the remote control and access
to the testing data, immediate action can be taken
if the test setup is compromised. This is particularly
useful since any malfunction of the reactor can lead
to an immediate algae die-off.
The first round of tests has been conducted with
scenedesmus, while spirulina, callithamnion, and
nannochloropsis will be observed at a later time. The
various species of algae are very different in appear-
ance (Figure 11) and hence will have a very unique
impact of the interior lighting levels. Furthermore,
we will look at in situ test setups that will move the
study out of the laboratory testing stage.
In the design toolkit for adaptive and reactive
façade systems, great importance has been given to
the maintenance of homogenous interior environ-
mental conditions. Most recently studies that strive
to include comfort and control of the individual on
the interior have emerged (Krietemeyer et al. 2012)
that will allow users to influence the visual and ther-
mal quality of the building. By integrating living or-
ganisms into the building envelope the complexity of
the interaction protocols that will negotiate between
all the constituencies will increase significantly. The
needs of the integrated lifeform will have to be better
understood before such an undertaking can be suc-
cessfully tackled.
610 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1
Figure 11
Microalgae
Incubators at the
Material Dynamics
Lab. From Left to
Right :
Nannochloropsis,
Spirulina,
Scenedesmus,
Callithamnion.
CONCLUSION
Whether we are integrating smart materials such as
hydrogel or living organisms such as algae into the
architectural context, we need to become accustom
to testing and verification in our explorations. Smart
materials and living organisms both react to exter-
nal stimuli that arise in the architectural context and
are greatly influenced by changing seasons or diurnal
fluctuations.
While addressing energy efficiency in the con-
structed environment the design process has been
greatly enhanced by modeling and simulation tools.
However, evidence suggests that one of the major
problems that the building industry encounters to-
day is that our building stock often does not per-
form as it was expected or designed to (Demanuele
2010; The Carbon Trust 2011). The so-called perfor-
mance gap between predicted energy efficiency in
buildings and actually achieved outcomes has been
of increased concern (Menezes et al. 2012; de Wilde
2014). With the rise of available automated meter
readings in architecture to verify the energy con-
sumption of buildings the performance gap is be-
coming more and more evident. But the lack of track-
ing the performance of individual building compo-
nents is contributing to the problem (Menezes et al.
2012).
The integration of individual building compo-
nents with the IoT can be an invaluable tool for ar-
chitects and researchers that will enable the creation
of new knowledge in the field of architecture.
The research that is being conducted at the Ma-
Figure 12
Spirulina - End of
Growth Cycle
documented.
Credit: Material
Dynamics Lab.
terial Dynamics Lab is integrating prototypes into
the IoT as a first step in this development process
that will enable us to address the performance gap
in complex building systems. Through publishing
the real time test results in the next testing phase
this approach may become an invaluable tool for re-
searchers and practitioners and aid in the creation of
new knowledge for the field of architecture.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research presented in this paper has been sup-
ported by a NJIT URI grant as well as the NJIT Cen-
ter of Building Knowledge. The authors would like to
thank Dr. Wen Zhang and Likun Hua from the Depart-
ment of Civil and Environmental Engineering at NJIT,
as well as Dr. Eric Fortune from the Department of
Biology at NJIT, for their support, insights and advise
throughout the research. We would also like to thank
Andrew Biron for his dedication to this project during
the prototyping stage.
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612 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1

From Interactivity Towards Ambience Through a Bottle-
brick
Kateřina Nováková1 , Henri Achten2
1
Faculty of Architecture Czech Technical University in Prague 2 FA CTU Prague
1,2
{bruhokat|achten}@fa.cvut.cz

According to the dictionary ambient architecture should be kind of object or

space that relies to its surrounding or spontaneously reacts on the presence of
human. Ambient architecture can also be musically expressed [1] or painted [2].
We developed special architectural building units that offer space for
incorporation of intelligence and media for human interaction and for
ambience.We are introducing an object called PET(ch)air made of PET(b)rick
[3], a hollow transparent bottle-brick. The first intention was to generate new
building unit from recycled PET material. Now that we observe its qualities, we
can see it is well prepared for ambient intelligence application, especially in
combination with light. For the purpose of a brick we are transforming old
recycled plastic into new bottle-bricks. Using the bottle-brick as building unit we
build interior objects that are ready to turn spaces into ambient rooms, places
that can be customized by their visitors or spontaneously react on them. Together
with this, we opened a design studio, where students were asked to develop
ambient interior pieces for a special event using the method of learning by doing.

Keywords: Interactivity, ambient architecture, waste reuse , bottle-brick,

PET(b)rick, PET(ch)air

INTRODUCTION surrounds the user regularly and thus may be cus-

Ambient intelligence is a term introduced by Phillips
in 1999 as a vision for the year 2020. [4] The sce-
nario of ambient intelligence is invisible technolog-
ical support of human everyday life. In many cases it
was associated with the home situation and dealing
with procedures such as organization of time, tem-
perature fitness, and light comfort. Examples may be
automatic light behaviour according to the daylight,
and home facility adaptation on the inhabitants via
voice or gestures. Ambient intelligence has been de-
scribed as clever technology (Cook et al. 2009) that
tomized to his needs. The advantage of intelligent
equipment of home is that it saves time, which is
usually spent on maintenance or that it extends hu-
man memory with reminders. Regardless the pur-
pose of its application, this technology must inter-
act with humans via various media: screens, reactive
surfaces, kinects, sensors, and so on, which become
also ambient. Definition of ambient media is used
in advertising industry and was described by Arthur
Lugmayr in 2007 as the most relevant combination
of message and media available in order to adver-

MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 613

 tise products [6], (Lugmayr 2007). Combining ambi-
ent media and intelligent technology needs real envi-
ronments to be embodied in. In addition to the idea
of Internet of things, architecture and design offer
relevant platform for implementation of ambience.
Ambient intelligence researchers are aiming for a sit-
uation, where the home is a pleasant and beauti-
ful space without visible hills of technologies: wires,
chargers, black screens, computer boxes and HIFIs.
[8,9] Also the publication called Invisible future (Aarts
et al. 2001) mentions, that technology will be gener-
ating a new social landscape, and new type of archi-
tecture.
A building brick for ambient structures
In this paper we report on a building brick that we
used to create ambient structures and its use in a stu-
dio task. Initially the building brick was developed
as a bottle, which holds consumable drink-water -
after consumption it could be used as a stackable
construction element in non-load bearing structures
such as space dividing walls (see below for more de-
tailed description). After we developed the brick, it
immediately occurred to us that we could put intelli-
gence inside the brick. The advantage of such an in-
vention is that the brick is transparent, light and hol-
low and still withstands stress. Therefore electronic
devices can be easily included in the interior of the
bottle. For initial test-use, we designed a small seat
that was able to interact through lights. Our idea was
to let people play with the objects that anyway sur-
round them with the use of their own electronic de-
vices and together generate an interior furniture that
changes whenever somebody starts to interact. This
could be done through a web application, which is
entered by a qr code. The interaction had a form of a
game. We developed objects, that are apart of their
initial function prepared to become also media and
education platform for interactivity. We are targeting
objects that hide naturally interactivity/ambience in
themselves.
614 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1
Short report on bottle-bricks
The idea to develop a building brick with material
used for bottles is at least one decade old. There are
many reasons why to attempt this: the main material
polyethylene tereftalate (PET) is produced in abun-
dance, can be recycled, and is quite strong; many bot-
tles end up after consumption thrown away in na-
ture; areas which face an immediate need for build-
ing materials after natural disasters also have a need
for fresh drinking water, and so on. Based on this it
makes sense to develop a brick that can at first hold
drinking water and then be used as a building brick.
Several people have attempted to create a building
brick out of PET material. We found an idea mock-
up made by Tim Dubitzky, who tried to interconnect
square plastic bottles, generating a small wall. [5]
Two working prototypes of blow moulded PET bricks
were found in the world very far from each other. (see
Figure 1) In 2007 united_bottle [7] was developed by
a research group from Switzerland. This bottle was
intended to be filled with water and transported into
war/catastrophic regions, where the disposed bot-
tles would serve as filling into broken walls. In 2010
united_bottle was followed by Polli-brick, invented in
Taiwan by a company called MINIWIZ (Xu and Wang
2013). This bottle was not used as a beverage con-
tainer, it only served as a facade panel. It was inter-
connected by a plate.
Figure 1
Bottle-bricks from
the left: polli-brick,
united_bottle,
PET(b)rick
At Czech Technical University, Faculty of Architecture,
we developed a brick - named PET(b)rick - made from
recycled polyethylene tereftalate. Out of the list of
known bottle-bricks PET(b)rick is the only one which
can be bound in six directions and thus it is possible
to assemble it into never-ending structures. The de-
velopment of the brick had to answer several bound-
ary conditions. The most important ones were that
 it could be produced in a regular production line for
PET bottles, and that it can be stacked to create archi-
tectural elements such as walls. For the production
we used blow-moulding technology that is the same
as for regular PET bottle production. In the future, its
price will be the price of a bottle. Because of its par-
ticular shape, the PET(b)rick can be bound in all three
cardinal directions - therefore it allows the construc-
tion of planes and volumes. The PET(b)rick bottle is
7x14x9 cm big and has volume of 0.6 l that can be
filled with various media and technologies.
From PET(b)rick to PET(ch)air
The advantage of a structure made of hollow trans-
parent units is that these units can be filled either
with material or media or technology. The shape
is original [3] and allows for connecting in all 6 di-
rections. Any rectangular shape can be built from
this bottle-brick, the final product must be bound to-
gether and the vertical force must be distributed. Be-
ing internally lit and equipped with batteries, proces-
sors, and WIFI antenna it can join Internet of Things,
waiting for instructions or respond to the presence of
people.
Figure 2
Interactive and
ambient PET(ch)air
exhibited at the
EXPO in Milano.
The PET(ch)air (see Figure 2) was a small cubic struc-
ture bound together with nylon threads and covered
with a Perspex grid (see Figure 2). We constructed a
number of these chairs and experimented with var-
ious technologies to incorporate in the PET(b)ricks
that make up the chairs. Interaction with PET(ch)airs
was tested with the function of light control at the
EXPO in Milano (May-October 2015) and TEDx Prague
(date) where peoples' enquiry and interest was ob-
served. Visitors were allowed to change colours
of the objects manually or via their smartphones
through Internet application. Both systems had their
advantages and both failures, but once an object
shines, people look for the possibility to operate it.
MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 615
The basic quality of light is that it attracts attention
and users start playing with the colours manually im-
mediately. It was easy to operate rotating a simple
round button or choosing various modes of change.
Led lights being ruled by an application via Internet
had the advantage that lights could be changed re-
motely -even from far away- meaning that the system
was independent of the position of the user. Visitors
were able to play more sophisticate game. More than
one cube could be controlled at once. The constraint
was that there had to be a smart device with qr code
reader in order to master the change of colour. Also
WIFI had to be distributed by access point device.
From PET(ch)air to PET(b)ar
An experimental studio topic was prepared on the
base of this research: "an ambient bar." Students
were asked to use the developed technology and in-
vent new principles of ambience in architecture. The
aim of the project was to design and build a num-
ber of stage sets and objects for the so-called "stu-
dent's night" at the Faculty of Machine Engineering
of Czech Technical University. This event takes place
on several locations of the faculty building, and in-
cluded objects such as a bar, stage, seating area,
corridor decoration, lighting, and so on.The whole
project would have to run in a very short time. From
the start to design and full realization of all the ob-
jects for the "student's night" event was only one
month. Through the knowledge gained by making
the PET(ch)air we could introduce the task of the am-
bience to a group of students who had never worked
with this material before. We prepared a cooper-
ative seminar for students of humanistic discipline
of New Media at SNM Charles University in Prague
together with students from Faculty of architecture
at CTU Prague. Participants of this pilot project got
the PET(b)ricks and the hardware (plus sensors on re-
quest) in order to be able to directly test their ideas
in reality. The result of their cooperative work was
immediately used within a public event, where they
could observe the installation in real time interaction
with lay-users. With this experiment we hope to ob-
 tain answer to several questions: does perceiving of Table 1
ambience differ in both branches? What are the de- Ideas from non
mands? How much are both fields complementary? technical students.
And will the output fulfil the request of ambience?
Analysis phase. The experiment with the use of
PET(b)rick plus lights and sensors started by intro-
duction about interactive bars, that we found as ex-
amples on the Internet. We tried to introduce di-
verse types of interactive technologies, digital as well
as mechanical. Spintouch Interactive Solutions bar Table 2
was found as an example of interactivity. [10] The in- Ideas from students
teractivity was performed by a multi-touch surface, of architecture.
which reacted on any kind of weight laid on the table.
Students were inspired by this system, and wanted
to use principle of stress although they had no pos-
sibility to use any screen. In 2015 MIT introduced
TRANSFORM. A transformable mobile furniture was
developed by Professor Hiroshi Ishii and the Tangi-
ble Media Group from the MIT Media Lab. [11] Stu-
dents could see the transformation of data into me-
chanical movements in this example. Ambience was
described on an example of Phillips research as well
as their precedent Hiroshi Ishiis' AmbientROOM (Ishii
1998).
Ideas from non-technical students (see Table 1)
were based on analysis phase. Students from the
Charles University had different attitude than archi- The process of designing. We used the method of
tecture students. They did not derive their ideas learning by doing and the agile designing, which
from material possibilities, but came up with rather meant that short phases of designing switched with
megalomaniac ideas of transmitting of big data (like hands-on work with PET(b)ricks. Students were given
videos) into installations. Their ideas were rather de- the material and conditions and we observed them
tached from real possibilities we had. We can also designing. It followed the principle of Experimen-
see, that their ideas were mostly interactive and play- tal studio (Nováková et al. 2010), apart of that each
ful rather than ambient, since the installations were phase lasted maximally for one week:
only reacting on visitors conscious activity.
Ideas of ambience from technical students (see 1. Analyses
Table 2) were rather simple and connected to the real 2. Design
objects. The ambient or interactive activity was at- 3. "Selling the idea to the investor" - presenta-
tached to the designed interior installations and de- tion
rived from their form. All overall activity was per- 4. Building prototype
formed by the change of light intensity, flashes or col- 5. Public exhibition
ors of light. Students could also try out their ideas
immediately. Building prototypes (Figure 3) formed their designs.
Students were designing while constructing proto-

616 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1

 types, because the material they were using was un- were different due to the last minute changes of the
known. actual design at the site (see Figure 4).
Figure 3 Discussion. In order to see, what knowledge stu-
The process of dents gained within this studio, we created a Ques-
hands-on tionnaire, where we asked, what was the biggest con-
designing. tribution of such a studio and we asked students di-
rectly, what they think they learned. From the to-
tal number of 42 students we received 34 responses.
In this quantitative part of qualitative research we
Figure 4 searched for following keywords: First time/mew, Ex-
Design and real periment/invention, Build own design, real event, in-
installation of one tensive, material / reuse, group-work, interactivity.
of the groups called No ambience appeared among the answers. (see Fig-
DJs. ure 5)
More than 1/3 of respondents appreciated the
rhythm of the studio: that it was short and inten-
sive and the same number of students mentioned
the positive effect of group-work. The possibility
of building own design was also highly appraised
Figure 5 by 30% of respondents. 25% of students men-
Results of the tioned they learned about interactivity and material
questionnaire: 32 reuse. Although we explained the ambience as nat-
respondents were ural reaction of the architectural objects on people,
asked what they students kept calling their installations interactive,
learned. Repeated even though some of them were really rather ambi-
keywords were ent, giving the users spontaneous information about
collected and something.According to the questionnaire, the de-
quantified. sign phase of the projects was underestimated - stu-
dents experienced it as too short. Students had to
embody lights and sensors into the structures from
the beginning of the construction process. The ob-
jects had to be deconstructable and reassemblable,
which had the consequences on the connection of
The process of designing lasted for 10 days and then the lights inside of the designed object. Because of
ready designs were presented. All of them were ac- the technical challenges concerning electronics, con-
cepted and students started constructing their instal- sultation with programmers and people from Faculty
lations. The event took place at the faculty of Me- of Electrical Engineering was inevitable and highly
chanical Engineering, but the designs were built at valued. The students unanimously appreciated the
the Faculty of Architecture, which meant they had to teamwork and learning how to organize themselves.
be deconstructed and transported. The actual event Many of them started to appreciate the concept of
lasted only for eight hours and all of the installations ambience and interaction as this was the first time
were fully functioning there. The real objects looked they were confronted with it. Students also men-
always quite like the designs, usually the light effects tioned that the time for designing was too short.We

MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 617

 also pointed out comments, which were beyond the
standard answers.
• "I felt responsible for my installation and had
in mind it must be secure and withstand the
users activity throughout the evening."
• "For me, doing experiments is important for
my learning process, maybe for a learning pro-
cess generally. I changed my attitude in my
regular studio too."
• "Designer must be ready for change."
• "An person becomes an architect, when
he/she realises first design."
• "I saw how important it is to see the dimen-
sions of my design in reality, it was bigger than
I thought."
By developing PET(b)rick, a building unit of a new
type which is flexible but withstands stress, we have
prepared a platform for easy implementation of inter-
activity and ambience. We tested interactivity of our
chairs at several public events and we could observe
visitors' reactions in confrontation with objects they
could operate. The software/hardware combination
allowed for playing with the colour of light, the actual
form of interactivity embodied in lightweight mov-
able objects such as chairs. We designed, built, and
stress-tested a simple transparent cube, where the
PET(b)ricks have proven their qualities as bricks as
well as technology containers.
Conclusions
From the experience with the ambient bar, we can
state that the most significant advantage of doing re-
search with real objects is that everything can be di-
rectly tested and we did so. We found out, that us-
ing smart devices in order to operate simple func-
tions is a constraint for the user. The next step was
application of ambient intelligence into bigger struc-
tures built from PET(b)ricks We improved the design
from boxes into more sophisticate objects where the
technology was hidden and the objects became am-
bient intelligent, in a very simple and limited way.
Students of architecture and from Charles University
were able to work with the PET(b)ricks, but it also be-
618 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1
came very clear that the help of students from the
Faculty of Electrical Engineering was crucial. With-
out their assistance students of architecture were nei-
ther able to generate concept nor able to manually
put it together. There is a thin border between in-
teractivity and ambience. Students were not able to
understand it within one month of the studio, and
they called their installations interactive. The con-
cepts of ambience were rather complex in the begin-
ning and radically simplified when it came to their
real implementation. We could see that many stu-
dents have never been thinking about implementing
neither ambience nor interactivity into their architec-
tural designs and they were also building a real object
they designed for the first time. The studio had two
"wow effects":
• I can build my own design, it is working!
• Implementing ambience/interactivity is cool,
but not easy.
In further work we will surely continue to explore am-
bience and interaction in architecture. In order to
avoid overly simplistic action-response schemes, it
is of vital importance to work together with people
from other disciplines such as Electrical Engineering.
In this sense we found that the rather limited scope
of the studio also gave the students valuable experi-
ence for future practice.
Acknowledgements
We want to thank all students who participated in the
design project, the dean of the Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, prof. Valášek, and mrs. Špačková and
mrs. Götzová of the PR department of Mechanical En-
gineering for inviting us to také part in the Student's
Night and for financial support; the dean of the Fac-
ulty of Architecture, prof. Labus, for allowing assem-
bly at the Faculty grounds, the assistants who helped
in the studio (Lucia, Vasilija, and Šimon), and the peo-
ple from Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Build-
ing Engineering (Kuba, Jedle, and David).
REFERENCES [11] http://tangible.media.mit.edu/project/transform
Aarts, E, Harwig, HH and Schuurmans, M 2001 'Ambient /
Intelligence', The Invisible Future, New York, pp. pp.
235 - 250
Cook, DJ, Augusto, JC and Jkkula Vikramaditya, VR 2009
'Ambient intelligence: Technologies, applications
and opportunities, Pervasive and Mobile Comput-
ing 5, 2009.', Pervasive and Mobile Computing 5, p.
277 – 298
Dennig, PJ (eds) 2001, The Invisible Future, McGraw-Hill
Ishii, HH 1998 'AmbientROOM: Integrating ambient me-
dia with architectural Space.', CHI 1998, pp. 173-174
Lugmayr, A 2007 'Ambient Media, Vol. 33', Novatica, pp.
pp. 35-39
Nigel, S 2003 'Ambient Intelligence', IEEE intelligent sys-
tems, p. 2 – 3
Nováková, K, Achten, HH and Matejovská, D 2010 'A De-
sign Studio Pedagogy for Experiments with Unusual
Material, Collaboration and Web Communication,
2010, roč. 8, s. 557–572, ISSN 1478-0771.', IJAC - In-
ternational Journal of Architectural Computing, Multi-
Science Publishing Co Ltd
Weiser, M (eds) 1993, Ubiquitous computing, IEEE
Xu, JP and Wang, JP 2013 'Ground improvement
with interlock-Able Plastick bottles', International
Symposium on Design and Practice of Geosynthetic-
Reinforced Soil Structures, Bologna, Italy, pp. 24-33
[1] https://soundcloud.com/ambient_architecture.
[2] http://risdmuseum.org/art_design/exhibitions/63
_
[3] https://isdv.upv.cz/webapp/WEBAPP.vzs.det?xprim
=90026377770001&lan=cs&s_majs=&s_puvo=
&s_naze=
[4] http://www.research.philips.com/technologies/am
bintel.html
[5] http://www.core77.com/posts/23643/building-a-bo
ttle-brick-at-glasslab-a-case-study-by-tim-du
bitsky-23643.
[6] http://www.computer.org/csdl/mags/ex/2003/04/x4
002.pdf.
[7] http://www.united_bottle.org
[8] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VjF-kapcFsU&ebc
=ANyPxKof2b5OmqiTyBl0m0_ZvbchAy_oX5yY6cSg8DHO
YIMbV_CRMFJB9qroXEz_nrxbEFoC0QARYkBP5I0ddfWFS
0AyCSykmQ.
[9] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lCARHatJQJA&feat
ure=iv&src_vid=lvtfD_rJ2hE&annotation_id=anno
tation_4171896729.
[10] http://www.spintouch.com/interactive-solutions/
hardware/interactive-bar/

MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 619

Bending-active Structures
A Case study for an Office Chaise Lounge

Eleanna Panagoulia1 , Simon Schleicher2

1
Foster + Partners 2 College of Environmental Design (CED), University of Cali-
fornia, Berkeley
1
eleannapan@gmail.com 2 simon_s@berkeley.edu

This paper seeks to explore the process of elastic bending in furniture design and
presents a case study that demonstrates the creative and structural potential of
bending-active structures as possible improvement to the current state of the art.
This case study brings together design procedures, borrowed from declarative
design in software engineering, architectural design, and material science in
order to envision new applications for bending-active structures. It investigates
how bending can be used strategically for the design of furniture scale objects
and, particularly, an office chaise lounge for one person. Active-bending
implementation is the key for creating structures that achieve new milestones
beyond the perceived limits of material and process. Moreover, the project stands
as a great opportunity for the development of a pipeline for fabrication that
automates the translation of a given high-level description of a design, to the
production of the data required for fabrication via a particular material system.

Keywords: Bending-active structures, Matter compiler, Optimization

INTRODUCTION straints. Designers are able to integrate those factors

Architectural practice has been significantly influ-
enced by the development of cutting-edge design
tools that have set the scene for new ways of under-
standing complex forms, analyzing their constraints,
and optimizing their performance accordingly. Lat-
est improvements in software and the increasing ac-
cessibility of design tools have allowed designers to
shift from a purely experimental state of extensive
trial and error, towards a more scientific integration
of design constraints to enrich the design process.
Current design tools allow for additional parame-
ter integration beyond formal description, such as
physics, material properties, or environmental con-
already in the early stages of the design process by
simulating forces, structural performance, and mate-
rial behavior accurately. This paper will focus on ac-
tive, elastic bending in plate structures and will ex-
plore the formal and structural possibilities that are
available through bending, both as a form-finding
method, as well as a strategy for achieving challeng-
ing structural performance. Elastic bending in plate
structures has already been implemented at various
scales. In this paper we will examine the principles
of elastic bending and its benefits at furniture scale
design, by analyzing a case study for an office chaise
lounge. In order to provide an informative frame-

MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 621

 work for our research on elastic bending in furniture
design, we will analyze the groundwork of bending
in furniture design through a series of examples that
operate as precedent studies on the field.
BENDING IN FURNITURE DESIGN
A major innovation that designated substantially the
design of mid 20th century and beyond, was the in-
troduction of bending in furniture design. The first
method that was implemented in furniture and par-
ticularly chair design, was bending by means of heat-
forming. Heat-forming enabled the creation of nat-
ural and organic shapes that were refreshingly dif-
ferent in their aesthetic to the previously used mod-
ernistic standardized forms. The strategic use of
bending made it possible to fabricate furniture with
less pieces, which had great impact in preserving the
continuity and fluidity of the overall form. However,
bending was not only implemented to increase the
aesthetic value of the design. Moreover, many de-
signers recognized that bending as a novel fabrica-
tion technique was a real paradigm shift that had the
power to revolutionize furniture industry by signifi-
cantly reducing production costs.
Heat - Forming Bending Plywood
One of the most suitable materials for heat bending
applications was plywood. Plywood veneer offered
designers the flexibility not only to explore more
complex forms but also allowed for manual post-
processing and premium quality finish. Another ad-
vantage of using plywood bending was the possi-
bility to accommodate the comfort factor, as these
shapes were friendlier to the human body geometry
and usually had nice tactile qualities. The most com-
mon heat-forming process was steam bending of a
dried piece of lumber or a multilayer arrangement of
plywood veneers that are bound together with glue
with their grains perpendicular to each other. The
shape is given when the structure is bent under pres-
sure with heat. Here, hot steam was a particularly
suitable medium since it was able to penetrate deep
into the plywood to momentarily soften its fibers and
622 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1
enabling it to be bent in multiple directions. Then,
the plywood is let to cool down in order for the defor-
mation to become permanent. Unlike natural wood,
the resulting material does not have the same ma-
terial properties at the final state, as it is less likely
to split when exposed to moisture. The shipbuild-
ing industry was an early adopter of this technique
for forming the curved members used to build ship's
hulls. This paper will portray three examples of heat-
formed furniture design, two of which are considered
to be primary pioneers in the mid 19th and 20th cen-
tury and a third example that represents its contem-
porary evolution nowadays.
Examples of heat-formed furniture
Figure 1
Matthias Pliessnig,
Amada bench [3].
Charles and Ray Eames, Lounge Molded Chair
(LCW). The first example is the Chaise Lounge and
the Molded Plywood Chair by Charles and Ray Eames.
The Eames have pioneered in inventing strategies
to craft complex forms. They experimented with
wood molding techniques and developed strategies
to achieve curved complex forms out of planar, thin
sheets of plywood. One of their main design drivers
was to develop a compound-curved chair that ei-
ther consisted out of very few or even a single shell
single-shell. To accomplish this goal, the Eames in-
vented their own machine to press large-scale ply-
wood sheets, which enabled for example the mold-
ing of unprecedented large aircraft parts (Eames
2012). Prior to furniture, the Eames took advantage
of bending characteristics (elasticity, resilience), to
manufacture stretchers and crutches for the World
War II. Later on, they implemented a similar strategy
 in furniture design and their pioneer methods had
a profound effect in the way future designers per-
ceived form and matter. However, due to the lim-
its of the plywood itself, they were unable to make
a single-piece shell out of molded plywood as origi-
nally intended. Only years later they found a way to
Figure 2 produce the single-shell chair they were striving for,
Digital simulation by using a new material that has never been used in
of bending process furniture before: plastic.
in Kangaroo Physics Matthias Pliessnig, Amada Bench. The second ex-
and SOFiSTiK ample is the steam bent benches of Matthias Pliess-
(Schleicher et al. nig (Figure 1). Pliessnig reframes heat bending
2015). through the lens of contemporary digital craft and
he is interested mainly in human proportion integra-
tion. His design is characterized by minimal shapes
inspired by wave flow and fluid dynamics in gen-
eral. Pliessnig's design combines craftsmanship and
comfort, structural stability and strength with sculp-
tural finesse [3]. As Pliessnig became familiar with
surface modeling tools, such as Rhinoceros, he dis-
covered similarities in the way the geometry is de-
scribed within the digital environment and the way
a boat scaffold is constructed. Same as is in boat
shell constructions, there are leading ribs that des-
ignate the shape as cross section elements and sec-
ondary curves that bend along the ribs, forming a
curved grid. Pliessnig implemented the exact same
logic in his bench design. The workflow that he de-
veloped starts from a digital model and then contin-
ues with constant refinement of the heat bent pieces
until a perfectly smooth surface is achieved. He starts
by drawing a free-form shape and then contouring
it in temporary wooden ribs that are CNC cut and
put along the target outline curve. Then he bends
temporary wooden slats, which he calls "Sketching
Stringers" [3], because they operate as guides to visu-
alize the overall shape. After replacement of all tem-
porary pieces, he steam bents final slats until they
form a continuous surface. Lastly, he strengthens
the structure with epoxy and pins at the intersections
and sands the surface in order to become as smooth
as possible. Pliessnig's benches clearly address the
notions of variability and fluidity combined with er-
MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 623
gonomics to suit the human body, as well as evident
beauty and elegance.
ELASTIC BENDING AND BENDING-ACTIVE
STRUCTURES
While the key concept behind the previous examples
is based on bending as means of plastically deform-
ing a structure, the following case study will intro-
duce and investigate the alternative of elastic bend-
ing as active and holistic forming process for shape
exploration. Moving away from steam bending appli-
cations, we will now investigate elastic active bend-
ing as a holistic process that addresses form explo-
ration, as well as structural performance integration.
The term "bending-active" is introduced by Knippers
et al. to describe curved beam and surface struc-
tures that base their geometry on elastic deforma-
tion of initially straight or planar elements (Knippers
et al. 2011). Active bending can be defined as a
form-finding process that derives from the elastic de-
formation of a rod or plate structure. It is a process
that creates curved geometry out of planar, straight
members or surfaces (Figure 2). One of the key as-
pects of bending-active structures is that they devi-
ate from the existing structural typologies, such as
space frame structures, planar or curved trusses etc.
As Lienhard et al. explains, bending-active structures
are distinguished as an approach rather than a dis-
tinct structural typology (Lienhard et al. 2014). This
is because they allow for heterogeneous configura-
tions and nonlinearities in their load bearing behav-
ior. The latest advancements in Finite Element Anal-
ysis software (FEA) (Lienhard et al. 2014) allow en-
gineers to analyze and simulate structures beyond
 the existing typologies with a high level of accuracy
in the load calculation. Bending-active structures of-
fer a wide field of experimentation on non-standard
load configurations, as they derive their complex
geometry from elastic deformation processes. Fi-
nally, in comparison to the previous existing struc-
tural typologies, in the resulting lightweight struc-
tures, bending is not avoided but instrumentalized
to create complex curved geometries on the basis
of standard, semi-finished building products. A par-
ticular advantage of this approach to construction
(design approach to bending-active structures based
on elastically deformed members) is the opportunity
to continue using conventional flat-based manufac-
turing processes but in an unconventional way. As
usual, parts can be produced on CNC routers, laser
cutters, and waterjets in a cheap, quick, and reliant
manner. As is newly introduced with my research,
the materials then get bent and coupled together
to form highly complex origami-like structures. This
fabrication method provides a very time and material
efficient alternative to traditional construction pro-
cesses since it is neither depended on the fabrication
of expensive molds nor on the auxiliary support of
complicated formwork. Before moving on to the case
study that this paper mainly focuses on, we will exam-
ine an example of elastic bending plywood in chair
design.
Elastic bending of plywwod, CODA Graz
Chair
624 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1
The Graz chair by CODA office (Figure 3) is an out-
standing example of elastic bending plywood and
has operated as a precedent for our case study. The
original design is a revision of the Medea chair by Vit-
torio Nobili that suggests improvements in the fabri-
cation methodology and the quality of the plywood
layers. The design suggests a flat, rectangular piece
of plywood that carries some CNC smart slits. When
the naked edges of the slits are overlapped and con-
nected, the shape of the chair is formed. The ground-
breaking idea of this design is that it achieves dou-
ble curvature without requiring expensive, special-
ized equipment or craftmanship as the previous ex-
amples. It also allows for customization and adapt-
ability in a wide range of target shapes. These princi-
pals influenced our design and motivated us to push
the boundaries further, explore more complicated
shapes and achieve stability by a single operation
method (in our case, elastic bending of flat surfaces).
Bending-active as a form finding process
Form-finding is generally understood as the pro-
cess of developing the geometric form of a struc-
ture based on mechanical behavior (Lienhard et al.
2014). This means that the resulting form is desig-
nated by a particular set of loads that operate on
it within a constrained set of parameters (material,
scale). In bending-active structures, since the form
derives from an elastic deformation of a planar shape,
the resulting geometry is hard to predict with high
accuracy without a real time bending simulation.
Computational tools such Kangaroo Physics [7], or
FEA software allow the user to apply loads on a struc- Figure 3
ture and simulate the deformation in real time and Graz chair, CODA
therefore; observe the result as well as the interme- office [6].
diate steps of the simulation. Having real time feed-
back from the process, the user is able to better un-
derstand the relationships between the variables of
the system and adjust them until the desired result
is achieved. Although this process offers the user
freedom to explore new forms, it is worth mention-
ing that form-finding result does not necessarily cor-
respond with the most efficient load-bearing solu-
 tion. Hence, the main challenge is to optimize the set
of variables to a functioning relation that addresses
both aesthetic qualities, as well as sufficient load-
bearing capacity and stability. Furthermore, to suc-
cessfully create a bending-active system it is impor-
tant to incorporate material properties, as well as to
experiment with physical modeling. We will examine
the contribution of physical scaled models in the fol-
lowing sections of the paper.
HOLISTIC DESIGN PROCESS
Based on what was mentioned above, this section
will describe the design process that was imple-
mented in the chaise lounge case study. The goal
of this case study is to achieve an optimum balance
between comfort, stability, easier material handling,
weight and cost. To achieve that we will start from
identifying two strategies, in which the design pro-
cess was based on.
Matter Compiler
The first strategy of the design process suggests the
construction of a continuous workflow that is called
"Matter Compiler". This approach borrows some of
the principals of declarative design [1] in software
engineering. It promotes a pipeline of linked pro-
cesses that are automated in order to reduce large
manual effort and enhance the search for better and
more efficient designs. The matter compiler suggests
Figure 4
Angle study of
precedent designs,
Final pieces of the
prototype.
MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 625
the building of a system with contributing variables,
such as forces, material properties, human propor-
tions etc. where all the processes are part of a single
workflow that transfers data from one phase to the
subsequent. The benefits of a continuous workflow
lie on the fact that the designer operates at a high
level set of intentions for the design, such as overall
size, number of users, seating posture etc. and the
system translates them in a set of instructions for fab-
rication.
Accommodating comfort
The second strategy that defined the design process
was that of body conscious design (Cranz 2000). One
of the objectives of this case study was to improve
the basic configuration of the conventional seating
posture. To achieve that, we analyzed seating pos-
tures of existing furniture and ended up in choosing
the chaise lounge posture as one of the most com-
fortable and with the best stress and load distribu-
tion for the body (Figure 4). Lounging, which can be
defined as halfway sitting and lying down, takes load
off the spine neck and head. After analyzing in detail
designers' chaise lounges as precedent models and
as role models for the correct angles that fit the hu-
man body, we ended up isolating the main variables
that are associated with the comfort factor. These
variables are, the points of contact with the human
body (arms, hands and legs), the alignment and sup-
port requirements of those points and the angles that

are formed between the points of contact.
CASE STUDY: BENDING CHAISE LOUNGE
This section will delve into a more detailed analysis
of the processes that are engaged in the case study,
from form-finding methodologies to fabrication and
assembly.
Form-Finding method: Pinching
This case study approaches bending-active struc-
tures topic under the lens of minimal material em-
ployment, in order to prototype a chaise lounge out
of the minimum amount of bended surfaces with the
highest structural performance. A geometrical inspi-
ration that gave direction to the form-finding pro-
cess was the exploration of conical bending. Inspired
by Plücker's conoid as reference geometry enabled
us to formulate a methodology for achieving simi-
626 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1
Figure 5
Prototype chaise
lounge built out of
1:16" thickness
HDPE sheets.
lar shapes out of planar surfaces and examine their
structural performance. The method we resulted in
is called pinching and it is described as the process
of strategically removing an internal part of a planar
surface and connecting the naked edges of the cut
out shape, allowing the surface to bend accordingly
in three dimensions (Figure 6). The main motivation
for the pinching method lies in the simplicity of pro-
ducing complexly curved elements. This process ap-
pears to have two benefits: first, it produces intri-
cate shapes out of a single planar surface; second, it Figure 6
creates three-dimensional shapes that perform struc- Pinching as a
turally in the bended state. form-finding
technique.
Matter Compiler: Steps and Processes
Figure 7
Matter Compiler
steps.
As stated above, the pipeline used for this project
suggests the use of a "Matter Compiler" that trans-
lates high-level descriptions of a set of intentions or
the design to low-level instructions for digital fabrica-
tion and construction documentation. This method
is constrained by a particular material system, a spe-
cific method of joining/assembly and a specific pro-
cess of fabrication. Our compiler suggests the follow-
 ing main steps (Figure 7):
• Form-finding and Geometric rationalization
• Joints and seams handing
• Layout automation - Fabrication
• Assembly Instructions
The following paragraph describes the workflow in
terms of types of processes, relationships and in-
cluded variables. The first step involves the Form
Finding process that was rendered through the
pinching methodology that was described above.
This involves a parametric model of the planar sur-
face with the cut out shapes. The first simulations
were done in the Grasshopper plug-in Kangaroo
Figure 8 Physics [7] and later in the Finite Element Analysis
Digital simulation in software SOFiSTiK [5] (Figure 8). The Finite Element
FEA software Analysis produced more accurate results, as we were
SOFiSTiK. able to calculate the stress and loads along the sur-
face and observe the stress distribution. Along with
the digital simulations, a large part of the form ex-
ploration was carried out with physical models. The
physical experiments were scaled models of either
paper or the actual material in smaller thicknesses
that were created for actual material testing and for
cross-referencing the results of the digital simulation.
The second step involves geometric rationalization of
the outcome shape, in order for it to adapt to the hu-
man body proportions and ergonomics. We created
different families of cut out shapes along the planar
surface that correspond to different angles when the
surface bents in three dimensions, hence this leads
in achieving postural variation. Based on the anal-
ysis that was carried through in precedent chaise
lounges, we depict target angles and proportions
that lead to a comfortable seating posture. The third
step consists of the handling of joints and seams. In
our case, the joining of the naked edges is by the
technique of riveting and particularly, blind riveting.
The same method is used to join multiple surfaces to-
gether. Rivets were preferred because they can sup-
port tension loads, as well as shear loads. Riveting is
achieved by the creation of parametric tabs along the
given edge with a number of holes at a certain dis-
MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 627
tance from each other that overlap completely and
are connected with blind rivets. Having said that, it
is apparent that given a modification in the length
of the edge, due to form adjustment, the tabs and
the hole pattern adjust accordingly. For the riveting
process we used steel rivets and washers, as well as
a rivet gun. The fourth and final step of our compiler
is the layout automation that provides the data for
fabrication. Since the main goal of this project was
to achieve best structural performance, while using
the minimum amount of joints and pieces, the lay-
out automation process is a straightforward 2D nest-
ing process of few planar outlined shapes in 4ft. by
8ft. planar sheets.
Materialization
In this section we will analyze all the contributing
processes from design to construction of the chaise
lounge. We will divide the processes in two cat-
egories, high-level and low-level intentions. High-
level intention processes are those, which affect pri-
mary properties of the design, such as comfort, aes-
thetic, size, proportions, stiffness, stability etc. Low-
level intention processes are those, which are respon-
sible for the production of the prototype, such as, de-
tailed shape refinement, tab creation for assembly,
hole pattern for the rivet joints and data for fabrica-
tion. Low-level intention processes translate the dig-
ital, optimized model into a set of components that
are constructible by the chosen fabrication equip-
ment within a set of feasibility constraints.
 Form development and Optimization. Investigat-
ing further the technique of pinching, which was de-
scribed above as a form-finding strategy, the further
development of the design was to define the cor-
relation between angle of cut out shape and angle
of bended shape. In that way we would be able
to test the ergonomics, angles, lengths and propor-
tions and make the necessary adjustments. The ini-
tial test models included symmetrical shapes (circle,
ellipsoids), in order to assess the relationship of the
2D shapes with the 3 dimensional bent forms (Fig-
ure 6). The relationship between the elements was
linear for most cases, meaning the wider the angle
of the cutout, the smaller the bending radius was,
causing higher deformation to the surface. Once a
principal model was developed, the variation of an-
gles and proportions allowed for fine calibration of
the geometry. The modifications concentrated on
adjusting the angles of the cut out shapes, so that the
bended outcome shape is comfortable and adapted
to the human body. Hence, the outlines (exterior, in-
terior) of the planar surfaces were optimized to re-
spond both in terms of functionality; the object has
to perform as a chaise lounge, as well as in terms
of structural stability; the object has to support the
weight of a person without material breach. The final
shape of the chaise lounge was determined by sim-
ulating the planar surface with cutout shapes in the
right locations and sizes, with a given load set. The
bending simulation was processed in the Finite Ele-
ment Analysis software, SOFiSTiK, following the elas-
tic cable approach. This approach involves defining
the fixed and sliding points of the geometry, as well
as contraction cables that join the naked edges of the
planar surface causing elastic deformation. The sim-
ulation terminates, when the cables' length reaches
the value of zero.
Material depended geometry. Along with the form
development strategy to address comfort, the pro-
cess of high-level description of the design involves
material property integration, such as the minimum
bending radii and the Young's Modulus of the mate-
rial, in order to predict and exclude in advance cer-
628 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1
tain dimension ranges that would cause material fail-
ure. The material system chosen in this project is 4ft.
by 8ft. high-density polyethylene (HDPE) sheets of
1/16" thickness with a Young's Modulus of 1200N /
mm2 . The material itself, when in the flat state, did
not demonstrate characteristics of stiffness, however
when bent, it provided enough stability to hold the
weight of one person. The simulation aided us to best
utilize material resilience and strength when bent,
by providing numerical feedback regarding the loads
and stresses along the bent shape. As mentioned
before, along with the digital simulation, we carried
out multiple physical experiments. Experimenting
with physical models speeded up the optimization
process, because it allowed an instant understand-
ing of the load and stress distribution, as well as the
association of the variables with resulting geometry.
However, scaled models tended to appear stiffer than
they actually operated in 1:1 scale and the same type
of material demonstrated different properties in dif-
ferent scales. This condition had to be studied care-
fully in the digital simulation in order to make sure
that the material used in the prototype demonstrates
the desired properties.
Low-Level processes. The Low-level process in-
cludes four processes. The first process includes the
refinement of the bended shape by trimming and ad-
justing the outline of the bended shape in order for it
to meet the desired shape expectations, such as fillet-
ing sharp corners and removing unwanted material
from areas that do not affect the structural stability of
the chaise. Since shape refinement can only happen
when the surface is bent and the chosen method of
fabrication operates in 2-dimensional shapes only, an
additional process is required. This process involves
the re-flattening of the bended surface, in order to
get the exact outline of a planar surface for fabrica-
tion. This process is necessary because the bended
shape cannot be predicted before simulation; there-
fore the refinement takes place after the bending
process. However, since our fabrication method ap-
plies only to flat surfaces, re-flattening the bended
surface after bending is required. The second process
 suggests the creation of tabs along the edges of the
interior cutout shape that are important for connect-
ing the edges together. In this project we explore the
limitations of this technique in terms of dimension
constraints, as well as the maximum material thick-
ness where rivet joining is still effective. The tabs had
to provide sufficient surface area for the rivets to be
placed in a way allows equal stress distribution along
the tab surface to avoid tearing. Also, i is important
to mention that the calculation has to be as exact as
possible so that when all the tabs of the structure,
the hole pattern will much so that the rivets can pass
through the holes. Any discrepancy in the simulation
or the generation of the tabs would cause difficulties
in the assembly process. The third process involves
removal of material in areas of high stress concentra-
tion. Based on the minimum-bending radius of the
material and the stress information from the simula-
tion we were able to allocate areas of high stress dis-
tribution that would cause the material to tear. To
avoid that, we strategically removed those areas be-
Figure 9
Prototype chaise
lounge built to of
1:16" thickness
HDPE sheets, proof
of concept.
MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 629
fore the bending so that they are within the range of
the bending radius of the HDPE polymer sheet. The
fourth and last process is nesting the pieces in 4ft. by
8ft. HDPE sheets for fabrication. The overall shape
of the chaise lounge is composed by 2 bended sur-
faces connected in 3 critical areas, in order to provide
strength to the structure, as well as a third smaller
surface that creates tension in the whole structure,
preventing it from self-load deformation. The fab-
rication method that is most suitable for this mate-
rial, in terms of cost, speed (1 hour setting up and
cut time) and accuracy is cutting in the "Zund" blade
cutter (tool: blade Z10, setting: multi-pass, 3 passes).
(Figure 5, Figure 9)
CONCLUSION
The objective of this paper was to provide general
insight into form-finding and structural analysis of
bending-active structures. The work aimed to ex-
plore the potentials of bending-active structures in
furniture design as an approach in generating new
 forms and structural strategies. Briefly, the parts of
the case study that were considered successful were
the accurate translation of software results into fab-
rication, as well as the accurate simulation of angles,
forces and material property integration that resulted
in a comfortable chaise lounge that can bear the load
of one person. It is worth mentioning that the over-
all cost of the chaise was low (around 100 USD) and it
was ight weight in relation to its size and load bearing
capacity (around 20 kg). A future development of the
project would be a larger design space exploration
that would respond to a wider range of demands,
in terms of functionality and use, such as fit multi-
ple people, accommodate extreme load cases with
local material reinforcement. Also, in terms of join-
ery and assembly, the possibility of disassembling
and re-assembling the chaise lounge, by introducing
temporary, yet strong connections would be desir-
able. Another aspect that is definitely worth looking
into would be the use of a more sustainable material.
However the challenge would be to allocate a ma-
terial with similar structural properties. The poten-
tial of plywood as we saw in the Graz chair example
was considered, but was excluded eventually due to
the large bending radii that it requires. Moreover, we
were aiming for an easier handling in terms of weight
and fabrication speed. Before ending up choosing
high-density polyethylene (HDPE), we ran some tests
with polystyrene as well as with low density polyethy-
lene. The results were disappointing in terms of
structural stability and stiffness, as Polystyrene was
too brittle and low density polyethylene (LDPE) was
not stiff enough. A potential answer might be lying in
recycled High-density polyethylene, in case it main-
tains its original properties after the recycling pro-
cess, however this is a topic that needs to be looked
into and experimented upon.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was conducted as part of Studio One
2014/2015 and the Bending and Folding Seminar at
UC Berkeley's College of Environmental Design at the
Department of Architecture. The case study was a
630 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1
team work of Cindy Hartono, Fei Du, Shima Saheb-
nassagh, Eleanna Panagoulia under the supervision
of Prof. Kyle Steinfeld Prof. Simon Schleicher, Prof.
Jonathan Bachrach and Luis Jaggy and generously
supported by Autodesk. The authors want to partic-
ularly thank all member of the team: Cindy Hartono,
Fei Du, Shima Sahebnassagh, Eleanna Panagoulia.
REFERENCES
Cranz, G 2000, The Chair, Rethinking culture, body, and de-
sign, w. w. Norton & Company, New York, London
Eames, D 2012, Eames: Beautiful Details, AMMO Books,
Los Angeles, CA
Knippers, J, Cremers, J, Gabler, M and Lienhard, J 2011,
Construction Manual for Polymer Membranes: Ma-
terial, Semi-Finished products, Form-finding Design,
Birkhauser Achitecture, Basel
Lienhard, J 2014, Bending-active Structure, Form finding
strategies for elastic deformation in static and kinetic
systems and the structural potentials therein, Ph.D.
Thesis, Institute of Building Structures and Struc-
tural Design University of Stuttgart
Schleicher, S, Rastetter, A, Schönbrunner, A, Haber-
bosch, N and Knippers, J 2015 'Form-Finding and
Design Potentials of Bending-Active Plate Structures
in Modelling Behaviour', Proceedings of Design Mod-
elling Symposium 2015
[1] http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/˜jrb/Projects/decl
arative-design/declarative-design.htm
[2] http://global.rakuten.com/en/store/chaoscollect
ion/item/eames_lcw_walnut_p/
[3] http://www.designboom.com/design/matthias-
pliessnig-amada-bench/
[4] http://www.eamesoffice.com/the-work/airplane-fu
selage/
[5] http://www.sofistik.com/en/
[6] http://coda-office.com/work/Graz
[7] http://kangaroo3d.com
rolyPOLY
A Hybrid Prototype for Digital Techniques and Analog Craft in Architecture

Andrew Wit1 , Simon Kim2

1
Temple University 2 University of Pennsylvania
1
andrew.wit@temple.edu 2 simon.kim@i-k-studio.com

The rapid emergence of computational design tools, advanced material systems

and robotic fabrication within the disciplines of architecture and construction has
granted designers immense freedom in form and assembly, while retaining
pronounced control over output quality throughout the entirety of the design and
fabrication process. Simultaneously, the complexity inherent within these tools
and processes can lead to a loss of craft though the production of methodologies,
forms and artifacts left with extremely recognizable residues from tooling
processes utilized during their production. This paper investigates the fecund
intersection of digital technologies and handcraft through core-less carbon fiber
reinforced polymer (CFRP) winding as a means of creating a new typology of
digital craft blurring the line between human and machine. Through the lens of
an innovative wound CFRP shelter rolyPOLY completed during the winter of
2015, this paper will show the exigencies and affordances between the realms of
digital and analog methodologies of CFRP winding on large-scale structures.

Keywords: additive manufacturing, composites, form finding, craft, analog /

digital

INTRODUCTION weight ratio, malleability during fabrication, capacity

The recent introduction of carbon fiber reinforced
polymer (CRFP) based simulation tools (Waimer et
al. 2013) and robotic fabrication methodologies (Gra-
mazio and Kohler 2014) into the disciplines of archi-
tecture and construction has enabled designers to
not only reimagine potential formal and spatial qual-
ities of both built artifacts and environments, but has
also allowed for the complete re-envisioning of our
current systems of fabrication and assembly through
the creation of a single ubiquitous craft-based pro-
cess. CFRP's have properties such as high strength to
to create complex yet precise forms while minimiz-
ing waste through reconfigurable formworks, the ca-
pability to maneuver between structural and superfi-
cial surfaces by means of subtle manipulation of ma-
terial orientation and depth, as well as the ability to
be easily fabricated on-site through either robotic or
hand winding (Doerstelmann et al. 2015; Reichert et
al. 2014). These properties allow for a high-level of
precision and adaptability that traditional means of
construction cannot afford.

MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 631

 Context
Current methodologies of CFRP placement within in-
dustrial processes place emphasis not on the visual,
tactile, and craft based potentials inherent within the
material, but rather solely focus on producing op-
timized and repeatable systems. Unlike disciplines
such as aeronautics or automotive where products
are mass-produced to be identical in dimension,
structural properties, and appearance, architecture
requires the freedom and flexibility to freely alter
configurations on a project-by-project basis. The
creation of robotic craft driven architectural artifacts
though is complicated by the inherent complex-
ity within these new tools and processes (Kudless
2013). For this reason this project re-evaluates cur-
rent methodologies of CFRP placement, investigat-
ing the benefits native to handcraft in relation to
those of numerically controlled machines while be-
ing tested and evaluated through the completed ar-
tifact's optical, structural, functional and tactile mer-
its.
The integration of handcraft into the digital
workflow also has the potential to reinstate meth-
ods for rapid yet backwards-compatible revisions
to winding rules, on-the-fly improvisation and intu-
itive alterations that would currently be difficult to
achieve during the robotic CFRP winding process. On
the other hand, aspects inherent through digital and
robotic production such as strength through speed,
accuracy and repeatability can be reintroduced into
the winding process creating a more robust hybrid
fabrication system where there is a continuous di-
alog between human and machine. For the work
documented in this paper, rolyPOLY acts as a proto-
type or bespoke object in which to study ephemer-
ality and perceptual effects such as texture, pattern
interference, and variable levels of opacity or inher-
ent patterning such as moiré. The discoveries gained
through the prototype by human craftsmanship are
then calibrated and formulated into rapid fabrication
methodologies via machine processes.
Through a further examination of the materials,
processes and techniques utilized during the design
632 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1
and fabrication of rolyPOLY, this paper will demon-
strate the potentials inherent within craft driven
CFRP winding.
rolyPOLY
Following the completion of several small-scale pro-
totypes and projects focused around robotically
wound pre-impregnated CFRP tow for the "One Day
House Initiative" (Wit et al. 2015); rolyPOLY was initi-
ated as the research initiatives first intervention at an
inhabitable scale (Figure 1). Created as a traveling ex-
hibition currently on display at the Tyler School of Art
and slated for the "Beyond the Horizon" exhibition at
the Philadelphia Museum of Art in the spring of 2017,
the artifact functions as a refuge for a single occu-
pant with the ability to be inhabited while remain-
ing structural in all-possible orientations. Through
the operation of human assisted tumbling, a series of
unique spaces, visual / tactile textures and opacities
are crafted and experienced by the inhabitant. Func-
tioning as a prototypical module, rolyPOLY is a single
component within a larger aggregating installation
to be produced at an architectural scale.
Figure 1
rolyPOLY on display
at the Tyler School
of Art.
Continuing from the successful experiments in com-
putation and robotically programmed CFRP per-
formed at Ball State University in the spring of 2015,
(Wit et al. 2016), rolyPOLY further examines the digital
workflow of numeric fiber winding through the rein-
troduction of the traditional craft of hand winding as
a direct translation of computational data. Through
 the utilization of a rigorous back and forth dialog ness, limited working time, and finally large amounts
between hand and machine, traditional elements of of wasted resin.
craft are reinserted into the winding process allowing
Figure 2
for the formation of new hybrid typologies of wound
CFRP winding
CFRP.
detail.
Based on a 10 sided primitive with two open
faces, each 7' x 4.5' x 4.5' module was fabricated
to easily aggregate with adjacent modules creat-
ing larger, more complex, self-supporting structures.
Wound from a single continuous strand of CFRP, each
finished module contains over 100,000 linear feet of
carbon fiber tow with a minimal self-weight of less
than 20 pounds. The high strength to weight ration
was achieved by the design and implementation of
variable winding procedures that allowed for a vary-
ing of skin thicknesses ranging between 1/16" and For these reasons, a pre-impregnated resin system
1/4" while simultaneously encouraging unique pat- was chosen. rolyPOLY utilized a specifically created,
terns and textures to emerge. Initially requiring a full high-impact resin system for several reasons includ-
24 hours of hand winding per module, subsequent ing: Material consistency, overall stability, shelf life,
projects have substantially reduced winding times low temperature curing, structural attributes and fi-
making the process more feasible for large-scale ar- nally because of its minimal toxicity and off gassing
chitectural applications. throughout the winding and baking process. A
12,000-strand count (12K) CFRP tow of roughly 1/8"
width and with a ±27.51% resin content was chosen
MATERIALS
for the application.
From the onset, the project aimed to further the dis-
In choosing the CFRP system, minimal toxicity
cussion on CFRP's position within the discipline of
and low baking temperature became the deciding
architecture and construction as a means of giving
factors, as the material would be both robotically and
designers more formal freedom, minimizing waste
hand wound over extended periods of time. This par-
throughout construction, as well as for the minimiz-
ticularly chosen resin system had the ability to be
ing of individual building component. To test mate-
cured in a temperature range between 220o F mini-
rial viability, initial prototyping examined the poten-
mum at 24 hours baking and 260o F maximum at 4
tials of both wet wound CFRP and pre-impregnated
hours bake time with an additional 4 hour period nec-
CFRP (Figure 2) resin systems within the context of
essary for kiln ramp-up and down of temperature.
core-less winding.
In addition, the chosen resin had an extremely long
Through a series of early small-scale winding
shelf life of up to 18 months at 0o F and 3 months at
tests, it was determined that a pre-impregnated sys-
room temperature. This additional stability allowed
tem would be utilized for the fabrication of rolyPOLY.
for extended work times, permitting the prototyping
Although wet-wound CFRP held several distinct ad-
and the winding process to take place over extended
vantages over pre-impregnated materials such as
periods of time without material degradation. Mate-
rapid curing time without the need for a kiln, it had
rial winding and the post-cure removal process were
several disadvantages that were difficult to overcome
also simplified by a slight material tackiness that dis-
such as: Difficulty in controlling resin content, work-
couraged slipping without resin pooling.
ing temperatures affected cure time, extreme messi-

MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 633

 FORM FINDING
As the project's focus was centered on the explo-
ration of CFRP's properties in relationship to craft
driven winding, the artifact's formal aspects were de-
veloped from material deformation created as tow
was wound over a base primitive. Formally centered
around a sphenoid hendecahedron, rolyPOLY con-
sisted of 10 unique faces of which two were left open
for occupant access and interactive plug-in surfaces
(Figure 3). The primitive's asymmetrical nature, large
flat faces, sizable internal volume and stable weight
distribution allowed for the creation of a structure
that could not only be oriented in any direction, but
also produce unique internal / external spatial and vi-
sual implications in each orientation as it was inhab-
ited.
Although the formal aspects of the sphenoid
hendecahedron primitive lent itself well to the de-
sired programming and experiential needs of an in-
habitable refuge, the form's lack of surface curvature
created issues throughout early prototyping. Early
on it was found that to create tight bonds between
layers during the baking process, it was necessary
for all composite layers to be tightly overlapping and
compressed together. To create the necessary layer
overlap without the use of a solid core or vacuum
bag system, it was essential to wind in a way that pro-
duced double curvature along all faces.
As the pre-baked CFRP strands function similar
to cables when tensioned, all of the primitive's
634 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1
flat surfaces were treated as tensile membranes.
Through the utilization of a tensile modeling soft-
ware's (MPanel Software Solutions) physics solver,
the form's edges were initially converted to cables
under a predetermined set of constraints (i.e. grav-
ity, material properties, tension) which allowed for
the edges to relax into their natural resting positions.
Next, each of the eight solid panels was rebuilt uti-
lizing the newly curved edges creating a series of ro-
bust, doubly curved tensile membrane. The new sur-
face geometries were then relaxed producing the re-
vised overall form. Lastly, to simulate surface defor-
mation created by the tensioning of the overlapping
CFRP layering, the eight tensile membranes were in-
flated by a factor 10% in the MPanel modeling soft-
ware.
CORELESS RECONFIGURABLE FORMWORK
To minimize material waste throughout the fabrica-
tion process while simultaneously simplifying wind-
ing and demounting, a reconfigurable formwork was
fabricated. The formwork consisted of three simple
elements, all of which can be simply interchanged
through bolt on connections:
1. Steel frame. To create the overall form of roly-
POLY, a modular steel frame was created from
¼" steel round bar for each of the eight panels.
Each panel consisted of three to four uniquely
curved edges that were oriented perpendicu- Figure 3
lar to their corresponding surface then simply rolyPOLY formal
welded together. Every module edge corre- studies
sponded to an adjacent panel edge for easy
assembly.
2. Conduit hangers. Bolting the frames and
grippers together was simply accomplished.
Following the completion of the individual
frames, simple conduit hangers were utilized
to fix frames 1-8 together. Each frame was
bolted in two locations that were easily acces-
sible from the interior volume of the artifact.
3. Laser cut CFRP grippers. On the outside of the
frame, a simple linear gripper was fabricated
out of 1/8" plywood and attached via conduit
 hangers (Figure 4). The grippers were 1" deep
and had a series of ¼" wide by ¼" deep teeth
running along both sides. The topside was
utilized as the gripping surface while the bot-
tom surface was cut to allow the teeth to take
the curvature of the bent steel frame. Addi-
tionally, spaced every 12" of the bottom sur-
face was a 1" bolt on connection point for easy
on-site alignment.
Figure 4
Frame detail.
To avoid having the CFRP cure to the frame, the en-
tire frame was lightly coated in a spray mold release
before winding. Following the winding, baking and
cooling of the artifact, the frame is simply unbolted
from the inside of the refuge and disassembled one
frame at a time while being removed through one of
the two openings in the object.
PROTOTYPICAL WINDING STUDIES
Initial small-scale winding was tested through the
utilization of a 6-axis, KUKA KR 60 industrial robot
with custom fabricated end-effectors and ground a
mounted fiber dispenser consisting of a ¼" diame-
ter, lubricated, aluminum tube 24" above the zero
plane. As the robot moved through space spiral-
ing around the given effector, fibers were effort-
lessly pulled through the dispenser and placed on
the effector. Wet winding required an additional step
where the tow was pulled through a pool of resin
prior to application to the effector.
MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 635
After gaining a better understanding of the proce-
dure, programming and winding limitations asso-
ciated with robotic programming a series of hand
wound tests were initiated that would later re-inform
the robotic winding process. Following is a taxonomy
of six successful winding typologies (Figure 5).
1. Numeric helical offset winding
2. Random hybrid winding
3. Helically wound grid shells
4. Alternating helically wound grid shells
5. Core-less alternating polar offset winding
6. Hybrid alternating shell winding
Although all six methodologies of winding are vastly
different in their appearance, each one began to ex-
emplify specific structural, tactile and craft based ef-
fects that were desired.
Initial testing with numeric helical offset winding
created robust lattice like structures that appeared
random in early layering but lacked the desired vari-
ation in opacity and tactility as additional layers were
added. Random hybrid winding created a robust,
extremely thin solid structure, but found itself with
inconsistencies in both structural stability and con-
trol during the winding process. The grid shell ty-
pologies created the most robust structures, but also
had extremely repetitive patterning while also lack-
ing the projects desired level of variation. Coreless
alternating polar offset winding created both the de-
sired structural capabilities and control for the wind-
ing of rolyPOLY. Unfortunately this method relied on
a fixed series of points that would not work appropri-
ately for the asymmetrical and continuous shape of
the installation.
To accomplish all of the desired effects, Hybrid
alternating shell winding was chosen as the projects
method of choice.
WINDING METHODOLOGY
Establishing an initial desire for transparency, optical
effects, and patterning, while winding across the ten
faces - two of which would be left open - required
design implementation and resulted in the develop-
 ment of the hybrid alternating shell winding. Each
face was first separated and flattened. Diagrams for
each face were created to determine the pattern as
needed, such as increasing density as a gradient from
edge of face to center. Assembled back together
in the original sphenoid hendecahedron, a continual
winding route had to be manufactured, as the carbon
fiber tow could not be cut or otherwise interrupted
without limiting its capabilities as a monocoque shell.
An additional factor was the degree to which the craft
driven method may change or adjust the winding
densities and directions in response to sun, vision, or
aesthetic preference. This real-time adaptability to
correct or change as needed supersedes the abilities
of a preprogrammed robotic arm.
After initial pattern design, the overall winding
process was developed in two distinct phases: (1)
sacrificial formwork and (2) alternating layers.
1. Sacrificial formwork
2. Alternating layers
Through the completion of previous prototypes it
was determined that upon commencement of the
winding process, the addition of a tightly wound sac-
rificial layer would aid in the stabilization of the sub-
sequent layers. Initial studies found that the bot-
tom few layers had a tendency to be less consis-
tent, as minor variations in CFRP tension and shifts
within the frame could occur. Therefore, the ad-
636 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1
dition of four widely spaced layers was highly suc-
cessful in assuring layer consistency throughout the
winding process. Resin tackiness in the initial layers
also helped minimize fiber movement and separa-
tion ensuring that consistent tow tensions and pat-
terns were achieved.
Following the laying of the sacrificial CFRP layers,
a series of alternating winding patterns were layered
that occupied roughly 95% of the winding process.
To achieve optimal strength, layer rigidity, consis-
tency, and visual opacity, a variable winding pattern
was developed consisting of three repeating steps:
(1) peak winding, (2) valley winding, and (3) spiral
winding. Each step consisted of four distinctive layers
of wound carbon CFRP. Following one full winding
sequence, winding direction was flipped 180 degrees
and restarted. If at any point during the winding pro-
cess deficiencies in craft, visual effect, or structure ap-
peared, a variable could be introduced to produce
the desired resultant. Additionally, winding occurred
over a series of four tangential panels at a time allow-
ing for a robust bond between all faces and edges of
the installation.
1. Peak Winding: Placed first, peak winding was
utilized as a means of generating the neces-
sary internal forces to create a stable and con-
sistent form. Running between the peaks of
each panel, high levels of positive surface off-
Figure 5
Winding studies.
 set were generated that would later be com- temperatures excess of 2,000o F, extra care was taken
pressed and pulled position by the subse- in the pre-heating process to ensure that the entire
quent two overlapping layers. As the desired volume was heated to a consistent temperature of
surface position was as far off as positive 4" in 260o F. During baking process, a temperature varia-
these layers, winding tension was decreased tion of 40o F could delay the curing process by up to
from 10 pounds of force to 5 pounds allowing 20 hours. In addition, if the temperature within the
for subsequent layers to effortlessly pull them kiln's vertical volume is inconsistent, the overall form
into place. may also be inconsistently cured leading to post bake
2. Valley Winding: In contrast to peak wind- structural failure.
ing, valley winding connected the panel's low
Figure 6 points in a perpendicular direction. As the
rolyPOLY on frame natural resting surface offset for the valley
prior to baking. winding was an average of negative 2" from
the desired surface location, collisions be-
tween peak and valley layers occur through-
out the winding process. The slightly higher
tension within the valley winding aided in
the drawing in of all peak-winding fibers into
their predetermined resting positions. As
surface curvature variation could occur be-
tween panel edges and their respected cen-
ters, slight layer delamination sometimes oc-
curred in panels with the greatest levels of Upon baking for 4 hours, the kiln is disengaged,
curvature. and allowed to slowly return to room temperature.
3. Spiral Winding: To eliminate any remaining When the baked artifact has cooled, it was removed
surface variation and also ensure tight fiber from the kiln and prepared for dismounting from the
overlap, spiral edge winding was applied. frame (Figure 6). The previously discussed dismount-
As the highest levels of layer separation oc- ing process takes only minutes and produces zero
curred in panel edges, a third layer of CFRP waste.
was wound over all intersecting panel edges.
Winding in a tight clockwise direction, spiral
winding not only compressed any loose fibers
CONCLUSIONS
As evidenced from pre-determined design and pre-
but also created strong connections between
set fabrication by robotic procedures, counter to im-
all intersecting panels. As surface centers had
provisational handcraft, the means and methodol-
less deviation, spiral winding was only neces-
ogy of winding contains a forcible outcome. Between
sary on the first 12-18" of each edge.
the two methods is an array of outcomes where a
shared procedure may be profitable. A robotic pro-
BAKING cedure may take on the initial Peak and Valley wind-
The curing process for the chosen CFRP resin system ing after which handcraft may deliver the final cus-
was extremely straightforward. Following the com- tomized wrapping as needed by the designer. With
pletion of the winding process and kiln temperature a greater input and output from feedback sensors, a
ramp up, the full module was loaded into a large gas robotic arm may be able to one-day display real-time
fired kiln. As the available kiln was designed to run at adjustment to control tension or density, for exam-

MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 637

 ple. Having gone through the distinct differences in
robotic winding as well as handcraft production, val-
idation and metrics of value are formed (Figure 7).
The judgment of one over the other is not necessar-
ily in cost effective time saved or in ad hoc artistic in-
spiration, but in the production of meaningful and
performative artifacts. As the rolyPOLY was a proto-
type in which to test the above-defined production,
the next step would be to gauge how well an occu-
pant is housed or sheltered within its enclosure. In
particular, the winding, as both core-less structural
shell and separating membrane between occupant
and the world, would need to respond to lighting,
views, privacy and safety. These questions and their
compelling implications would be continued as the
rolyPOLY expands in size, in color, and in connection
with other modules
638 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the following re-
searchers, institutions, and partners for their con-
tinued assistance throughout this ongoing research:
John Williams & Chad Curtis (CFRP Baking); Tim Figure 7
Rusterholz (Steel Fabrication); Aidan Kim, Joseph Gi- rolyPOLY on display
ampietro, Daniel Lau, Han Kwon, Junghyo Lee, Yue at the Tyler School
Chen, Lyly Huyen (Documentation & Production); of Art.
Temple University Tyler School of Art: Division of Ar-
chitecture and Environmental Design; University of
Pennsylvania School of Design; TCR Composites (Ma-
terials Donation + Design Assistance); MPanel Soft-
ware Solutions (Software Donation).
REFERENCES
Doerstelmann, M, Knippers, J, Koslowski, V and Vasey,
L 2015, 'ICD/ITKE Research Pavilion 2014-15: Fibre
Placement on a Pneumatic Body Based on a Water
Spider Web', Architectural Design, 85(5), pp. 60-65
Gramazio, F and Kohler, M 2014, The Robotic Touch: How
Robots Change Architecture, Park Books
Kudless, A 2013 'Formations of Digital Craft Culture', Pro-
ceedings of ACSA 2013, San Francisco, pp. 368-375
Reichert, S, Schwinn, T, La Magna, R and Menges, A
2014, 'Fibrous structures: An integrative approach
to design computation, simulation and fabrication
for lightweight, glass and carbon fibre composite
structures in architecture based on biomimetic de-
sign principles', Computer-Aided Design, 52, pp. 27-
39
Waimer, F, La Magna, R, Reichert, S, Schwinn, T, Menges,
A and Knippers, J 2013 'Integrated design methods
for the simulation of fibre-based structures', Design
Modelling Symposium 2013, Berlin
Wit, AJ, Eisinger, D and Putt, S 2015, 'Human Interaction-
Oriented Robotic Form Generation', in Reis, LP, Mor-
eira, AP, Lima, PU, Montano, L and Munoz-Martinez,
V (eds) 2015, Robot 2015: Second Iberian Robotics
Conference, Springer International Publishing, pp.
353-364
Wit, AJ, Kim, S, Ibanez, M and Eisinger, D 2016, 'Craft
Driven Robotic Composites', 3D Printing and Additive
Manufacturing, 3(1), pp. 2-9
Material Active Geometry
Constituting Programmable Materials for Responsive Building Skins

Alireza Borhani1 , Negar Kalantar2

1,2
Department of Architecture, Texas A&M University
1,2
www.thetranslab.com
1,2
{borhani|kalantar}@tamu.edu

This paper is part of a body of research developing an exploratory dialogue

between the built form and the environment, via experimentation with
performative geometry and material. Here, geometry is considered a design
material with the specific capacity to contribute to the performative aspects and
kinetic capabilities of building skins.This work opens with a review of emerging
opportunities for architects to design materials. It then discusses the concept of
Material Active Geometry (MAG) as a means of designing new properties for
existing materials. This is followed by a discussion of MAG principles that inform
the concepts of flexibility and rigidity in a 3D-printed textile called Flexible
Textile Structure (FTS). This research characterizes two FTS types and discusses
their potential to be employed in building skins; it also considers combinatory
approaches to computational models and physical prototyping. The work
concludes with a discussion of the advantages of using FTS, and provides a
trajectory for future research in the field of responsive materials and systems.

Keywords: Programmable Material, Material Active Geometry, Flexible Textile

Structures, Responsive Building Skins, Flexible yet Rigid

RECONCILIATION OF APPEARANCE AND
PERFORMANCE LYING AT THE HEART OF
GEOMETRY
In this paper, a primary point of departure is the
integration of geometry into the conception, com-
putation, materialization, and ultimate creation of
new material properties that are flexible yet rigid, ro-
bust yet light, simple yet complex. Therefore, this
paper lies at the confluence of various fields and
seeks to pave a new path for the development of pli-
able materials, enabling them to self-organize so that
they might simultaneously retain their structural re-
silience and resistance. Through a geometric contri-
bution to the inherent dynamic behavior of material,
its properties can be tailored to meet specific struc-
tural and mechanical needs (Figure 1).
This paper strives to understand some attributes
that cause the ability to change a material's appear-
ance and performance into whatever specifications
the designer desires. For instance, rendering a deter-
minate material that is geometrically designed can
reinforce the architectural form and spatial compo-

MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 639

 sition of a motion composition. To this end, this pa-
per focuses on the way material unites with geome-
try, which acts as the underlying structure of the mo-
tion design process. By celebrating the materiality
of a transformable element in the conceptual phase
of its design process, the properties of the material
serve as a coherent design feature and tool. In other
words, this paper thrives on the tension between ma-
terial articulation and design.
MATERIAL ACTIVE SYSTEM
Structurally speaking, Heino Engel (2007) determines
several active structural typologies. These typolo-
640 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1
gies navigate between vector-active, section-active,
form-active, surface-active, and hybrid systems. This
study identifies a new typology that refers to a
"material-active" system when forces are applied.
A material-active system is a system of rigid
matter that mainly employs transformable elements
through the geometry of its material. Regardless
of the size or scale of the material employed in the
transformable element, the motion quality of that el-
ement depends less on the inflexibility or flexibility
of the material and more on its geometry for flexibil- Figure 1
ity (Kalantar and Borhani 2013) (Figure 2). Working Flexible Textile
with rigid materials, this study reflects on how a small Structures that rely
level of flexibility in a material can be incorporated as on the appearance
an active parameter into the movement of the whole and performance of
system (Figure 3). 3D-printed
This paper discusses how the appearance of materials.
material might be intertwined with and dependent
upon its performance, through an exploration of new
shared territories in architecture, engineering, and
technology called "Material Active Geometry" (MAG).
Here, Material Active Geometry is coined by the au-
thors. Figure 2
The authors have developed a process by which Uniting material
MAG can be employed as a means of designing ma- with geometry to
terials. Here, MAG relies primarily on geometry as act as the
a structural and organizational mechanism, rather underlying
than depending solely on a material's properties; the structure of a
goal is to achieve better performance. MAG's pur- motion design.
pose is to improve the adaptability of a structure by
understanding the reciprocity between the geomet-
ric configuration of its materials and their dynamic in-
teraction with external forces.
Within the context of performative geometry as Figure 3
a system of design, MAG should not be understood as Using MAG
seeking to invent new materials per se, but rather to principles to inform
use existing ones, play with their organization, juxta- the motion.
positions, and geometric settings, and thereby reveal
their undiscovered properties.
Although a material-active system is intended
to withstand the maximum stress for which it is de-
signed, its applied geometry enables it to undertake
a planned deformation after being stressed and be-
 fore exceeding the material's elastic limit. In this ometry integrated with the three-dimensional form
manner, a material-active system is not simply one of motion.
that changes the material's steadiness. Rather, this
Figure 4
system carries out elastic deformation when a force
The physical
is applied; the system either returns to its origi-
embodiment of
nal shape or holds a new changeable configuration
geometry in
when the force is removed. To sustain the function of
material.
the system, the geometric design of the material em-
ploys several aspects to avoid any fracturing, buck-
ling, or inelastic (plastic) deformation. In other words,
the applied geometry functions as a framework for
guarding against structural failure. In addition, the
overall applied geometry and resulting configuration
encapsulate a solid architectural idea for the design
Figure 5 of any particular assembly, element, or joint capable
Transmitting of transmitting applicable forces during elastic defor-
applied forces mation (such as deflection or torsion).
through a particular Although a correlation of compressive and ten-
use of geometry to sile forces is necessary to meet a structural load, a
inform the 3D form material-active system puts an emphasis on the gen-
eration of geometrically-informed material behav- In designing a material-active system the following
of motion.
iors that facilitate the load bearing of transformable objectives are outlined:
elements. By offering structural capacity due to a net-
work of relationships among the different parts of the
material, the development of the structural system • Designing material behaviors, rather than
integrates the material behavior into the whole of the simply shaping already existing material
movable structure. • Manipulating material over time from the pas-
A material-active system is able to transmit ap- sive to the active volume due to a set of dy-
plied forces primarily through a particular use of ge- namic properties to provoke a radical change
ometry and not through the bulk and continuity of in its expression and functionalities
its material (Figure 4). Sometimes, the involved ge- • Offering both flexibility and rigidity on de-
ometry generates indirect, interrupted load paths mand: Static-dynamic materials as a future di-
whereby forces should bypass separate components rection of interaction design
that are adequately tied together. In such cases, the • Deriving performance from the local geomet-
movement or displacement of one component can ric organization of materials
be transformed to other components, or to other • Sitting at the intersection of geometry, mate-
parts of the same component (Figure 5). rial, design, and emerging fabrication meth-
Designing a material-active system involves at ods such as additive technologies
least three inseparable counterparts that character- • Exploring the relationships between materials
ize the whole system: (1) the investigation of material and their shaping processes in the generation
properties, (2) the design of a thoughtful geometry to of form through "form finding" exercises in 3D
manipulate the allowable stresses in the movable el- printing
ements, and (3) the physical embodiment of the ge-

MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 641

 THE NEW FUNCTION OF PERFORMATIVE
GEOMETRY
The design investigation conducted for this paper
represents an initial exploration into MAG's larger
implications as a means of producing physical en-
vironments capable of changing shape to accom-
modate various spatial performances; moreover, this
work addressed the potential of a reciprocal transfor-
mation between a building's occupants and its sur-
rounding environment in a responsive manner.
In the interest of exploring negotiations among
geometry, form, and materials as facilitated through
environmental and computational modeling, as well
as the application of these concepts to the fabric
of our buildings, architects have been endeavored
to comprehending responsive systems for building
skins. From the responsive brise-soleil of the Los
Angeles County Hall of Records (designed by Neu-
tra in 1962) (Sample 2012), to the Institut du Monde
Arabe in Paris (designed by Nouvel in 1987) (Ritter
2007), and to the present day, the idea of respon-
sive building skins has been explored by architects
and scholars alike. However, its potential has yet to
be explored within the praxis of architecture. Fortu-
nately, the renewed interest in responsive architec-
ture has been prompted by a collaborative exchange
between engineers, architects, and biologists, as well
as the maturing suite of computational tools and re-
cent advances in materials science.
Since MAG has not established a lengthy legacy
in the field of architecture, this research adopts sev-
eral precedents from the realm of biology and an-
alyzes their strengths and weaknesses as elements
in a system of adaptive materials. For instance, skin
is a complex natural system of adaptation that ful-
fills multiple and often conflicting functions (Vincent
2009). Translated to the architectural scale, skin can
offer an excellent model for self-reliant building en-
velopes that serve disparate purposes for a variety
of reasons. Based on the reviewed precedents, MAG
can be situated as an application of a biologically-
responsive system in nature within an architectural
framework attempting to constantly adapt itself to
642 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1
different external and internal stimuli, both in terms
of its structural configuration and overall behavior.
To this end, the main objective of is to explore the
methodological frameworks of soft-form transfor-
mation and the computational tools for simulating
geometrically-driven materials by employing knowl-
edge and apparatuses inspired from the field of biol-
ogy.
An adaptive system holds a dual promise. On
the one hand, there is the need to provide local re-
sponses to stimuli as nastic movement; on the other,
there is the desire to globally alter the whole system's
geometry, sometimes quite radically (when skele-
tal motion is possible). In nature, geometry recom-
mends itself as serious way for altering the structural,
performative, and aesthetic characteristics of mate-
rials, due to its ability to provide a global mode of
movement.
Since the late 1990s, the development of
computer-aided design (CAD) software and digital
fabrication tools has led to a significant increase in
complex geometry and curvilinear shapes in archi-
tectural design. Conversely, in adaptive systems,
there is a direct connection between structural per-
formance and geometry. When designing process-
adaptive building skins, more advanced geometry
must be implemented through parametric design
tools in order to achieve optimal geometric perfor-
mance.
ALTERING FLEXIBILITY AND RIGIDITY
THROUGH 3D-PRINTING: SURFLEX AND
SURFMORF
This study is a prototype-based exploration of MAG's
formal and aesthetic potential; as such, it examines
the principles of performative geometry and their ap-
plicability to architectural delineation and transfor-
mation [1]. This goal was explored and evaluated
through a rigorous process of designing a new and
responsive architecturally-morphing skin called Flex-
ible Textile Structure (FTS). To develop FTS, the au-
thors from [trans]LAB, a design-build practice, collab-
orated with the DREAMS Lab, an additive manufac-
 turing research laboratory in the department of me-
chanical engineering at Virginia Tech University (Fig-
ure 6).
By exemplifying the potential of using
geometry-based design as a structural and organiza-
tional mechanism, FTS provides MAG's most essential
elements. Here, MAG's principles were used to guide
the authors' experiments through geometries used
to employ FTS in adaptive building skins.
Figure 6
Flexible Textile
Structures,
designed by the
authors.
The degree of flexibility or rigidity of a material can
be derived from geometrical principles. As a con-
sequence of making a connection between the for-
mation and materialization processes and validating
this integration into MAG, FTS can directly inform the
motion. FTS presents the design of a novel form-
changing system with the capacity to adapt, in the
form of an architectural skin that is lightweight, flex-
ible, and elastic. FTS research is a nascent field in-
vestigating the use of geometrically and physically-
actuated material to prototype shading and air ven-
tilation systems; these systems can be applied to var-
ious architectural components, such as building en-
velopes and roofs.
The development of such FTS skins began with
an exploration of various individual modules or cells
MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 643
and their methods of assembly. These were catego-
rized into two genera of cellular aggregation, as fol-
lows:
• surFLEX: The first was used to investigate the
geometrical configuration of 3D-printed tex-
tiles through an aggregation of tightly nested
and interlocked torus-like cells. Each torus
was composed of several cord-like elements
that shaped its enclosure. Similar to topo-
logical interlocking systems (Estrin and Dyskin
2011), the cellular structure was arranged
such that an entire assembly was held to-
gether by kinematic constraints imposed on
the neighboring cells, through their mutual
arrangement and connectivity. In surFLEX,
without requiring any external forces to main-
tain contact pressure between the series of
cells, the structure could make use of the
grasping mechanism of the cells' cords as
part of a greater interlocking system. This
type of FTS could serve as both envelope and
structure. While maintaining a relative kine-
matic constraint, the cells' movements were
not fully locked in any direction - neither par-
allel nor vertical to the structure's plane - and
thus could be used to adjust the performance
of the structure to meet a variety of needs (Fig-
ure 7).
• surfMORF: The second category of flexible
yet rigid textiles included a reversible struc-
ture comprised of a loosely-nested assem-
bly of continuous cords that could be used
to develop geometrically-differentiated sys-
tems. One of the main advantages of this
category is that such materials are unable to
sustain applied external loads, and thus im-
pact the whole structure. This is attributable
to the absence of an interlocking mechanism;
the cluster-like cells can be freely displaced to
provide maximum flexibility. Since the tex-
tiles are incapable of resisting bending forces
or even tension, structures can tolerate defor-
mations without losing their structural coher-
 Figure 7
surFLEX, the first
category of Flexible
Textile Structures.

Figure 8
surfMORF, the
second category of
Flexible Textile
Structures.

Figure 9
Exploration of the
parametric
geometries of FTS.

644 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1

 ence. The overall shape of surfMORF emerges
from the size of its modules, their orienta-
tions, the ratio of the constituent cord-like el-
ements, the method of their connectivity, and
their contact faces (Figure 8).
The morphological behaviors of both FTS categories
seem both necessary and desirable as a means of ac-
commodating different requirements. The different
levels of flexibility and rigidity inherent in each cat-
egory offer promising means of elevating the formal
and performative aspects of a building envelope.
This study attempted to broaden the formal, ge-
ometrical, and performative repertoires of FTS mod-
ules and their parametric assembly. To this end, in
order to populate their complex geometries, a gen-
eration algorithm must be developed that is capa-
ble of altering the orientation, dimensions, porosity,
and directionality of the modules within the system,
while providing a larger geometrical repertoire be-
yond those seen in mere planar, repetitive, or homo-
geneous systems (Figure 9). For instance, in the first
FTS category, surFLEX, a parametric geometric algo-
rithm was developed based on the size, geometry,
orientation, and location of each cell within the over-
all assembly, the cell-adjacent contact faces, thick-
ness of the constituent cords, gaps between two ad-
jacent cells and their connected cords, organizational
hierarchies of the assembly, and degree of poros-
ity of the textile. According to the number of con-
nected points, the algorithm would allow for the gen-
eration of different regular or non-regular spatially-
tessellated patterns, consisting of a variety of possi-
ble parametric and interlocking assemblies and with
individually differentiated and multi-faceted mod-
ules.
In surFLEX, each cell can be connected to its adja-
cent cells at three, four, or six interconnected points.
The general aggregated system easily facilitates cell
combinations of different sizes and materials. This
category is advantageous because it tolerates the re-
moval of several cells while maintaining performance
and structural stability.
surFLEX is achieved when on every desired side
MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 645
of a cell or module, one considers an interlocking
mechanism to ensure kinematic constraint between
neighbors. Current animation software's ability to
simulate the performance of textiles provides only a
simple visual and explorative analysis tool; physical
prototyping remains critical to the study of localized
regions of failure within the system.
As explained above, neighboring cells kinemat-
ically constrain each other. The tangential gap be-
tween the cells' cords in the interfacing zone of two
modules is very important. This gap is critical to
defining the tightness of the cell's movements, de-
pending on certain variables such as the 3D-printing
method and machine tolerance. Thus, in this re-
search, different samples were iteratively prototyped
to assess the overall gaps between cells, as well as
their geometric conflicts; this allowed for an appraisal
of the fidelity of the computational models and print-
ers. Within a proposed FTS geometric configuration,
a design file cannot simply be scaled up or down; the
gaps between the cords are independent of the size
of the aggregated cells.
Here, the FTS research methodology evolved
through a series of investigations into the develop-
ment of physical analog prototypes obtained from
a very narrow material system of 3D printers; this
helped the authors to gain further insight into the
most appropriate forms of transformation and al-
lowed them to test the affordance of FTS being im-
plemented in building skins (Figure 10 and Figure 11).
CONSTITUTING A PROGRAMMABLE ENVI-
RONMENT
One of the main contributions of this research is its
exploration into achieving desirable morphing prop-
erties in newly-developed building skins (Figure 12).
Of particular importance to the trajectory of morph-
ing changes are the numerous developments in com-
puter science, artificial intelligence, and robotics de-
signed to produce architecture that can change au-
tonomously (Sterk 2009).
FTS's embedded kinetic properties seem to hold
great promise for building skins, allowing them to be
 imbued with environmental response, interaction,
and intelligence capabilities. Despite promising to
provide further responsiveness, at this point, FTS re-
mains highly constrained with just geometry. The
combination of FTS's kinetic capabilities with inte-
grated sensing and actuation has significant poten-
tial and requires further investigation.
Since the ability to change shape and/or accommo-
646 | eCAADe 34 - MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1
date new conditions is a key factor of surviving in
nature (Jeronimidis and Atkins 1995), morphological
changes in response to the immediate environment
should be the main trajectory of FTS research, entail-
ing a seamless and continuous shape-changing de-
formation.
In their effort to design adaptive architectural el-
ements, a few design scholars pursued the early ex-
ploration of kinetic materiality, including the passive Figure 10
or active response capacities of the properties of pro- Weaving closed
grammable form-changing materials. The works of braids to form a
Menges (Menges and Reichert 2012), Sung (2010), surfMORF.
and Beesley (Gorbet 2010) set a precedent by which
material actuation was applied within the responsive
kinetic architectural context of several installations.
Due to the limited range of movement caused
by their actuation, most form-changing materials are
mainly able to perform locally, at the micro scale.
A hybrid approach combining MAG strategies and
form-changing materials would provide an excellent Figure 11
opportunity to perform actuations by using geome- Using the geometry
try within the materials' properties, in a coordinated of braids to form a
effort to induce a transformation of the overall build- surfMORF.
ing skin at the macro level. Implementing geometry
in the correct manner would help to amplify the con-
traction or expansion of the material actuation that
up to this point has primarily been introduced on a
small scale.
Although FTS's geometric capacity has been ex-
plored through the design investigations conducted
here, there remains the opportunity for FTS to fully
exploit the advantages of deploying both its geomet- Figure 12
rical and material capacities (Figure 13). FTS's use of FTS as
form-changing materials will contribute to changing geometrically and
the shape, geometric arrangement, and mechanical physically -actuated
properties of its neighboring parts as a response to material to explore
environmental inputs. a shading system.
Emerging from the behavioral formation of FTS
through the interaction of its geometry and materi-
als, the goal of the design process is to create self-
organizing and flexible yet rigid structures that mor-
phologically reacts to changes in light, moisture, and
temperature. By shifting from the explicit design of
 form or material, the formal and performative trans- alloy wires will contract when an electrical current
formations of FTS are derived from "the orchestration runs through them. In addition to changing the FTS's
of intensive processes of formation through the de- porosity and permeability, contracting a part of the
sign of the underlying behaviors of matter and geom- structure could cause local convexity and concavity.
etry" (Snooks 2012).
Figure 13 Although programmable materials with the ability
Exploiting the to change form remain less explored, they have
geometrical and great potential, especially for responsive architec-
material capacity of tural design. However, one of the drawbacks of pre-
FTS in programing material properties during the fabrica-
programmable tion process is that the materials are then unchange-
fashion. able during the building's performance (Khoo and
Salim 2013). The pre-programmed operation of such
materials makes them less able to genuinely learn
from and respond to the environment, based on real-
time feedback. Since enabling a building's materi-
als to sense and react to the environment in a de-
Although using electricity to activate shape-memory
sirable manner is one of the main characteristics of
alloy wires would help control the FTS's behavior, the
any adaptive structure, as noted by Sybil P. Parker
idea of a geometrically-actuated material remains
(Parker, 1994), in the next step of FTS development,
a means of moving towards a zero-energy respon-
there should be an attempt to use reactive materi-
sive skin that performs without implementing any
als capable of sensing the environment; such mate-
mechanical or electrical secondary systems; Gary
rials would provide consistent transformations well-
Brown has argued a similar point regarding shifting
suited to support the specialized and autonomous ki-
in adaptation from a complicated system to a bio-
netic tasks of a building skin. Embedding it with sens-
logical paradigm (Brown 2002). Achieved with fewer
ing and actuating capabilities when it is coupled with mechanical components and devices, FTS is a step
collective intelligence on the material and feedback-
toward developing responsive materiality in archi-
loop scale would reframe FTS within architecture as
tecture, as well as cooperating material behaviors
a provider of processes of change rather than an ex-
through transformations in geometry.
pected artifact. In this case, after initiating a set of
controlled constraints, FTS would no longer be per-
ceived as the final form of a building skin, but rather DISCUSSION
the generator of preliminary states that would evolve As part of a larger effort to better understand the op-
in real time to find their forms while responding to ex- eration of performative building skins, this paper in-
ternal stimuli. vestigated how to deal with the geometry necessary
It is possible to embed conductive material into to generate transformations of morphology. Con-
3D-printed parts in order to pass electrical current; sequently, Material Active Geometry sought to re-
this can then activate shape memory alloy wires such conceptualize the formal and material properties of
as Flexinol and allow for precise control of the FTS's building skins within an adaptive system framework.
movement as a performative building skin. When By extending the possibilities of the digital realm
electric current is channeled to individual shape- into multifaceted material behaviors, MAG can be a
memory alloy wires through the appropriate soft- fertile research tool that leads to interdisciplinary col-
ware, the desired parts of a structure can move; the laborations in art, science, and engineering (Kalan-
tar and Borhani 2014). By crossing the boundaries of

MATERIAL STUDIES | Applications - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 647

 various fields such as biology, material science, com-
putation, mathematics, and additive manufacturing,
the study of MAG aims to highlight the search for a
way of thinking about issues of adaptation, change,
and performance in diverse fields of design.
By embracing computational design, analysis, and
fabrication tools and procedures, the paper ex-
plained the experimental probes by which the au-
thors investigated Flexible Textile Structures 'various
capabilities.
Since a computational design tool that merely
uses geometrical representations would be insuffi-
cient for proper simulation of FTS performance, the
discussed parametric geometric algorithm must be
developed; such development should be based upon
additional data such as areas of stress concentration
between connected cells, means of informing struc-
tural and mechanical computer simulations, and fi-
nite element models. Accordingly, coalescing FTS's
generative and analytical aspects into a single para-
metric setup capable of constraining and orchestrat-
ing the entire design and fabrication process will in-
form the next step in this research.
As well as testing the structural or mechanical
properties of different designs, the close link be-
tween analytical and generative parametric models
calls for an optimization of the material's distribution
and a minimizing of its use, as suggested by finite
element models and based on load paths and local
stresses.
Despite using a highly additive manufactur-
ing method as a primary departure point for this
research, the time-consuming and expensive 3D-
printing process requires a search for the best and
most feasible method of manufacturing FTS within
various contexts and on a variety of scales, from
micro-particles to large-scale building skin modules.
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mechanical properties of topologically interlocking
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den, GB and Meredith, M (eds) 2012, Matter: Mate-
rial processes in architectural production, Routledge,
Oxon, pp. 329-339
Snooks, R 2012, 'Volatile Formation', LOG, 25, pp. 55-62
Sterk, T 2009 'Introduction: Thoughts for Gen X specu-
lating about the rise of continuous measurement in
architecture', Proceedings of ACADIA Annual Confer-
ence, Chicago, pp. 18-22
Vincent, J 2009, 'Biomimetics of skins', in Favret, E and
Fuentes, N (eds) 2009, Functional properties of bio-
inspired surfaces: Characterization and technological
application, World Scientific Publishing, London, pp.
3-15
[1] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dpL0Y2l_BSI
TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES |
Concepts and Strategies
Smart City: Adding to the Complexity of Cities
A Critical Reflection

Emine Mine Thompson1

1
Northumbria University, Department of Architecture and Built Environment, Suther-
land Building, NE1 8ST, England
1
https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/about-us/our-staff/t/dr-emine-mine-thompson/
1
emine.thompson@northumbria.ac.uk

This paper seeks to further the state-of-the-art knowledge on what a smart city is;
by analysing the smart cities across the world. It also seeks to find out how
different approaches to the smart city creation influence the city. This worked
based on the ongoing review on Smart Cities that was started in 2014. In
particular, it is structured as follows. First, definition of "smart city" are
reviewed, next typologies of smart cities were generated by analysing the different
types of smart cities across the world. Following this, case studies are reported.
Case studies are followed by a reflection. Paper drawn to conclusion following
this section by giving research directions to take this research further.

Keywords: smart cities, future cities, urban planning, city transformations,

number of smart cities

INTRODUCTION nesses, transport and communication networks, ser-

In this critical reflection we are looking to understand
whether the smart city solutions are considered as
technology projects or part of a holistic planning so-
lution which would lead to smart urbanism. The
key question we want to answer is to whether we
are adding another layer of complexity to the aging
siloed structure of the city systems or whether the
utilization of data and technology will prevail a more
successful urbanism for the future cities.
Cities
Cities are complex, organic, self-organizing and non-
linear systems and they evolve and change con-
stantly. Contemporary cities can be considered as
immense numbers of interconnected citizens, busi-
vices and utilities.
From the beginning of the city life in Jericho
(8500-6000 BC) and Catalhoyuk (7000-5500 BC), as
Smith (2012, 33) explains, the fundamentals of human
life in the first cities did not differ greatly from ours to-
day. From the love of good food expertly cooked and
enjoyed with friends and family, to the need to work
and the pleasure of shopping, their daily life mirror ours.
Furthermore, cities have always been places where in-
novations in transport, communications media, print-
ing, publishing, the processing information and the cre-
ation of knowledge have been concentrated (Graham
2004). These qualities and the possibilities that city
life offers are some of the reasons for the growing
population in cities since the beginning. On the other

TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 651

 hand, as Albino, Berardi, and Dangelico, (2015) ex-
plains the metabolism of cities generally consists of the
input of goods and the output of waste with consistent
negative externalities, which amplify social and eco-
nomic problems. Cities rely on too many external re-
sources and, as a matter of fact, they are (and proba-
bly will always be) consumers of resources. It can be
speculated here that the joys and opportunities of
cities also lead to wicked problems such as poverty,
pollution, depletion of resources, traffic, congestion,
waste, and social exclusion.
Growing populations in cities and their unequal
consumption of the world resources have become
one of the greatest challenges for cities for some time
now. The United Nations predicts, by 2050 70% of the
nine billion world population will be living in cities [1].
Urban challenges such as planning, economic
development, resilient water supply, integrated data
and security systems, responsive transport networks,
environment protection, sustainable resource man-
agement, risk management, sustainable waste man-
agement, energy management, education, social
care and support, providing local services and fa-
cilities are putting immense pressure on the city
resources and city governance. Over the several
decades, the complexity and the speed of change in
cities, amalgamated with the need for integrated so-
lutions, have been presenting major challenges upon
local authorities, who traditionally have tackled is-
sues in silos. Like many of the previous urban visions,
Smart City concept also tires to tackle the city chal-
lenges. This holistic approach is there to enable cre-
ation of liveable, just, and sustainable and economi-
cally stable places.
Smart Cities
The question of "What is a smart city?" is not an easy
one to answer. The answer depends on the where
the focus is and who is giving the answer. Although
still a definitive definition is lacking, in many aspects
this is by no means a terrible void. Smart City con-
cept is wide and many players and notions are in-
volved and therefore capturing all these elements in
652 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1
one definition might not be possible. However, there
are numerous definitions in the scientific literature
and in governmental reports. For a thorough ap-
praisal of varied definitions Albino, Berardi, and Dan-
gelico's (2015) paper is a great resource. They anal-
ysed several different definitions and clarified that pre-
viously technology focused understanding of smart city
is changing and the smart city concept is no longer lim-
ited to the diffusion of ICT, but it looks at people and
community needs. With this in mind the definition
generated by the British Standards Institution (BSI
2014) which focuses on integrating diverse systems
namely, physical, digital and human systems is our
preferred definition: Smart city is an effective integra-
tion of physical, digital and human systems in the built
environment to deliver a sustainable, prosperous and
inclusive future for its citizens. It is good to point out
at this stage that as Gil-Garcia, Pardo, and Nam (2016)
explain being smart is not an end state, but rather can
be an enabling condition that my lead to other desirable
social, economic, or environmental outcomes.
It is clear that, data and ICT a big plays part in the
smart future urbanism. But equally there are other
major concepts contribute towards creation of smart
cities. As Neirottio et al. (2014) highlights, ICT is
unable to transform cities without the human capital
which brings the liveability of a city to attention. An-
gelidou (2014) explains that, smart cities represent a
conceptual urban development model based on the uti-
lization of human, collective and technological capital
for the enhancement of development and prosperity in
urban agglomerations. Angelidou (2015) continues
to point that there are two shaping forces of the "smart
city" conception: Urban Futures (the past 100 years of
visions about the city of the future under the influence
of state-of-the-art technology) and the knowledge and
innovation economy. Apart from these shaping forces
it is also important to look into the key players in
the smart city arena. There are three key players to-
wards the smart city concept: universities, industries,
and local government. The scientific papers and prac-
titioner reports reveal the presence of a triple helix con-
cept of knowledge-society even if each key player has
Figure 1
What makes a
Smart City?
different aims: research and knowledge spreading for
universities, business and profit for private companies,
local well-being and political consensus for public bod-
ies (Dameri et al. 2016).
The scientific papers and practitioner reports re-
veal the presence of a triple helix concept of knowledge-
society even if each key player has different aims: re-
search and knowledge spreading for universities, busi-
ness and profit for private companies, local well-being
and political consensus for public bodies (Dameri et al.
2016).
Smart City and Urban Planning
In first account, it is obvious that smart cities, although
specifically developed as an idea during the past 20
years, have a long history dating back to previous cen-
tury's visions about urban futures. Although elusive,
the visions were and continue to be an essential part
of urban planning and development discipline and they
have always been urging to move forward (Angelidou
2015). Urban planning as discipline is changing with
TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 653
the technology driven concepts and tools such as
Open Data, Big Data, IoT, urban sensing, volunteered
geographic information, and electronic democracy.
And these concepts and tools are redefining the city
and how to manage and govern the city. These re-
cent explosions of ICT technologies within every as-
pects of city life also altering the urban planner's
job description to where a planner needs to practice
smart urbanism with more awareness of the data-rich
city governance. Traditionally, the challenge for urban
planners was the generation of meaningful and timely
information. Today, the urban planners' challenge is no
longer the timely generation of urban data, rather, it is
in relation to how much information can be exploited
and integrated successfully into the contemporary spa-
tial planning and governance (Thompson et al. 2106).
Luque-Ayala et al. (2016) points out smart urbanism
is the consolidation and expansion of relatively novel
ways of knowing and thinking the city. They continue
to tell us that in the interface between digital technolo-
gies and urbanism, the city comes to known through
 data, algorithm, modelling and a combination of visual
and media channels. We think there is no doubt that
technology plays a fundamental role in making cities
smarter however how cities utilizing the technology
and the data for the specific needs and requirements
for the citizens, is as important as the technology im-
plementation the smart city process.
our study (Table 1). Another classification also influ-
enced our work comes from Neirottio et al. (2014)
where they classify Smart Cities based on domains
and sub-domains (Table 2). Although these various
classifications differ slightly from research to research
(more at, Lee J-H 2012; Manville 2014; Thompson
2015), the typologies in general cover similar areas.

Table 1
METHODOLOGY Six application
Since September 2014, data on smart cities, defini-
areas of Smart
tions, applications and locations have been collected
Cities.
for this ongoing project. This desktop survey in-
cluded:

• City resources- city websites, articles with re-

gards to strategies, visions, plans, projects,
After this initial analysis, compression between the
etc.
identified typologies from literature and from our
• General sources including websites
survey is completed. Any differences from these
• Smart City project websites
guides were noted to report back.
• Academic books and journals
Focus then given to the smart cities itself and
• Reports from government and non-
more in depth information on some of the countries
governmental organization
and the EU were in order to understand the smart
• Seminar and conference notes, presentations
city process in these geographic locations since have
After gathering data from these resources, sorting top most smart city applications and initiatives in the
and analyses this raw data took place. Initially the world. Following this section a reflection given fol-
total number of smart cities was found out. In this lowed by the concluding remarks and future research
paper, we classed cities as "Smart" even though they directions.
might have one smart city project or an initiative and
not a "smart city" per se with a view that the smart
Limitations
The results of this conference paper have to be inter-
city is a process rather than an end product. One of
preted within the limitations of the research method-
the main reason behind this, that smart city term en-
ology and choices that were made by the researcher.
compasses 3 layers according to Manville (2014) and
Limited number of case studies has several implica-
these layers are Smart City projects, Smart City Initia-
tions. Initially, it is almost impossible to generalize
tives and Smart Cities (Smart City projects are a sub-
from this sample size. Following this, it should be
category of Smart City Initiatives which in turn are a
pointed here that this quantitative research is the ini-
sub-category of Smart Cities).
tial stages of this ongoing research and consulting
In order to find out the typologies of smart cities,
all the actors in Smart City developments will make
similar work from previous research were identified in
the basis for the qualitative research which will make
the literature and six application areas defined by the
the second stage of this study. Within the time-frame
Centre of Regional Science at the Vienna University of
and scope of the research qualitative research was
Technology (smart economy, smart mobility, smart en-
not possible.
vironment, smart people, smart living, and smart gov-
ernance) (Giffinger et al. 2007) set the foundation for

654 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1

Table 2
Classification of
Smart City domains
and sub-domains,
(adapted from
Neirottio et al.
2014).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
As explained previously, by surveying the smart cities
across the world we aimed the find out what smart
city applications or domains are popular choices to
implement. applications
In our survey of smart cities, we have observed
1101 smart cities (proposed, just embarking on the
project or classed as smart city already) and exam-
ined the available data from these initiatives. This
process indicates that apart from the six application
areas mentioned above, there are different smart city
application types also in operation, for example; Liv-
ing Labs (Figure 2). It should be pointed here that
many cities analysed have more than one smart city
application. Also it is important to note that some
of cities although they are classed as "smart" in the
literature we could not access the types of applica-
tions that is in operation for those cities yet. How-
ever, overall 1707 smart city applications from 1101
TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 655
smart cities were available to analyse. Out of these
applications 31% based on Living Labs, 22% on Smart
Government, 16% on Smart Environment, 13% Open
Data, 11% on Smart Mobility, 7% Smart Economy, 5%
Smart Living, 4% Smart People, 1% on Digital Initia-
tives, and rest of the 2% of the applications were a
combination of Smart City from scratch, education,
health, innovation, planning, public safety, smart in-
frastructure ( Figure 2).
It can be said that the "smart city solutions"
mainly brought by big IT companies initially and in
general they are created for a specific city or a com-
munity. However as Chourabi et al. (2012) explain,
it is also clear that the smart city projects have an
impact on the quality of life of citizens and aim to fos-
ter more informed, educated and participatory citizens
and smart city initiatives allow members of city to par-
ticipate on the governance and management of the city
and become active users.
80% of all smart city applications in our survey
came from Chinese (20%), European (54%) and In-
dian (6%) cities. For this reason examples from some
of these locations are further examined.
Approaches to Smart City Developments
Our Smart City survey indicates that there are two dif-
ferent approaches to develop a smart city. A typical
top-down approach can be observed in the India's
Smart Cities Mission prepared by the Government of
India, Ministry of Urban Development in June 2015
[2] and the Chinese Government's latest China's Five-
Year Plan (13th Five year plan: 2016-2020) encom-
passes the National New-type Urbanisation plan for
the same period. The previous Five Year plan had also
planned investment in Chinese Smart Cities agenda.
However in Europe although there are some top-
down approaches, in city level Europe has more of a
bottom-up approach for development of smart cities.
China. China is one of the countries that adopted
top-down approach. In January 2013, the Ministry of
Housing and Urban-Rural Development (MOHURD) for-
mally announced the first list of national pilot Smart
Cities (Yang et al. 2016) and as September 2013 total

of 311 cities in China have proposed or are embarking
on smart city developments, including all cities above
the sub-provincial level, 89% cities at the prefectural
level and above, and 47% cities at the country level
and above. The 12th Fiver plan budgeted to spend ap-
proximately 220 million Euros on its Smart Cities project
(Yanrong and Whyte 2014). It is speculated that the
Chinese government is more focused on the tech-
nological issues in developing Smart Cities. With
this understanding in mind, as Li, Lin and Geert-
man (2015) explains the technology is seen as the cen-
tral importance, and 'smart city' can be divided into
four layers, that is, sensor layer, network layer, plat-
form layer and application layer. Two types of fund-
ing approaches are set for Chinese Smart Cities: Fully
supported by government or PPPs (More informa-
tion can be found at Li et al. 2015). There are cur-
rently no laws and regulations directly governing Smart
Cities in China. The Chinese government has, how-
ever, introduced a number of guidance notices: No-
tice to Speed up the Project Implementation of Smart
656 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1
Figure 2
Smart City
Application types.
Cities, National New Urbanisation Plan (2014-2020),
and Guidance on Promoting the Sustainable Develop-
ment of Smart Cities (Yang et al. 2016).
India. Smart City Mission is the one of the most com-
prehensive selection process of developing Smart
Cities. The Mission's objective is to promote cities that
provide core infrastructure and give a decent quality of
life to its citizens, a clean and sustainable environment
and application of 'Smart' Solutions. The focus is on sus-
tainable and inclusive development and the idea is to
look at compact areas, create a replicable model which
will act like a light house to other aspiring cities (MoUD,
2015). Each aspiring city needed to compete in two
stages of the selection process. These are: Stage 1 of
the competition: Shortlisting of cities by States and
Stage 2 of the competition: The City Challenge round
for selection. The proposals needed to be modelled
on one of the strategic components, namely: city
improvements (retrofitting), city renewal (redevelop-
ment), and city extension (greenfield development)
and a Pan-City initiative in which Smart Solutions are
applied covering larger part of the city. The imple-
mentation of selected smart city projects will run by
body (Special Purpose Vehicle - SPV, a limited com-
pany in which State ad Urban Local Bodies 50:50 eq-
uity shareholding). This organisation will plan, ap-
praise, release funds, implement, manage, operate
and evaluate Smart City development projects [2].
Europe. Our survey showed that more than 78% of
the smart cities in Europe came from 8 countries (Ger-
many 16.46%, UK 13.01%, Spain 12.80%, Italy 9.96%,
France 8.33%, Poland 8.13%, Romania 5.08%, Nether-
lands 4.67%). Rest of the %21.5 comes from 21 dif-
ferent countries in Europe (It should be pointed here
that percentages comes from the amount of Smart
City applications in that specific country and does
not take into account the size and population of the
country in this initial analysis).
The European Innovation Partnership for Smart
Cities and Communities was launched in 2013, and it
seeks to establish strategic partnership within the Smart
City arena and aims to boost the development of smart
technologies. EU Policy Framework for Smart City De-
velopments based on the EU 2020 goals (20% reduc-
tion of greenhouse gas emissions from 1990 levels, 3%
EU's GDP to be invested in R&D and innovation, 75% of
20-64 year olds in work, and 20 million fewer people in
or at risk of poverty and social exclusion). When look-
ing at the member state level and at the level of indi-
vidual cities and regions, it is not surprising to find out
an abundance of approaches to development and op-
eration of smart cities. This strong degree of indepen-
dence of EU Communities results in very different so-
lutions being implemented with respect to any aspect
city modernisation. It is also makes it somewhat diffi-
cult to create national or EU level approaches to a com-
mon and coherent smart city development. However
this lack of top-down decision making authority is offset
by the possibility to incentivise and encourage the cities
follow targets developed on EU or national level by way
of providing additional support (Yang et al. 2016).
There are many city level documentations such
as VIENNA 2050: Ensuring Quality of Life Through In-
novation - Adopting the Smart City Wien Framework,
TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 657
and under the UK Goverment's Future of Cities Fore-
sight project; City visions: Newcastle 2065, City vi-
sions: Birmingham and West Midlands 2060 are some
examples from UK.
City Level Cases
Although many to chose from, for this paper two
cities selected from China and Europe since these lo-
cations where the main contributors towards the to-
tal number of smart cities we have surveyed origi-
nally.
Bristol, UK.
• UK's eight largest populous city.
• Bristol, in May 2016 were selected as the UK's
leading smart city, sharing this spot with Lon-
don.
• Smart City Bristol is a collaborative pro-
gramme between the public sector, business
and community and led by the City Council.
• Aim: Use smart technologies to meet City's
targets to reduce CO2 emissions by 40% by
2020 from a 2005 baseline, as well as the city's
wider social and economic objectives
• Drivers are based on economic, environmen-
tal, efficiency and transparency.
• Funded through sources such as the City
Council budget and funding from the Euro-
pean Commission, UK Government, Technol-
ogy Strategy Board, UK Research Councils and
private company funding.
• Investments: Metro bus, cycle city, enterprise
zone, smart parking, broadband connections
solutions, smart energy, smart data, open
data, city data platform, Apps, smart mobility.
Beijing, Haidian District, China.
• Northwest of Beijing, the Haidian District is
an important area and it is famous for its sci-
ence and technology, culture, education and
tourism.
• Smart Haidian Top-level Design, Smart Haid-
ian Development Program, and Smart Haid-
 ian Construction Program brings together the
overall programme for smart city.
• Aim: establish smart administration, smart
parks, smart urban areas, smart homes and IT
industry HUB
• Smart Haidian is built under the full respon-
sibility of Haidian District Government, with
Haidian's smart city industry alliance, project
management units, consulting and design
units.
• Haidian invested about 300 million Yuan an-
nually in 2011 and 2012 and 500 million Yuan
in 2013, which mainly comes from district
government financial allocation.
• Wireless and fiber optic and other basic net-
works and data centers in Smart Haidian are
shared by different projects. ICT infrastructure
is shared via a cloud platform. Haidian spa-
tial data sharing platform is built for the Haid-
ian GIS technology and other business appli-
cations.
Information on the sample cities are gathered from,
Yang et al. (2016), [3], [4], [5].
REFLECTIONS
Increasingly, neither state intervention, nor neoliberal
market solutions are seen as satisfactory approaches
to urban planning challenges. The former is criticised
for its managerial inefficiency while the latter is criti-
cised for its neglect of external and community interests
(Thompson et al. 2016). We believe that smart ur-
banism shapes and manages complex and multidi-
mensional places by engaging multiple stakeholders.
This integration enables better design, delivery, gov-
ernance and maintenance of cities.
• As (Albino et al. 2015) points out the concept
of the smart city is far from being limited to the
application of technologies to cities. Cities and
"smart" cities for that matter, is for citizens and
therefore their involvement is a top priority.
• Cities consist of many systems that inter-
act with each other continuously. Without
658 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1
a strategic vision, infusion of intelligence to
these various systems in soiled fashion is not
the correct approach. However these one sys-
tem solutions if they are applicable can act as
demonstrators and should be utilized as part
of the whole smart city / future city vision.
• Biggest numbers of smart cities comes from
locations that have either a direct top-down
approach (China and India) or an in-direct top-
down approach (Europe).
• Achieving the first implementation stage is
only the part of the problem. Barriers such
as moving beyond pilots, securing further fi-
nance, digital infrastructure, human capital
(education and establishing understanding)
and most importantly an overall vision to take
these projects further needs to be considered.
• Cities also need to consider the vulnerabil-
ity of complex technological processes to the
many unintentional and / or malicious inter-
ventions.
Whether we are adding another layer of complex-
ity to the aging siloed structure of the city systems
or whether the utilization of data and technology
will prevail a more successful urbanism for the future
cities is still remain to be seen since many of smart
city initiatives are new and therefore it is hard to as-
sess the outcomes yet. However, it should be pointed
here that smart city concept is not only for creating
new holistic systems but also it is about improving
current systems as well.
The majority of strategies for becoming "smart" are
not something that can be achieved here and now but
they imply a strategic approach to fulfilling a long-term
aspiration The vision about the city of the future is an es-
sential driver of the smart city discourse, be it within, or
out of immediate grasp (Angelidou 2015). Recent lit-
erature that explains the pillars of the smart city con-
sist of connections (as networks and technological in-
frastructures), Open data and Sensors (including citi-
zens able to actively participate in a bottom-up way in
city activities). However we believe citizens will needs
to be considered as one of the fundamental support
 mechanism for a successful smart city development
(Figure 3).
Figure 3
Smart City
Framework.
CONCLUSION
Points to consider
Smart city framework should have vision, people and
processes as the main drivers.
Political willingness and long-term commitment
is one of the key factors needs to be taken into ac-
count. Strategic vision is profoundly related to the
long-term commitment and will provide continuity
beyond routine election related changes in cities.
Tackling common and local challenges should be
the priority and these challenges needs to have a di-
rect relation to the demands from citizens, cities, re-
gions and the country. Local strengths should also
influence the project selection process.
Leadership with professional mechanisms to co-
ordinate and consolidate needs to be in place and
this needs to be backed up with concrete strategic
objectives for the city.
The impact of the smart city work on the city
should not be underestimated. Necessary precau-
tions in the form of public consultations, openness
and processes etc. need to be in place. And financial
and managerial challenges need to be considered at
all stages.
Instead of creating another new silo for the city
processes, the understanding of that the smart city is
TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 659
not a standalone platform needs to be one of the first
things to be established.
Smart City should not be only considered as cre-
ating new solutions/systems but also improving the
existing processes with the knowledge and under-
standing established from these new process, appli-
cations etc.
Balance between the data requirements and
data privacy needs to be well-adjusted and consid-
erations needs to be taken on a case by case basses
until standards established.
Solutions, although cities are different and can
have varied problems, should be replaceable.
Further Research
Future research will focus on maintaining the collect-
ing of data on smart cities across the world however
apart from the quantitative analysis more in depth
qualitative analysis will be conducted to further this
research.
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660 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1

From Moving Cube to Urban Interactive Structures
A case study

Vasilija Abramovic1 , Henri Achten2

1,2
Faculty of Architecture, Czech Technical University
1
vasilijaabramovic@gmail.com 2 achten@fa.cvut.cz

When thinking about the future vision of a city, having in mind recent
development in digital technologies and digital design tools we are inclined to
expect new building structures which incorporate this technology to better help us
manage the complexity of life, and to simplify our daily lives and tasks. The idea
behind this research paper lies in design of such structures, which could be put
inside an urban context and engage in creating a built environment that can add
more to the quality of life. For us Interactive architecture is architecture that is
responsive, flexible, changing, always moving and adapting to the needs of today.
The world is becoming more dynamic, society is constantly changing and the new
needs it develops need to be accommodated. As a result architecture has to
follow. Spaces have to become more adaptive, responsive and nature concerned,
while having the ability for metamorphosis, flexibility and interactivity. Taken as
a starting point of this idea is a specific module from graduation project in 2014
"The Unexpected city", where it was possible to test out first ideas about
interactive and flexible objects in an urban environment.

Keywords: Flexible architecture, Interactive architecture, Responsive systems

INTRODUCTION to achieve much better building functioning, being

In this paper we report on a PhD research which
has recently started. The field of the PhD research
project is Interactive Architecture. We explore what
is the phenomenon of Interactive architecture, and
how objects (building structures) within an urban or-
ganism may be both flexible and interactive with its
users. The word "organism" is deliberately used to
accentuate the author's belief that interactive means
responsive, flexible, changing and always moving.
We aim to develop a design by which architecture
can become more interactive in the future. We hope
user friendly and communicative on both ends: user
- building - user. We believe the logic of design has to
be changed due to the rapid change of the technol-
ogy and human demands. (Figure 1)
PROBLEM EXPLORATION
We can observe around us in society that it seems
to develop more dynamically than before and that
needs also have become more dynamic. The com-
mercial lifespan of goods and products is decreasing
because they quickly do not fulfill our needs. Unless

TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 661

 Figure 1
Interaction
relations.

they can follow and change with us, they become House" from 2008 [2], many examples of media/in-
expendable. The challenge we are facing in this re- teractive facades, or the Spielbudenplatz in Hamburg
search is how to establish an environment that is part from 2006 (Schumacher et al. 2010, 204-205). The fu-
of developing human culture? ture is happening. And it looks pretty much similar as
"The world around us is evolving. We are living in- the one drawn back in 60s on the images of the Living
side an evolution. As a practicing architect I find noth- city.
ing more natural than to look around me and imple-
ment relevant changes in to my own profession." (Oost- VISION OF RESPONSIVE AND CHANGING
erhuis 2012)
ARCHITECTURE
In our view, architecture is more than the phys-
We as people change constantly. We are given free
ical realization of a space. Like for example Tschumi
will and free movement. We adapt and adopt the
(1994) we believe that the events which take place
spaces, thus why the buildings would not do the
in architectural space are as important as that space
same? Leon C. Megginson said: "It is not the strongest
itself. We can observe a proliferation of events in
of the species that survives, nor the most intelligent. It is
contemporary buildings that are contrary to mono-
the one that is most adaptable to change" (Megginson
functional types that have been favored in Modernist
1963, as cited in Seydel 2012).
approaches. Peter Cook said that cities should gen-
Adaptability in architecture may be an essential
erate, reflect and activate life, their structure orga-
component in creating sustainable architecture. Pre-
nized to precipitate life and movement. In short, the
serving and adaptive reuse of a building instead of
cities should breathe together with the people, turn-
demolishing it and erecting a new one in its place can
ing them into an alive organism . "The pulsation of the
contribute significantly to the environmental sus-
city life is fast, so why not that of its environment? It re-
tainability. However, adaptability comes as a cost
flects rise and fall, coming and going...change. So why
(the whole sum of the system that is capable to
not build for this?" (Cook 1972)
change may be more expensive than a passive op-
50 years after Archigram's visionary Living City
timized system). Therefore the return of the higher
project we see proposals and prototypes that refer-
cost of an adaptive building should lead ultimately to
ence back to the ideas from the Living city and its
a better solution. Highly dynamic systems such as lo-
way of above ground and diagonal transportation,
gistical nodes, places of events with large numbers of
such as in Elon Musk's ambitious 2013 whitepaper for
people, and so on may benefit in this way from adapt-
Hyperloop [1]. Other examples are N55's "Walking

662 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1

ability (Achten 2011).
"Intelligent building systems are used to create in-
teractive architecture that responds to users' require-
ments in automatic or intuitive ways. It is architecture
that is receptive to people's needs to alter their envi-
ronment and has mechanisms in place to do so eas-
ily.(..)...sensors operate actuators that can trigger a wide
range of actions - kinetic systems that physically alter
space, services that alter the environment or materials
that alter their state." (Kronenburg 2007)
With our idea of responsive structures architec-
ture should become more self-conscious, and ori-
ented towards all individual changes in urban matrix
as well as in more private sector such as residential
buildings. Technological advances are making such
ideas increasingly feasible (see for example Schu-
macher et al. 2010 for a comprehensive overview of
technologies applied in adaptable buildings).
"Public, the people almost always stand behind the
traditional architecture, behind the traditionalists. In
the public eye, architecture is about comfort, about
shelter, about bricks and mortar. However, there is
more and more of those for whom architecture in not
necessarily about comfort, but is also about advanc-
ing society and its development" (Architecture and Dis-
junction, Bernard Tschumi, 1994).
PLACE OF INTERVENTION
In our research, we look at interventions by means of
interactive structures on two levels: the urban envi-
ronment and in the residential sector.
Urban environment
Author's belief is that the public space is the first
point of action where these designs must take place,
and where they must be tested. By observing peo-
ple's actions we would be able to realize what is
needed within an urban space, and to answer the
questions around our design. In the first stage of the
research this will be done in a virtual environment, in
particular the Desk-Cave system at the Faculty of Ar-
chitecture at CTU Prague. Following this step, more
focused experiments will take place in real situations.
TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 663
In particular we are looking at public spaces which
are abandoned and today represent holes inside the
city structure.
Architecture of industrial heritage is as well an in-
teresting point of focus which could be a new field of
action for this "new" type of architecture. There are
many examples throughout the world where indus-
trial buildings are being converted to cultural cen-
ters. Their flexibility gives an option for hosting mul-
tiple different functions, at various scales. Often in-
dustrial buildings are located in areas that have eco-
nomically stagnated in cities, and which thus require
revitalization. For this specific research industrial her-
itage is of importance in a way that it could be used as
ground for technological and design improvements
by the means of interactivity and flexibility in archi-
tecture. These types of buildings will be included in
the research process from theoretical view, but also
as a case study material.
Residential sector
In this research project we start in an urban context,
and later in a residential one. The residential sector
is different from urban sector in many obvious ways -
scale, number of people involved, environment, con-
text, and so on. However, we can apply a number of
principles derived from experiences with urban con-
text to residential sector. First, in both cases we start
with an anonymous base of users. In urban environ-
ments this base may stay anonymous, whereas in res-
idential context the system is more likely to get to
learn the principal inhabitants. Second, in urban en-
vironments the number of actors involved with an in-
teractive system can vary greatly from just a few peo-
ple to large numbers of people. Deciding on the right
interaction approach means reading and balancing
out many inputs. Such decision making is also neces-
sary in a residential context, although the number of
actors is much more limited. Finally, by looking at the
urban context we may get clues what people need
from the urban context that they cannot get at home.
These clues may be important pieces of information
to improve the residential context.
 UNIVERSAL OR LOCAL?
The question after determining the place of inter-
vention would be whether it should start as some-
thing more universal - as a structure that has no con-
nection to where it is being built, or rather as some-
thing more local, with respect to a specific location.
Both approaches have different implications. Some-
thing local would have to inherit cultural and local el-
ements, thus respond to them, while something uni-
versal should be able to be utilized and put anywhere
in the world. To establish something interactive that
makes sense globally has the risk that the interac-
tions are reduced to lowest common denominator.
This could lead to rather banal and simplistic inter-
actions, of which additionally it would be difficult to
prove the universality as we cannot test a system ev-
erywhere. As we stated before, an interactive archi-
tecture would have to be responsive and interactive
not only to the users but also to the surrounding -
this surrounding then also plays a significant role. We
might even argue that different locations inside the
same city, or a country differ enough for the structure
not to be designed specifically for one - "no more lo-
cating in a fixed place, but a new heterotopia" (Tschumi
1994). Therefore we need to strike a balance between
generic and specific interaction strategies.
This is a matter of concern for spatial urbanism
as well. The idea of the nomad, of mobility, of the
transformable and permutational became one of the
main obsessions of the spatial urbanists in 20th cen-
tury. This was a function both of prospective thought
- the desire to predict the change, or at least to be
prepared for an unpredictable change. What is un-
clear in this happening is whether this is a condition
or a remedy. If man were being liberated to wonder,
or if they were only displaced (Busbea 2007). Prob-
ably both is the answer, since we have witnesses of
the first case on an everyday cycle, and the second
one can be connected to the current world crisis and
with refugees being nomads out of need. Here we re-
fer back to the original proposed solution - building
flexibly and in an interactive manner, so people can
find their place in whatever environment they feel
664 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1
like, being nomads out of need or wonder.
ETHICS CONCERNS
Our perception of what is comfortable, of how the
building should behave at the moment, is not going
to be the same in the future. With ever-changing per-
ception of us - architects and creators of living space,
the main question we need to ask ourselves is "How
to design a building that easily changes with us in the
future?". A building that can be "upgraded". Without
such changes the building becomes rapidly old and
unsuitable, in need for replace
Another important point is how compelling
should the interaction become - we should avoid that
the building dictates our lives, and habits, and pushes
us - users, to comply with its performance. In fact, we
could say that in such an overbearing situation there
is no case of interaction, but rather one-way commu-
nication or even control.
Interactive architecture absorbs inspiration from
other industries, such as for example car manufac-
turing, user interface design, and aero-spatial de-
sign. Developing technologies contribute to the pos-
sibility of new and better constructional and opera-
tional strategies. Principle is creation of spaces which
are able to maintain a dialogue with their users, not
only responding to their demands, but pro-actively
engaging themselves in all kinds of featured spatial
activities. There are however many problems how
to reach true "interactive architecture". The least of
them are of the technological nature, but the most
difficult once to overcome relate to theoretical, cul-
tural and social questions. Important questions are
what to design, and how to design those interactions
- a lot of this is being tried out without established
theoretical or methodological frameworks (Achten
and Kopřiva 2010).
These problems should not be only concerning
the "machine", but the identity as well. Similarly as in
Mass-customization flexibility and client-orientation
is desired, we should "mass-customize" interactions
so that they best fit user-needs and desires. The phys-
ical part of interactive systems (sensors, actuators,
and material components) are less flexible than the
software part, which can employ learning strategies
to adapt its behavior. In all cases, some kind of user-
adaptable behavior and identity needs to be estab-
lished.
Overall mass production has its influence on the
city's image as well. Global corporations and busi-
ness trends tend to make cities look more like one
another so the success and individuality gets lost.
The fear which Archigram shared was that architec-
ture alone cannot be enough to give this feeling of a
place, to give identity.
"I have a desire for
The built environment
To allow me to do
My own thing ."
What happens with nature?
There are social groups which are troubled with tech-
nological advances discussed above and who have
the fear to lose touch with nature, while making this
world a fast and a dynamic machine. The poem
"All Watched over by Machines Of Loving Grace"
by Richard Brautigan (according to [3] published in
1967; according to [4] published in The Realist, 1968,
Issue 81, August, p. 11) explains it very well in just a
few lines.
"I like to think
(right now , please !)
of a cybernetic forest
filled with pines and electronics
where deer stroll peacefully
past computers
as if they were flowers
with spinning blossoms ."
Similar as in the poem, the author feels that the face
of the city of tomorrow should be the integration of
the natural with the artificial.
CASE STUDY
Many of the ideas presented above have their origin
in a case study for the design of an interactive and
flexible module. This study is the author's graduation
TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 665
project in 2014 "The Unexpected city", which was also
part of an international competition given by Daniel
Libeskind. The proposed interactive structure in this
project is a cube of 7m x 7m, which would serve as
an experiment model. The module can be moved up
and down thanks to four telescopic columns which
are part of its construction. These columns expand
and descend when needed. The ceiling is attached to
the columns and therefore rises and descends along
with them. Walls are made of special textile water-
proof texture. As such they are stored in the com-
partment attached to the ceiling, and they can roll
out, or roll in based on the need. This structure
would already give a starting point towards the re-
search being flexible and able to change : 1 able to
go up to 4m of height and therefore become an ob-
ject, or 2 able to go down to -0,4m and therefore be-
come either a platform to walk on/sit on, or used as
a stage for an urban setting. It can provide seating
elements, light sources, atmosphere creation, am-
bient and direct communication, active monitoring,
acoustic control, access control and many other. Spa-
tial volumes change and continuously redefine their
relationship with the ground. This volumetrically
chameleonic structure can accommodate multitude
of functions. This is where all simplicity ends and the
whole set of complications and technical tricks enter
the scene. These cubic modules, represent the idea
of architecture of transformation or so called meta-
morphosis.
Mentioned structure is just taken as a proposal -
starting point, whilst it will probably be changed dur-
ing the design process and moved towards a differ-
ent solution/strategy. The main research questions
which are proposed are originating around the no-
tion "interactive" itself. Research question number
one would be: "What types of interaction technology
do people in public places prefer? ". That is some-
thing that can be tested and analyzed in the con-
text of the public sphere. More specific formulations
of this question could be for example "If provided a
choice set of various interaction technologies, which
do people choose in a particular public situations?",
 "What is the acceleration speed at which the walls of 4) ARCHITECTURE (main host)
the module should move so it can be pleasant and in- 5) FLEXIBILITY (main option)
teresting for people?", "How is the shift of control of 6) INTERACTIVITY (main way)
such modules perceived by the public?"
Another important factor is the building skin
since this is the most common interface between Figure 2
public-private space between building and urban Elements of
space, and also one of the most dominant elements interactive
that makes up the visual boundary of urban space. architecture.
Thus the building envelope is not anymore just
something which is closing the inside space. What if
the envelope, the façade could be changing in such
a way that when needed it could be invisible? Or if
we could make the building skin react to people, for
example based on the occupancy within? Also since
the starting idea is to work within the public spaces,
it would be as equally important if the object/build-
ing envelope could react based on the public activity
in the outdoor space.
Figure 3 shows the relations introduced earlier in Fig-
Flexibility - approach ure 1, applied to the modular cube from the case
If we trace processes that form living organisms, it's study (user, event, surroundings, architecture, flex-
obvious that no organism had initially been shaped ibility and interactivity). The user causes a certain
in all its intricacy. They always start with a single number of events inside of a building, which then
cell which multiplies itself numerous times. When communicates back to the user, whereas at the same
a critical mass is reached, cells start to differentiate; time both factors are being affected by the surround-
they begin to form tissues and organs. This process ing as well.
is called cell differentiation in biology, and leads to
autopoiesis of stable natural systems. Analogically, Figure 3
buildings can be designed and created in a similar Relation between
manner. In the case study we can see the same prin- six elements
ciple: a simple modular cube which was then multi- applied to module
plied several times until the needed number and area cube.
for that particular location was reached. Later what
gave the required "shock" to this complex was the
juxtaposition of the events behind the façade.
From here we can propose that basic elements of
how we should start developing new way of thinking
and designing the architecture should be (see Figure
2):

1) USER (main player),

2) EVENTS (main action),
3) SURROUNDINGS (main place),

666 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1

GOAL
Architecture should not only sustain, but also needs
to entertain, instruct, explore, and optimize perfor-
mance in various degrees (Achten 2013). While some
of this may be achievable through passive means, it
is evident that the future of architecture is a design
which would be simple for use, but changeable due
to the rapid change of the lifestyle today. Change-
able design is perceived as a flexible architecture in-
corporated with interactive design technologies, and
new design principles. In this research we aim to de-
velop and test one or more simple structures which
offer multitude of functions, while at the same time
being responsive and user active.
"Since contemporary ways of life are so rapidly
evolving in all their aspects, there is an urging neces-
sity for architectural spaces to be enhanced in ways
that would allow them to perform an active dialogue
with their fluctuating content; to dynamically deal with
changing needs of social groups, as well as to directly
serve particular individuals. This trend forces architects
to design flexibly, to take into account potential emer-
gence of new spatial requirements that cannot be an-
ticipated before the actual building use comes to place
and which can dynamically change over time." (Jask-
iewicz 2008)
In the first stage of the research, we expand the
theoretical literature review. Based on this we iden-
tify a number of interactive urban case studies that
are first tested in a virtual environment (CTU Desk-
Cave) and after fine-tuning implemented in a real sit-
uation. As stated earlier, we first aim at urban envi-
ronments and then make the step towards the res-
idential sphere, where we aim to apply the lessons
learned from the urban environment. This research
project plans to focus on this specific problem - How
an interactive urban structure should look like
and how can it be implemented inside an urban
matrix? What would be its abilities? How could it
serve to people? Our main methodology is research
by design - in which we develop our understanding
of interactivity through a sequence of designs. By
analysis, we would be able to improve the design and
TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 667
make it each time a step closer to our goals. Several
ways would be possible in achieving such results and
analyzing them, such as: creating a prototype and
observing the reactions by ways of videotaping, ob-
serving (professional observers), surveys, and simula-
tions.
CONCLUSION AND METHODOLOGY
The world is changing, and so is architecture. We
have to figure out a way for architecture to follow
these changes, by designing complexity with sim-
ple methods. This research aims to develop architec-
tural solutions capable of sustaining themselves in its
dynamic spatial, social and natural environment. At
the same time these solutions should actively engage
with its users and the surroundings. Cities should
be designed in such a way that they can breathe
along with the city life. By this we would be creat-
ing solutions which can become interactive and flex-
ible while adding quality to our lifestyles, and to cities
in general. The ideas which were analyzed and men-
tioned in this paper will be used to help developing
this philosophy further more in this research, which
can contribute to better designing of an interactive
and flexible structure in the future.
Metamorphosis and transformation of the space
are the qualities which we must seek. Flexibility is the
main component an object needs to demonstrate. If
we want to build in a more flexible and varied man-
ner, the architect must design at a higher level of ab-
straction - to allow the end user to fully engage with
the final design product.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Presented work is a part of the PhD research project
"Interactive Architecture" carried out by the author -
Vasilija Abramovic, at Faculty of Architecture Czech
Technical University in Prague, Cabinet of Architec-
tural Modelling (MOLAB) and supervised by Henri
Achten. The PhD researcher is supported by a grant
received from Ministry of Science of Montenegro
through "National scholarship program for excel-
lence."
 In the text is referenced Master thesis project Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel
"The Unexpected City", done by the author - Vasilija Seydel, ER 2012, Veerkracht. Rede uitgesproken bij het
Abramovic, at Faculty of Architecture Czech Techni- afscheid als hoogleraar Communicatiewetenschap en
Psychologie aan de Universiteit Twente op 12 septem-
cal University in Prague in 2014, supervised by prof.
ber 2012 door Prof.dr. Erwin R. Seydel, Universiteit
Vladimir Sitta. Twente, Twente
Travel to the eCAADe 2016 conference was spon- Tschumi, BT 1994, Event-Cities, The MIT Press, Cam-
sored by a scholarship given by Foundation "Nadání bridge, Massachusetts
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[3] http://www.ep.tc/realist/81/11.html
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Acharya, LA 2013, Flexible Architecture for the Dynamic
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sification', Proceedings of the 29th International Con-
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of Ljubljana, pp. 565-572
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Achten, HA and Kopřiva, MK 2010 'A Design Method-
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668 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1

SenCity - Piloting Intelligent Lighting and User-Oriented
Services in Complex Smart City Environments
Henrika Pihlajaniemi1 , Eveliina Juntunen2 , Anna Luusua3 ,
Mirva Tarkka-Salin4 , Johan Juntunen5
1,3,4
Oulu School of Architecture, University of Oulu 2,5 VTT Technical Research
Center of Finland
1,3,4
{henrika.pihlajaniemi|anna.luusua|mirva.tarkka-salin}@oulu.fi
2,5
{eveliina.juntunen|johan.juntunen}@vtt.fi

New operation frameworks and user-oriented design methods are needed to make
better use of new innovative technologies within smart city contexts. This paper
addresses the design and research of intelligent lighting and user-oriented
services for smart city environments. It presents the problem setting and research
and development methods of the SenCity project. The project will pilot smart
lighting solutions in six Finnish cities in different kinds of urban environments. In
the pilots, the target is to employ lighting infrastructure as a service platform - an
Internet of Things backbone - in the intelligent city. Together, separate pilots in
different cities around Finland will create a living lab ecosystem for developing
and testing innovative solutions. The specific objective of this paper is to present
the concept of a platform as defined and applied in SenCity project. The
presented framework forms an operational model for creating intelligent lighting
and digital services in smart cities by integrating relevant technologies, users'
needs, and business into an interactive system. In the paper, the framework is
applied to a selection of pilot cases with specific themes to introduce its usability
in real world implementations.

Keywords: smart city, sensing, intelligent lighting, smart lighting, user-oriented

design

INTRODUCTION paper addresses the design and research of intel-

The world-wide interest to smart city development
as well as impetus to implement intelligent lighting
solutions for energy savings is opening up new col-
laboration patterns between urban development, re-
search and business. New operational frameworks
and user-oriented design methods are needed to
make better use of new innovative technologies. This
ligent lighting and user-oriented services for smart
city environments. It presents the problem state-
ment and research and development methods of
the project "SenCity - Intelligent lighting as a Ser-
vice Platform for Innovative Cities". The project pilots
smart lighting solutions in six Finnish cities in differ-
ent kinds of urban environments. The research has

TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 669

 three focus areas: 1) to study users' needs and expe-
riences of intelligent lighting, 2) to develop and test
sensoring, data analysis and communication meth-
ods and technologies needed for the user-centric de-
signs, and 3) to generate business opportunities for
smart, data-based services. In the pilots, the aim is
to employ lighting infrastructure as a service plat-
form - an Internet of Things backbone - in an intelli-
gent city. Together, separate pilots in different cities
around Finland will also create a living lab ecosys-
tem for developing and testing innovative solutions
in the future. The SenCity project group consisting
of research institutions, cities, and companies is pre-
sented in Figure 1.
Intelligent lighting
Intelligent lighting, or smart lighting, can be defined
as a lighting system which gains real-time informa-
tion of its environment and users through sensors,
and adapts its behavior accordingly. The information
is analysed and processed in the system into lighting
control commands based on pre-defined parametres
and rules (Guo 2008). The principle in itself is sim-
ple but the complex real world setting, i.e. the city
with its inhabitants, renders the design task highly
670 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1
complex. Thus, it is important to reflect upon what
the users' needs are in different kinds of environ-
ments, what kind of information is relevant for the
users' needs, how the information can be analysed
and how lighting should behave to best serve users'
needs. In order for lighting to be truly intelligent, not
only the system should be smart but the overall de-
sign should be smart as well: Intelligent lighting can,
besides energy savings, offer added value for urban
environments on various levels of experience. (Pih-
lajaniemi 2016.) However, even though almost ev-
erything is possible with new technology, it is chal-
lenging to find technologically reliable and econom-
ically feasible means to operate in complex environ-
ments which have many changing factors. How can
we strike a balance between the desired simplicity of Figure 1
a system and the complexity of the design task? SenCity project
Technologically, intelligent lighting can be seen pilots intelligent
as part of a larger Internet of Things (IoT) develop- lighting and smart
ment. IoT can be defined as an intelligent and inter- services in different
operable node interconnected in a dynamic global kinds of urban
infrastructure network. IoT means connecting every- contexts.
thing around us, such as household devices, mobile
phones, cars, even cities and roads, to the Internet
and/or to each other. As such, IoT seeks to imple-
ment the connectivity concept of anything from any-
where at any time (Ali et al. 2015). This leads us to our
broader research context: smart cities.
Smart City development - From technology
towards better urban living
According to the large number of varying definitions
found in literature, a smart city is a combination of
modern ICT technology, economic ambitions, and
social and communal objectives in urban environ-
ments. Due to increasing environmental awareness
and economic and social importance of cities, more
and more focus has shifted from technology to peo-
ple and community. Besides conserving natural re-
sources, the opportunities for increasing the quality
of urban living, regarding city administration, educa-
tion, healthcare, public safety, real estate, or trans-
portation for example, have been recognized. Also,
sustainable economic growth more related to mod-
ern technology and services is considered important
in the current smart city environment. (Albino et al.
2015.)
The interest on smart city development is global.
For example, India has a grand project of develop-
ing 100 smart cities, while Masdar City in United Arab
Emirates and Songdo in South Korea have launched
projects of their own. Also, South Africa has a smart
city project in Modderfontein. In Europe, the de-
velopment towards smart cities is active, and sev-
eral European cities, like Amsterdam in Netherlands,
Santander in Spain, Lyon in France, and Morgen-
stadt in Germany are investing to develop into smart
cities. (Frost & Sullivan 2015) Amsterdam with dozens
of smart city related projects is an interesting ex-
ample of European activities. Somewhat similar to
our project, in Amsterdam, smart lighting is imple-
mented with sensors to control street lighting and
the lighting infrastructure is also used for services be-
yond the lighting functionality. For example, traffic
flows are controlled with help of coloured lighting. In
addition, a smart lamp post has been sketched with
functions like sensing various data such as pedestrian
count or environmental data, communication, assist-
ing in navigation, and delivering notifications, alerts
and advertising. [1] An energy provider, Alliander,
has an "Open Smart Grid Platform" which allows us-
ing and managing of different objects independent
of the different suppliers. The Alliander's system has
been employed on lighting control in Amsterdam.
[2], [3] Also in Santander, there are over 25,000 wire-
less devices over the town monitoring the environ-
ment. The sensors help in lighting control, planning
of garbage collection, tracking traffic, and monitor-
ing air quality [4]. The project has reduced energy
costs by 25% and garbage pickup costs 20% [5].
The smart city development already carried out
around the world sets good reference to our ob-
jectives in the SenCity project. In addition to the
smart city definitions and actual implementations
discussed above, there is also a literature which ex-
amines smart cities in a more critical light. When ex-
TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 671
amining this literature, the crux of the issue seems
to be the lack of participation and democracy in
the field of smart city development, both on the
level of viewpoints and practices. (Kitchin 2014,
Hollands 2008) To surmount these issues, the op-
erational framework that is utilized in the SenCity
project, is introduced.
OBJECTIVES AND METHODS
The general objective of the SenCity project is to pilot
intelligent lighting solutions and to employ lighting
infrastructure as a platform for user-oriented services
in different kinds of smart city environments. The pi-
lots vary in complexity level concerning both design
and research targets. The specific objective of this pa-
per is to present the concept of a platform as defined
and applied in the SenCity project. The presented
framework forms an operational model for creating
intelligent lighting and digital services in smart cities
by integrating relevant technologies, users' needs,
stakeholders, and business into an interactive sys-
tem. In the article, the general framework of the plat-
form is presented. In addition, the framework is ap-
plied to a selection of pilot cases with specific themes
to introduce its usability in real world implementa-
tions.
The pilot cases are presented discussing design
and research aims and methods to be applied. The
relevant users' needs and users' experience aspects,
technological needs, stakeholders and service re-
lated business potential are presented. The pilot
projects will be realized and evaluated between sum-
mer 2016 and autumn 2017. Those results will be
published in the future.
Methodologically, the basis of our research can
be found in traditions of research-by-design, quali-
tative research and technological research. Our re-
search can be defined as transdisciplinary research,
referring to Gibbons et al. (1994). The research sub-
ject concerns various research disciplines such as re-
search of lighting design and experience, architec-
tural research, engineering and HCI. Typical to all
of these disciplines is that their research problems
 are not usually set within a one singular disciplinary
framework. In addition, the research problem and
knowledge production operates within a context of
practice. In the research process, the framework of
methods is being developed and modified through-
out the process to respond to the needs of research
and to the clarified research questions. The research
follows a mixed-method or combined strategies ap-
proach, where multiple methods from diverse tra-
ditions are applied in a single research endeavour.
This approach is suitable for researching complex
phenomena, as in this case intelligent lighting so-
lutions and digital services in smart city contexts.
Each method brings with its particular strengths and
weaknesses and "combining methods provides ap-
propriate checks against the weak points in each,
while simultaneously enabling the benefits to com-
plement each other." (Groat and Wang 2013)
SENCITY PLATFORM: GENERAL FAME-
WORK FOR USER EXPERIENCES, INNOVA-
TIONS AND BUSINESS
In the cityscape, lighting is always utilized along
routes, where people move, and within areas, where
people spend time and act. With intelligent lighting
this will mean that, in the cities, a relatively evenly
distributed network of electricity supply as well as
communication exists near people. These networks
can be employed for integrating different kinds of
sensors which gain and analyze data in real-time for
smart city services. This forms the starting point for
the SenCity project and the technological core of the
platform concept (see Figure 2). The Technology
node of the framework consists of both the hard-
ware and software, which form the smart infrastruc-
ture of the cities, enabling lighting control, gather-
ing sensor and other type of data, communication as
well as data analysis and fusion. This infrastructure
is partly lighting control related, but can serve other
purposes, too.
Smart technology offers endless potential. How-
ever, it is useless if it does not meet users' needs.
Thus, in the framework, we have situated users' needs
672 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1
and experiences as a User node parallel to Technol-
ogy node. The pilots are designed applying user-
oriented and participatory design methods, such as
scenario working, workshops with users, and cultural
probes. Networking with relevant stakeholders as
well as communication are part of understanding the
users' needs and anticipated users' experiences of pi-
loted lighting and services. Evaluation of users' expe-
riences of each pilot is a central part of our process, as
it provides feedback applicable in further design iter-
ations and has value as such from research perspec-
tives.
A deep understanding of users' needs helps
companies develop smart technology to serve cities'
aims about better urban living and sustainable ser-
vice and maintenance processes. Boosting economy
in the pilot regions by providing new types of busi-
ness opportunities based on data is one of the fo-
cus areas in piloting, thus forming the third node,
i.e. Business, in the framework. The methods for
this are connecting developers with their customers,
supporting development projects and providing test
and piloting opportunities for new products and ser-
vices, arranging innovation competitions, and gener-
ating data for data-based business opportunities.
In the framework, the SenCity group with its
partner cities, companies, and research units, con-
nect three focus nodes with interactive collaboration,
creating new links between technology, users, and
business. The project collaborates with other relating
research projects and negotiates with relevant stake-
holders, for example, city and business organizations
and communities. Contextual factors of each pilot
areas, such as environmental conditions, regulations
and social and cultural patterns, set requirements for
pilots as well as offer possibilities.
PILOTING IN SMART CITY CONTEXTS
In the SenCity project, each pilot project has a fo-
cus on a different theme or application context. The
themes and contexts include: presence-based bi-
cycle route lighting, traffic safety of pedestrians in
crossings and housing areas, data harvesting and ap-
Figure 2
General framework
of the SenCity
platform concept.
plication, educational outdoor environment, as well
as guiding and informative route lighting. The pilots
vary in complexity level concerning both design and
research targets. In this section, three pilot contexts
are scrutinized through the aforementioned frame-
work. The themes are Traffic environment and safety,
Big data in road environments, and Smart lighting
and services for educational outdoor environment.
TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 673
Case 1: Smart applications for safe traffic
environment
This case presentation (see Figure 3) combines fea-
tures of three pilot projects, which will be conducted
in different kinds of traffic environments in three
cities. From a users' experience perspective, the fo-
cus in all the pilots is enhancing traffic safety and en-
abling safe and comfortable moving by foot or by

bike. At the moment, energy savings are sought in
outdoor lighting by intelligent control and presence-
sensing and this should not affect safety or sense of
security negatively.
A pilot in Helsinki will approach intelligent light-
ing on the simplest level, setting a singular research
or development target: What kind of a detailed light-
ing behavior is suitable for presence-based lighting
674 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1
Figure 3
Framework of
SenCity platform
application with the
Case 1: Safety in
traffic
environments.
on bicycle routes? The aim is to design and test
optimal lighting behavior which saves substantial
amounts of energy without lessening cycling safety
or the sense of security of the route users during the
dark. Two well-designed lighting behaviors will be
tested: the one will be perceptible by route users
and the other imperceptible. Feedback of the real
world pilot will be collected from cyclists and walk-
ers as well as from people living near-by with inter-
views and questionnaires. Technically, the pilot will
develop and test the ability to detect direction of the
movement. Otherwise, already existing lighting con-
trol products and technology will be applied.
Another pilot, in the city of Salo, will be carried
out on a collector road of a housing area. In this
case, presence data will not be used to adjust illumi-
nation for every road user individually. However, the
presence data will be averaged over a certain time-
slot and used to dynamically control illumination in-
stead of a fixed dimming schedule currently applied
in Finnish cities. Similar to previous example, feed-
back will be collected from the area inhabitants and
the technical implementation will be based on com-
mercially available components.
Due to several recent accidents, the issue of traf-
fic safety in pedestrian crossings is unfortunately very
topical in Finland at the moment. Alerting lighting
behavior could be used to enhance safety in cross-
roads or in housing areas with lots of kids playing in
the neighbourhood. This requires that the lighting
system recognizes the presence of pedestrians and
even profiles the risk group - young children. In the
pilot implementation in Raahe, we will study differ-
ent scenarios of intelligent lighting behavior in such
context. Even though in our research, the focus is
in real world testing, in this case, virtual modelling
could be applied for safety reasons in researching
users' experiences of different kind of alerting light-
ing behavior. Traffic environment has many bright
objects, illuminated elements, and signal lights al-
ready presently. Thus, it is important to study the
visual load and legibility of this kind of a new infor-
mative lighting layer. In real world implementation,
the research will focus on technical aspect of how to
identify different road users, vehicles, and pedestri-
ans for example.
Case 2: Big data in road environment
There is already lots of information available about
Finnish cities. For example, traffic lights in city cen-
ters are known to adapt based on traffic conditions
TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 675
and emergency vehicles. Buses communicate their
location through GPS and their routes can be fol-
lowed in screens and by mobile devices. [6] Be-
sides that, buses can be attached with different kind
of sensors, thus, creating a mobile sensoring net-
work system of real-time environmental data in dif-
ferent districts of the city [7]. Beyond the transport
examples, also environmental information, such as
open weather data, is already available [8]. In our pi-
lots, combining this information to intelligent light-
ing control is studied. In practice this requires collect-
ing and combining available data, and transforming
it as a lighting control message. In Finland, roads can
be very slippery at winter time causing significant risk
of accidents for both the vehicles and pedestrians.
So, an interesting case example is to combine slipper-
iness data from the bus and/or weather service and
to utilize lighting infrastructure to deliver warning to
road users. The research combines two aspects: tech-
nical aspect of collecting and delivering the data to
the correct location in the city, and the user aspect
how to communicate the information with accept-
able and understandable way.
Today, the typical approach is to monitor in
road environments, for example, traffic density, with
rather expensive and extensive computing demand-
ing camera or radar based solutions, which are in-
stalled only in critical locations of the road network.
In our project, the research objective is to study the
ubiquitous sensing as an alternative to these kinds
of solutions. Sensors will be integrated with the lu-
minaires and use the lighting control system as their
communication network. The approach is to use sim-
ple, low cost sensors and wide geographical cover-
age over the pilot installation. In practice, this means
that a sensing device will locate at every lamp post,
and the data that a single sensor generates is sim-
ple enough to be delivered through the lighting con-
trol system's communication method. As a result, the
installations will generate local data in the road en-
vironment to be transferred to the cloud for further
analysis and fusion with other information available.
The research approach is not to pre-define specific
 events or circumstances, such as accident, snow, or
a traffic density, to be detected. Instead, the pilot in-
stallations are designed to sense road environment
with versatility, and the generated data is analyzed to
study which kinds of events can be identified. The pi-
lot implementations will follow this approach in sev-
eral locations, for example, in Tampere and Salo, and
the research serves to communicate the benefits and
opportunities of constantly increasing IoT solutions
to different stakeholders in road lighting community
with concrete examples.
Besides generating data for the research, the
ubiquitous sensing will be used to deliver energy
savings to the cities and new services to the end
users. The presence data will be used to implement
presence-based lighting as described above. Also, it
is anticipated that collected data will be useful for city
operations, for example, for road maintenance. As a
part of our research, we will carry out a survey in city
organizations in order to discover needs and identify
most potential utilizers of the smart city data that is
available with the ubiquitous IoT approach. Finding
potential use cases and needs will help to generate
new data-based business. The framework of this pi-
lot case concerning big data in road environments is
presented in Figure 4.
Case 3: Smart lighting and services for edu-
cational outdoor environment
In the city of Oulu, our pilot will concern the outdoor
area for Educational, leisure and culture centre in the
Metsokangas area. The community centre consists of
several buildings containing mainly educational fa-
cilities for primary and secondary schools and will
eventually host 1500 pupils with all its extensions.
Other services, which are located in the buildings, are
kindergarten and communal and sports facilities.
The Finnish National Board of Education has con-
firmed the new core curriculum for basic education
and it will be introduced in schools in August 2016.
The new core curriculum emphasizes the joy of learn-
ing and the pupils´ active role [9]. Smart city solutions
can bring sensor data to digital learning environ-
676 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1
ments and school yards can become active learning
environments during school days and leisure time.
In the piloting (see Figure 5), understanding the
users' needs has had a major role, and during the
winter 2015-2016, a participatory design process has
been carried out. The phases of the process have
been cultural probe tasks (Gaver et al. 1999) for both
personnel and pupils, interviews, scenario working
(Rosson and Carrol 2002) and an on-line question-
naire. The cultural probes and interviews provided
us with teachers' and pupils' analysis of the current
situation and activities in the yard and its lighting
conditions and development ideas. The scenarios
were based on that material, as well as on state-of-
the-art research. They describe with short stories
and comic strips different ways to implement smart
outdoor lighting and digital services as part of the
every-day life of the school. In the scenarios, intel-
ligent lighting applications had several motivations
in school yards. Besides energy savings, lighting can
orchestrate children's actions in the school yard, for
example, inform pupils of right routes, game areas,
passing of time, and attract them to physical exer-
cise. Lighting connected with digital services can
extend educational environment from classroom to
the yard and digitally augment the familiar outdoor
space adding new educational contents there. Chil-
dren and teachers can interact with light as well as
play and create with coloured light. In addition, the
scenarios covered also ideas of digital services related
not to lighting but to, for example, maintenance and
space management, enhancing security and virtual
education. Finally, with the help of on-line question-
naire, we got feedback about the scenarios from par-
ents, teachers, and pupils, which will helps us to de-
velop further the designs for piloting. The participa-
tion process will still continue. After realization of the
pilot in the summer 2017, we will evaluate the results
with qualitative methods to gain feedback from ex-
periences.
Technologically, the pilot implementation re-
quires producing intelligently controlled general
lighting and effect lighting using RGBW spotlights.
Figure 4
Framework of
SenCity platform
application with the
Case 2: Big data in
road environments.

Also, there is an interest on testing the pilot imple-
mentation infrastructure as an installation site for fast
data communication and computing for future digi-
tal services, for example, a virtual reality learning aid,
which will have many users at the same time. Other
technological research aspects, such as user recog-
nition, presence monitoring, and needed IoT cloud
solutions, will be clarified during the continuation of
the pilot design.
To generate business and interest on smart ser-
vices development beyond our own project activi-
ties, we will arrange an innovation competition for
Oulu area ICT start-ups. This is a method to boost lo-
cal business activity with long tradition in ICT field.
The competition will be arranged in collaboration
with another project 6Aika which aims at develop-

TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 677

 Figure 5
Framework of
SenCity platform
application with the
Case 3: Educational
outdoor
environment.

ing an open innovation platform for smart city oper- DISCUSSION

ations and business. The same approach was taken
also in Tampere and Lahti, where our project has al-
ready organized similar events with local actors with
good results.
In general, the SenCity framework of a three node
platform has so far proved to be useful and effective
in creating collaboration between partners in order
to develop intelligent lighting solutions and smart
city services and we will expect interesting results
from the pilots. The project is challenging, as it has
many participating cities and companies with vary-

678 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1

ing interests. Our method in addressing this com-
plexity - the plethora of diverse starting points and in-
terests - has been choosing different focus themes for
the pilot areas, which will complement each other in
the end. This living lab environment, the testing plat-
form which combines the results of each pilot case,
will eventually serve all participating cities and com-
panies and build a coherent picture of a smart city.
Answering to the former critique against smart
city concept (Kitchin 2014, Hollands 2008), we have
emphasized users' role in the piloting processes and
in the platform framework. Understanding the users'
needs and experiences forms one of the three nodes
in the piloting processes, interacting with technology
and business, which are the other two focus areas.
With participatory design methods, we have brought
the users into the design processes as our partners.
Metsokangas school pilot in Oulu is a good example
of that kind of process. The community has actively
participated in all the phases and is waiting the re-
alization with great expectations. The process has
provided us with many good ideas as well as criti-
cal viewpoints to be taken care of in further develop-
ment, concerning, for example, privacy issues. Both
industry and city partners are keen on understanding
users' experiences and finding ways to serve users'
needs.
From our processes so far, we can indicate that
the business aspect in relation to genuine user needs
is quite crucial in developing smart city solutions. It
has partly been challenging to find motivations for
investing in smart infrastructure, which goes beyond
already used lighting control technologies, due to
typically higher purchase costs and lack of practical
use cases of smart data-based services. Changing to
LED lighting with time-related dimming or presence-
sensing, is already saving substantial amount of en-
ergy and costs. These functionalities, which are eas-
ily justified with energy savings, do not in itself need
great capacities of local data communication and
computing, which many more developed IoT solu-
tions and smart city applications demand. In our pi-
lot contexts, the critical point seems to be finding
TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 679
those service concepts and business actors which re-
ally would find the users, develop scalable and suc-
cessful business, and pay cities back for building and
maintaining the infrastructure - sensor networks and
fast communication - necessary for the services.
Reflecting the three case studies presented it can
be noted that even though there is always interaction
between all the nodes of the framework, there can be
seen different main drivers for the pilot development
(see the dark grey arrows in Figures 3, 4, and 5). In
the case 1, the clear initiator is found in users' needs,
which in the selected pilot contexts, obviously are re-
lated to safety issues. The framing of the research
question as well as methods has been kept relatively
simple. The piloting in those sites aims at testing and
finding suitable and reliable solutions to support ex-
periences of safety in traffic environments, and the
technological research and development clearly fol-
low that driver. Then, the case 2, which concerns
big data in road environments, can be considered as
technology-driven. Technologically, the complexity
level is in that case higher, and that will eventually
lead to a bunch of user and business related research
questions. However, in that case the main method
is to start with implementing a wide range of sen-
sor and data fusion technology to see what new ap-
plications and use cases will emerge from analyses
of the complex data. The process will be supported
with stakeholder interviews to find potential applica-
tion areas. Thinking about user aspects in the case 3,
the context of the case - an educational and commu-
nity centre - could almost be compared in complexity
level to a small scale "smart village" with its function-
alities and user groups. Thus, here the main driver for
development was chosen to be the understanding of
the variety of users' needs whereas technology and
business development goals are subordinate to that
analysis.
Although the business aspect may seem to lack
attention in defining the drivers in our research, it is
well understood that in the end the success in busi-
ness, or in economy in general, is a relevant point of
view. After the finalized pilot implementations and
 evaluation processes, we will be able to analyse the [2] http://amsterdamsmartcity.com/projects/detail/i
results and reflect the success of chosen drivers for pi- d/62/slug/flexible-street-lighting
loting. This will presumably complement the general [3] https://www.alliander.com/en/our-activities/sta
rt-ups/open-smart-grid-platform
framework with new clarifying, context-related inter-
[4] http://www.digitalmanifesto.telefonica.com/mani
action factors between the three nodes: technology, festo/big_picture/santander-project/
user and business. [5] http://www.governing.com/topics/urban/gov-santa
nder-spain-smart-city.html
[6] http://developer.reittiopas.fi/pages/en/home.ph
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS p
SenCity project is funded by TEKES The Finnish Fund- [7] http://www.vtt.fi/sites/livinglabbus/
ing Agency for Innovation and by participating cities, [8] http://en.ilmatieteenlaitos.fi/open-data-manual
companies and research institutions (see Figure 1). [9] http://www.minedu.fi/OPM/Verkkouutiset/2015/03/
curricula.html?lang=en
REFERENCES
Albino, V, Berardi, U and Dancelico, RM 2015, 'Smart
cities: definitions, dimensions, and performance',
Journal of Urban Technology, 22(1), pp. 3-21
Ali, ZH, Ali, HA and Badawy, MM 2015, 'Internet of Things
(IoT): Definitions, Challenges and Recent Research
Directions', International Journal of Computer Appli-
cations, 128(1), pp. 37-47
Gaver, W, Dunne, T and Pacenti, E 1999, 'Cultural probes',
Interactions, 6(1), pp. 21-29
Guo, L 2008, Intelligent road lighting control sys-
tems—Experiences, measurements, and lighting con-
trol strategies, Ph.D. Thesis, Report 51. Helsinki Uni-
versity of Technology, Department of Electronics,
Lighting Unit, Espoo, Finland.
Hollands, RG 2008, 'Will the real smart city please stand
up? Intelligent, progressive or entrepreneurial?',
City, 12(3), pp. 303-320
Kitchin, R 2015, 'Making sense of smart cities: address-
ing present shortcomings', Cambridge Journal of Re-
gions, Economy and Society, 8(1), pp. 131-136
Pihlajaniemi, H 2016, Designing and experiencing adap-
tive lighting. Case studies with adaptation, interaction
and participation, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Oulu,
Acta Universitatis Ouluensis, H3 Architectonica
Rosson, MB and Carrol, JM 2002, 'Scenario-Based De-
sign', in Jacko, J and Sears, A (eds) 2002, The
Human-Computer Interaction Handbook: Fundamen-
tals, Evolving Technologies and Emerging Applica-
tions, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 1032-1050
Frost & Sullivan, Inc. 2015, Analysis of the Global Sensors
in Infrastructure Monitoring and Smart Buildings Mar-
ket, Frost & Sullivan
[1] http://amsterdamsmartcity.com/projects/detail/i
d/93/slug/smart-light

680 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1

Adaptive Designs with Distributed Intelligent Systems
Building Design Applications

Andrzej Zarzycki1
1
New Jersey Institute of Technology, USA
1
andrzej.zarzycki@njit.edu

This paper discusses and demonstrates an integration of embedded electronic

systems utilizing distributed sensors and localized actuators to increase the
adaptability and environmental performance of a building envelope. It reviews
state-of-the-art technologies utilized in other fields that could be adopted into
smart building designs. The case studies discussed here, sensors are embedded in
construction assemblies provide a greater resolution of gathered data with a finer
degree of actuation. These case studies adopt the Internet of Things (IoT)
framework based on machine-to-machine (M2M) communication protocols as a
potential solution for embedded building systems. stract here by clicking this
paragraph.

Keywords: Adaptable Designs, Arduino Microcontrollers, ESP8266, Smart

Buildings, Internet of Things

INTRODUCTION work. Elements like shutters and sun louvers continu-

The concept of an adaptive building envelope as a
performance enhancer has been in use for a long
time. Façade elements such as sunscreens, win-
dow shutters, or removable window sashes helped
to adapt to climatic and seasonal changes by aug-
menting building use and its performance. While
these elements were dynamic in nature-opening and
closing shutters or louvers--architects usually refer to
them as passive environmental techniques for man-
aging building performance because of the manual
nature of their operations. The inclusion of mechani-
cal and electrical systems within a building, and more
recently embedded electronic intelligence that con-
nects automated control systems with networked
data sets and environmental sensing, changed this
passive approach to an active and dynamic frame-
ously and in real time adjust to external environmen-
tal conditions in the attempt to optimize indoor cli-
mate based on preprogrammed algorithms.
With the introduction of building environmen-
tal control systems, the automation started to con-
trol temperature, air quality, and lighting levels.
These automated controls not only provided in-
creased comfort for living but also translated into
more energy-efficient and environmentally friendly
buildings (Guillemin 2001). However, automated
controls were often structured around a central con-
trol dashboard system with a limited number of sens-
ing points delivering the same solution to a broad
number of space conditions. A more deliberate and
fine-tuned approach to building controls that goes
beyond the size of a single room into the scale of in-

TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 681

 dividual building components is needed.
While buildings and cities are increasingly filled
with smart objects and devices that monitor traffic,
track inventories, or respond to occupants, building
assemblies themselves do not demonstrate a similar
level of interactivity and autonomy (Achten, 2015).
There is an opportunity to extend these smart and in-
terconnected device networks into the very matter of
buildings and their assemblies.
This paper discusses and demonstrates an inte-
gration of embedded electronic systems utilizing dis-
tributed sensors and localized actuators to increase
the adaptability and environmental performance of
a building envelope. It reviews state-of-the-art tech-
nologies utilized in other fields that could be adopted
into smart building designs. The case studies dis-
cussed here, sensors embedded in construction as-
semblies, provide a greater resolution of gathered
data with a finer degree of actuation. These case
studies adopt the Internet of Things (IoT) framework
based on machine-to-machine (M2M) communica-
tion protocols as a potential solution for embedded
building systems.
FROM AUTOMATED TO INTELLIGENT NET-
WORKS
Building automation is a centralized and automatic
control of lighting, heating, and cooling, as well as
other systems including security, fire, and occupant
safety, through a building automation system (BAS)
or building management system (BMS). The goals
of a BAS are improved efficient operation of build-
ing systems, including reduction in energy use and
operating costs, as well as increased occupant com-
fort and the life cycle of the building. Recently con-
structed buildings include some sort of BAS/BMS,
and many older buildings have been retrofitted with
these systems. BASs/BMSs include software and
hardware architecture that integrates controls for all
or most building systems within one dashboard (in-
terface). They are offered by many established com-
panies, such as Siemens, Honeywell, and Cisco, that
already manufacture various building environmen-
682 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1
tal system equipment. While these systems are ef-
fective and deliver significant cost savings (˜20%) as
compared to non-BAS/BMS buildings [1] , they in-
clude various levels of autonomy and intelligence. In
many cases, they respond to matrix-oriented algo-
rithms without understanding the real-time consid-
erations of building occupants or building assembly
conditions. Furthermore, BASs/BMSs are usually im-
plemented in non-residential buildings where a sin-
gle owner or interested party is in control of central-
ized building systems.
While building automation is an example of the
smart environment approach and is often referred
to as the framework behind intelligent buildings, it
currently limits itself to controlling already mecha-
nized and electric/electronic devices such as heating
and cooling systems, without necessary broader im-
plementation of embedding sensors and actuators
into building components and assemblies. It is par-
tially because BASs/BMSs are developed by compa-
nies that manufacture building system components
and their controls (HVAC or air handling units), not by
construction companies or building component fab-
ricators. They facilitate an improved performance of
installed equipment, not necessarily of the building
itself. What is needed in the next wave of transfor-
mation of the building industry and buildings them-
selves (Osman 2005), and is advocated in this paper,
is to develop technologies that integrate and take ad-
vantage of the embedded systems within building
assemblies. Windows, doors, floors, and wall panels
all could and should function as part of the building
digital interface, sensing user and environmental in-
puts as well as actuating desired spatial outcomes.
ADAPTATION OF INTERNET OF THINGS
FOR BUILDING ASSEMBLIES
Smart and connected devices are objects embedded
with microcontrollers, sensors, and actuators, with
connectivity that allows data exchanges between the
product and its environment, user, manufacturer,
and other products and systems. They allow for en-
hanced interactions with people and other objects,
utilizing radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags or
wireless networks. Connectivity enables certain ca-
pabilities of the product to exist outside its physical
form as part of a larger data set (cloud). Collected
data can be analyzed to inform decision-making and
enable operational efficiencies of the product and
the entire system. As envisioned by Mark Weiser in
his Scientific American article titled "The Computer
for the Twenty-First Century" (1991), "When almost
every object either contains a computer or can have
a tab attached to it, obtaining information will be
trivial." BAS/BMS platforms discussed earlier are of-
ten beneficiaries of these collected data points-tabs
attached to physical objects. The IoT is the network
of smart objects with embedded technologies able
to communicate, sense, and interact with the out-
side environment (Kortuem et al. 2010). However,
this network of smart and interconnected devices
provides opportunities for greater interoperability
and resiliency of the entire system, with data com-
ing from and access to individual subcomponents-
devices and objects-as compared to BASs/BMSs.
In addition to sensing and actuation, smart sys-
tems incorporate decision-making abilities, utilizing
previously gathered data in a predictive or adaptive
manner that often employs machine learning algo-
rithms. In these cases, the "smartness" of the sys-
tem is attributed to autonomous operation meeting
its performance and user satisfaction expectations.
While current BAS/BMS platforms follow an estab-
lished (pre-programmed) set of rules, the expecta-
tion is that the underlying reasoning (algorithm) for
smart systems would adapt over time based on envi-
ronmental and user feedback.
PROPERTIES OF SMART OBJECTS AND EN-
VIRONMENTS
While smart objects can function autonomously and
perform complex performance optimizations or user
tracking, they do not necessarily need to exhibit in-
telligence in the sense of artificial intelligence (AI).
As such, the term "smart objects" is a rather inclu-
sive category of object types, from those that per-
TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 683
form basic building automation, such as traditional
sensor-based (or even mechanical) thermostats or
automated louver systems, to sophisticated and pre-
dictive devices such as the Nest thermostat utilizing
machine learning algorithms.
Independently of their level of autonomy and
"smartness," smart objects commonly exhibit the fol-
lowing three typologies or design dimensions:
• Awareness is a smart object's ability to under-
stand (that is, sense, interpret, and react to)
events and human activities occurring in the
physical world.
• Representation refers to a smart object's ap-
plication and programming model-in particu-
lar, programming abstractions.
• Interaction denotes the object's ability to con-
verse with the user in terms of input, output,
control, and feedback (Kortuem et al. 2010,
31).
These three design dimensions are further organized
into three types:
• Activity-Aware Smart Objects: An activity-
aware object can record information about
work activities and its own use.
• Policy-Aware Smart Objects: A policy-aware
object is an activity-aware object that can in-
terpret events and activities with respect to
predefined organizational policies.
• Process-Aware Smart Objects: Processes play
a fundamental role in industrial work manage-
ment and operation. A process is a collection
of related activities or tasks that are ordered
according to their position in time and space
(Kortuem et al. 2010, 32-34).
While these typologies are rather general, Das and
Cook (2005) define smart environment with more nu-
ance as having the following features:
1. Remote Control of Devices: the ability to con-
trol devices remotely or automatically.
2. Device Communication: the ability of devices
to communicate with each other, share data,
 and retrieve information from outside sources
over the Internet or wireless communication
infrastructure.
3. Sensory Information Acquisition/Dissemina-
tion: the ability of sensors to share informa-
tion and make low-level decisions.
4. Enhanced Services by Intelligent Devices: in-
cludes context and location awareness.
5. Predictive and Decision-Making Capabilities:
full automation and adaptation that rely on
the machine learning, or acquiring informa-
tion that allows the software to improve its
performance.
CURRENT IMPLEMENTATIONS OF INTER-
NET OF THINGS
M2M Communication
M2M communication forms the basis for IoT. It is
routinely used for remote monitoring and controls,
including traffic, inventory, and transportation fleet
management, and for robotic applications, includ-
ing autonomous vehicles. Big Belly trash bins [2],
a waste and recycling management system, utilize
M2M communication to message for trash pickup
when the bin is full. Similarly, vending machines can
track purchases, record customer preferences, and
inform a distributor when a particular inventory is
running low. [3]
MQTT [4] stands for MQ Telemetry Transport and
is an M2M and IoT connectivity protocol designed
as an extremely simple and lightweight publish/sub-
scribe messaging transport utilizing a client-broker
relationship structure. Individual clients can be both
publishers and subscribers, providing or acting upon
provided sensor data. The broker is counterpart to a
MQTT client and is responsible for receiving all mes-
sages, processing them, deciding which client may
be interested in them, and then sending messages to
subscribed clients.
MQTT is suitable for wireless networks that expe-
rience varying levels of latency due to occasional low-
bandwidth or unreliable connections. A design ap-
684 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1
proach minimizes network bandwidth and device re-
source requirements to ensure communication relia-
bility and some degree of assurance of delivery. This
approach is particularly effective in the context of
interconnected IoT devices with limited bandwidth
and battery.
Currently, neither IoT nor M2M platforms have
standardized connected device protocols, with many
systems custom-built to facilitate particular tasks or
utilize certain devices. Once the adoption of IoT and
M2M devices becomes more prevalent, manufactur-
ers will need to agree on standards for device-to-
device communications. Security and safety are sig-
nificant concerns associated with IoT and M2M com-
munication, since many original systems were not
designed as open Internet-connected networks. [5]
Wireless Communication Technologies
Wireless mesh network topology allows for each
node to relay data for the entire network. All mesh
nodes participate in the distribution of data, which
provides a number of benefits over traditional net-
works, where a small number of wired access points
or wireless hotspots connect users and control all
communication. A distributed nature of mesh net-
work communication makes them (1) highly adapt-
able and expandable, as individual mesh nodes can
be added to or removed from the network; (2) able
to support high data demands, as each node is con-
nected to multiple other nodes and each device par-
ticipating in the network would function as a node;
(3) reliable and resilient sources of wireless connec-
tivity for a broad range of public safety applications,
as an off-line or damaged device would be super-
seded by other nodes and communication routes;
and (4) less expensive than traditional networks, as
they require less wiring and can service significantly
larger areas.
The disadvantages of mesh networks include the
complexity associated with their management and
potentially high initial capital investment if not uti-
lizing already existing device infrastructure.
The implications for embedded environments
 are that a broad distribution of wireless communica- high range and coverage area is offset by extremely
tion devices would not only benefit from mesh net- low data rates as compared to Wi-Fi networks. How-
works but also benefit the network itself by provid- ever, this may be acceptable for IoT applications that
ing a dense grouping of nodes, mitigating one of are not data transfer heavy, such as sporadic (ev-
the main disadvantages of mesh networks. However, ery couple of seconds or minutes) reporting from a
adaption of mesh networks would mean that the cur- weather station or of the temperature of a road sur-
rent implementation of many IoT technologies would face. LoRa radio modules use 868- and 900-MHz ISM
have to be rethought once a critical mass of embed- bands, which make them suitable for global applica-
ded components was to be implemented in build- tions, as these are commonly shared radio frequen-
ings. The relevance of mesh networks to embedded cies. These frequencies have less interference and at-
environments becomes particularly important when tenuation than the highly populated Wi-Fi spectrum
considering larger-urban and regional-scales of de- (2.4 and 5 GHz).
sign. While buildings could effectively function with The main benefit of long-range radios as com-
an access point approach, cities and open spaces pared to WiFi networks is the low number of radio
could be better served with mesh networks. nodes necessary to provide the coverage for large ar-
eas such as cities and rural regions. However, the low
Specific Technology Considerations data transfer rates make LoRa radios more suitable for
The core of the IoT concept is inter-device communi- communicating low volumes of data from individual
cation achieved through wireless connectivity (usu- sensors or actuators.
ally Wi-Fi) and/or high-frequency radio communica-
Figure 1 tions such as LoRa radios. Both technologies could
ESP8266 module be used in the client-server or mesh network con-
with a motor shield. figurations. As such, IoT networks can be struc-
tured hierarchically or with peer-to-peer connectiv-
ity. The benefits of Wi-Fi-based communication in-
cludes the ability to connect to already established
networks, and through these networks to the In-
ternet, as well as communicating with other Wi-Fi-
enabled devices such as smartphones and tablets.
This approach is popular, since it uses personal mo-
bile devices as control dashboards and data inputs.
Wi-Fi-based IoT could function as part of the larger
Internet-connected network, providing remote ac-
cess and data sharing, or could also function as an
independent and isolated network in either client-
server or mesh network configurations. It provides
high data transfer rates as compared to other radio
communication options, but it also comes with a lim- ESP8266: System of Chip Solution
ited coverage area. One of the recent approaches to IoT, particularly in
LoRa [6] radio-based wide area networks pro- the do-it-yourself (DIY) community, involves ESP8266
vide the opportunity for long-distance communica- chip-based architecture. ESP8266 is implemented in
tions suitable for monitoring urban-scale infrastruc- a number of designs and can be integrated with sen-
ture with a range of up to 5 km, and even 10 km. A sor and actuator shields (Figure 1). ESP8266 com-
bines functionalities of the microcontroller and Wi-

TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 685

 Fi communication module (2.4 GHz, 802.11 b/g/n,
supporting WPA/WPA2) in a simple system-on-a-chip
(SoC) design. ESP8266 is a highly integrated SoC so-
lution with 16 general-purpose input/output (GPIO)
pins, analog-to-digital conversion (10-bit ADC), Inter-
Integrated Circuit (I²C), Serial Peripheral Interface
(SPI), I²S interfaces with DMA (sharing pins with
GPIO), UART (on dedicated pins, plus a transmit-only
UART that can be enabled on GPIO2), and pulse-
width modulation (PWM). It is running at 80 MHz (or
overclocked to 160 MHz). Most recent ESP-12F mod-
ules are FCC (USA) and CE (EU) approved. For those
using the Arduino platform, the ESP8266 chip allows
for a convenient migration path to IoT architecture.
It is also compatible with NodeMCU [7] open-source
IoT platform and the Lua scripting language.
As a very capable processor and communication
module ESP8266 is an intentionally highly compact
design with only a single analog input. While this
may be a limitation in some sensor implementa-
tions it can be resolved with an additional analog-
to-digital converter (ADC) or an analog multiplexer
(Figure 2). However, in most applications there is
no need to up-size the original ESP8266 module,
since most IoT implementations use compact, single-
functionality modules that address a singular sensing
or actuation functionality, such as the monitoring of
temperature and moisture, or an actuation of individ-
ual relays, motors, or lights.
686 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1
Node-RED: Interfacing with Internet of
Things
Node-RED is an event-processing engine and an
open-source visual editor (Figure 3) for wiring the
IoT developed by IBM. It integrates hardware de-
vices, APIs, and online services in ways easy to inter-
face by lowering technical experience requirements
and allowing developers to focus on creating ap-
plications rather than on coding. It allows for vari-
ous forms of IoT system management without having
an in-depth understanding of underlying technolo-
gies. The Node-RED eco-system uses drag-and-drop
"nodes" that represent components of a larger sys-
tem such as wireless devices, software platforms, and
Web services that are to be connected. It also offers
various functionalities ranging from simple passing
of data payloads or a simple debug to more involved
MQTT client handling or posting HTTP GET requests. Figure 2
Like many other visual editors, it does not take away ESP8266 module
the need for scripting, but it significantly reduces the with an analog
need for it. multiplexer
The Node-RED implementation uses a Web (74HC4051 Texas
browser, which is usually hosted in a server such as Instruments)
a Raspberry Pi module (MQTT broker). It allows for provides additional
administration of the entire network (MQTT clients) analog inputs to
without the need to reprogram individual controllers connect an array of
with sensors and actuators. The management and sensors.
controls can be accessed remotely from any Web-
capable device.
Figure 3
Node-RED: visual
editor with
interconnected
nodes allows for
easy management
of a large number
of IoT devices,
services, and
programs.
Figure 4
Transparent Touch
Interface project
using a rigid and
flexible base
focused on
embedding smart
systems into the
conventional
building materials.
PLUG-AND-PLAY BUILDING ASSEMBLIES
A critical aspect of future embedded assemblies is
a plug-and-play (PnP) architecture of building com-
ponents. What we have come to expect from com-
puters and electronic devices is their ability to in-
terface with other objects without a need for sig-
nificant user involvement or understanding of tech-
nology. The same should apply to building com-
ponents, their ability to get connected and inte-
grated into an overall framework of a smart build-
ing. A window, or any other building component,
should be able to localize itself and recognize its
role within the overall building, as well as its perfor-
mance and users' expectations toward it. The history
and building knowledge should be passed to, or at
least accessible to, newly installed components for
self-configuration and performance optimization. In
this instance, mass-produced building components
would need to be localized and reconciled within
their assembly, respond to their physical and spa-
tial configurations-windows facing south may need
to perform differently than those facing north-and
understand regional and microclimatic conditions.
Thanks to embedded technologies, generic manu-
factured building components would adapt to local
circumstances and acquire highly specialized proper-
ties, possibly hard-reconfiguring their original com-
position.
An important part of these embedded systems
TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 687
will be an integration of wireless communication
with a localization protocol, possibly using RFID/NFC
tags and energy sources or storage. While this may
seem like a lot packed into a window or an individual
building component, current material research sup-
ports future implementations of these designs. For
example, translucent lithium-ion batteries charged
with sunlight, developed by researchers at Stan-
ford University [8,9], could be integrated into glaz-
ing or frit panels and provide the necessary energy
to power embedded components. However, glazing
and other visually present components need to sat-
isfy not only technological but also aesthetic and user
experience considerations. Skeletouch, developed
by Hiroyuki Kajimoto (2012), is an example of hep-
tic/tactile display that uses transparent glass plate
with electrodes to provide a tactile feedback to users.
While this particular project implements the tactile
display as an overlay to a smartphone's video dis-
play, the same technology could be applied to build-
ing glazing as part of building user interface. A sim-
ilar investigation was part of the Transparent Touch
Interface project (Figure 4) that looked into devel-
oping transparent and flexible printed circuit board
(PCB)-like components that would respond to touch
using an MPR121 capacitive sensor controller mod-
ule driven by an I2C interface (Figure 5).

MACHINE LEARNING
To optimize user comfort, minimize operational cost,
and adapt to occupant needs, smart buildings must
rely upon sophisticated tools for intelligence behav-
ior and performance such as learning, anticipation,
and decision making. These predictions can only be
based on past behavioral and occupancy patterns
and on occupants' interaction with sensing devices
such as motion detectors, light controls, or video
monitors.
Then recorded data can be used to build sophis-
ticated statistical models that can be used in predic-
tion algorithms.
BUILDING AS DYNAMIC INTERFACE
While distributed sensor systems provide a dense
network of data input points, the same channels of
communication can be used to actuate and inter-
face with building occupants. Embedded systems
not only provide localized intelligence in materials
and objects but, more importantly, can serve as an
informational and control interface: an interface that
688 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1
provides on-demand functionalities and contextual- Figure 5
izes knowledge. This is evident not only in the Trans- A capacitive sensor
parent Touch Interface and Skeletouch projects men- controller
tioned earlier, utilizing touch-based inputs or tactile integration with a
feedback, but also in many current consumer prod- mirror as a possible
ucts, such as LED faucets and showerheads relating user interface (UI)
water temperature to light color (Figure 6), with em- for IoT applications.
bedded devices providing users with the relevant
feedback.
While smart environments-buildings and cities-
are initially intended to increase performance and Figure 6
efficiencies (Nakama et al. 2015) as well as to en- Temperature
hance user experience, there are many other side sensing LED faucet;
benefits to technologies deployed in smart environ- an example of
ments. Sensing and actuating technologies em- building user
bedded into buildings are compatible and can in- interface.
terface with autonomous mobility agents, not only
providing navigational clues but also facilitating au-
tonomous wheelchair driving. Similarly, the local-
ization techniques that are used to track and inter-
act with building occupants can also be deployed
to assist nonhuman robotic agents during building
construction and post-occupancy phases (Schwartz
2015).
ESP8266: CASE STUDIES
A number of the technologies discussed above were
implemented and tested in adaptive façade and
building assembly prototypes developed as part of
academic and research work at the New Jersey In-
stitute of Technology (NJIT) (Figure 7). While ini-
tially a number of "smart" prototypes used Arduino
microcontrollers to interface sensors and actuators,
and for data communication, it quickly became ev-
ident that for some of the projects a more robust
microcontroller eco-system with wireless communi-
cation would be required. A number of projects
adopted the ESP8266 chip for its integrated micro-
controller and WiFi capabilities. Most of the projects
used a small number of controllers (3-4) but one
of the projects tested twelve concurrently reporting
ESP8266 units continuously connected and access-
ing outside Internet services with a minimal band-
Figure 7
Adaptive façade
and building
assembly
prototypes
developed as part
of academic and
research work to
test embedded
systems. From the
left: Adaptive width impact on the WiFi network. During heavy a highly reliable configuration with only occasional
Facade 1 and 2, data transfers on the same WiFi network (large file communication interactions, which resulted in a cou-
Algae Bio-Facade, downloads and uploads) module connection time- ple of seconds' delay of the actuation time of one of
and Adaptive Media outs would be a common occurrence with no effec- the modules.
Facade projects. tive data transfer between modules and the cloud One of the embedded prototype projects re-
database. While this could be associated with a data quired several analog inputs. To extend a basic
loss, these situations could have been resolved with ESP8266 module a shield was designed with a 12-bit
additional code establishing protocols that would ADC (Figure 8) that allowed for greater precision in
verify received communication. In the context of the
Figure 8 research projects, this was not necessary since any
ESP8266/WeMos D1 unreceived data from environmental sensors (light,
Mini shields temperature) would have been updated within a
developed as part short period of time. An important finding was that
of the Adaptive once the WiFi bandwidth became available again,
Building ESP8266 modules were able to resume the commu-
Componentes at nication with no impact on the functionality or sta-
NJIT to extend and bility of the system. Similar tests with Arduino Uno
augment base and Ethernet Shield showed that connection time-
module outs often resulted in an unresponsive module and
functionalities: (A) the need to reboot a microcontroller.
sensor and servo While client reporting of sensor data may be in-
extension shield, (B) frequent (every couple of minutes) the connection to reading analog inputs 4096 (2ˆ12) as compared to
12-bit ADC shield clients handling various actuators may require much Arduino's 1024 (2ˆ10) values. This is particularly
extends a number faster response time particularly when a human in- useful with very precise measurements or in cases
of analog inputs put is involved. This need is further compounded when one would like to cover a wide range of val-
and increases the considering the pull nature of client communication ues as would be the case in measuring noise levels
range of values to protocol implemented in discussed prototypes-data and mapping them to decibels (dB)-another research
12 bits, and (C) a could not have been pushed into a client, only a project currently underway in the lab.
motion (PIR), client could have pulled it by establishing a connec- Only some of the projects that implemented the
temperature tion. To reduce the time between data pullings, the ESP8266 chipset with WiFi communication used a
(DHT22), and client would have to be continuously or frequently Node-RED implementation with Raspberry Pi. The re-
illumination level connected to the network, which could impact net- mainder deployed a conventional WiFi network con-
[Lux] (TSL2561) work efficiency. Again, this configuration was tested nected to the Internet and HTML/PHP connections
sensor shield. with twelve ESP8266 modules. The results showed to MySQL databases. The majority of the projects
Gerber file and
additional info at
emergentmat-
ter.org. TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 689
 stayed within the HTML/PHP and MySQL platform
partially for a legacy reasons and partially to provide
a parallel testing environment to compare ESP8266
and Arduino Uno with Ethernet Shield implementa-
tions.
CONCLUSION
This paper and the projects discussed therein inves-
tigate strategies to shift from individual smart object
or smart assembly implementations to orchestrate
larger intelligent systems for architectural applica-
tions. This means, in most cases, leaving behind the
familiar territory of Arduino and getting involved in
interfacing various building systems and assemblies,
integrating them with databases and mining data
with machine learning algorithms. While this may
feel like stepping outside of established notions of
architecture, embedded systems provide new tools
to redefine human-made environments and design
more efficient and resource-considerate buildings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The following projects are the research contributions
from NJIT students:
1. Transparent Touch Interface project devel-
oped by Anthony Samaha (Figures 4 and 5)
2. Adaptive Façade 1 developed by Jorge Cruz,
Alan Mera, and Carlos Rodrigues (Figure 7 left)
3. Adaptive Façade 2 developed by Daniel Bel-
tran and Patryk Kleba (Figure 7 second from
the left)
4. Algae Bio-Façade developed by Samantha
Bard, Mary Lopreiato, and Libertad McLellan
(Figure 7 center panel)
5. Adaptive Media Façade developed by An-
thony Morrello and Anthony Samaha (Figure
7 right panel)
6. ESP8266 shields designed by George Hahn
(Figure 8) supported by a Facutly Seed Grant
from NJIT.
Additional information about discussed projects in-
cluding a PCB designs and Gerber file with can be ac-
690 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1
cessed at www.emergentmatter.org
REFERENCES
Achten, H 2015 'Closing the Loop for Interactive Archi-
tecture - Internet of Things, Cloud Computing, and
Wearables', Proceedings of eCAADe 2015
Das, S and Cook, D 2005 'Designing Smart Environments:
A Paradigm Based on Learning and Prediction', in
Pattern Recognition and Machine Intelligence: PReMI
Guillemin, A and Morel, N 2001, 'An innovative lighting
controller integrated in a self-adaptive building con-
trol system', Energy and Buildings, 33(5), p. 477–487
Kajimoto, H 2012 'Skeletouch: Transparent Electro-
Tactile Display for Mobile Surfaces', Proceedings SA
'12 SIGGRAPH Asia 2012 Emerging Technologies, Arti-
cle No. 21, ACM New York, NY, USA
Kortuem, G, Kawsar, F, Fitton, D and Sundramoor, V 2010,
'Smart Objects as Building Blocks for the Internet of
Things', IEEE Internet Computing, 14 (1), p. 44–51
Nakama, Y, Onishi, Y and Iki, K 2015 'Development
of Building Information Management System with
Data Collecting Functions Based on IoT Technology',
Proceedings of eCAADe 2015
Osman, A 2005, 'Integrating Digital and Building Tech-
nologies: Towards a New Architectural Compos-
ite', International Journal of Architectural Computing,
3(2), pp. 181-190
Schwartz, M, Frias, R, Dolgener Cantu, E, Stoffel Saul,
G and Park, J 2014 'Humanoids ‘Performing’ Man-
ufacturing', Proceedings of Workshop on Humanoid
Robots and Creativity at IEEE-RAS, Humanoids 2014
Weiser, M 1991, 'The Computer for the Twenty-First Cen-
tury', Scientific American, 265 (3), p. 94–104
[1] www.siemens.com/energyefficiency
[2] www.bigbelly.com/solutions/stations/
[3] www.bizjournals.com/bizjournals/how-to/technolo
gy/2015/04/the-internet-of-things-is-transfor
ming-vending.html
[4] www.mqtt.org
[5] www.zdnet.com/article/m2m-and-the-internet-of-t
hings-how-secure-is-it/
[6] www.lora-alliance.org/
[7] www.nodemcu.com/index_en.html
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439.html
[9] www.technologyreview.com/s/424802/a-battery-
you-can-see-through/
Animating the Static. Case Study of The Project
"Urbanimals"
Enhancing play in the cities through an augmented and interactive
environment

Sebastian Dobiesz1 , Anna Grajper2

1,2
Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Department of Architecture
1,2
{sebastian.dobiesz|anna.grajper}@gmail.com

This article delineates the process of developing the project "Urbanimals" - an

interactive installation designed and realised in Bristol, UK, in 2015. As the case
study research, it draws attention to the difficulties in designing interactive
structures in urban spaces - from an architects' idea to a construction stage.
There are four areas that are being investigated: (1) Modelling interactions, (2)
Negotiating locations and logistics, (3) Developing hardware and (4) Performing
the on-site observations. The project draws from the idea of Smart City (SC) as
the concept of the urban environment with a certain level of responsiveness
through implementing a technology-driven matter that expands city offer
perceivable, but gentle and not hindering way. It highlights the possible
applications of projection technology and the utilisation of the 3D modelling
software which provides complex tools for creating animations, movements and
interactions with future users. The article gives clues how to design more
engaging interactions and how to deal with implementing them in public realm.

Keywords: Smart Cities, Interactive Architecture, public realm, art installations

INTRODUCTION
The investigation presented in this paper is a case
study of a development - and a further performance
- of an Urban Interactive Art Installation called "Ur-
banimals" which was realised in Bristol, UK, in 2015 as
the winning proposition for the "Playable City Award
(PCA)". The concept of the project and the "PCA" is
built upon an idea of implementing small urban in-
terventions within cities to improve the appearance
and perception of their deprived areas, as well as
to engage citizens in active participation in urban
life through play [2]. In this respect, the project re-
lates to the notion of "urban acupuncture" (Lerner
2014) which involves the actions that, through small-
scale contributions, transform and revive forgotten
and neglected places.
As authors of "Urbanimals", we focused on the
spaces of transition in cities - spaces that only offer
an opportunity to pass through. We wanted to try
to transform them into more pleasurable and vibrant
places of public interest - into places that stimulate
creative behaviour. By "spaces of transition" - follow-

TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 691

 ing Gabriel Fuentes - we understand passages, gate-
ways or aisles and a like, which connect the attrac-
tive and well maintained public spots such as main
roads, squares or parks (Fuentes 2011). These areas
were chosen as a great opportunity for an urban re-
search which intends to observe the changes in be-
haviour of street users.
Urban Acupuncture performed in the project
and presented in this research paper is rooted in the
studies of the Smart City (SC) as the specific urban
testing ground for technological experiments (Saun-
ders and Baeck 2015). In this regard, we used the In-
teractive Architecture as the SC-oriented tool to re-
design existing urban spaces into responsive and yet
creative places. To understand the main objectives
of Smart Cities and Interactive Architecture that are
being addressed in this study, both movements are
being expounded in the next paragraphs.
Smart city
Smart City (SC) is one of the concepts of the city
development which was widely deliberated in the
turn of XXI century, both in public and academic dis-
course. It could be defined - following ie. Tim Camp-
bell, Anthony Townsend or Antoine Picon (Campbell
2012, Townsend 2014, Picon 2015) - as the idea of
organising the city in a sustainable and intelligent
manner and making it ever more efficient through
the process of learning by sensing and analysing its
current states of performance. That process is based
on the use of the latest advances in technologies for
data collection and for sending data to citizens in re-
sponse. As Serwant Singh [1] points out, this fast and
easy exchange of knowledge improves such aspects
of the Smart City functioning, as smart governance,
smart energy, smart building, smart mobility, smart
infrastructure, smart technology and smart health-
care. Yet that is just one - and very top-down - side
of understanding the benefits of the smart city. On
the other hand, Yuan He (He et al. 2014) draws at-
tention to more citizen-oriented aspects of urban liv-
ing in SC, such as: public safety, telemedicine, home-
care, interpersonal communications, social activities,
692 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1
and entertainment. He advocates for intelligent solu-
tions that not only improve the efficient performance
of the city, but more importantly, improve citizens
themselves. From the variety of research branches,
such researchers as Drew Hemment (Hemment 2013)
indicate that probably the most essential fact about
Smart City is that it is as intelligent as its planners and
architects are, thus implying that without smart com-
munities represented by smart inhabitants, the con-
cept of Smart City lacks its essence and purpose.
In this regard, this research paper correlates with
the technology-driven approach in designing urban
environment which can increase the positive devel-
opment of the society in the smart - and any other -
city. To achieve this, it uses the findings in the field
of Interactive Architecture as a tool to influence com-
munities through the design with a real-time, cre-
ative approach. For the authors of this article, Inter-
active Architecture can be used for augmenting the
Smart City with crucial layer of social well-being and
healthy relations that are expected to construct such
emerging form of settlement as SC.
Interactive Architecture
Interactive Architecture (iA) enriches the idea of the
Smart City not only by making an urban environment
more technologically and functionally developed,
but also by creating surroundings that may evoke
peoples' creativity, hence, their smartness. Ideolog-
ical roots of Interactive Architecture date back to the
mid-twentieth century, to the project "Fun Palace"
designed by Cedric Price and to the technology-
driven interactive art movement represented by such
artists as Myron Krueger or Roy Ascott. The ma-
jor characteristics of interactivity they advocated for,
was a novel attribute of creating space that puts a
man in a role of not just a passive user but rather
a creator and generator of events and actions. In
that sense - as Kaas Oosterhuis (Oosterhuis and Xia
2007) stresses out - "iA is based on the concept of bi-
directional communication, which requires two ac-
tive parties". This point of view is implemented in the
"Urbanimals" project also through understanding in-
 teractivity in the following way "...something is inter- crease their cognitive development. As Xu Lin (Lin et
active when people can participate as agents within al. 2015) suggests, there is a lot of research done on
a representational context. (An agent is 'one who ini- Interaction Design in urban environment, however,
tiates actions)" (Laurel 1993, p.112). Following that this research paper refers specifically to the investiga-
understanding of interactivity, we anticipated that it tion conducted by Matthew Anijo Punnen, presented
gives extraordinary features for architecture to stim- in "Urban Research Machines: Engaging the Mod-
ulate behaviour of the citizens and in a result, to in- ern Urban Citizen through Public Creativity" which fo-
Figure 1
The set of four
Urbanimals.
Pictures depict: a
dolphin (top-left), a
kangaroo
(top-right), a rabbit
(bottom-left) and a
beetle
(bottom-right).

TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 693

 cuses on using public creativity as a tool for urban
engagement. Author presents the case study of the
range of interactive installations on top of which he
builds a framework that helps in creating more valu-
able interactions. Nevertheless, he draws attention
to the fact that there is still "the lack of research pro-
viding guidance and advice on designing for interac-
tivity in urban contexts" (Anijo Punnen 2015, p. 61).
He stresses out that the framework for designing Ur-
ban Interactive Installation needs more complex ex-
pertise. Thus, herewith this research, authors are try-
ing to contribute to this field of Urban Studies, by
deepening the aspects of implementing art installa-
tions in a strict urban settings, and by depicting prac-
tical solutions this process requires.
Therefore, the paper tries to answer such re-
search questions as: (1) what are the legal obstacles
in developing interactive installations in urban con-
text? (2) How the long term presence of the interac-
tive structure on-site affects the number of interac-
tions? (3) How the complexity of proposed interac-
tions influences the behaviour of the users? (4) Could
the Installation be multiplied and implemented in
other locations to achieve similar results?
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The project called "Urbanimals" was proposed as a
competition entry for the Playable City award 2015
in Bristol. It consisted of the eight installations that
were built and spread across the city. Each of the
structure displayed one of the four origami-shaped,
colourful reminiscences of commonly liked animals
such as a dolphin, a kangaroo, a rabbit, and a bee-
tle onto a floor or a wall surfaces in the city (Figure
1). The project was designed as an experiment in a
public space that was conducted to arise an invisi-
ble link between citizens and the city. Thus, the pro-
jections were designed and programmed to interact
with passers-by and with occurring elements of the
build environment such as stairs, gutters, windows
and such. It was therefore intended that the long
term provision of the project should increase peo-
ples' conscious perception of the urban fabric.
694 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1
The project was intended to run for 2 months
over the autumn in all selected locations in the city
of Bristol. The development of the project took 3
months and involved 8 persons on a regular, daily
basis. It used commonly known technology of short
throw projectors (actuators) that are able to display
high quality images from the very acute angle. With
such technology - allowing to reduce the occur-
rence of interrupting shadows - users were able to
closely interact with the surfaces on which the pro-
jections appeared. This effort implied strengthen-
ing the awareness of the built environment. The "Ur-
banimals" project also exploited such tools as depth-
cameras (sensors) for mapping human motion. Us-
age of these sensors and actuators in the project, was
the main method for producing the final Interactive
Installation.
Construction
The basic component of each installation was a wa-
terproof box with all electronic hardware situated in-
side of it (Figure 2). The hart of each unit was an
Intel NUC - micro-computer able to run a standard
software on Ubuntu operating system. To monitor
the condition of the equipment, such as its idle/stress
temperature, and to control Urbanimals' program,
the NUC was connected to an USB Broadband don-
gle which provided a wireless connection with the
internet. The main actuator in a set, was the Short
Throw Projector with the spherical lens sticking out
of the box which was protected from being damaged
by a transparent, polymeric dome. The projector had
nearly 500 cd of luminosity which allowed the pro-
jection to be visible only during the late afternoon
and evening hours, and mostly in the spots located
far enough from street lamps. The major sensing de-
vice was the Microsoft Kinect - a depth-camera which
allowed to track and digitise the motion of users. Fur-
thermore, the box was also equipped with a cool-
ing systems constructed from the two efficient fans,
and protected from insects and birds by the fine grain
metal nets. The water resistance of the unit was en-
sured by building it from the Spider Flight-Case that
Figure 2
The construction
and a sample
position of the main
unit.

was originally sealed with rubber gaskets. There-
for it was protected during the wet autumn months.
Each of the boxes was attached to the rigid handle
made from perforated, steel C-profiles, mounted at
the sides of the box and fixed to the existing street
elements such as lamps, roof gutters or balustrades
in each location. In order to achieve the best area
for sensing and displaying animations (roughly 3m x
4m), the vast majority of the boxes were situated at
least 3,5 meters above the ground.

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 Interactions
The interactions - understood as the language of
communication between each animal and architec-
ture and between animal and human (Figure 3) -
were designed to examine the ability of digital tech-
nology to encourage people to play and by this, in-
troducing a new quality of the surrounding without
complex and time consuming spatial (physical) rear-
rangements of the existing urban environment. To
achieve that, the main challenge of the project was
to set up an intimate connection between partici-
pants and the city structure through the behaviour of
each Urbanimal. For this purpose the range of inter-
actions and animations was produced and tested to
attain the highest smoothness in their performance.
The amount of predefined situations in which Ur-
banimal could enter into an interplay with the user,
reached tens and even hundreds per one creature.
They were all created in "Blender" - an open source
software which allowed to build a three dimensional
body of our creatures, and to draft and record the
scenarios of movements. This software gave the abil-
ity to manage all knotty models with simplified bone
armatures, which ultimately made the process more
efficient. The high complexity of rough animations
was tackled, merged and multiplied with the "Unity
3D" gaming software which provided fluent transi-
tions between produced assets, and thus created a
smoothly animated environment in which the inter-
actions with participant could occur.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The whole process of the development of the instal-
lation was simultaneously conducted in three stages
within which the cooperation between various spe-
cialists was crucial. The production was composed of
the following actions:
• Modelling interactions
• Negotiating locations and logistics
• Developing hardware
Modelling interactions. The whole concept of Ur-
banimals was based on four animated animals
696 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1
brought to "life" with a 3D Open Source Software.
Initially, the basic "bodies" of a dolphin, a rabbit, a
kangaroo, and a beetle, was designed with the fo-
cus on a proper structure of their armature and set
of movements only. The preliminary construction of
the body consisted of bones with proper constraints,
such as a degree of rotation in 3D axis, a ratio of re-
scale while being moved, or a relation to other bones;
which allowed the natural movement of each part of
their trunk. Such core of each Urbanimal was a base
for creating movement scenarios and it gave enough
flexibility for changing the external appearance of
the bodies in later stages of the design, without the
necessity of re-working animations.
Subsequently each of the creatures - with a spec-
ified armature and basic postures - was exported to
the Unity to setup the model for interactions be-
tween each animal, a person, and architecture. In-
stantaneously, all Blender models were being ad-
vanced to build a database of all required movement
scenarios, as well as to acquire the final shapes of
Urbanimals. The basic types of movements were:
running, jumping, sniffing, turning or crouching,
but each Urbanimal also consisted of characteristic
movements like: a dolphin - clapping flippers, splash-
ing water etc., a rabbit - scratching the ear or sniff-
ing around etc., a kangaroo - making a boxing mill,
jumping on the tail etc., a beetle - flipping on the
back etc. These motions were the essential attributes
of their behaviour. All these behaviours were taken
from nature and prepared as singular actions which
were able to be merged and blended into sequences
in Unity, in order to achieve the naturalness of the
designed 3D models. Additionally, every database
of movements included a range of pre-assumed sce-
narios in certain situation that might occur while in-
teracting with Urbanimal. Vast majority of such sit-
uations consisted of the "eye-contact" animations.
For instance: the rabbit starring at the approach-
ing person and jumping back while the person gets
too close; the kangaroo jumping on the tail to catch
somebody's attention and making angry pose if no-
one comes closer; or the dolphin performing dou-
Figure 3
Passer-by entering
into interaction
with one of
Urbanimals.
ble backflip above the one who get close enough.
In summary there were almost 800 such animations
developed for Urbanimals of which rabbit and Kan-
garoo consisted of more than 250, dolphin of nearly
150, and beetle of less than a 100.
Simultaneously, a range of varying "bodies" for
Urbanimals was developed, aiming for the best qual-
ity of movement, but also maintaining the simplic-
ity of origami shaped creatures. The final outcome
was a low-poly model which was using mainly tri-
angular surfaces and which was corresponding with
the paper style models most accurately. Both, move-
ments of Urbanimals and their appearance (including
a colour) was widely consulted with graphic design-
ers and interaction designers to achieve the best re-
sults and most appealing and fluent outcome. Thus,
the hole process of designing interactions required
dozens of on-site testing. In result, every Urbanimal
gained its own personality that was easy to perceive
by interacting person.
Negotiating locations and logistics. The founda-
tional idea of the "Playable City Award" is to engage
citizens from all over the city into a play. Therefore,
the locations for Urbanimals were spread across ev-
ery district in the city of Bristol. Each area was visited
TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 697
for an extended site-recognition in order to select
the place with characteristics formulated by the au-
thors of the installations. These characteristics were
among all: proper lighting conditions, access to the
electricity or rich composition of the architectural el-
ements that the Urbanimal could play with. More-
over, every location needed to be consulted with
local authorities in order to obtain required agree-
ments. This stage of the development was very de-
manding because: (1) preselected places had to meet
a strict constraints regarding their mono-functional
and transitional character, in which no other activ-
ity could be normally performed and (2) they needed
to be a property of the public body to attain proper
permissions for installing the units. In this respect,
it also involved a long term official correspondence.
While granted with approval for specific location, the
insurance company needed to complete the secu-
rity checks on-site and recommended an external rig-
ging company to proceed with the assembling of the
units. It was due to securing the locations accord-
ingly to the local law.
Designing hardware. This stage of development re-
quired a to conduct a set of tests of devices antici-
pated to be used in the final unit. At the beginning
 there were many try-outs of cardboard, plywood and
metal boxes - as the main body of the unit- before
the regular flight-case was chosen as the most solid
and cost-efficient option. Also few alternative pro-
jectors were borrowed to check their performance
in a daylight and the quality of images they pro-
duce on the rough surfaces of the streets. Likewise,
many experiments with various cooling systems for
the boxes and all equipment inside were conducted
to assure no overheating after a longer period of op-
erating. Within this stage, every devices was properly
adjusted in terms of: (1) Kinects - the range of sens-
ing, (2) projectors - colour, brightness, angle of im-
age, and focus setup, (3) fans - speed of rotation, air-
flow direction, (4) power strip - length of the cable.
Observations
Every stage of the design process was carefully ob-
served and recorded in order to collect all relevant in-
formation for the evaluation process. The following
aspects of the development were analysed accord-
ingly:
• Modelling Interactions - The process of devel-
oping the "Urbanimals" project was initially
started with main designers working on 3D
assets in Poland, and with the rest of the
team operating in UK. After the first month,
the authors moved to Bristol to strengthen
the cooperation with other specialists. Forth-
coming two months were performed as the
team collaboration within one office space
which highly improved the communication
within the team and effectiveness of per-
formed tasks.
• Negotiating locations and logistics - Finding
proper location was a case of finding minor
semiotic differences in the appearance of the
site. Therefore it required presence of main
designers to fully participate in that process.
After the selection of several spots across the
city, which were suitable for installing Urban-
imals, the producer and production assistants
started negotiations with local authorities in
698 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1
order to obtain permissions for installing Ur-
banimals. Unfortunately that process took
more time than expected which caused the
intensification of work short before the launch
date. There were also many additional is-
sues with the ownership of the street ele-
ments - such as lamp hanging on the wall or
balustrades and other - which often resulted
in cancellation of chosen location due to the
rights obstacles. Local authorities had some
reservations to some locations also regarding
the smooth flow of pedestrians that might be
interrupted while installation is turned on and
entertain passers-by.
• Designing hardware - The flight-boxes used as
a main protection for all the electronic devices
within the unit worked perfectly well and pro-
tected the equipment from the weather con-
ditions. They were also very easy in perfo-
rating them to allow the sensors and actua-
tors to reach the area of interactions. Multi-
ple perforation did not weaken the stiffness
of the boxes, thus they securely held heavy
projectors and other equipment, and solidly
stood in one position once attached to the
rigging structure on site. The projectors cho-
sen due to their high luminosity were lack-
ing of remotely controlled focus of the image.
They were fitted only with manual knob which
could not be adjusted while inside the box. To
ensure a sharp image, each projector needed
to be adjusted to pre calculated distance from
the projection surface, before it was installed
inside the unit.
• On-site performance - It was observed that
complexity of the designed interactions and
a huge amount of animations implemented
within the Urbanimals' program, did not
cause an increase in the amount of interac-
tions with people participating in the ven-
ture. In fact, those Urbanimals who acted
more calmly engaged more users. The ac-
tions performed by passers-by were in such
 situations, often very long and with positive
attitude. On the other hand, the more com-
plicated were the movements of Urbanimals
the less active were people in interacting with
them. All cases of people interacting with Ur-
banimals were recorded as gif files and stored
on the server for further analysing the par-
ticipants' behaviour. The camera recorded
GIF images both (1) when "Urbanimals" were
displayed and (2) when they were switched
off (Figure 4). The dataset obtained after
the 2 months of the installations operating in
the city, showed a significant change in the
behaviour of the passers while "Urbanimals"
were operating. Moreover, throughout the
research time-span, the number of observed
interactions did not change significantly, and
remain on the similar level till the very end of
the project.
Figure 4
Recordings from
the Kinect camera,
depicting
behaviour of
pedestrian when
the installation is
turned off (left) and
when it is turned on
(right).
CONCLUSIONS
Through the case study on the development of the
Interactive Installation in urban context, we wanted
to draw attention of prospective designers to the
range of obstacles that they might face in their prac-
tice. Through an in-depth elaboration of this pro-
cess we pointed out that most crucial for effective
workflow is the constant communication with local
authorities to secure the best locations for potential
projects. We stressed out that planning the endeav-
our in advance is a fundamental case because prop-
TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1 - eCAADe 34 | 699
erty ownership and lack of required media on site
might disrupt the project even at the final stage of
its development.
The research proved that complexity of inter-
actions proposed in the "Urbanimals" project, had
an impact on the interactions initiated be passers-
by. Less elaborated movements of animated animals
turned out to more appealing for participants. Long
periods of stagnancy in fact triggered the curiosity of
pedestrians. While on the other hand, those diversi-
fied movements seem as a closed spectacle with not
too much room for other participants.
Within the two months of displaying "Ur-
banimals" no significant reduction of interactions
recorded by the system, was observed. Thus, the
project proved that a long term exposition does not
affect the amount of interactions performed in the
selected areas. Yet we must admit, that those mea-
sures might be different depending on the time of
the year, the city and location within the city, and the
type of exhibited project too.
The process of producing each installation
showed that with just a portion of effort to prepare
the first installation the other seven were easily man-
ufactured and, with slight changes, implemented
into varying sites. Thus, the methods of develop-
ing "Urbanimals" might represent a good practice in
dealing with activating large number of neglected,
mono-functional and unattractive areas. Neverthe-
less, the results obtained from various locations are
not comparable due to their different spatial affor-
dances. Thus, it was impossible to identify whether
the same installation has the same impact on the
behaviour of passers-by in each spot.
Project "Urbanimals" was a joint collaboration of
designers, architects, urban planners, programmers,
creative technologists and theatre producers; and as
such elaborated initiative, it resulted in highly com-
plex digital environment for composing interactions
in urban environment. It was not only a great at-
traction for participants but we hope it become a
valuable case study for prospective designers dealing
with interactive projects in public realm.
 Acknowledgment / Credits
Designer: LAX laboratory for architectural experi-
ments (arch. Anna Grajper, arch. Sebastian Dobiesz)
For Playable City:
Producer: Hilary O'Shaughnessy
Executive Producer: Clare Reddington
International Director: Mark Leaver
Playable City Judging Panel 2015: Claire Doherty,
Richard Roberts,Miguel Sicart, Tim Brooke
Production team:
Creative Technologist: David Haylock
Developer: Phill Tew
Unity Developer: Lukas Roper, Opposable
Games
Interaction Assistant: Andrew Cook
Production Support: Richard Harbert
Product Design: Molly Price
Watershed Beards of IT Wisdom: Oliver
Humpage, Alex Heal and Stewart Morgan
Rigging Technician: Utopium (CPB Trans LX)
Production Coordination: Rachael Burton, Akiko
Takeshita, Hazel Grian
Intern (Production Assistant): Steven Hartill
Intern (Communications and Archive): Tanya
Charteris Black
Communications: Catrin John, Louise Gardner,
Claire Stewart
Public Relations: Ladbury PR
Evaluation: Pippa Jones
Trailer: Benjamin Croce and Dominic Gaskell
Graphic Designer: Smith and Milton
Photographer: Paul Blakemore
Special thanks: Verity Mcintosh, Laura Walder,
Ted Buffery, Helen Bream, Bristol City Council, Wa-
tershed, SteveNightingale at Bloq Management Ser-
vices, Richard Powell, Billy Lambert and Kate Barnes
at the Royal Marriott Hotel, Rikki Temi and staff at
Clifton Down Shopping Centre, Tom Metcalfe, Mor-
risons in Hartcliffe, Georgette Van Hoof
Website: www.urbanimals.eu
700 | eCAADe 34 - TOWARDS SMARTER CITIES | Concepts and Strategies - Volume 1
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Index of Authors
A Cannaerts, Corneel 1-397
Abdelmohsen, Sherif 1-529 Carl, Timo 1-591
Abramovic, Vasilija 1-661 Cerovsek, Tomo 1-485
Achten, Henri 1-63, 1-613, 1-661 Cerrone, Damiano 2-473
Agkathidis, Asterios 1-291 Chelkoff, Grégoire 2-275
Ahmadi, Shahab 1-213 Chen, Kian Wee 2-583
Akleman, Ergun 1-69, 1-335 Chen, Nai Chun 2-447
Al-Qattan, Emad 2-621 Cheng, Chi-Li 1-133
Alacam, Sema 1-253 Chiuini, Michele 2-511
Allani, Najla 2-653 Cojocaru, Vasile Danut 2-409
Almeida, Ana de 2-349 Coraglia, Ugo Maria 2-503
Altin, Burcak Ozludil 2-485 Cursi, Stefano 2-503
Androutsopoulou, Eirini 2-71
Asanowicz, Aleksander 1-195 D
Aschwanden, Gideon 2-457 Das, Subhajit 2-117, 2-217
Aydemir, Zeynep 1-387 Day, Colin 2-217
Ayres, Phil 1-413 Decker, Martina 1-603
Aşut, Serdar 1-321 Dengg, Ernst 2-573
Dewberry, Michael 2-217
B Dobiesz, Sebastian 1-691
Baharlou, Ehsan 1-549 Dokonal, Wolfgang 2-573
Bajsanski, Ivana 1-185 Doumpioti, Christina 1-521
Balaban, Ozgun 2-89 Dounas, Theodoros 1-229, 1-241
Baquero, Pablo 1-73 Duarte, José Pinto 1-501, 2-189, 2-365
Baranovskaya, Yuliya 1-571 Dörstelmann, Moritz 1-571
Barczik, Günter 2-109
Bardyn, Jean-Luc 2-275 E
Beirão, José 2-305 Eisenbach, Philipp 1-93
Beirão, José Nuno 2-31 ElGhazi, Yomna Saad 2-399
Białkowski, Sebastian 1-283, 2-255 Eloy, Sara 2-349
Bingöl, Cemal Koray 2-41 Elsen, Catherine 2-159
Blonder, Arielle 1-581 Elshafei, Ahmed 1-529
Borhani, Alireza 1-69, 1-335, 1-639 Erdine, Elif 1-163
Bouattour, Mohamed 2-653 Erioli, Alessio 1-219, 1-435
Buchanan, Alexandrina 2-493 Evers, Henrik Leander 2-643, 2-673
Budig, Michael 1-83
F
C Ferreira,
Caetano, Inês 1-405, 1-465 Maria da Piedade 1-501

Authors - eCAADe 34 | 701

 Ferreira, Victor 2-365 Holland, Alexander 2-555
Fillwalk, John 2-511 Holzheu, Stefanie 2-209
Fioravanti, Antonio 2-315, 2-503 Hou, June-Hao 1-133
Flores, Hector 2-19 Humppi, Harri 2-601
Hysa, Desantila 1-357
G
Galanter, Philip 2-621 I
Gamal, Noha 2-275 Ilčík, Martin 2-417
Garcia, Manuel Jimenez 2-265
Gemme, Frederic 2-591 J
Gerber, David 1-455 Jabi, Wassim 2-147
Giannopoulou, Effimia 1-73 Jancart, Sylvie 2-159
Gomaa, Mohamed 2-147 Janssen, Patrick 2-59, 2-583
Goodship, Paul 2-79 Jovanovic, Marko 1-185
Grajper, Anna 1-691 Juntunen, Eveliina 1-669
Grobman, Yasha Jacob 1-581 Juntunen, Johan 1-669
Grohmann, Manfred 1-93 Jupp, Julie 2-95
Gruber, Anna 1-179
Guerritore, Camilla 2-189 K
Gül, Leman Figen 1-493 Kalantar, Negar 1-69, 1-335, 1-639
Kallegias, Alexandros 1-163, 1-475
H Katodrytis, George 1-329
Hahn, George 1-603 Kepczynska-Walczak,
Halici, Suheyla Muge 1-253 Anetta 1-59, 1-299
Halin, Gilles 2-653 Khabazi, Zubin 1-83
Halıcı, Süheyla Müge 1-493 Khalili-Araghi, Salman 2-633
Ham, Jeremy 1-377 Khallaf, Mohamed 2-95
Hansen, Ellen Kathrine 1-275 Kieferle, Joachim 1-229
Hanzl, Malgorzata 2-49 Kieferle, Joachim B. 1-329, 2-565
Harding, John 1-423 Kim, Jaehwan 1-53
Haring, Mario 1-179 Kim, Simon 1-631
Harris, Libertad M. 1-603 Klein, Bernhard 2-437
Harvey, Lawrence 1-377 Klerk, Rui de 2-305
Hauck, Anthony 2-217 Knight, Michael 2-573
Haymaker, John 2-117 Koenig, Reinhard 2-249
Heinrich, Mary Katherine 1-413 Kolarevic, Branko 1-25, 2-633
Henriques, Konatzii, Panagiota 1-169
Goncalo Castro 1-511 Kontovourkis, Odysseas 1-169
Henriques, Kos, Jose 2-31
Gonçalo Castro 1-537 Kotnik, Toni 1-43, 1-561, 2-391
Herneoja, Aulikki 1-63, 2-179 Kouchaki, Mohammad 1-213

702 | eCAADe 34 - Authors

Kovács, Ádám Tamás 1-269 Menges, Achim 1-549, 1-571
Kretzer, Andreas 1-501 Michalatos, Panagiotis 1-445
Kreutzberg, Anette 2-547 Min, Aram 2-529
Kruse, Rolf 2-109 Mitov, Dejan 1-185
Kulcke, Matthias 2-359 Mohamed, Basem Eid 2-591
Kwiecinski, Krystian 2-349 Mohanty, Akshata 2-59, 2-583
Kępczyńska-Walczak, Mohite, Ashish 1-561
Anetta 1-283 Moleta, Tane 2-137
Monesi, Roberto 1-435
L Montas, Nelson 1-73
Langenhan, Christoph 2-199 Montenegro, Nuno 2-31
Langley, Phillip 2-663 Mullins, Michael Finbarr 1-275
Larson, Kent 2-447
Lee, Ji-Hyun 2-379 N
Lee, Jihyun 2-529 Nagakura, Takehiko 2-447, 2-521
Lee, Jongwook 2-529 Nan, Cristina 1-345
Lee, Sang 2-209, 2-297 Narangerel, Amartuvshin 2-379
Leitão, António 1-405, 1-465 Noel, Vernelle A. A. 1-311
Li, Ruize 2-59 Nourbakhsh, Mehdi 2-117
Lima, Fernando 2-31 Nováková, Kateřina 1-613
Lo, Tian Tian 2-137
Lorenz, Wolfgang E. 1-205, 2-229, 2-359 O
Luusua, Anna 1-669 Ochmann, Sebastian 2-643
Luís, Romão 2-339 Okuda, Shinya 1-113
Olascoaga,
M Carlos Sandoval 2-19
Mahdavinejad, Oliveira, Rui 1-123
Mohammadjavad 1-213 Ozer, Derya Gulec 2-521
Mahmoud,
Ayman Hassaan Ahmed 2-399 P
Marchal, Théo 2-275 Pak, Burak 1-387
Markkanen, Piia 2-179 Panagoulia, Eleanna 1-621
Martens, Bob 1-485 Pantazis, Evangelos 1-455
Martins, Pedro Filipe 1-153 Papadopoulou, Athina 1-367
Mascio, Danilo Di 1-59, 2-511 Paraizo, Rodrigo Cury 1-537
Massoud, Passaint 1-529 Passaro, Andrés Martin 1-537
Matcha, Heike 1-237 Pasternak, Agata 2-371
Mateus, Luis 2-365 Patterson, Charlie 1-345
Meagher, Mark 2-663 Pattichi, Eleni 1-475
Meijer, Winfried 1-321 Pauwels, Pieter 2-511
Melioranski, Martin 2-473 Payne, Andrew 1-445

Authors - eCAADe 34 | 703

 Pedreschi, Remo 1-345 Stouffs, Rudi 2-59, 2-329, 2-379
Peterson, John Robert 2-493 Stricker, Didier 1-501
Petzold, Frank 2-127, 2-199 Svidt, Kjeld 2-541
Pihlajaniemi, Henrika 1-669 Szoboszlai, Mihály 1-269
Pirhosseinloo, Hengameh 2-275 Sørensen, Jesper Bendix 2-541
Plotnikov, Boris 2-127
Poinet, Paul 1-549 T
Prado, Marshall 1-571 Taborda, Bruno 2-349
Prohasky, Daniel 1-377 Takagi, Naoya 2-463
Puusepp, Renee 2-473 Takizawa, Atsushi 2-169, 2-463
Tamke, Martin 2-643, 2-673
R Tan, Elvira 2-59
Raducanu, Doina 2-409 Tarkka-Salin, Mirva 1-669
Raducanu, Vlad Andrei 2-409 Tauscher, Helga 2-611
Rejepava, Alina 1-179 Tepavcevic, Bojan 1-185
Remy, Nicolas 2-275 Tessmann, Oliver 1-93
Retsin, Gilles 1-143 Thompson, Emine Mine 1-651
Roman, Miro 2-287 Thompson, Ulysee 2-485
Roudavski, Stanislav 2-555 Thomsen, Mette Ramsgaard 1-33
Rumpf, Moritz 1-93 Thurow, Torsten 2-199
Tian, Lo Tian 1-77
S Tomarchio, Ludovica 2-437
Santos, Filipe 2-349 Toulkeridou, Varvara 2-217
Sara, Garcia 2-339 Toyama, Takumi 1-501
Schenkenberger, Benjamin 1-501 Trento, Armando 2-315
Scherer, Raimar J. 2-611 Treyer, Lukas 1-261
Schleicher, Simon 1-621 Triantafyllidis,
Schnabel, Marc Aurel 1-77, 1-377, 2-137 Georgios 1-275
Schubert, Gerhard 2-127 Tuncer, Bige 2-89, 2-437
Schwartz, Mathew 1-53 Turunen, Heidi 1-103
Schwinn, Tobias 1-549
Siala, Aida 2-653 V
Simeone, Davide 2-503 Varela,
Sousa, Jose Pedro 1-123 Pedro de Azambuja 2-427
Sousa, José Pedro 1-153, 2-427 Varinlioglu, Guzden 1-253
Spaeth, A. Benjamin 1-229 Varoudis, Tasos 2-249
Spaeth, Benjamin 1-241 Vella, Irina Miodragovic 2-391
Sprecher, Aaron 2-591 Verbeke, Johan 1-63
Stals, Adeline 2-159 Verniz, Debora 2-365
Stepper, Frank 1-591 Vock, Richard 2-643
Stojakovic, Vesna 1-185

704 | eCAADe 34 - Authors

W
Webb, Nicholas 1-59, 2-493
Weber, Markus 1-501
Wendell, Augustus 2-485
Wessel, Raoul 2-643
Wimmer, Michael 2-417
Wit, Andrew 1-631
Woessner, Uwe 2-565
Wortmann, Thomas 2-239
Wurzer, Gabriel 1-205, 2-229

X
Xu, Wenfei 2-19

Y
Yan, Wei 2-621
You, Linlin 2-437

Z
Zali, Parastoo 1-213
Zarzycki, Andrzej 1-53, 1-681
Zhenyi, Lin 1-113
Zolfagharian, Samaneh 2-117
Zupancic, Tadeja 1-63
Zwierzycki, Mateusz 2-643, 2-673
Zünd, Daniel 1-261

Ä
Äikäs, Topi 1-93

Ç
Çolakoğlu, Birgül 2-41

Ö
Österlund, Toni 2-601
Özkar, Mine 1-357

Authors - eCAADe 34 | 705

706 | eCAADe 34 - Authors