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Reliable transformer diagnostics are essential

for efficient maintenance of ageing energy infrastructure

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 Title Reliable transformer diagnostics are essential for efficient
maintenance of ageing energy infrastructure

Authors Matz Öhlén

Director - Transformer Test Systems

Dr Peter Werelius
Applications and Product Specialist

Date April 2010

Keywords TechCon, DFR, Dielectric frequency response, transformers,

IEEE Std C57.91-1995, IEEE/C57.12.90, IEEE 62-1995,
Arrhenius’ law, Boltzmann constant

Abstract Dielectric Frequency Response (DFR/FDS) measurement is a

technique for general insulation testing and diagnostics. In
comparison with standard 50/60 Hz dissipation factor
measurements, DFR measurements has many advantages.

Email Matz.Ohlen@Megger.com

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 This is a shortened version of a paper that won the coveted and prestigious Award for the most
outstanding paper presented at TechCon Asia Pacific 2009.

Introduction

With an aging power component population, today’s electrical utilities face a tough challenge
as failures and consequent repair and revenue loss may inflict major costs. Transformers have
become one of the most mission critical components in the electrical grid. The importance of
reliable diagnostic methods drives the world’s leading experts to evaluate new technologies that
improve reliability and optimise the use of the power network.

The condition of the insulation is an essential aspect in the operational reliability of power
transformers, generators, cables and other high voltage equipment. Transformers with high
moisture content cannot sustain high load without risk; bushings and cables with high
dissipation factor at high temperature can explode due to ‘thermal runaway’. It is also important
to identify “good” units in the aging population of equipment. Adding just a few operating
years to the expected end-of-life means substantial cost savings.

Traditional Dissipation Factor Measurements

The most common insulation diagnostic test is measuring capacitance and dissipation/power
factor at 50/60 Hz. Most tests are done at 10 kV and operating temperature but there are
also tests with variable voltage (tip-up) as well as tests where power factor versus temperature
is measured. Analysis is based on (historical) statistics and comparing factory values. Since
insulation properties depend on temperature, compensation is needed for measurements not
performed at 20 °C. IEEE 62-1995 details typical power factor values for transformers and
bushings, but these values are approximate guidelines only.

IEEE 62-1995 states; “The power factors recorded for routine overall tests on older apparatus
provide information regarding the general condition of the ground and interwinding insulation
of transformers and reactors. They also provide a valuable index of dryness, and are helpful
in detecting undesirable operating conditions and failure hazards resulting from moisture,
carbonisation of insulation, defective bushings, contamination of oil by dissolved materials or
conducting particles, improperly grounded or ungrounded cores, etc. While the power factors
for older transformers should also be <0.5% (20 ºC), power factors between 0.5% and 1.0%
(20 ºC) may be acceptable; however, power factors >1.0% (20 ºC) should be investigated.”

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Figure 1 – DFR/FDS test set up
Figure 2 – DFR/FDS power factor
measurements on four transformers
Figure 3 – Parameters that affect
dissipation factor at various frequencies
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Dielectric Frequency Response Measurements
The first field instrument for DFR/FDS measurements of
transformers, bushings and cables was introduced 1995. Since
then, the technology has been extensively evaluated and
several international reports have identified dielectric response
as the preferred method for measuring moisture content in
power transformers. In DFR tests, capacitance and dissipation/
power factor are measured. The measurement principle and
setup are basically the same as for traditional 50/60 Hz testing
but insulation properties are measured at frequencies ranging
from mHz to kHz, rather than at line frequency. The results
are normally presented as capacitance and/or tan delta/power
factor versus frequency.
Measurement setup is shown in Fig 1, and typical results in Fig 2.
Moisture Assessment
The ability of DFR to measure dissipation factor as function
of frequency is a powerful tool for diagnostic testing.
Moisture assessment is one example. High moisture level in
transformers is a serious issue since it limits the maximum
loading capacity (IEEE Std C57.91-1995) and it accelerates the
aging process. Accurate knowledge of the moisture content in
the transformer is needed to make decisions about corrective
actions, replacement/scrapping or relocation to a different site
with reduced loading.
The method of using DFR for determining moisture content
in the oil-paper insulation inside an oil-immersed power
transformer has been described in detail in several papers and
is only briefly summarized here.
The dissipation factor plotted against frequency shows a typical
S-shaped curve. With increasing temperature the curve shifts
towards higher frequencies. Moisture influences mainly the low
and the high frequency areas. The middle section of the curve
with the steep gradient reflects oil conductivity. Fig 3 shows
how these parameters influence the master curve.
4
 Using DFR for moisture determination relies
on comparing the transformer’s dielectric
response to a modelled dielectric response
(master curve). A matching algorithm
rear ranges the modelled dielectric
response and delivers a new master curve
that reflects the measured transformer.
The moisture content along with the
oil conductivity for the master curve is
presented. Only the insulation temperature
(top oil or winding temperature) needs to
be entered as a fixed parameter.

Figure 4 – MODS analysis for two transformers

Figure 4 shows the results for two different transformers. They have the same 0.7% dissipation
factor at 50/60 Hz, characterized by IEEE 62-1995 as a warning status calling for investigation.
The investigation is done by moisture analysis using MODS. This reveals that the two
transformers are very different and that they need different maintenance measures.
Transformer 1 has good oil but needs drying.
Transformer 2 has low moisture but needs oil change or regeneration.

Bushing Diagnostics

Aging/deterioration of high-voltage
bushings is a growing problem and various
methods have been suggested and tried
for detecting bushing problems before
they turn into catastrophic failures. This
includes on-line monitoring as well as off-line
diagnostic measurements. Traditional 50/60
Hz dissipation/power factor testing may
give an indication of aging/high moisture
content, especially if performed at various
Figure 5 – Power factor at 60 Hz as a function of temperature temperatures. Dissipation factor values at
for oil-paper insulation with various moisture contents lower temperatures are similar from very low
to moderate moisture contents; significant
differences are not seen until around 50 °C.
Increased dissipation factor at higher temperatures is a good indicator of bushing problems.
Catastrophic bushing failures (explosions) are often caused thermal runaway, when a high dissipation
factor at higher temperatures result in an increased heating of the bushing which in turn increases the
losses causing additional heating which increases the losses even further until the bushing explodes.

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 DFR measurements and analysis together
with modelling of the insulation system
includes also temperature dependence. A
new methodology (patent pending) is to
perform DFR measurements and convert
the results to dissipation factor at 50/60 Hz
as a function of temperature.

This technique has major advantages in

measurement simplicity. Instead of time-
consuming heating/cooling of the bushing
Figure 6 – Bushing dissipation factor as a function of temperature. and taking measurements at various
Measured and converted data compared with published data. temperatures, one DFR measurement is
performed and the results are converted to
50/60 Hz tan delta values as a function of
temperature. In Figure 5 shows the results in comparison with the classical results presented by
Blodget in 1962.

Applying this technique to real-world DFR measurements on bushings gives the results shown in
Fig 1, where two bushings – “OK” and “bad” – are compared with manufacturer’s values. The
“bad” bushing is estimated to have about 4% moisture and should be considered “at risk”.

Individual Temperature
Compensation

Temperature correction tables like those

in IEEE/C57.12.90 give average values
assuming average conditions and are not
correct for an individual transformer or
bushing. Utilities have noticed this and
try to avoid temperature correction by
recommending that measurements are
performed over a narrow temperature
range. With DFR and the technique
for converting data to temperature
dependence, it is possible to do accurate,
Figure 7 – Standard temperature correction compared with
individual temperature compensation
individual temperature correction for samples of GE Type U bushings
(patent pending). For a good component,
the temperature dependence is small. When
the component ages or deteriorates, the temperature correction becomes much larger, i.e. the
temperature correction is a function of aging.

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 Bushings

Manufacturer’s data is only valid for as-new

bushings. As soon as the bushing starts to
deterioration, temperature dependence
increases. Bad bushings have a large
temperature correction.

Figure 8 – Temperature corrections for transformers in various conditions

Transformers

Individual temperature correction for transformers is more complex than that for single material
components like bushings. The oil-paper insulation activation energy constant

Wa in Arrhenius’ law, κ = κ0exp(-Wa/kT) with activation energy Wa and Boltzmann constant k, is

typically 0.9-1 eV, while for transformer oil Wa is typically around 0.4- 0.5. Individual temperature
correction for transformers of various age is shown in Figure 8. As the figure shows, each
transformer has individual temperature correction. New units have a negative correction for
slightly elevated temperatures and will show dramatically different results if the standard tables
are used. Aged transformers show the same behaviour as the standard tables but with stronger
temperature dependence than the average IEEE values.

Conclusions

Dielectric Frequency Response (DFR/FDS) measurement is a technique for general insulation

testing and diagnostics. In comparison with standard 50/60 Hz dissipation factor measurements,
DFR measurements have the following advantages:

„„ Capability of performing individual temperature correction

of measured 50/60 Hz dissipation/power factor

„„ Capability of estimating the moisture content of oil-immersed cellulose

insulation in power transformers and bushings

„„ Capability of estimating dissipation/power factor at operating temperature in

order to assess risk of thermal runaway catastrophic failure

„„ Capability of investigating increased dissipation factor in power components

Insulation properties are very important for determining the condition of power system
components, and knowing the condition of these component helps to avoid potential
catastrophic failure. Identifying good units and deciding upon correct maintenance in
transformers and other power systems approaching end-of-life can save significant money due
to postponed investment costs.

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Reliable transformer diagnostics are essential
for efficient maintenance of ageing energy infrastructure

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