ALTERNATIVE METHODS FOR BUILDING INFORMATION

SYSTEMS

There are a number of alternative methods for building information systems, each suited to
different types of problems.

1. SYSTEMS LIFE CYCLE

The oldest method for building systems is the systems life cycle, which requires that information
systems be developed in formal stages. It partitions systems development process into formal
stages that must be completed sequentially.
The stages have defined outputs; each requires formal approval before the next stage can
commence. The system life cycle is useful for large projects that need formal specifications and
tight management control over each stage of systems building.

Any systems life cycle should result in a high quality system that meets or exceeds customer
expectations, reaches completion within time and cost estimates, works effectively and
efficiently in the current and planned Information Technology infrastructure, and is inexpensive
to maintain and cost-effective to enhance
The oldest of these, and the best known, is the waterfall: a sequence of stages in which the output
of each stage becomes the input for the next. These stages can be characterized and divided up in
different ways, including the following:
1. Analysis - Here the system requirements are gathered and defined. Any existing
systems can also be evaluated and any inefficiency can be highlighted.
2. Design - A design specification is derived from requirements analysis, where
plans are made concerning physical construction, hardware, operating systems,
programming, communications and security issues.
3. Build - Using the design specification, the system is developed and components
built. Additionally, the system will also be tested and user training will occur.
4. Implement - The system is installed and implemented. This can be through
either a gradual phased process or through a more cost effective launch of the complete
system.
5. Operation and Maintenance - For a system to remain effective it must be
constantly monitored and evaluated. Regular maintenance will ensure the integrity of the
system.

Advantages:
 Easy to understand
 Quality built-in throughout
 Configuration management
 Clear and defined stages
 Forced to do analysis and design first

Disadvantages:
  Time between agreeing requirements and delivery of final product
 Risk in confirming customer requirements and user-interface, as there is no revision
 Based on paper
 this approach is very rigid and costly
 Not well suited for unstructured, decision-oriented applications for which requirements
cannot be immediately visualized.

2. PROTOTYPING
Prototyping consists of building an experimental system rapidly and inexpensively for end users
to interact with and evaluate. The prototype is refined and enhanced until users are satisfied that
it includes all of their requirements and can be used as a template to create the final system.
Prototyping encourages end-user involvement in systems development and iteration of design
until specifications are captured accurately (Warfel, 2009). Approved prototype serves as
template for final system.
Steps in Prototyping
a. Identifying user’s basic requirements
b. Developing initial prototype
c. Using prototype
d. Revising and enhancing prototype
Advantages of prototyping
 Useful if some uncertainty in requirements or design solutions
 Often used for end-user interface design
 Reduces development time.
 Reduces development costs.
 Requires user involvement.
 Developers receive quantifiable user feedback.
 Facilitates system implementation since users know what to expect.
 user requests are easier to determine, helping to produce a system that better meets the users'
needs; and results in greater user satisfaction
 Exposes developers to potential future system enhancements.
 systems are easier for end-users to learn and use because they are more involved in the
development process
Disadvantages of prototyping
 May gloss over essential steps in systems development if done rapidly
 May not accommodate large quantities of data or large number of users
 May result in system that is that are technically inadequate for a production environment
 The rapid creation of prototypes can result in systems that have not been completely tested or
documented
 Developer misunderstanding of user objectives
 Excessive development time of the prototype
 Expense of implementing prototyping
 Can lead to insufficient analysis.
 Users expect the performance of the ultimate system to be the same as the prototype.
 Developers can become too attached to their prototypes
 Can cause systems to be left unfinished and/or implemented before they are ready.
 If sophisticated software prototypes (4th GL or CASE Tools) are employed, the time saving
benefit of prototyping can be lost.

3. APPLICATION SOFTWARE PACKAGE

These are a Set of pre-written, pre-coded application software programs commercially available
for sale or lease.
Developing an information system using an application software package eliminates the need
for writing software programs when developing an information system. These programs are
called application packages because they direct the processing required for a particular use, or
application, which users want to accomplish (Shin & Lee, 1996)

Using a software package reduces the amount of design, testing, installation, and maintenance
work required to build a system. Application software packages are helpful if a firm does not
have the internal information systems staff or financial resources to custom develop a system.

Application packages are generally designed to support commonly performed business functions
and appeal to multiple types of user organizations. Although a package may be tailored to a
user's specific needs through parameters or tables, the software itself is not individualized to a
given organization in the same way that custom-designed, custom-coded software would
typically be tailored.(Gross & Ginzberg, 1984) Examples of application packages include
accounting systems, human resources software, and enterprise resource planning (ERP) software.

Advantages:
 Save time and money
 Many offer customization features. Software can be modified to meet unique requirements
without destroying integrity of package software
 Functions provided by the package include flexibility, user friendliness, hardware and software
resources, database requirements, installation and maintenance efforts, documentation, vendor
quality, and cost

Disadvantages:
 To meet an organization’s unique requirements, packages may require extensive customization
that can substantially raise development costs. customization is the modifications of software
package to meet organization’s unique requirements without destroying the software’s integrity