International Journal of Metallurgical Engineering 2016, 5(1): 15-20

DOI: 10.5923/j.ijmee.20160501.03

Performance Evaluation of Suitability of Carbonized

Palm Kernel Shell (PKS) as a Veritable Alternative to
Coal and Charcoal in Solid Fuel Fired Furnaces
Ndubuisi I. Mbada1,*, Pethuel O. Atanda2, Ola Aponbiede3, Abiodun A. Abioye2,
Michael I. Ugbaja4, Ayo S. Alabi3

1
Department of Transport Technology, Nigerian Institute of Transport Technology (NITT), Zaria Nigeria
2
Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
3
Department of Metallurgical & Materials Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
4
Department of Polymer Technology, Nigerian Institute of Science and Leather Technology (NILEST), Zaria, Nigeria

Abstract Methods: PKS were carbonised in other to drive off the organic matter, and obtained a clean solid fuel. Leco
350 Bomb Calorimeter was used to determine the heating value of the fuel; while adiabatic flame temperature and mass of air/
Kg of fuel were calculated for different conditions of excess air ratio ‘n’. The carbonised PKS was used to melt aluminium.
Results: The higher heating value of PKS was 26541.204KJ/Kg. The lower heating value of PKS was 24457.9592KJ/Kg.
The adiabatic flame temperature at n = 1 and 1.3 were 2082°C and 1679°C respectively. The air/fuel ratio is directly
proportional to n. Discussion: The higher heating value of carbonised PKS was comparatively higher than those of firewood,
peat and lignin but less than bituminous and anthracite coals.
Keywords Adiabatic flame temperature, Carbonisation, Heating value, Palm kernel shell, Crucible furnace

However, there are currently, various species resulting from

1. Introduction
Many activities of men including driving, power
generation and production of equipment, in the modern age
are fuels dependent [1, 2]. Consequently, the insatiable
demand for fuels, fuel efficiency and performance guarantee
and calls for environmental friendly alternative fuels sources,
while not over relying on fossil fuels [1-3]. Literature is
replete with alternative fuels, biomass content, carbon
content and calorific values.
Palm Kernel Shell (PKS), as a waste product of oil mill
which poses considerable environmental problem in terms of
disposal, has been employed in a number of applications
[4-7]. PKS is an economic and environmentally sustainable
raw material with potential for renewable energy industry [5].
A study by Okoroigwe [4] on the bio-energy potential of
PKS found higher heating value of PKS on a dry and dry ash
free basis using bomb calorimetric method as 22.94 and
25.75MJ/Kg. Similarly, other researchers have reported the
heating values of PKS [6, 7].
Palm kernel shells are waste products of oil palm. The two
major species of oil palm are the Dura and Pisifera [8].
* Corresponding author:
izerk09@yahoo.com (Ndubuisi I. Mbada)
Published online at http://journal.sapub.org/ijmee
Copyright © 2016 Scientific & Academic Publishing. All Rights Reserved
genetic modifications of the two traditional species [1].
Historically, the origin of the oil palm could be traced to
West Africa, with Nigeria, as the leading growers of oil palm
in the 1950s and late 1960s [9]. Other countries, especially in
the Asia sub-region, such as, Malaysia and Indonesia now
cultivate oil palm as a chief cash crop produce [9].
The production of palm oil from the fruit bunch generates
a lot of solid waste product on a large tonnage. These wastes
may come from the palm fruit fibre, the palm kernel shell and
the empty fruit bunch [10]. The utilization of palm kernel
shell for thermal energy production by combustion of the
palm kernel as a solid fuel mass is well documented in the
literatures [10]. Okoroigwe [4] highlighted three thermo
chemical processes that can be used to convert PKS to
renewable energy, these methods includes- gasification,
torrefaction and fast pyrolysis. Carbonisation is the term
used for the conversion of organic substances to carbon or
carbon containing residues through pyrolysis, the process
liberates hydrogen, tar and other gaseous substances [12, 13].
Ogbimi [14] advocates that the design and construction of
crucible furnace using carbonized PKS as an intermediate
technology, is a step towards localization and
institutionalization of technology in Africa.
Crucible furnaces are the oldest and cheapest type of
furnace, employed in foundry. Basically the crucibles are
made of high temperature resisting materials for instance
16 Ndubuisi I. Mbada et al.: Performance Evaluation of Suitability of Carbonized Palm Kernel
Shell (PKS) as a Veritable Alternative to Coal and Charcoal in Solid Fuel Fired Furnaces
graphite crucible, the furnace can be fired by solid fuels,
liquid and gaseous fuels several works have been done on
evaluation and performance of some of these fuels for
crucible furnace [15]. Olalere et al [16] and Osarenmwinda
[17] constructed crucible furnace fired with spent engine oil,
while Ighodalo et al [18] carried out a performance
evaluation study of charcoal-fired furnace for recycling of
aluminum. This study was aimed to evaluate the suitability
of carbonised PKS fired crucible furnace for non-ferrous
melting. In other to assess the suitability of PKS as a viable
solid fuel, its calorific value, adiabatic flame temperature,
excess air ratios, and the mass of air per Kg of fuel at
different combustion ratios were determined.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
The following materials were used for the construction of
the crucible furnace: Refractory (fire clay), steel crucible,
steel pipe, blower (bellow), carbonized palm kernel shell,
thong, mould, hose connector.
2.2. Methods
The furnace outer shell is made of cylindrical metal. A
circular opening was cut out on the side of the cylindrical
metal shell, to serve as the inlet of the blower pipe. The basic
function of the pipe was to supply oxidant or air for
combustion of the fuel mass. The inner wall of the furnace
was lined with pre-baked or pressed clay, a locally sourced
refractory material. The refractory was a fire clay material
basically of an alumina-silicate compound. The clay was
sourced from Omoshio quarry site in Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti-State,
Nigeria. The clayey masses were prepared by finely grinding
and sieving the mass to obtain good particle distribution,
which was then mixed with little amount of water to obtain a
thick pasty solid that was moulded unto the inner wall of the
cylindrical shell. The furnace chamber was allowed to dry
and then fired. With this stage completed the furnace
chamber was now ready for use.
2.3. Carbonization
The basic procedure in carbonizing the fuel is as follows:
the shells were packed in steel rectangular compartment
called retort or coke oven. The shell was heated in the
absence of air to decompose the organic matter in the shell.
The carbonized shell was subsequently quenched and left to
cool in the compartment.
2.4. Determination of Calorific/ Heating Value and
Ultimate Analysis
The determination of heating value was carried out at
National Metallurgical Development Centre, Jos, Nigeria.
The instrument used for the determination was Leco 350
Bomb Calorimeter. The calorific value of the PKS obtained
in this study was 6343.5cal/g or 26541.204KJ/Kg.
Table 1. Ultimate Analysis of Palm Kernel Shell (PKS)
Components Content%
C 56.97
H 9.18
O 33.11
S 0.08
N 0.48
W 0.17
Total 100
2.5. Determination of Adiabatic Temperature of Burning
Adiabatic temperature was found under the assumption
that all the heat evolved through combustion is spent only to
raise the temperature of combustion product, in other words,
calorimetric temperature of combustion was determined for
adiabatic conditions only [19]. The Stoichiometric equations
of combustion product are as follows:
C + O2 = CO2 (1)
H2 + 1/2O2 = H2O (2)
S + O2 = SO2 (3)
From the stoichiometric equations above: 1Kmol of
Carbon reacts with 1Kmol of Oxygen to form 1Kmol of CO2
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
therefore, 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 4.75KmolO2,
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
similarly we have 2.295KmolO2 + 0.0025KmolO2
-1.035KmolO2 from H2, S and O2 respectively. The Number
9.18 0.17
of Mole of CO2=4.75Kmol, while that of H2O= ( + )
2 18
4.5994Kmol and SO2=0.0025Kmol, total mole of Oxygen =
6.0125KmolO2.
Dry air contains 21 percent Oxygen while Nitrogen
accounts for almost all the remaining 79 percent. Thus, the
content of Nitrogen in air is 79/21 = 3.762 times the amount
of Oxygen. Hence Kmole N2 = 3.762 × 6.0125 =
22.619Kmole plus 0.017KmolN2 from the fuel.
The total mole of combustion product was 31.9879Kmole.
It follows from the fact that 1mole of any gaseous substance
occupies 22.4𝑚𝑚3 , thus the volume of combustion product is
found by multiplying 31.9879Kmole by 22.4 𝑚𝑚3 =
716.5290m3 = 7.1653m3/Kg.
To determine the Calorimetric Flame Temperature the
following assumptions were made:
i. We neglect the SO2 component of the combustion
product as the SO2Kmole is negligible.
ii. We assume that the stoichiometric equation of
combustion is complete, that is, there is no CO as a
result of incomplete combustion.
iii. Theoretical Air-Fuel ratio (least required amount of
air) is used for the calculation of the calorimetric
flame temperature.
iv. We also assume that there is no heat loss to the
surroundings and the system, that is, the combustion
products, does not work on the surroundings.
The adiabatic temperature of combustion 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 , that is when
there is no heat exchange with the surrounding is given by
 International Journal of Metallurgical Engineering 2016, 5(1): 15-20 17

the formula: H2O.............................1.8389×0.1438 = 0.2644

𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤𝑙𝑙 N2................................1.4470×0.7077 = 1.0240
𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 = �
𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 iv) (4) Total ............................= 1.6394 KJ/ (m3.°C)
Therefore, the adiabatic flame temperature is estimated by
𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤𝑙𝑙 Is the lower heating value of fuel, KJ/m3 or KJ/Kg substituting all the parameters into the equation:
𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 Volume of combustion products per unit of fuel, m3 𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤𝑙𝑙 24457 .9592
𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 = �𝑉𝑉 𝐶𝐶 = = 2082.0970°C
𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 Is the volume specific heat of combustion product, 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑣𝑣 7.1653 ×1.6394
KJ/(m3.°C).
The higher heating value, 𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤ℎ of the palm kernel shell is 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎
𝑛𝑛 = = at n >1 this condition
given as 26541.204KJ/Kg, the lower heating value, 𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤𝑙𝑙 of 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡
the fuel is calculate from the relationship: is known as excess air, the adiabatic flame temperature is
calculated by multiplying 6.0125KmolO2 by n and repeating
𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤ℎ - 𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤𝑙𝑙 = 25.163 (𝑊𝑊 + 9𝐻𝐻 ) KJ/Kg 𝑤𝑤 𝑤𝑤
(5)
the steps for calculating the adiabatic flame temperature. The
= 25.163 (0.17 + 9 × 9.18) = 2083.2448KJ/Kg. crucible furnace was operated at 30% excess air this implies
𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤𝑙𝑙 = 𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤ℎ - 2083.2448KJ/Kg = 24457.9592KJ/Kg n= 1.3; thus O2 in the air supplied gives 6.0125 ×1.3 =
7.8163KmolO2 and the O2 in flue gas gives (7.8163-6.0125)
The specific heat of 1m3 combustion products (KJ/ (m3.°C))
Kmol = 1.8038KmolO2 which is entrained in the combustion
is: products. Figure 1 gives the variation of adiabatic flame
CO2 ...........................2.3636×0.1485 = 0.3510 temperature with Excess Air Ratio (n)
Table 2. Percentage Composition and Volume Specific Heat (Cv) of Combustion Products

Combustion Product Composition Percentage 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 , KJ/(m3.°C)

S/No
at n=1 Kmole/31.9854 Composition (%) At 1500°C
1 CO2 4.75/31.9879 14.8494 2.3636
2 H2O 4.5994/31.9879 14.3786 1.8389
3 N2 22.636/31.9879 70.7643 1.4470
4 O2 ____ ___ 1.5312
Total 100

2100

2050

2000
Adiabatic Flame Temperature (0C)

1950

1900

1850

1800

1750

1700

1650
1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4
Excess Air Ratio (n)

Figure 1. Variation of Adiabatic Flame Temperature with Excess Air

18 Ndubuisi I. Mbada et al.: Performance Evaluation of Suitability of Carbonized Palm Kernel
Shell (PKS) as a Veritable Alternative to Coal and Charcoal in Solid Fuel Fired Furnaces

Table 3. Spread Sheet Solution of Combustion Parameters as a Function of Excess Air Ratio

Combustion Volume Volume Adiabatic Flame Mass of

Excess Air O2 in Flue
Products Specific Heat Combustion Temperature Combustion
Ratio (n) Gas
(Kmol) Cv (KJ/m3. °C) Product (m3) (°C) Product

1 0 31.985425 1.639473755 716.47352 2082.167212 9.264002614

1.05 0.300625 33.41700125 1.631985703 748.540828 2002.11202 9.678632906

1.1 0.60125 34.8485775 1.625112869 780.608136 1927.984834 10.0932632

1.15 0.901875 36.28015375 1.618782423 812.675444 1859.150718 10.50789349

1.2 1.2025 37.71173 1.612932599 844.742752 1795.062286 10.92252378

1.25 1.503125 39.14330625 1.607510662 876.81006 1735.245114 11.33715408

1.3 1.80375 40.5748825 1.602471322 908.877368 1679.285976 11.75178437

of solid eventuated by the pyrolitic action under a controlled

2.6. Furnace Operation atmosphere. Figure 3 below shows the carbonized PKS.
The furnace set-up is shown in figure 2 on charging the
furnace with the carbonised palm kernel shell the fuel is
ignited with an ember; after ignition the crucible is lowered
into the combustion chamber with the charge inside, the
bellow is operated continually until the charge becomes
molten and the crucible is lifted out with a thong and the
molten metal is poured into the mould.

Figure 3. Carbonized Palm Kernel Shell (PKS)

3.2. Heating Value of Palm Kernel Shell

Figure 2. Bellow and Crucible furnace set-up
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Carbonization
The thermal degradation of coal or any other organic
matter that yield high carbon in the absence of air is known
as carbonization or pyrolysis. The process is also commonly
called coking because of its large volume use to prepare coke
for blast furnaces. The Main objective for carbonizing is to
produce a fuel with a smokeless flame, remove part of the
moisture content of organic matter; and drive off some of the
other organic matters that hinder combustion process, palm
kernel shell are amenable to carbonization with a fuel mass
that could be used for non-ferrous firing . The dull brownish
shell of the PKS on carbonisation gives a brittle, black mass
The calorific value/Higher heating value of the carbonized
PKS as determined for the fuel mass was 26541.204KJ/Kg
while the lower heating value as calculated from equation v
was 24457.9592KJ/Kg. The heating value of the PKS is
considerably greater than those of fire wood, peat, and lignite,
and very much close to that of bituminous coal. Thus it
suggests that it could be used effectively as solid fuels both
for non-ferrous and ferrous foundry practices, boiler heating.
Figure 4 below compares the calorific value of the PKS to
those of some major types of solid fuels as culled from
Khurmi [15].
3.3. Fuel Energy Content and Flame Temperature
Energy content represents possibly the single most
relevant property of a fuel. The standard measure of fuel
energy content is the heating value or the calorific value. The
heating value is of practical importance as it gives the basis
for comparison of all fuel types irrespective of the source.
The heat released from a system is consequently used to
judge the efficiency of such system. Standard heating value
analysis measures the heat released from the fuel when
burned with enough air to fully oxidize the fuel (carbon
 International Journal of Metallurgical Engineering 2016, 5(1): 15-20
forms CO2, H2 forms H2O). The Air/Fuel ratio which gives
the masses of air/Kg of fuel required for combustion is
directly proportional to excess air ratio ‘n’, which also leads
to reduction in adiabatic flame temperature as shown in table
3. Adiabatic flame temperature, defines the temperature of
products after all chemical reactions has reached equilibrium,
and when no heat is allowed to enter or leave the combustion
chamber. Each fuel has a unique adiabatic flame temperature
for a given amount of air, as the ratio of fuel to air is varied
the adiabatic flame temperature varies. The highest value
generally occurs at an air- to-fuel ratio with slight less air
than required to convert all of the carbon to CO2, and
hydrogen to H2O. The lower heating value, 𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤𝑙𝑙 of the fuel
was used in the calculation of the adiabatic temperature
because of the fact that 𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤𝑙𝑙 mirrors the actual condition of
combustion, since water vapour are entrained in the gaseous
state by the combustion products formed on fuel combustion
[19]. The adiabatic flame temperature of PKS at n =1 gives a
value of 2082°C, while at n = 1.3 the temperature of burning
was 1679°C. In practice the oxidizer is normally used at n>1
in other to fully oxidize the fuel. The flame produced by the
palm kernel shell at n = 1.3 gives a bluish and luminous, and
smokeless flame. The recorded flame temperature is typical
of those of solid fuels that were used for crucible furnace
firing and other heating applications [20]. The melting
temperature of Aluminium is 660°C, while that of Copper is
1083°C; this implies that the fuel would be well suitable for
non-ferrous melting and heating applications in boilers.
3.4. Furnace Firing
The carbonized PKS was used to melt scraps of
aluminium metal, using a bellow operated locally fabricated
crucible furnace. The result showed that the carbonized PKS
10000
9000
8000
Calorific Values (KCal/Kg)
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Wood Peat
Figure 4. Calorific Values of Some Selected Solid Fuel
19
produced good heat for the melting of aluminium scrap plate
I: shows the bellow and the crucible furnace set up.
3.5. Materials, Energy and the Environment
The over bearing influence of materials development and
advances in energy utilization on the environment is fast
becoming a thing of alarming concern to environmentalist
and experts in this field. It is obvious that the environment is
both the source and sinks for materials and energy; it is
inevitable that development in both areas would have
profound effect on the environment; in this case it would be a
negative influence “No energy source is free, completely
safe or limitless” [1]; “Energy must be used more wisely, in
other to minimize the environmental hazards, and optimize
the efficiency with which it is produced” [1].
The overbearing demands for fossil fuels especially coal
from the mines and the high and prohibitive cost of energy is
leading to a negative impact on the environment; causing
destruction of the landscape and the vegetation as well as
other negative environmental hazards such as erosion,
pollution, earth quake etc the global energy expenditure of
fossil fuel was estimated to be about 1.3 billion in 1990
according to Davies [3].
The use of PKS as an alternative fuel will relieve the high
demand for fossil fuel as the main source of energy
requirement for solid fuel firing of crucible furnaces and
other heating needs; PKS provides alternative to high
prohibitive cost of fossil fuel, and also help to offset the shift
in environment-energy-materials equilibrium. It will also
remove some of the negative influences caused by the over
reliance on the major fossil fuels.
Calorific Values From Khurmi
Calorific Value Determined
Lignite Bituminous Anthracite Palm
Coal Coal Kernel
Shell
20 Ndubuisi I. Mbada et al.: Performance Evaluation of Suitability of Carbonized Palm Kernel
Shell (PKS) as a Veritable Alternative to Coal and Charcoal in Solid Fuel Fired Furnaces
From this study, the performance evaluation of suitability
of carbonized palm kernel shell as a veritable alternative to
coal and charcoal as solid fuels for crucible furnace melting
of non-ferrous metals and other heating needs showed that
the PKS can be deployed for the aforementioned purposes
based on the findings of this research. On carbonisation, PKS
were observed to burn with clean flame. The higher heating
value, 𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤ℎ of the PKS as measured by Leco 350 Bomb
Calorimeter gives a value of 26541.204KJ/Kg while the
lower heating value, 𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤𝑙𝑙 , which was obtained by calculation
using values from the ultimate analysis of the PKS, gives a
value of 24457.9592KJ/Kg. Comparison of the heating value
of PKS to those of coal and charcoal suggest that the 𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤ℎ , is
well suitable for crucible furnace firing. The Adiabatic flame
temperature at n = 1 gives a value of 2080°C, which is
considerably high, the variation of adiabatic flame
temperature as a function of n is shown in figure 1, while
table 3 gives some of the combustion parameters it could also
be inferred that the mass of air required also followed the
same trend as those of adiabatic flame temperature.
3.6. Conclusions
The higher heating value of carbonised PKS was
comparatively higher than those of firewood, peat and lignite
but less than those of bituminous and anthracite coals. Hence,
PKS is a veritable and cheap alternative to fossil fuel with
good thermal properties in terms of the heating value and
adiabatic temperature.
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