Original Article

Proc IMechE Part B:

J Engineering Manufacture
227(8) 1099–1110
Hot incremental forming of Ó IMechE 2013
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DOI: 10.1177/0954405413484014

by using direct heating system pib.sagepub.com

Le Van Sy1 and Nguyen Thanh Nam2

Abstract
This article presents the use of an electrically assisted manufacturing method in the incremental sheet forming process
to improve formability, surface quality, and geometric accuracy. This system utilizes a direct current source connected
directly to a metal sheet through two electrodes at opposite edges to conduct heat based on Joule’s effect. The
approach produces a homogeneous heating zone in the whole metal sheet with very short ramping time. In this work,
the heating system is designed to serve the investigation of formability, geometric accuracy, and surface roughness of the
hot incremental forming technology. Three main results expected from this system are the influence of the processing
parameters on the formability, the ability to improve accuracy and formability, and the reduction or elimination of spring-
back effects in the deformation of high-strength aluminum alloy sheets (AA5055) and magnesium alloy sheets (AZ31).

Keywords
Computer numerical control machine, incremental forming, electrically assisted manufacturing, magnesium alloy sheet,
surface roughness, geometric accuracy

Date received: 21 August 2012; accepted: 27 February 2013

Introduction characterized by a high strength to weight ratio suiting

Incremental sheet forming (ISF) is an innovative die-
less method using a computer numerical control (CNC)
machine to deform sheet materials with short setup
time and low cost. This technology utilizes a
hemispherical-end tool fixed on the CNC spindle,
which may be rotated at a certain speed or be rotation-
ally fixed to locally deform the sheet materials follow-
ing a programmed tool-path. The metal sheet, which is
clamped firmly on the CNC machine table, is plasti-
cally deformed layer by layer to produce the product’s
final shape. This technology suits the rapid prototyping
process or the low–medium batch production with
truly low cost and short manufacturing cycle. It can be
performed to form products from both polymeric and
metal sheet materials.1,2 However, to improve the capa-
bility of ISF technology in industrial applications, it is
necessary to spend more researching efforts on improv-
ing the geometric accuracy, the springback phenom-
enon, and the formability. In particular, the
applicability of the ISF process in hard-to-deform sheet
materials such as high-strength aluminum alloys, mag-
nesium alloys, and titanium alloys has been of interest
to many industrial sectors. These materials are
the aerospace and automotive industries, which are fac-
ing the challenge of cutting CO2 emission by reducing
the weight of components and structures in products.
However, their formability for both the conventional
and the ISF approaches is very poor at room tempera-
ture. There have been significant efforts in previous
researches using different heating sources to support
the deformation process such as heating chamber,3
laser-assisted forming,4 or electrically assisted manufac-
turing (EAM).5,6 These works have shown encouraging
results.
Ambrogio et al.3 designed a forming chamber with a
resistant panel assembled around the outer wall of a
cylindrical die. The system can achieve the effective
thermal control of the sheet to avoid thermal gradients.
1
Department of Fundamental Science, PetroVietNam University, Hanoi,
Vietnam
2
National Key Laboratory of Digital Control & System Engineering
(DCSELAB), Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam
Corresponding author:
Le Van Sy, Department of Fundamental Science, PetroVietnam University,
173 Trung Kinh, Yen Hoa, Cau Giay, Hanoi 10000, Vietnam.
Email: sylv@pvu.edu.vn

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1100
The authors focused on the determination of the form-
ability limits of AZ31 and the correlations between
formability and processing parameters by using a
proper design of experiments (DOE). The experiments
were performed in the temperature range of 200 °C–
300 °C to evaluate the effects of tool diameter, depth
step, and forming temperature. The results showed that
a dramatic formability enhancement makes it possible
to work with AZ31 in warm conditions. The influences
of temperature and depth step on the formability are
quite significant while the influence of tool diameter is
negligible. The maximum formability is achieved at
250 °C.
Duflou et al.4 carried out a laser-assisted ISF pro-
cess by using a six-axis robot and three-axis beam posi-
tioning system to form a Ti6Al4V sheet. The laser
source’s movement is synchronized with the travel of
the forming tool to create a dynamic heating zone in
the vicinity of the contact point between the forming
tool and the metal sheet. By applying this dynamic
heating principle, stress levels and springback effects
are reduced significantly. The authors achieved an
improvement in the accuracy and formability of the
ISF process. However, the cost of the laser source and
its accessories and complex setup requirements are need
to be taken into account.
Guoqiang et al.5 introduced a simple system for hot
ISF process by using an EAM method. In this heating
system, the direct current (DC) source is connected to a
forming tool through a graphite slider. It generates a
local heating zone in the metal sheet at the contacting
vicinity of the forming tool following Joule’s effect.
The local heating zone is the key element in decreasing
the forming force and increasing the metal sheet’s elon-
gation. In this research, the authors focused on the
formability and geometric accuracy and achieved
encouraging results based on the proposed technique.
It is concluded that this technique can be applied suc-
cessfully to forming Ti6Al4V alloys in a temperature
range of 500 °C–600 °C. Thanks to its simplicity and
potential advantages, this method is able to enhance
the usefulness of ISF technology with hard-to-deform
sheet materials.
Ambrogio et al.6 applied EAM for ISF process for
three materials (AZ31, AA2024-T3, and Ti6Al4V) with
a configuration that is similar to Guoqiang et al.’s.5 In
this study, the authors investigated three main aspects:
(1) the material formability, (2) ‘‘a posteriori’’ analysis
on the substrates to consider the influence of electrical
heating on a microstructure, and (3) the surface rough-
ness. The authors also asserted that hot ISF process
would be considered as an alternative to hot stamping
of lightweight alloys for the hard-to-form materials
such as high-strength aluminum, titanium, and magne-
sium alloys. Both the electrical heating and induced
strain have a considerable influence on grain distribu-
tion and depend directly on the material properties.
The surface quality is influenced by increasing the wall
slope angle.
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Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 227(8)
Figure 1. Scheme of equipment used for hot ISF process. DC:
direct current.
In this research, the new approach of connecting the
metal sheet to a DC source, which is usually used in
electrically assisted forming system, is carried out to
deform an aluminum alloy sheet (series of AA5055)
and a magnesium alloy sheet (AZ31). The two electro-
des are connected directly to the metal sheet to generate
a homogeneous heating zone in the whole metal sheet
(see Figure 1). The forming temperature can be
adjusted by changing the current intensity that is con-
tinuously applied, cycled, or pulsed during the forming
process. This system uses a closed control loop (pro-
portional–integral–derivative (PID) controller) to accu-
rately control the forming temperature, which can
enhance the automatic capacity of the ISF process in
industrial applications. There is no graphite slider or
heater/furnace used in the process compared to other
systems. This article aims at increasing the applicability
of EAM in ISF process and taking into account the
effects of homogeneous heating on formability, spring-
back effects, and accuracy during the forming process.
Three main results expected through this system are the
influence of the processing parameters on the formabil-
ity, the ability to improve the geometric accuracy and
formability, and the reduction or elimination of spring-
back effects in the forming process with high-strength
aluminum alloy sheets and magnesium alloy sheets
(AZ31).
Experimental equipments
In this study, the jig/fixture for ISF process is specially
designed to operate at elevated temperature (see
Figures 1 and 2). The clamping system consists of two
plates made from fiber composite. The lower plate has
a hard-steel insert, which is used as a backing plate to
reduce the springback effects. The two plates are over-
lapped at the two copper electrodes to clamp the metal
sheet tightly. The main component of the system is a
DC power source (2.75 V, 14,000 A) directly connected
to the copper electrodes. The cooling system includes
internal pipes created by drilling the inside of the two
electrodes. The outlet ends of the electrodes are
Van Sy and Thanh Nam
Figure 2. (a) The welded positions of thermocouples and (b) the forming temperature with respect to each position of
thermocouples.
connected together by a soft tube, while the other ends
are connected to the inlet and outlet of a pump system
(see Figure 2a). In this way, it provides a cycling cool-
ing flow to protect the electrodes and adjust the form-
ing temperature.
The forming temperature is adjusted by a feedback
controller with four K-type thermocouples welded
firmly on the lower surface of the metal sheet at differ-
ent positions (see Figure 2a). The instantaneous tem-
perature is continuously compared to the target
temperature, and the current intensity is automatically
adjusted by a programmable logic controller (PLC).
The PLC serves as the controller for both the heating
ramp and the remaining target temperature in the sys-
tem. The heating ramp for the target temperature of
300 °C is less than 1 min (see Figure 2b).
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1101
The metal sheet used in all the experiments has a
dimension of 200 3 200 mm2 with a thickness of
1.5 mm. The forming zone is a circular area with a dia-
meter of 150 mm. The whole system is placed on a
fiber-composite plate to isolate the electricity from the
CNC machine table (Figure 3).
The forming tool has a hemispherical-end shape with
diameter equal to 10 mm, which is always pressed into
the metal sheet surface to create a locally plastic defor-
mation. In this system, the forming tool is designed with
enough length to avoid the magnetic effect of the heat-
ing system on the CNC spindle. It is made from tool
steel (BOHLER K100) to ensure good hardness and
wear resistance. In order to reduce the contact friction
between the forming tool’s surface and the metal sheet,
different types of lubrication are used in the
1102
Figure 3. Jig and fixture system for ISF process. (a) CAD
model (b) practical model.
experiments, including solid graphite powder, MoS2
grease, MLS2 Lithium grease, and mixed lubrication.
Experimental design
First, in order to achieve three expected results in this
research, the experiments are performed with a cone-
shaped product, which has a circular generatrix to real-
ize the influence of the processing parameters on the
formability of AZ31 and AA5055 sheets at elevated
temperature. The product profile with a circular gener-
atrix enables the investigation of all the wall angles
from 0° to 90°. Since the wall thickness of the product
changes according to the sine law and the slope of the
profile increases with its depth, the analyzed region is
limited to an angle less than 90°. After each product is
formed, its surface quality, geometric accuracy, and
thickness distribution are considered. Second, for each
maximum wall angle obtained, two frustums of cone
models with this angle are built to recheck both the
formability and the accuracy within a range of tem-
peratures (150 °C, 200 °C, 250 °C, 300 °C).
An experimental strategy is planned based on the
DOE approach to determine the influence of the pro-
cessing parameters on the formability of AZ31 and
AA5055 sheets at elevated temperature. The forming
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Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 227(8)
Table 1. Processing parameters for experimental design.
Experimental parameters Range of values
Low level High level
Temperature (°C) 200 300
Depth step (mm) 0.2 1
Feedrate (mm/s) 1000 6000
temperature (T) of the AZ31 sheets is one important
processing parameter. Other parameters such as depth
step (Z) and feedrate (F), which have a significant influ-
ence on the formability of the ISF process with metal
sheets, are chosen based on previous studies.2–6,8–10
This experimental campaign uses two-level factorial
designs 2k with two replicates to assure the high prob-
ability of the experimental results. The maximum wall
angle obtained in the experiments is considered the
response parameter of DOE. The average values of the
wall-angle results measured with the replicates are
inserted into the design matrix. The total number of
experiments is 16 with the ranges of experimental para-
meters presented in Table 1.
Each metal sheet is deformed in the system shown in
Figure 2 until any mechanical failure occurs. The
obtained product height (h) is identified by both the
value displayed on the CNC interface and the mechani-
cal measurement (see Figure 4(a)). This value is con-
verted into a maximum wall angle (a = arcos(h/r),
where r is the radius of the product profile and h is the
z-coordinate of the forming tool).10 This angle value is
then used to model a cone shape with a straight genera-
trix for rechecking the surface quality and geometric
accuracy.
Results and discussion
Formability and surface quality
This study uses wall angle (a) and surface roughness
(Ra) as the responses for regression analysis. The maxi-
mum formability is measured as the maximum wall
angle obtained before the appearance of any mechani-
cal failures. The surface roughness is measured for both
formed surfaces, but because the inner surface’s rough-
ness is higher than that of the outer one due to the
influences of contacting condition, lubrication, and
processing parameters, only the roughness of the inner
surface is used as shown in Tables 2 and 3.
Product quality can be obtained by controlling
important factors. In this model, significant affecting
factors consist of temperature (A), feedrate (B), depth
step (C), the interaction between temperature and
depth step (AC), and the interaction between feedrate
and depth step (BC). From the analysis of variance
(ANOVA), temperature has the most important impact
on the formability of AZ31. It contributes 73.22% of
all the effects on formability. This is consistent with the
fact that AZ31 sheets have extremely poor formability
Van Sy and Thanh Nam 1103

Figure 4. (a) Measurement of cone height, (b) Measurement of surface roughness by Surtronic 3+.

Table 2. Processing parameters for ISF with Al sheet and experimental results.

Temperature (°C) Feedrate Speed Depth step Lubricant Results Recheck (cone model Ra
(mm/s) (mm) with fixed wall angle)
h a First time Second time

25 6000 250 0.1 Mixed 72 75.90 Broken Sound (\ 65°) 0.88

25 2000 50 0.1 Mixed 72 75.90 Broken Sound (\ 68°) 1.04
200 6000 250 1 Mixed 73 76.42 Sound (76°) 5.4
200 6000 250 0.5 Mixed 75 77.44 Sound (77°) 3.74
200 2000 50 0.1 Mixed 76 77.95 Sound (80°) 1.6
200 6000 250 0.1 Grease 79 79.48 Sound (80°) 0.7
200 6000 250 0.1 Mixed 84 82.00 Broken Sound (80°) 1.66
300 6000 250 0.1 Mixed 100 90.00 Broken Sound (85°) 2.1

when they are deformed at ambient temperature. The
maximum wall angle of 74.2° obtained in this research
is relatively high compared to other studies, where
EAM method was applied to the ISF process. For
AA5055 sheets, the formability is influenced primarily
by the individual factors while their interactive effects
are small. The forming temperature also has a signifi-
cant influence on the formability of AA5055 sheets
(73.1%). The maximum wall angle obtained in this
study is 89.5°. This value is very high in comparison
with the results of previous researches for both the
cases at room temperature and the cases at elevated
temperatures.3,5–7 Therefore, the deformation of AZ31
and AA5055 sheets at elevated temperatures can be
considered the main processing parameters of the ISF
process.
The contributions of depth step and feedrate to the
formability of AZ31 are significant and equal to 9.33%
and 6.6%, respectively. The results from mechanical
testing show that AZ31 sheets have high sensitivity to
the deformation speed.2 Thus, mechanical failures
occur easily at high feedrates. This restricts the indus-
trial applications of ISF technology in large batch pro-
duction because ISF is a slow process compared to
conventional processes such as deep drawing and
stamping. The increase in speed of ISF process by
increased feedrate is limited by the capability of the
CNC machine. However, the interactive contribution
of feedrate and depth step is relatively small (2%). It
can be considered a solution for speeding up ISF pro-
cess in an optimal way. The depth step mainly affects
the axial deforming force and surface roughness. At
present, a special ISF machine can provide an axial
force of up to 30 kN.11 Thus, increasing depth step and
feedrate to improve the surface quality is a good solu-
tion for AZ31 sheets. For AA5055 sheets, the effect of
feedrate is higher than the effect of depth step because
of high ductile behavior of aluminum sheets at elevated
temperature. AA5055 sheets can withstand axial defor-
mation better than AZ31 sheets when the forming tool
moves down.
The interaction effect between temperature and fee-
drate is considerable. This can be explained by investi-
gating the microstructure of AZ31 sheet. At high
deformation speed, grains are elongated in the deforma-
tion direction without dynamic recrystallization (DRX)
phenomenon (see Figure 5). At 300 °C and high defor-
mation speed, DRX seems to appear, but grain sizes are

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1104 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 227(8)

Figure 5. Microstructure of specimens in the direction of 45°. Source: Reproduced with permission from the study by Pellegrini
et al.2

Table 3. Processing parameters for ISF with AZ31 sheet and experimental results.

Temperature (°C) Feedrate Speed Depth step Lubricant Results Recheck Ra

(mm/s) (rpm) (mm) (cone model with fixed wall angle)
h (mm) a (°) First time Second time

25 6000 250 0.5 Mixed 5 34.30 Broken Sound (25°) —

25 2000 50 0.5 Mixed 5 34.30 Broken Sound (30°) —
150 6000 250 0.5 Mixed 17 43.80 Sound (45°) 1.8
150 6000 250 0.1 Mixed 30 52.50 Broken Sound (50°) 1.4
250 6000 250 0.5 Mixed 52 65.33 Sound (65°) 2.1
250 2000 50 0.5 Mixed 52 65.33 Sound (65°) 1.8
250 6000 250 0.1 Mixed 70 74.88 Sound (75°) 0.9

very large (see Figure 5(c)). The large grain size triggers
a hard deformation in metal sheets, which influences
the formability and surface quality. Therefore, the com-
bination of high deformation speeds and elevated tem-
peratures decreases the formability of AZ31 sheet.
The interaction effect between depth step and fee-
drate in the case of maximum temperature leads to a
change in the wall angle from 73.68° to 74.2° (see
Table 3). The combined effect of minimum feedrate
and maximum depth step also leads to a change in the

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Van Sy and Thanh Nam
Table 4. % Contribution of factors to responses.
Parameters Aluminum alloy
% Contribution into a
Temperature (°C) (A) 73.01
Feedrate (mm/s) (B) 18.43
Depth step (mm) (C) 6.67
AB
BC 0.92
Figure 6. Effect of depth step on surface quality.
wall angle from 51.68° at the maximum temperature to
74.2° at the minimum temperature. Adjusting depth
step and feedrate values in a consistent way improves
the formability of AZ31 significantly. However, the
interaction effect between feedrate and depth step on
the formability of AA5055 sheet is insignificant and is
presented in Table 4. An optimal compromise between
the best formability and the saving in deformation time
can be obtained by using this result because their inter-
active effect is very small (0.92%).
Similar to conventional forming, controlling the sur-
face quality is also an important aspect in ISF process.
It is a difficult task for technicians to determine which
processing parameters are responsible for the surface
quality. For example, in milling process, an additional
polishing operation may be needed for industrial appli-
cations where high surface quality is required. In our
experience with ISF process, the tool steps in horizon-
tal and vertical directions are important parameters
that affect the surface quality. It is also identified that
the contacting condition between the forming tool and
the sheet surface has an influence on the surface qual-
ity.16 The influence of the contacting friction can be
minimized by using different consistent lubrications at
elevated temperatures. It is important to note that the
forming tool is always checked before and after the
forming operation to avoid the influence of tool wear
on the surface quality.
The results from regression analysis show that depth
step is the most important parameter affecting the
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1105
Magnesium alloy
% Contribution into Ra % Contribution into a % Contribution into Ra
7.79 73.22 0.01
4.21 6.6 11.18
71.73 9.33 63.6
8.67 7.6
10.56 2 16.1
surface quality (63.6% for AZ31 and 71.73% for
AA5055). For AZ31 sheets, the interactive effect
between feedrate and depth step is also significant
(16.1%). Similar to the wall angle response, the four
other significant effects are kept for regression analysis
and shown in Table 4. In contrast, the temperature’s
effect on the surface quality is very small and thus can
be eliminated from the ANOVA.
Depth step’s effect in ISF process is investigated
through the deformation trace left on the product sur-
face and is illustrated in Figure 6. For a milling opera-
tion, the scallop height that represents surface quality is
determined by tool radius and the minimum distance
between passes. A large radius leads to a low scallop
height on the product surface due to the large superpo-
sition of the milling tool. It has been shown that smaller
tool radii give higher formability in the ISF process.7
Therefore, this behavior can be explained by noting
that a contacting zone between the forming tool and
the sheet surface is relatively small and depends on the
wall angle. For the same tool radius, a smaller wall
angle gives a larger superposition zone and, conse-
quently, higher surface quality. As a result, the effect of
tool radius on the roughness is negligible for small
depth step and large wall angle. This effect, however,
can be significant at high depth step and small wall
angle. Note that a helical tool-path is used in all ISF
experiments to minimize the downing force when the
forming tool finishes a moving round. As a result, the
forming force does not depend on the product size
while the surface quality is improved significantly.
The influence of depth step and feedrate on surface
quality is significant for both AZ31 and AA5055
sheets. The interactive effect between feedrate and
depth step in ISF process with AZ31 is also significant
(16.1%, see Table 4). Although the temperature’s effect
is small, its combination with feedrate is relatively sig-
nificant (7.6%). This behavior can be explained by
investigating the microstructure and mechanical prop-
erties of AZ31. The grain size is very large at high
deformation speed and elongated in the moving direc-
tion of the forming tool without DRX process at
200 °C (see Figure 5(a) and (c)). Deformation is diffi-
cult for large grains, and thus, the surface quality is
low because opercula failure occurs on the product sur-
face. This problem usually appears in cases where
AZ31 sheets are deformed at high feedrate. However,
1106
Figure 7. Influence of lubrication conditions (a) Normal grease vs mixed lubricate, (b) mixed lubricate at 150°C and (c) mixed
lubricate at 200°C.
Figure 8. The reference coordinate system used in CMM.
the forming temperature of the AA5055 sheet has
greater contribution to the surface quality than the
forming temperature of the magnesium sheet. This phe-
nomenon seems to be the consequence of large grain
sizes created by increased forming temperature.
The effect of friction at elevated temperature
Surface quality is influenced significantly by the lubrica-
tion condition. In this study, three different lubrications
(MoS2, MLS2 Lithium, and solid graphite powder) are
used to reduce the contact friction in the forming pro-
cess of AZ31 sheets at elevated temperature. The results
show that MoS2 gives better surface quality, while the
solid graphite powder is harmful to health and environ-
ment. Thus, the mixture of solid graphite powder and
MoS2 grease is used to reduce the contacting friction in
all experiments. The upper surface of the metal sheet is
covered with a thick mixed-lubricant layer before the
forming process and lubricant is added continuously
during the deformation process.
The surface qualities obtained with each lubricant
type are shown in Figure 7. Some first deforming
rounds of AA5055 sheets using MLS2 Lithium grease
at 200 °C show bad surface quality (Ra = 5.4). Then,
the surface quality is improved significantly by using
the mixed lubricant (Ra = 1.66 in Figure 7(a)). For
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Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 227(8)
AZ31 sheets, the highest surface quality is achieved
with the mixed lubricant with Ra equal to 0.9 at 250 °C
(Figure 7(c)) and equal to 1.9 at 150 °C (Figure 7(b)).
Geometric accuracy and thickness distribution
The geometric accuracy and thickness distribution of
formed product are two important parameters in poten-
tial industrial applications. The ISF process is per-
formed without using a dedicated die or a complex
support; the metal sheet is deformed incrementally fol-
lowing the designed path. Therefore, the errors caused
by the influence of machining parameters and spring-
back phenomenon are the main concerns for industrial
applications. There have been many researching efforts
to improve the geometric accuracy and product quality
in ISF method at room temperature.3–6 Improvements
can be achieved by using optimized processing para-
meters or by tightening some constraints such as sup-
port and auxiliary die. However, tightening constraints
to force better accuracy will reduce the flexibility and
increase the complexity of the ISF technology.
In this study, the thickness distribution is measured
using coordinate measuring machine (CMM). The
product is fixed on the CMM table in two arrange-
ments, which allows us to measure both the inner and
the outer profiles (see Figure 8). The reference
Van Sy and Thanh Nam
coordinate system is placed at the center of the prod-
uct. A feeler with radius equal to 3 mm moves along
the four-product generatrices at each quadrant point.
The profile data are then used to calculate the wall
thickness and rebuild the product profile. The wall
thickness prediction is calculated by the sine law, which
is used for the conventional spin process.2,10 The thick-
ness distribution for both AA5055 and AZ31 sheets
corresponding to different wall angles is shown in
Figure 9.
In all the experiments, product deformation is
started from a wall angle of 28° to save forming time.
The real thickness values are greater than those calcu-
lated using the sine law in the first 10° and the last 10°
because the sheet is bended freely. As shown in
Figure 9, there are three distinguishable regions: (1)
close to clamped position, (2) wall region, and (3) close
to the cone’s top. Because the first region is bended
freely, the thickness is underestimated with the real val-
ues being 1.33 and 1.45 mm for AA5055 and AZ31
sheets, respectively, instead of the predicted value of
1.31 mm. In the wall region, the thickness distribution
agrees very well with the sine law for both materials.
Finally, the real distribution is far from the sine law
prediction near the intersection of the undeformed and
Figure 9. Comparison between thickness of sine law and
actual experiment.
Figure 10. A series of profile cut at planes perpendicular to the revolving axis.
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1107
the deformed parts. The large discrepancy between the
real thickness value and the sine law prediction in the
case of AZ31 sheets is due to the ductile property of
AZ31 and the sudden deformation in the first few run-
ning rounds. However, the comparison at elevated tem-
perature is much better than the comparison at room
temperature. The maximum difference is less than 0.1
and 0.02 mm for AZ31 and AA5055 sheets,
respectively.
The geometric accuracy of the product is also an
important parameter when the sheet is heated to a high
temperature and becomes softer. A sheet deformation
occurring far from a supported position of the backing
plate will be twisted about the revolving axis of the
product in the same rotating direction as the CNC spin-
dle. From theoretical viewpoint, ISF technique can
deform a part with unlimited depth. However, the geo-
metric accuracy of the product is significantly decreased
when a large depth is formed at elevated temperature.
Figure 10 shows the product profile corresponding to
different formed heights at a high temperature of
300 °C, a high feedrate, and a poor lubrication condi-
tion. They are cut at planes perpendicular to the revol-
ving axis of the product. The product is significantly
twisted at the height of 30–40 mm from the clamping
position. This effect occurs when the metal sheet is
excessively softened due to high temperature and due to
the contact friction between the forming tool and the
metal sheet.
From the CMM data, we obtain the profiles of the
inner and the outer surfaces. Each product is measured
at three different positions along the achievable depth.
Figures 11–13 show the geometric errors between the
computer-aided design (CAD) profile and the actual
formed profile of the AA5055 sheet under different
machining conditions. These product profiles are illu-
strated using the relative height (h) and the radius of the
cone shape (r) extracted from the CMM data. In gen-
eral, the depth-step magnitude has the most influence
on the geometric accuracy given the same forming tem-
perature and feedrate. At 200 °C, the maximum error is
1.2 mm for the depth step of 1 mm. However, for the
same condition and with a depth step of 0.1 mm, we
obtain good agreement between the two profiles with
an error of about one-tenth of a millimeter. The depth-
step effect is dramatically decreased at higher tempera-
ture (300 °C) where there is no significant difference
1108 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 227(8)

Figure 11. A comparison of CAD profile and formed profile at 200 °C. CAD: computer-aided design.

Figure 12. A comparison of CAD profile and formed profile at 300 °C. CAD: computer-aided design.

Figure 13. A comparison of CAD profile and formed profile at 25 °C. CAD: computer-aided design.

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Van Sy and Thanh Nam 1109

Figure 14. A comparison of CAD profile and formed profile at 150 °C. CAD: computer-aided design.

between the two profiles (see Figure 12). This is an
excellent result for potential industrial applications.
Springback phenomenon is eliminated during the form-
ing process at very high temperatures. There are some
explanations for the influence of DC on springback
phenomenon at both macro- and microlevels.12–15
The formability becomes quite acceptable at the tem-
perature of up to 200 °C for the deformation of AZ31
sheets. There is a large elastic recovery at lower tem-
perature (see Figure 14). The maximum error between
the CAD profile and the actual formed profile is about
1 mm. At the region near the clamping position, the tol-
erance (i.e. elastic recover) is quite large because the
sheet is bended freely. However, a good agreement in
the short distance between CAD and product profiles is
in the wall region. Far from this region, the elastic
recovery increases significantly, and the maximum tol-
erance is less than a millimeter. For the deformation of
AZ31 at 250 °C, the tolerance decreases gradually with
a maximum value of 0.7 mm.
A large depth step, that is, high strain rate in trans-
verse directions (TD), in the forming process reduces
the accuracy of geometric profiles. The influences of
temperature and strain rate on the mechanical behavior
of AZ31 can be explained through microstructure anal-
ysis. There have been some research efforts focusing on
the influences of grain size and deformation speed on
the mechanical properties of AZ31 sheets.12–14 At a
high deformation speed, grains are elongated in the
deforming direction without DRX phenomenon.
However, DRX phenomenon starts to occur at higher
temperature and high deforming speed with the appear-
ance of large grain sizes (see Figure 5(c)). Sheet defor-
mation with large grain size is relatively difficult, and
the elastic recovery in AZ31 sheet increases. Thus, the
experimental results shown in Figure 15 are in good

Figure 15. A comparison of CAD profile and formed profile at 250 °C. CAD: computer-aided design.

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1110
agreement with the theoretical viewpoints. Springback
effect depends significantly on the forming temperature
and deformation amount in ISF process.
Conclusions
This research focuses on a new design of heating sys-
tems using electrically assisted ISF technology for
AA5055 and AZ31 sheets. It is utilized to investigate
the influences of processing parameters on formability,
springback, surface quality, and geometric accuracy in
hot ISF process. The conclusions are as follows:
 The forming temperature plays an important role
in improving the formability of ISF process. The
maximum wall angle (85°) achieved in hot ISF with
AA5055 is extremely high in comparison with the
case at room temperature. The maximum formabil-
ity of AZ31 can be obtained at 250 °C with high
geometric accuracy and high surface quality of the
product.
 Springback effect is eliminated with a profile error
of less than one-tenth of a millimeter in the case of
small depth step.
 The interactive effects of these parameters are the
key solution for optimizing the processing time and
product quality. Depth step and feedrate, which
characterize the sensitivity of deformation speed,
are important processing parameters for AZ31
deformation due to changes in microstructure at
high temperature. However, this interactive effect is
relatively small for the AA5055 deformation. The
friction between the tool and the sheet metal plays
a key role in the surface quality at elevated
temperature.
 The product is twisted about its involving axis for
the deformation of a deep cone shape at elevated
temperature.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express a deep appreciation
to Prof. S. Bruschi and Dr A. Ghiotti at DIMEG,
University of Padova, Italy for their help in this study.
The authors also would like to acknowledge Roberto
Carraretto for his support with the experimental equip-
ments and performing experimental activities at his
company.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
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Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 227(8)
Funding
This work was supported by Fondazione Cassa di
Risparmio di Padova e Rovigo (CARIPARO).
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