A MODEL INVESTIGATION OF THE ACOUSTICAL

PERFORMANCE OF COURTYARD HOUSES WITH

RESPECT TO NOISE FROM ROAD TRAFFIC

D. J. OLDHAMand E. A. MOHSENt

Department of Building Science, University of Sh'effield, SheffieM (Great Britain)

SUMMARY

The action of courtyard houses in reducing the noise nuisance from road traffic is
examined using the techniques of computer simulation and acoustic scale modelling.
This building form is found to be capable of reducing the noise level experienced
within a protected space (indoor or outdoor) by a significant amount. For a courtyard
house a fixed distance from a roadway the most significant parameter is found to be
the height of the courtyard walls. The effect of varying courtyard width and depth on
the net attenuation is slight by comparison with the effect observed on varying the
height of the walls.

INTRODUCTION

One of the measures that can be taken to reduce the nuisance due to traffic noise is to
design buildings located in the vicinity of busy roadways to be self-protecting. A
building is described as self-protecting if one of its elements shields the acoustic weak
points on the facade from direct exposure to noise from an external source. One self-
protecting building form, namely buildings with balconies, has already been shown
to be capable of improving the internal noise environment in locations where the
level of traffic noise is excessive. ~This paper is concerned with an assessment of the
performance of another self-protecting building form, courtyard houses (a
traditional form of housing in many countries), with respect to noise from road
traffic.

+ Present address: Department of Architecture, A1 Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt.

215
Applied Acoustics (12) (1979) ~'i Applied Science Publishers Ltd, England, 1979
Printed in Great Britain
216 D. J. OLDHAM, E. A. MOHSEN

This self~protecting building form has the considerable advantage when

compared with others of having a protected outdoor space.
Two distinct types of courtyard housing can be distinguished. These are thin
walled and block courtyards (Fig. 1). In the first case the screening element is a mere
wall but in the second it is a block of buildings (ideally with windowless walls facing
the noise source). Ettouney and Fricke 2 have conducted a limited investigation of
the performance of thin walled courtyards. Their investigation was restricted to the
outdoor space of the courtyard. The number of configurations examined and the
limited range of frequencies used in their work mean that their findings do little more
than suggest that the courtyard housing form does offer potential benefits.

~J
j

Fig. 1. Courtyard types.

 INVESTIGATION OF ACOUSTICAL PERFORMANCE OF COURTYARD HOUSES 2l 7

OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE

The procedure followed in the course of this investigation was similar to that
described by Mohsen and Oldham I in their paper on the acoustical performance of
buildings with balconies.
The first stage involved the development of a computer model to predict the
performance of the self-protecting building form with respect to noise from a
stationary point source. For the outdoor space of the thin walled courtyard the work
of Ettouney and Fricke 2 suggests that the reduction in noise level due to the presence
of the courtyard wall might be predicted from application of existing barrier
formulae.
The situation with regard to any protected indoor space is more complicated. The
approach used by Mohsen and Oldham for balconies was to attempt to relate the
attenuation in noise levels experienced within a room protected by the screening
element to the reduction in the mean intensity integrated over the area of a shielded
window following the introduction of the screening element.
Perfect correlation between the two, however, is unlikely since the window
aperture itself diffracts sound and this diffraction effect is different with the screening
element in position to that which occurs without it. An additional effect (which is
also of importance in considering the action of the courtyard in respect of the
outdoor space) is that reflections from the sides and floor of the courtyard will tend
to decrease its effectiveness when compared with that predicted for a simple barrier.
In order to assess the limitations involved in using standard noise screen
prediction formulae, a series of scale model experiments were performed. The results
gained on the scale models were then compared with the values of attenuation
predicted by the computer model.
The second stage involved the combination of the point source computer model
with a computer model which simulated the effect of freely flowing traffic. In this way
the performance of courtyard houses with respect to noise from road traffic could be
evaluated.

NOISE FROM A STATIONARY POINT SOURCE

The computer model

A courtyard is capable of providing acoustic protection for both the outdoor
space and rooms opening out on to this space. Both aspects are considered in this
paper. The computer model was first constructed to investigate conditions in the
outdoor space. It was then extended to investigate conditions in rooms having
windows looking into the courtyard.
The outdoor space: The general procedure used to determine the reduction in
noise level in the outside space due to the action of the courtyard walls can best be
understood by reference to Fig. 2 and the following step by step summary. Assuming
218 D . J . OLDHAM, E. A. MOHSEN

B>/'/ ""

.... --VB~ / 7,

x .......

Fig. 2. The courtyard as a three sided barrier.

in the first instance the absence of any reflections and using a rectangular co-
ordinate system, the steps taken are as follows"
(a) Calculate the direct (unscreened) sound path:

SR = {(X s - XR) 2 + (Ys - YR)2 -I- (Z s -- Z R ) 2 } 1'2 (1)

where the subscripts S and R refer to source and receiving point, respectively.
(b) Calculate the unscreened intensity at R:

Its N = W/41tSR 2 (2)

where W is the acoustic power of the source.
(c) Determine the diffracting edge (which can be any of the three walls of the
courtyard, depending on source position) and the co-ordinates of the diffracting
point e(X~, Y,.,Z~).
(d) Calculate the diffracted 'screened' path'
SgR = I(Xs- Xe)Z
- +. ( Y s Ye)2 + ( Z s - z~: ~2 il
2f
+ {(XR _ )(~)2 + (YR -- y~)2 + ( Z R _ / e ) 2 } 1 , 2 (3)

(e) Calculate the path difference:

 I N V E S T I G A T I O N OF A C O U S T I C A L P E R F O R M A N C E OF C O U R T Y A R D HOUSES 219

6 = SeR - S R (4)
(f) Since diffraction effects are frequency dependent for each frequency band of the
noise spectrum under consideration, calculate the Fresnel number:
Nj = 26/2j (5)

where 2~ is the wavelength corresponding to the centre frequency, Fj, of the jth
frequency band of the spectrum. In this work the spectrum employed was that of
road traffic as reported by Delany et al. 3 The total acoustic power of the source, W,
can thus be expressed as:
d

W = ) ' , w~ (6)
j=l

where wj is the acoustic power in thejth frequency band and Jis the number of bands
considered.
For this investigation the 15 one-third octave bands between 100 and 2500 Hz
were employed. A careful examination of the effect of extending this range revealed
that the resultant A-weighted sound level was not significantly altered for the range
of screening geometries employed in this work.
(g) Calculate the diffraction factor, DF, defined as the ratio of the intensity of the
diffracted ray to that of the direct ray:
DFj = 10 (-A''j/l°) (7)
where Att~ is the value of barrier attenuation obtained from application of one of the
following equations:

(2rcNJ)X'2 dB (for Nj > 0)

Attj = 5 + 201Ogtanh(2rtNj)l/2

and:

(2nlNjl) vz
Attj = 5 + 201Ogtan(2nlNjD~JzdB (for 0 > Nj > - 0 . 2 ) (8)
or:
SR
Attj = Att(Nsj ) + Att(NRj ) - 5 + 201og~--~ dB (9)
SR
The former is due to Kurze and Anderson 4 and applies to the case of thin barriers,
and the latter is due to Kurze 5 and applies to the case of block barriers, where N s and
N Rare Fresnel numbers corresponding to diffraction at the edge near the source and
the edge near the receiver, respectively and S~R~ is the shortest distance between
source and receiver via the top of the barrier.
220 D.J. O L D H A M , E. A. MOHSEN

Thus, the screened intensity in t h e j t h frequency band is given by:

IS C z wj . DFj (10)
4nSR 2

(h) Calculate the total screened intensity summed over all the frequency bands:
J

Isc = ) ' , I s ( . , (11)

j-I

(i) The broad band (dB(A)) attenuation is thus given by:

Art = - 1 0 1 o g : ~ d B ( A ) (12)

This basic procedure can easily be extended to include the effect of reflections
from neighbouring surfaces by considering images of the source in the ground plane
and images of the receiving point in courtyard surfaces (walls and floor). (N.B. it is
necessary to check that each courtyard surface does, in fact, reflect sound to a
particular receiving point.)
When all possible sound paths are considered the expression for the broad band
attenuation is:

Att= -10log ~J~' ~~' [w2.(1 - ~ k ) / ( S R 2 ) . D F j k ] dB or dB(A) (13)

w ~L, [(1 - ~k)/(SR2)]
where k denotes the path under consideration and ~k is the coefficient of absorption
associated with the kth path. For the screened outdoor space there are 24 potential
sound paths whilst for the unscreened case there are just two (direct and reflected in
the ground plane).

The indoor space: The procedure developed to predict attenuation in the outdoor
space was extended to cover the indoor space. For the latter case the internal
attenuation was considered to be determined by the reduction in the total energy
falling on the window area caused by the presence of the screening element. In order
to calculate this reduction, the window area, A, was divided into small elements of
equal area, AA. The size of these elements was chosen to be small enough for the
sound intensity at any point within their boundaries to be considered uniform.
The centre of each element was taken as the receiving point. The energy per unit
time, E, falling on an element in the absence of the screen is given by:
W
E = AA cos0 (14)
4rcS R 2
 INVESTIGATION OF ACOUSTICAL PERFORMANCE OF COURTYARD HOUSES 221

where 0 is the angle of incidence of the sound ray measured at the centre of the
element.
For an element in the Z Y plane:

cos0 = X s / S R (15)
thus:

E = WXs AA
(16)
47zSR 3

The total energy falling on the window area is given by summing the amount
falling on each element.
To calculate the effect of the screening element it is necessary to again separate the
source spectrum into frequency bands and to employ eqn. (10) to calculate the
energy arriving in unit time at each element. The total energy falling on the window
in unit time is again given by summing the amounts falling on each element.
The expression for the net attenuation is thus:

Att = - 10 log ~'~'~' ~-s=, ~,kr=l [W). (1 -- Uk)/(SR~). DFijk] dB(A) (17)
WZ,~' ~'Zk2=l [(1 - ~tk)/(SR~k)]

where i denotes the position of the receiver on the window area which is divided into
m horizontal and n vertical divisions.
In this case there are only twelve possible screened sound paths to consider since
reflections from the facade of the building can be neglected.

The scale model experiment

The results obtained from the computer model were then compared with results
obtained from measurements made on 1:10 scale models for a number of typical
situations.
The models were constructed from half-inch thick blockboard and housed in the
University of Sheffield's semi-anechoic chamber which has a floor area of 7 m by
10 m. The action of both thin walled and 'block' courtyards was examined. For the
former the attenuation of levels experienced in the outdoor space and in a room
shielded by the courtyard walls was measured. For the latter only the attenuation of
levels in the screened room was measured.
An omni-directional air jet similar to that developed by Delany et al. a was
employed as the source of sound for these experiments. Whilst the output of this
source was suitably free from pure tones, its spectrum did not correspond to that of
traffic noise. This fault was corrected by means of a simple spectrum shaper similar
222 D. J. OLDHAM, E. A. MOHSEN

to that described by Yeowart.6 This spectrum shaper consisted of a number of one-

third octave filters connected in parallel. The gain of each filter was individually
adjustable and thus the output signal from the microphone could be so weighted
that it had the same frequency content as traffic noise.
The source was mounted on a sledge and caused to traverse the anaechoic room by
means of a thread pulled by an electric motor housed outside the chamber. An
arrangement of small lamps and a light sensitive device mounted on the sledge
enabled the position of the source to be accurately recorded during a traverse.
Since self-protecting building configurations are liable to be positioned close to
roadways, the ground plane between them and the noise source will generally be
made of a highly reflecting material such as concrete or asphalt. Hence the concrete
floor of the anaechoic chamber was left uncovered to simulate the reflecting
properties of such a surface.
The noise source was made to travel along a 'road' 0.75 m or 1.25 m from the test
facade; this corresponds to representative distances of 7.5 m and 12.5 m in the full
size situation.
In model studies problems often arise due to the effect of air absorption which is
greater under normal atmospheric conditions at the higher frequencies employed in
model studies than for the corresponding prototype frequencies. For the scale factor
and distances employed in this work, calculations indicated that the maximum
possible error from the effects would be less than 0.5 dB(A), hence it was ignored.
The outdoor space. The dimensions of the courtyard configurations investigated
were chosen to be representative of those found in domestic situations. For the thin
walled courtyard these were height 2 m (i.e. the minimum height required for visual
privacy), width 6.8m and depth 5m. The outdoor space was sub-divided into
1 m x 1 m zones in order to examine the attenuation experienced within it as a
function of position. For the 'block' courtyard the screening element was taken to be
a block of rooms of height 3 m and thickness 3.1 m. The width of the courtyard was
fixed at 6.8m whilst the depth was varied between 3 m and 5 m.
The indoor space." The dimensions of the room modelled were width 3 m, length
4 m and height 2-8 m. These dimensions are again typical of those found in domestic
situations. Three positions of the receiving room were examined at the centre of
the facade and to the left and right of the centre. The room facade was made
detachable so that the action of the screening element on the three most common
window forms (square, horizontal rectangular and vertical rectangular) could be
examined. The reverberation time within the model room was adjusted by
application of absorbant treatment to the floor area to be 0.05sec which
corresponds to the 0.5 sec typical of a lull sized furnished domestic room. All
measurements made within the model room were made at a height of 0.1m
corresponding to the approximate head height of a seated person in the prototype
situation. A number of measuring positions (five or nine) were employed distributed
throughout the room.
A summary of the variables investigated is shown in Fig. 3.
 INVESTIGATION OF ACOUSTICAL PERFORMANCE OF COURTYARD HOUSES 223

COURTYARD DEPTH POSITIONOF THE HEIGHTOF DIS~NCEPOSITIONOF

TYPE m. ROOM THE~11 r¢ WINDOWTYPE FROMH THESOURCE
ROAOmOilTHERICO.

lore

V3.o 2.0 7.5 '~

lOre
"BLOCK" ~
_+6.8 ,I,
12.5
lore

THIN WALLED ~ . ~

Fig. 3. A summary of the variables considered in both the experimental and computer models.

COMPARISON OF RESULTS OBTAINED FROM COMPUTER AND SCALE MODELS

The outdoor space

The value of attenuation measured in the outdoor space of the model courtyard
and the values of attenuation calculated using the computer model are shown in Fig.
4. The agreement between them is good although there is a degree of scatter about

' /

/
r8 /

/ • // •
/ •/ 4
/
/ ,.p"
/ ."
~9 •/..,. -/ e/
/ ~,]. •

/ /
/
/ p
/
/,/
I I I
9 11 13 15
CALCULATEDATTENUATION dBA
Fig. 4. Regression of calculated values of attenuation on measured values for the outdoor space of a
thin walled courtyard.
224 D. J. OLDHAM, E. A. MOHSEN

the regression line. This scatter is probably due to the interference effects that are
observed between a source and its image in the ground plane.
The measured values tend to be approximately 1.5dB(A) lower than the
calculated values of attenuation. It can be seen that for these typical courtyard
dimensions a significant amount of attenuation (7-13 dB(A)) can be achieved. It can
also be deduced that applications of standard barrier prediction methods to this
situation can be used to calculate the attenuation of noise from a point source
provided that the effect of reflections on both sides of the courtyard walls is
considered.

The indoor space

In Figs. 5-8 the values of attenuation measured inside the model room are plotted
against the calculated attenuation over the window area (referred to as the
calculated external attenuation) for identical situations. Since no significant
variation was apparent for any of the different window types or room positions
investigated, the results shown include all the various combinations employed.

I I I I r

"BLOCK"COURIYARO
FACADE TO ~AD DISTANCE 7.5 m /
25- /
"~ / //

~20- /
/

/
/
/7
/I

/
/o
/
o/
/
N~o
/@/ ,/
N /X*'Y /
5
~ ///

/
/

5 10 15 20 25 30
CALCULATEOEXTERNALATTENUATION (ATTz) dBA

Fig. 5. Regressionof calculated values of attenuation on measured values for the indoor space of the
'block' courtyard 7.5 m from the road.
 INVESTIGATION OF ACOUSTICAL PERFORMANCE OF COURTYARD HOUSES 225

3 0 ~- - i I r

| "BLOCK" COUI1TYARO
25t FACADE TO ROAD OISTANCE 12.5 m

.,..._
| //
I/
/ oo ~
// o //
// o //
/o /
// o //
N
/ o/
/ /
/ /
/ /
/
//

i J I I I I
5 10 15 20 25 30
CALCULATEO EXTERNAL ATTENUATION (AT're) dBA

Fig. 6. Regression of calculated values of attenuation on measured values for the indoor space of the
'block' courtyard 12.5 m from the road.

i i i

THIN WALLED COURTYARD

FACADE TO ROAD OIST~CE 75 m
25

~e
~2o
_==
ji//~
~// o o

J
~_1o

/ oo ~ /
5

f L I I I I
o
5 10 15 20 25 30
CALCULATED EXTERNALATTENUATION (ATTE) dBk

Fig. 7. Regression of calculated values of attenuation on measured values for the indoor space of the
thin walled courtyard 7.5 m from the road.
226 D. J. OLDHAM, E. A. MOHSEN

30 I I F I I

THIN WALLEDCOURTYARD
FACADE TO ROADDISTANCE 12.5 m
25

~2o
_m

.==,
_ /~°o o° o ,
~I[~

. --~ .,(
o_/? ~ .~-
~o%o o.~"
/ - o oo/
5

/ / /

/
/
/
•" I I 1 [ I
5 10 15 20 25 30
CALCULATEDEXTERNALATTENUATION (ATTE) dBA

Fig. 8. Regression of calculated values of attenuation on measured values for the indoor space of the
thin walled courtyard 12.5 m from the road.

The measured values are average values determined from a number of

measurements (five or nine) made in the model room. It was found that the noise
levels measured throughout the room were very uniform (within _+ 1.5 dB(A) of the
average value) and no significant difference could be observed between the means of
five or nine readings.
For each set of results the data points appear to lie on straight lines. From the
equations of the regression lines it is possible to arrive at empirical equations for
predicting the attenuation of the noise experienced within a room in terms of that
predicted over the window. For example, the equation for a 'block' courtyard with
its facade 12.5m from the road is:
Y = 1 . 0 6 X - 0.6riB(A) (18)
where Y is the attenuation experienced in the room and X is the calculated external
attenuation.
 I N V E S T I G A T I O N OF A C O U S T I C A L P E R F O R M A N C E OF C O U R T Y A R D HOUSES 227

The statistical parameters relating to Figs. 5-8 are summarised in Table 1.

The regression equations for the 'block' courtyard each have a slope close to unity
and a low value of the intercept constant. This suggests that the calculated external
attenuation reasonably accurately predicts the internal attenuation. At first sight
this does not appear to be the case for the thin walled courtyard. The results for this
configuration show considerable scatter (probably due to more pronounced
interference effects than observed with 'block' courtyards) and the calculated slope is
approximately 0.7. However, the scatter is so great that if one assumes a slope of 1-0
and an intercept constant of zero the standard error of estimation is not appreciably
increased (see Table 1).

TABLE l
SUMMARY OF STATISTICALPARAMETERS

Type Distance Regression line Standard error

from road of estimation

Thin 7-5 m Y = 0.71X + 2-70 1.46 dB(A)

walled or = 1.0X (1.63) dB(A)
12.5 m Y = 0.72X + 1.87 1.40 dB(A)
or = bOX (1.57) dB(A)
Block 7.5 m Y = 1.02X + 0-64 0.93 dB(A)
12.5 m Y = 1.06X - 0.60 1.40 dB(A)

If this is done then the agreement between the scale model measurements and the
predictions of the computer model suggests that the latter can be employed to
calculate the performance of thin walled or 'block' courtyards for noise emanating
from a stationary point source.

ASSESSMENT OF C O U R T Y A R D P E R F O R M A N C E W I T H RESPECT TO NOISE FROM R O A D

TRAFFIC

The above procedure enables the performance of a thin walled or block courtyard to
be predicted for noise from a stationary source. Since traffic consists of a number of
moving sources, the noise level experienced at any point arising from a traffic stream
varies with time. It has been shown that this variability has a considerable bearing on
the degree of dissatisfaction experienced by people exposed to traffic noise. 7 It is
therefore useful to consider the effect of a courtyard on the fluctuations in noise level
experienced within a room.

The computer traffic model

The computer traffic model used in this part of the work has been described in
some detail in an earlier paper. 1 It can be divided into three distinct parts. The first is
concerned with the simulation of the appropriate distribution of vehicles along the
228 D. J. O L D H A M , E. A. MOHSEN

road. The second part involves the calculation of the instantaneous noise levels
arising from the distribution of noise sources. The third part involves a shift in the
position of the vehicles (determined by the sampling period and tratiic velocity) and
a re-calculation of the instantaneous noise level. If the process is repeated several
times the cumulative noise level/time distribution can be built up.
To assess the performance of a particular courtyard configuration the traffic
simulation program is run but with an additional stage. At each sampling time the
mean intensity over the window area is first calculated in the absence of the
courtyard and then with the courtyard walls in place. In this way the cumulative
curves for the unscreened and screened levels can be calculated.

RESULTS

The above procedure was used to investigate the action of a thin walled courtyard. A
number of configurations were examined including the three basic types of window,
distances of facade from the road of 7.5, 10 or 20m. The dimensions of the thin
walled courtyard were: height 2 m or 3 m, width 8 m and depth either 3 or 5 m.
Throughout the calculations the following representative traffic conditions were
assumed: volume of traffic 1000 vehicles an hour, mean road speed 50 km/h and a 20
per cent concentration of heavy vehicles. The acoustic power outputs of both cars
and lorries were calculated from empirical relationships quoted by Lewis. 8
Three examples of the cumulative distributions obtained showing the effect of
varying the three most significant parameters can be seen in Fig. 9, A general
observation that can be made from all three is that the lower percentiles are more
attenuated than the higher ones. This is to be expected since these levels are
determined mainly by the vehicles nearer to the building and the screening effect of
the courtyard will be greater for these. This observation, however, is significant since
it is the lower percentiles which largely determine the degree of annoyance caused by
traffic noise, v
Figure 9(a) shows the effect of varying the height of the courtyard wall. The effects
of walls 2 and 3 m high are shown. The higher wall results in significantly greater
attenuation than the lower, especially at the lower percentiles, since the path
difference between direct (i.e. in the absence of the wall) and diffracted sound rays to
the window is greater in this case. The Llo attenuation for the 3 m wall is 12.5 dB(A)
compared with 9.5dB(A) for the 2 m wall. The corresponding values of Ego
attenuation are 3.5 and 2-5 dB(A), respectively.
The effect of courtyard depth on screened levels is shown in Fig. 9(b). It can be seen
that the effect of varying this parameter is not great. This is because changing the
depth only affects the path difference for those sources screened by the wall parallel
to the building facade.
The effect of varying the courtyard width is shown in Fig. 9(c). It can be seen that
INVESTIGATION OF ACOUSTICAL PERFORMANCE OF COURTYARD HOUSES 229

I I I I I I I I I

/~...-.--~ ~ =

I 1 I I I I I i I

Z-

~ ' ~ ~

~o
I I I I I I I I

I I I I I I r ,

E-

r~

L~
v--

3Nll 3~/IN33~d
230 D. J. OLDHAM, E. A. MOHSEN

the maximum level is unchanged since this is determined by vehicles directly

opposite the facade and the screening of these is not affected by changing the width.
On the other hand, the values of the higher percentiles were reduced as the width
increased. It should be noted that the widths shown in Fig. 9 of 100 m and 200 m are
not intended to represent practical situations but were used only to examine the
effect of varying this parameter.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of the acoustic scale model experiments have demonstrated that
courtyard houses can be used in noisy locations to lessen the degree of noise nuisance
experienced by residents. The comparison between the scale model measurements
and computer predictions suggests that standard barrier formulae can be used to
calculate the screening effect of the courtyard walls on both indoor and outdoor
spaces for noise from a stationary point source.
The computer model was extended to demonstrate the effect of courtyards on
noise from a moving traffic stream. This demonstrated the importance of the
courtyard walls on reducing the variability of the noise levels experienced in rooms
protected by the courtyard walls. For a courtyard a certain distance from a roadway
the most significant factor was shown to be the height of the walls. The effect of
varying courtyard depth and width was shown to be slight.

REFEREN CES

1. E. A. MOHSEN and D. J. OLDHAM, Traffic noise reduction due to the screening effect of balconies
on a building facade, Applied Acoustics, l0 (1977), p. 243.
2. S. M. ETTOUNEY and F. R. FRICKE, Courtyard acoustics, Applied Acoustics, 6 (1973), p. ll9.
3. M. E. DELANY,A. J. RENNIE and K. M. COLLINS,Scale model im~estigation of traffic noisepropagation.
National Physical Laboratory, Acoustic Report AC58, 1972.
4. U. J. KURZE and G. S. ANDERSON, Sound attenuation by barriers, Applied Acoustics, 4 ( 1971 ), p. 35.
5. U. J. KURZE, Noise reduction by barriers, J. Aeoust. Soc. Ant., 55 (1974), p. 504.
6. N. S. YEOWART,A simple one-third octave band spectrum shaper, Applied Acoustics, 7 (1974), p. 7 I.
7. I. D. GRIFEITHS and F. J. LANGDON, Subjective response to road traffic noise, Journal of Sound and
Vibration, 8(1) (1968), p. 16.
8. P.T. LEwls•N•isegeneratedbyvehiclesinfreely••wingtra•ic•J•urna•qfS•undandVibrati•n•3•(2)
(1973), p. 199.