International Journal of Fatigue 104 (2017) 112–119

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International Journal of Fatigue

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijfatigue

Lifetime of aircraft alloy plates with cold expanded holes

P. Yasniy, S. Glado, V. Iasnii ⇑
Ternopil Ivan Pul’uj National Technical University, 46001, 56 Ruska Str., Ternopil, Ukraine

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The results of study of cold expansion holes and their diameters on stress distribution, fatigue crack
Received 14 March 2017 nucleation and its growth under uniaxial loading of plates are presented. A series of fatigue tests were
Received in revised form 5 July 2017 carried out using plates containing plain holes and cold expanded holes in aluminium D16chT alloy
Accepted 11 July 2017
(Al 2024-T3). In all cases, the increase of plain and cold expanded hole diameter from 8 mm to 10 mm
Available online 12 July 2017
increases crack initiation lifetime with a length of c1 = 0.25 mm and 0.5 mm. With the increase of cold
expansion degree, the relative fatigue lifetime of specimens with both diameters decreases for a crack
Keywords:
to initiate with the length of 0.25 mm and increases for the crack to initiate with the length of 0.5 mm.
Aluminium alloy
Cold expansion
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Mandrel
Residual stress
Fatigue crack

1. Introduction
The fatigue of materials and structures acquired special signifi-
cance due to the rapid development of industries, such as aero-
space, automotive and mechanical engineering. Requirements for
the safe operation of structures are of high importance when deal-
ing with cyclic loading and high level of stresses.
In thin-wall structural elements, in particular aviation ones,
fatigue cracks originate at stress concentration places. To increase
endurance of such structural elements, various technological
methods of hardening and creating of compressive residual stress
in concentration places are used. There are the effective methods
of plastic deformation, in particular, cold expansion increases fati-
gue durability of structural elements with holes [1–5].
Consecutive cold expansions reduce maximum tensile stress in
1.54–1.63 times in stringer with holes for petrol flowing compara-
tively with stringer with unstrained holes [6]. The influence of
geometry of mandrel and degree of cold expansion on fatigue dura-
bility of plates in aluminium alloys 2024-T3 has been investigated
[3]. It was revealed that the durability of plates is increased in 5.3
times after degree of cold expansion 5% comparatively with speci-
mens without cold expansion. The cold expansion technology
research in the last twenty year is presented in review [7].
It has been investigated [8] that the fatigue crack growth rate in
plates with cold expanded holes in Al2024 and Al2650 aluminium
alloys was caused by higher stress opening of fatigue crack that is a
result of compressive residual stresses. Evaluation of the residual
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: v.iasnii@gmail.com (V. Iasnii).
stresses is generally the first step in study of the fatigue behaviour
of components subjected to this mechanical process. With the pop-
ularity of the cold expansion process in industry, various methods
such as analytical prediction [2,9–11], experimental measurement
[12–19] and numerical simulation [20–25] have been developed
and reported to quantify this mechanical effect. However, analyti-
cal prediction still remains attractive because of its low demand for
computation resources, quick generation of results and ease of per-
forming parametric studies which is particularly significant at the
design stage. Analytical studies of the cold expansion holes process
have been initiated since the 1940s. The solutions differ substan-
tially in their assumptions: yield criterion (von Mises or Tresca),
stress state (plane stress or plane strain), material model (elastic,
perfectly plastic or elastic nonlinear-strain-hardening), and
unloading (elastic or/with reverse yielding). The analytical com-
plexity primarily depends on the level of model assumptions, par-
ticularly on the treatment of an unloading step and material
behaviour. Analytical studies have been presented in several
reviews [1,11,20,21,26–28].
However, no information is provided about the influence of
plastic deformation on ratio of the fatigue crack initiation lifetime
to total lifetime of structural elements with cold expanded holes of
different diameters. Generally, most of investigations deal with the
crack initiation or its propagation [8].
In this paper, the results of study of cold expansion holes and
their diameters on stress distribution, fatigue crack nucleation
and its growth under uniaxial loading of plates are presented. A
series of fatigue tests were carried out using plates containing
plain holes and cold expanded holes in aluminium D16chT alloy
(Al 2024-T3).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2017.07.012
0142-1123/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 P. Yasniy et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 104 (2017) 112–119
Nomenclature
c1 entrance face crack length
c2 exit face crack length
d0 diameter of a hole before cold expansion
df diameter of a hole after cold expansion
i cold expansion degree
A, m fatigue curve parameters
Ni fatigue crack initiation lifetime
Nf total lifetime
2. Experimental techniques
Fatigue crack nucleation and growth in plates with central hole
of 8 mm and 10 mm in diameter (Fig. 1) in D16chT (2024-T3)
aluminium alloy of thickness t = 6 mm and width of 60 mm at
stress ratio R ¼ rmin =rmax ¼ 0. Here rmin ; rmax are the minimum
and maximum applied stresses, respectively. In all tests the maxi-
mum applied stress was constant rmax ¼ 147 MPa (0:49ry ), load
frequency was 25 Hz. Mechanical properties of alloy at room tem-
perature: yield strength ry ¼ 300 MPa, tensile strength
rU ¼ 430 MPa. Fatigue crack initiation lifetime Ni was taken as
the number of loading cycles when crack length on the surface
was 0.25 mm, and the total lifetime Nf is regarded as the number
of cycles for the crack to reach a critical length that leads to the
failure of the plate. Fatigue crack initiation and growth were
observed on the both surfaces of specimen using traveling micro-
scopes with accuracy 0.014 mm.
The plates with the diameter of holes 8 mm, 10 mm were sub-
jected to cold expansion to create the compressive residual stres-
ses using mandrels of the corresponding diameter [5]. The degree
of cold expansion was calculated according to formula
Fig. 1. Specimens for fatigue test: (a) dimension of specimen and direction of cold expansion (A and B – entrance face of mandrel, C and D – exit face of mandrel); (b) scheme
of crack extension (a – crack length along thickness of specimen; c1 – crack length on entrance face of mandrel; c2 – crack length on exit face of mandrel).
113
R stress ratio
rmin minimum applied stress
rmax maximum applied stress
rres residual stress
ry yield strength
rU tensile strength
Dr stress range
i ¼ ½ðdf  do Þ=do   100%, where d0 ; df are the diameters of a hole
before and after cold expansion, respectively. The moving speed
of the mandrel bar was 5 mm/s.
The mandrels for cold expansion were of steel (0.45% C) and
quenched to the hardness 47–48 HRC. Fig. 2 shows the draft of
instrument which was used for cold expansion of holes with the
final diameter of 8 and 10 mm in plates. The friction in the contact
zone between mandrel and plate was decreased by means of oil.
The specimens were mandrelled with the press PYE–100.
Fatigue tested specimens with cold expanded holes have
quarter-elliptic shape of crack. Fatigue crack usually nucleated
from the hole on the entrance face (A, B). The crack sizes were
characterized by parameters of length of surface cracks c1 and c2
(Fig. 1b) on entrance and exit faces, accordingly.
3. Finite element analysis
Three-dimensional finite element analysis of residual stress dis-
tribution near hole after cold expansion and under cyclic loading
was performed using ANSYS Explicit Dynamics. The actual method
of cold expansion where a tapered mandrel is pushed through the
114 P. Yasniy et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 104 (2017) 112–119

Fig. 2. The mandrels geometry for the hole with final diameter df : (a) – 8 mm; (b) – 10 mm.

hole, gives a variation of the residual stress through the thickness.
The mandrel was modelled as a rigid surface. The finite element
model of plate has 7883 three-dimensional 20-node elements
SOLID95 [29]. It can tolerate irregular shapes without as much loss
of accuracy. SOLID95 elements have compatible displacement
shapes and are well suited to model curved boundaries. The ele-
ment is defined by twenty nodes having three degrees of freedom
per node: translations in the nodal x, y and z directions. The ele-
ment may have any spatial orientation. The element has plasticity,
creep, stress stiffening, large deflection, and large strain
capabilities.
The calculation scheme of loading and geometrical dimensions
of the quarter of specimen during mandrel processing and the
mesh of a quarter of working area with mandrel are presented
on Figs. 3 and 4, respectively.
To obtain the necessary accuracy of calculation, the mesh near
the hole was thickened. To optimise the sizes of the mesh, the con-
secutive calculations with the minimum mesh size from 0.5 mm to
0.02 mm were performed. While decreasing the minimum width of
mesh element on the face less than 0.031 mm, the curves of stress
distribution near the hole were almost the same. Therefore, in the
following modelling by FEM the minimum width of mesh element
near the hole was chosen equal to 0.031 mm. The maximum width
of mesh element was 3 mm.
To validate the correctness of the model and to calculate the
residual stresses, the diameters of holes, measured with the digital
force calliper with the accuracy of 0.005 mm, after cold expansion
were compared with the ones, calculated by FEM. The difference
between these data for the specimens with the diameter of holes
of 8 mm is not greater than 0.5%. Also, the results of residual stress

Fig. 3. The scheme of a quarter of the specimen working area. Arrow indicate the direction of mandrel motion.
 P. Yasniy et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 104 (2017) 112–119
Fig. 4. Mesh of the quarter of specimen and mandrel.
distribution obtained by the authors of the paper are similar to the
results, available in scientific sources, in particular, regarding the
ratio of residual stresses at the entrance and exit faces of mandrel
[8].
The stress-strain curves for these models was described by
Steinberg-Guinan Strength model [30,31]:
     
Gp P GT
G ¼ G0 1 þ þ ðT  300Þ ;
G0 g1=3 G0
   
r0:2p P GT
r0:2 ¼ r0:20 ½1 þ bðe þ ei Þn 1 þ þ ðT  300Þ;
r0:20 g1=3 G0
provided that r0:20 ½1 þ bðe þ ei Þ 6 r0:2max . Here G0 is shear modulus
n
at initial state (T = 20 °C; P = 0; e = 0); Gp ¼ dG=dP; GT ¼ dG=dT; P is
pressure; g is compression ratio; T is temperature; r0:2 is yield
stress; r0:20 is yield stress at initial state (T = 20 °C; P = 0; e = 0); b
is hardening constant; e is plastic strain; ei is initial equivalent plas-
tic strain; n is hardening exponent. Mechanical properties of
D16chT alloy at room temperature: G0 ¼ 2:86  104 MPa, b = 300,
n = 0.13. It was taken for the room temperature that GT ¼ 0,
G ¼ G0 and r0:2 ¼ r0:20 = 300 MPa.
The residual stress after cold expansion rres , maximum rmax
yy
and minimum stress rmin yy at uniaxial cyclic loading and stress
range Dryy taking into account the residual stresses in a plate near
cold expanded holes were analysed.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Fatigue crack growth
Fig. 5 shows the typical fatigue fracture surface of specimens
made of aluminium D16chT alloy after mechanical treatment
(Fig. 5a, b) and after cold expansion (Fig. 5c, d).
In cold expanded specimen the crack usually appears on the
edge of hole on the entrance face of the specimen (Fig. 5c, d).
The crack initially has quarter-elliptical shape (Fig. 5d), and later
it becomes semi-elliptical one (Fig. 5d). Fatigue crack in specimen
with cold expansion holes does not extend at first along the surface
hole but to opposite specimen wall at the distance of 1–2 mm from
the surface of hole. It should be noted that there retains a thin non-
failure stripe along the surface of hole, which is 1–2 mm thick
(Fig. 5d). Such an effect is originated as a result of residual com-
pressive stresses around cold expanded holes. During further prop-
agation of fatigue crack the mentioned-above stripe fractures due
to ductile mechanism with fatigue dimples formation.
Such peculiarities of formation of initial crack surface and fur-
ther crack extension below the surface of hole make difficult the
reliable diagnostics of structural elements by means of optical
methods and require additional control techniques.
Dependencies of fatigue crack growth on the surface of speci-
mens with plain and cold expanded holes with a diameter of 8
115
Crack iniaon site
Crack iniaon site
a b c d
Fig. 5. Original location and fatigue crack growth surface in the specimen with the
ð1Þ
plain hole with a diameter of 8 mm – a, b and with the expanded hole with a
diameter of 10 mm (i = 1.9%) – c, d. The arrows indicate the place of crack initiation.
ð2Þ
mm at expansion i ¼ 0; 1:49; 2:37; 3:25% and of 10 mm at expan-
sion i ¼ 0; 1:1; 1:9% on the number of loading cycles were shown
in Fig. 6. Maximum applied stress was rmax ¼ 0:49  ry ¼
147 MPa. In general, the cold expansion has the positive effect on
the fatigue lifetime of specimens for both diameters of holes and
increases substantially the crack initiation lifetime. Crack growth
stopped when it reached 0.43 mm for cold expanded hole with a
diameter of 8 mm (Fig. 6a). Fatigue crack did not initiate for cold
expanded hole with the diameter of 10 mm (Fig. 6b) after
N = 106 cycles (Table 1).
It is necessary to emphasize that in general, with increase of
cold expansion degree the number of loading cycles to crack nucle-
ation increases for specimens with both diameters of holes.
4.2. Fatigue lifetime
The influence of cold expansion degree on the lifetimes of crack
initiation and total lifetime of plates with holes was investigated.
Fig. 7a shows the dependencies of lifetime of crack initiation
N0.25 and N0.5 of the length c1 = 0.25 mm and c1 = 0.5 mm, respec-
tively, on the cold expansion degree. The relative lifetime of crack
initiation of aluminium plates with plain and cold expanded holes
are presented in Fig. 7b and Table 1.
The maximum lifetime of the plates with cold expanded holes
of 3.2% to the initiation of fatigue crack length of 0.25 mm
increases in about 10 times as compared with plain plates for the
diameter of the hole equal to 8 mm. Analysing the results, we
can make the conclusions that relative contribution of the crack
initiation lifetime to the total durability at the given stress range
Dr ¼ 147 MPa essentially depends on the cold expansion degree
and the meaning of criterion of ‘‘crack initiation”. If we can take
the 0.25 mm surface crack length as the criterion of crack initia-
tion, then the relative fatigue crack initiation lifetime N0.25/Nf of
plates with the diameter of holes of 8 mm and 10 mm decreases
in 1.3 times with the increase of cold expansion to 3.2% as com-
pared with plain hole. There is an opposite character of the depen-
dency of relative crack initiation lifetime of plate N0.5/Nf with both
diameters of holes. With the increases of cold expansion degree to
3.2% the relative crack initiation lifetime N0.5/Nf increases from
0.48 for a plain hole to 0.65 for cold expanded hole. In all cases,
the increase of plain and cold expanded hole diameter from 8
116 P. Yasniy et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 104 (2017) 112–119

Fig. 6. Fatigue crack growth (Dr ¼ 147 MPa) in specimens with plain and cold expanded holes with a diameter of: (a) 8 mm; (b) 10 mm.

Table 1
Lifetime of fatigue crack initiation and total lifetime of plates with plain and cold expanded holes at Dr = 147 MPa.

No. dfinal, mm i, % N0.25, cycles N0.5, cycles Nf, cycles N0.25/Nf N0.5/Nf
1 8.03 0 37,000 45,000 94,047 0.393 0.478
2 8.03 1.49 95,000 113,000 189,907 0.500 0.595
3 8.02 2.37 72,000 124,000 189,791 0.363 0.653
4 8.01 3.25 290,000 – >106
5 10.04 0 50,000 55,000 114,223 0.437 0.481
6 10.02 1.1 58,000 72,000 126,997 0.519 0.567
7 10.01 1.9 80,000 122,000 202,925 0.394 0.601
8 10 3.2 370,000 – >106

Fig. 7. Lifetime of aluminium plates with 8 mm and 10 mm diameter holes versus cold expansion degree (Dr ¼ 147 MPa): (a) fatigue crack initiation lifetime of a length of
0.25 mm, 0.5 mm; (b) relative fatigue crack initiation of a length of 0.25 mm and 0.5 mm.

mm to 10 mm increases crack initiation lifetime with a length of
c1 = 0.25 mm and 0.5 mm.
On the other side, the relative crack initiation lifetime does not
depend on the diameter of hole.
4.3. 3-D finite element analysis of residual stresses
The effects of cold expansion on the field of residual stresses in
the plate near a hole with the diameter of 8 mm are given in Fig. 8.
Here the stresses are given in Pa. The maximum compressive resid-
ual stresses after cold expansion are observed in mid-thickness of
the plate. When cold expansion degree increases from 1 to 3%, the
maximum compressive residual stress increases from 393 to
504 MPa near a hole. Generally, the residual stress field (Fig. 8)
matches with crack initiation surface and fatigue crack growth
path (Fig. 5). Fatigue crack initiates from cold expanded holes in
the area with lowest compressive residual stress and propagates
in direction of the minimal residual stresses.
The distribution of residual stresses on the specimen surface
with the diameter of 8 mm, 10 mm and 12 mm from the entrance
face (Z = 0) and mid-thickness section (Z = t/2) was calculated
[32].
 P. Yasniy et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 104 (2017) 112–119 117

Fig. 8. Contour plot of the residual stresses rres

yy (in Pa) near the hole of 8 mm in diameter after cold expansion degree of 1% (a) 2% (b) and 3% (c).

Fig. 9. Distribution of residual stresses calculated by FEM near the 8 mm (a); 10 (b) and 12 mm (c) diameters of holes with cold expansion degree 1% (curve 1, 4); 2% (2, 5) and
3% (3, 6) at Z = 0 (13) Z ¼ 0 and Z = t/2 (46).

The analysis of obtained results (Fig. 9) indicates that for all

diameters of holes the increase of cold expansion degree i from 1
to 3% increase the residual compressive stress rresyy and the width
of zone of their impact around the hole.
The width of residual compressive-stressed areas rres yy on the
entrance face is approximately equal to 2.5–3.5 mm from hole
edge for diameters of 8 and 10 mm (Fig. 9a, b), and more than 5
mm at the hole diameter of 12 mm for all cold expansion degree
(Fig. 9c).
The difference in the width of residual compressive stress zone
for various diameters of holes is due to the fact that absolute cold
expansion (df  d0) differs for various hole diameters at equal cold
expansion degree i. In particular, the absolute cold expansion is
0.24 mm for i = 3% and hole diameter of 8 mm, and it is equal to
0.36 mm for diameter of 12 mm. Therefore, the increase of hole
diameter is followed with the increase of plastically deformed
metal around the hole during cold expansion at the same cold
expansion degree.
For all cold expansion degrees the highest residual compressive
Fig. 10. Residual stresses rres
yy on the surface of hole of 8 mm in diameter calculated
stress rres
yy were observed in the mid-thickness (Z = t/2 = 3 mm) of by FEM for entrance face (Z = 0), mid-thickness (Z = 3 mm) and exit faces
specimen (Fig. 10), the lowest ones were revealed on the entrance (Z = 6 mm).
face of hole (Z = 0). The largest absolute compressive stress rres
yy in
the mid-thickness section of specimen comparing to similar ones
on the surface (Z = 0) was spotted at cold expansion degree of 1% to applied stress on the number of loading cycles, taking into
(Fig. 10). The increase of cold expansion degree decreases the ratio account the cold expansion degree was obtained. The stresses
of the compressive stress on the mid-thickness section to the ones rmin
yy and ryy
max
were calculated taking into consideration the resid-
on entrance face and it is approximately 1.1 at i = 3%. ual stresses after cold expansion. Finite element analysis shows
Therefore, the residual compressive stresses on the entrance that minimum and maximum stresses are already stabilized at
face are considerably lower than on the middle section of hole the second half of loading cycle.
and this trend is observed for all studied cold expansion degree Fig. 11 represents the distribution of maximum and minimum
and holes diameters. stresses on the entrance face near the holes with diameter of 8
mm (Fig. 11a, b) and 10 mm (Fig. 11d, c) for the cold expansion
1%, 2%, 3% and without cold expansion for the second half cycle.
4.4. 3-D finite element analysis of stresses at cyclic loading In general, the maximum and minimum stresses near the hole
decrease for both diameters with the increase of cold expansion
The distribution of stress range Dryy ¼ rmax
yy  ryy , maximum
min
degree under cyclic loading. With the increase of distance from
and minimum stresses near the hole in the plane perpendicular the edge of the hole to 0.6–2 mm depending on cold expansion
118 P. Yasniy et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 104 (2017) 112–119

Fig. 11. Maximum rmaxyy (a, c) and minimum ryy (b, d) stresses near the holes of entrance face with diameter of 8 mm (a, b) and 10 mm (c, d) calculated by FEM for the second
min

half cycle at applied stress Dr ¼ 147 MPa.

degree and diameter of hole the maximum stress decreases. From
the results (Fig. 11) and from previous studies [19] follows that the
highest stress range is in the middle part along the thickness of a
hole without cold expansion. So crack nucleation and propagation
in the middle part of specimen (Fig. 5a, b) at uniaxial loading
occurred during experimental tests can be explained by this fact.
Fig. 12 shows the dependencies between the fatigue crack initi-
ation lifetime (c1 = 0.25 mm) in plates with the holes of 8 and 10
mm in diameter and maximal stresses rmax yy and the stress range
Dryy after all studied cold expansion degree (Table 1). The stresses
were calculated by FEM on the specimen surface from entrance
face (Z ¼ 0) for the second half of loading cycle.

Fig. 12. Fatigue crack initiation lifetime (c1 = 0.25 mm) on the entrance face (Z = 0) versus maximum stress rmax
yy – (a) and stress range Dryy – (b) on the edge of hole (X = d/2)
with diameter of 8 mm and 10 mm for all cold expanded degree (Table 1).
 P. Yasniy et al. / International Journal of Fatigue 104 (2017) 112–119
The analysis of the represented results implies that for various
diameters of holes and cold expansion degree there exists a certain
correlation between the stress range or maximum stress on the
edge of hole on the entrance face of plate and lifetime of crack ini-
tiation. The significant scatter of data can be explained that both
parameters, calculated by FEM, do not take into account the influ-
ence of local stress ratio on the lifetime of crack initiation. The
other reason of scatter is the inhomogeneity of material properties
after cold expansion.
5. Conclusions
1. Despite the cold expansion degree and diameter of hole the fati-
gue cracks were initiated in aluminium alloy plate from the
edges of cold expanded holes on the entrance faces. This is
due to the fact that the smallest residual compressive stresses
after cold expansion, and, hence, maximum stress under cyclic
loading was near the entrance face. In contrast to specimens
with cold expanded holes, fatigue cracks were initiated from
the middle part of plain hole.
2. In all cases, the increase of plain and cold expanded hole diam-
eter from 8 mm to 10 mm increases crack initiation lifetime
with a length of c1 = 0.25 mm and 0.5 mm. With the increase
of cold expansion degree, the relative fatigue lifetime of speci-
mens with both diameters decreases for a crack to initiate with
the length of 0.25 mm, and increases for the crack to initiate
with the length of 0.5 mm.
3. The difference of compressive residual stresses, calculated by
FEM, along the plate thickness is reduced with the increase of
cold expansion degree.
4. For various diameters of holes and cold expansion degree there
exists a certain correlation between the stress range or maxi-
mum stress on the edge of hole on the entrance face of plate
and lifetime of fatigue crack initiation. The significant scatter
of data can be explained that both parameters do not take into
account the influence of local stress ratio on the lifetime of
crack initiation.
Acknowledgements
This study is part of the research project No. 0115U002448
financed by the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine.
The authors kindly acknowledge the support in accomplishment
of the research program.
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