Synchronous Machines

PART 3

(reference: C.Hubert, pg 305-387)

Figure 1 shows a magnet mounted on a rotor, and a coil on a stator. When the shaft rotates the rotor
flux will induce a voltage in the coil. The frequency of the voltage produced is: f s = ns (r. p.s ) or
Ns
fs = ( r. p.m) . If one distributes the coil on the winding as shown in e1
60
figure 2, one can obtain a quasi sinusoidal induced voltage. Instead of a
stacked coil one can use “slotted” coils which are distributed in a better way N

under a magnetic pole (figure 2). These windings are connecte in series in such
a way that the terminal voltage is near sinusoidal. Winding layouts is a special
topic and quite complicated. In this introductory course let us simply use “an S

effective number of turns per phase” ( N e ). This produces an induced voltage

figure 1
which can be approximated as:
coils in
series e1

Eo = 4.44 fN e Φ p
with Φ p = flux per pole N N

and f of course is the rated

e2
synchronous frequency. S
S

Finally figure 3 shows that one can e3 figure 3

figure 2
place 3 windings with a PHYSICAL or
GEOMETRIC placement 120o w.r.t. each other. When the magnet (NS) rotates, the voltage induced in
each coil will have the same frequency, but out of phase (time delay) by 120o

One could write the equations of the 3 phases as:

e1 (t ) = Eo sin (ω s t ) e1
 2π 
e2 (t ) = Eo sin  ω s t − 
 3  Look at phases
going by
 2π 
e3 (t ) = Eo sin  ω s t +  Ns
 3 
or draw a FRENEL vector diagram which is a vector
representation of each voltage induced on a plane which e3 e2
rotates in reverse direct with the angular frequency − ω s .
Note the convention of (+) annotation

xformer part1 pg 1
SIMPLE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT Ra jX a
exciter

The simplest equivalent circuit is

Ia
derived here. The rotor produces a flux Φf Vf Rf Φ
f Va Za
and when the shaft rotes at synchronous Ef
speed onr can draw the equivalent circuit on
a PER PHASE BASIS (assumes that the 3 Xf
phases are balanced). Ra is called the
“effective resistance” of the armature
winding. This is about 1.6 times the DC resistance because it takes into account the AC resistance due to
skin effect caused by the AC current at 60Hz. Xa is the “leakage reactance” of the armature winding,
caused by the flux linking winding. This flux does not link with the field winding, hence does not produce any
voltage. (This is a combination of several effects: end connection leakage reactance; slot leakage reactance;
tooth top and zig zag (or differentiel) leakage reactance; belt leakage reactance).

The equation of the synchronous generator, with the output voltage Va taken as the origin of the

phasors: E f = Va + I a Ra + jI a X a

Ef
jX a I a
Ef Ia
jX a I a jX a I a Ef
Ra Ia
Va Ia Va Ra Ia Va
Ia Ra Ia
p.f. unity p.f. lead
p.f. lag

But contrary to the DC machine, here we have VECTORS, hence the output voltage Va will depend
upon the load power factor. The figures below show, for a fixed output voltage, the phasors depending upon
the power factor. Note that for a needed output voltage, the internal emf varies a lot, and contrary to the
DC machine, the output voltage can be higher or equal to the internal emf produced.

ARMATURE REACTION

The flux produced by the armature winding reacts with the flux set up by the poles on the rotor. The
total flux will therefore be reduced. This is called the armature reaction. With refeence to the figure next
page, let us examine a sequence of events when the generator deliveres a load at unity power factor:

a) If Φ p is the flux under a pole at no load, the generator voltage Ea must lag Φ p by 90o
b) Since the p.f. is unity, the phase current Ia is in phase with the terminal voltage Va.
c) As phase current Ia passes through the armature winding, its magnetomotive force (mmf) produces a flux
Φ ar which is in phase with Ia. The effective flux Φ e per pole in the generator is therefore
Φ e = Φ p + Φ ar
xformer part1 pg 2
 Ea
Φ ar

Φ
e

Ee E ar
jI a X a

Ia V I aRa

d) The flux Φ ar , in turn induces an emf Ear in the armature winding. It is called the armature reaction
emf. It lags the flux Φ ar by 90o . hence the effective voltage per phase Ee is: Ee = Ea + Ear
e) The equivalent circuit can be shown and the equation derived as:

Ra jX a
Ee = Va + I a (Ra + jX a ) exciter

- Ia
Rf
NOTE: both magnetizing and leakage V f E ar Va Za
reatances are present at the same + Ee
time, but it is rather difficult to +
separate one from the other. It is Xf Ea
simpler to combine them
-

armature
X s = X m + X a and call it the
SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE

We can also define the SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE Z s = Ra + jX s

Note: Ra can be measured with DC measurement techinques, and has to be corrected to AC

values which is approximately a factor of 1.5. However, thi sAC value is still much smaller than the
value of the synchronous reactance of the machine.

Φ ar Ea

Ee Ear
Φa Φe

Va j X aIa

Ia Ra I a
PF= 0.86 lag
xformer part1 pg 3
 Ea
Ear

Ee
Φ ar

Φe j X aIa
Φa
Va
Ia
Ra I a
PF= 0.96 lead

Synchronous Reactance Determination:

One usually plots the open circuit characteristic of the generator, and the short circuit characteristic of
the generator.
Ef
air gap
(Ef)
The unsaturated value Ia line
open circuit
can be calculated from the air characteristic
a
gap line on the figure as:
ad
Xs = b
cd
short circuit
However, a realistic characteristic
value shows some saturation (Ia)
of the open circuit curve.
Hence one takes a corrected b
value for synchronous
reactance as:
bd VOC
Xs = = b
cd I SC If

Voltage Regulation:
Ea − Va
This is defined for full load: VR % = ×100
Va

Power Relationships:

The “prime mover” (turbine, other motor etc..) must supply a mechanical power on the shaft
PinM = Γshaft ω s

xformer part1 pg 4
 However, we also have to add to this mechanical input the power needed to create the excitation i the
machine:
Pin = Γshaft ω s + V f I f

The losses in the machine are rotational losses, magnetic losses, copper losses and stray losses

The DEVELOPED POWER is obtained by subtracting the rotational losses, the field winding losses
and the stray load losses from the imput power.
Furthermore, by subtracting the copper losses in the armature, we obtain the OUTPUT POWER.

The power output of a synchronous generator is: Po = 3Va I a cosθ (Va and Ia are per phase)

Approximate Power Relation in a Cylindrical Rototr Generator:

If we can neglect the resistance in a synchronous generator, the approximate circuit diagram is shown
below:

jXs
Ea

Ia jIaXs
Ea Za δ
Va
Va
θ

Ia

From the circuit, we can establish:

Ea − Va Ea sin δ E cos δ − Va
Ia = projecting the vector on the (Va) and (jVa) axis gives I a = X −j a
Xs
jX s s

Ea sin δ
but also projecting directly Ia on the Va axis, one gets I a cos θ = Xs

3Va Ea sin δ
Hence the approximate power output is given by: Pout = 3Va I a cos θ = Xs

When current and voltage is kept constant, the power generated depends upon sinδ.
This angle is called the POWER ANGLE.

3Va Ea sin δ
It follows that the TORQUE DEVELOPED is Γd =
X sω s

xformer part1 pg 5
Effects of Loading:

Taking the approximate equivalent circuit (Ra=0), we can see the effect of loading the generator. Since
E=cst, as the power increases with load
current, the terminal voltage decreases.
E This is for a unity power factor.
E
jIX
jIX

Va Va

E
E The same occurs with lagging power
jIX jIX factor, but it can be seen that Va
Va
Va decreases much faster
Ia
Ia

Conversely, with a leading power

E
E
factor, the output voltage will increase
jIX jIX
with the power angle!
Ia Ia

Va Va

Pf1 leading
Va

Pf2 leading

rated

Pf3 =1

Pf4 laggingg

Pf5 laggingg

xformer part1 pg 6
Salient Pole Synchronous Generators

The cylindrical rotor seen so far showed a uniform air gap. However, in certainmachines, poles are
built with localised poles. This means that the reluctance path of the air gap varies according to the position
of the rotor. We define 2 new axis rotating with the rotor, the axis in the radial direction centered with the
pole piece, called the DIRECT AXIS, and the axis
perpendicular to it, called the QUADRATURE AXIS.
d axis One can now define synchronous reactances on each of
a the axis, namely X d and X q . Similarly the armature
c'
b' current can be resolved on the same axis with I d and I q
q axis The direct component of the current produces a field
along the D axis and lags Ea by 90o. The quadrature
component of the current produces a field along the Q axis
b
c and is therefore in phase with Ea .
a' We can derive now the equivalent circuit and phasor

Ia; Id,Iq
Ra
Xd,Xq

Ea Va

Ea

jIqXq

Iq
δ Va
jIdXd
θ RaIa

Id Ia

xformer part1 pg 7
 From the equivalent circuit:
( )
Va = Ea + Ed + Eq − Ra I a where Ed + Eq ( ) is the armature reaction vector
we can state:
Ed = − jI d X d and Eq = − jI q X q

and I a = I d + I q
If the armature resistance is negligible w.r.t. the reactances, we can simplify to:
Va = Ea − jX d I d − jX q I q
The power output is:
P = 3Va I a cosθ
(I d cosθ ) is the projection of Ia on the Va axis. Since Ia=Id+Iq, let us project Id and Iq on the Vaa
axis also:
(I d cosθ ) = I d cos(90° − δ ) + I q cos(δ ) = I d sin (δ ) + I q cos(δ )
hence the power
P = 3Va (I d sin δ + I q cos δ )

Va sin δ Ea − Va cos δ
replace by: Iq = and Id =
Xq Xd
The power becomes:

3Va Ea 3V 2  1 1 
P= sin δ + a  − sin 2δ
Xd 2  X q X d 

The 1st element is the same as the power in the cylindrical machine with the synchronous reactance
being the DIRECT component, and the 2nd term is due to the RELUCTANCE TORQUE ot the machine.
 1 1 
This depends upon the factor  X − X  Td Salient-Pole Rotor
 q d  Total Torque Torque

called the “saliency” of the machine. Note that

in well constructed machines Xd is
approximately twice he value of Xq.
Cylindrical-Rotor
Torque
The adjacent figure shows the torques -180
o
δ
produced by the cyclindrical machine as 0
o
o
compared to the salient pole machine. δ max 180

Generator
Motor

xformer part1 pg 8
Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators

Assume that Generator A is feeding the full load. If we want to connect a second generator B in
parallel (to share the load), there are a series of steps to be taken:

1) Generator B must have the same phase sequence as Generator A ! (use a phase sequencer)
2) The voltage of the incoming generator must be matched to the bus voltage (adjust to have the same
reading)
3) The frequency of the incoming generator must be the same as the bus frequency. (use a
synchroscope).

Consult Lab3 to find out the procedure to synchronize a generator on the bus.

When the primemover of a generator is set to

deliver a certain power on the shaft, and the voltage is F(Hz)
Speed(rpm) No load speed (frq)
set to deliver that power to an electrical load, a certain
operating point is reached [speed, Voltage, Power]. If 62 Nominal

the load increases, the generator speed (governor) will 60Hz

3600
decrease (not enough power to move the shaft). Hence
we can see the typical primemover/governor
characteristic. The characteristic starts at the “no load
speed”, and droops. The droop rate is a parameter of 500 Power(kW)

∆f f no load − f full load

the generator: GD = = and
∆P Prated
defines the slope of the governor characteristic.
If 2 generator characteristics are shown, and they are connected in parallel on the same bus, they must
have the same frequency of operation, hence the operating point. In the figure we can see that Generator A
delivers twice the power of generator B.

In order to change the

power in a generator for a given
frq
frequency of opration, one has
to change the primemover
(change the value of the no-load
frequency). Changing the
Fixed Frequency
governor will cause the
characteristic to move with the
same slope.

NOTE: if the governor and PA PB

exciter are unchaged, any

change of speed of one
generator will cause a circulating
current between the 2 machines in such a way as to oppose the change, hene it is called a “synchronizing
torque”. These torques can be enormous and will always make sure that the mchaines are in synchronism
(same frequency).
xformer part1 pg 9
 Synchronous Motors

The power now flows into the machine, hence the equation of the cyclindrical rotor motor becomes
Va = Ea + ( Ra + jX s ) I a

The power output depends upon the mechanical load on the shaft. Since the speed depends upon the
frequency (fixed) when the load is constant, varying the field if cannot change the output power. However,
the vector E will be affected, and the vector diagram will change; currents and power factors will change.
The diagrams below illustrate this:

Ia Va Ia
Va
RaIa
jX sI a
Ea jX sI a
(a) pf=1
R aI a
(a) pf lead
Ea

Va
Note: as the magnitude of E varies, the pf will
Ia Ea vary.
jX sI a
(a) pf lag
R aI a

The synchronous motor characteristics (Armature Current/ Excitation) is called the “V curves”

I a 100 pf=0.8 lag d Loa

d
l
90
pf=1 lea Fu l
.8 ad
=0 f Lo
pf ha l
Stability
80
d
limit Loa
70 No

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
If
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
xformer part1 pg 10
 When one analyses the Vcurves one can see that for a given Power delivered, the excitation will
control the power factor. Hence the synchronous motor can be set to operate at any desired power factor.
Usually one sets it to be at unity power factor since it is the one giving the less current magnitude, hence less
Joules losses.
A special application would be a synchronous motor running at NO LOAD !! By varyng the excitation
one can control a leading/laging power factor, hence this becomes either a “Capacitor”, a “Small Resistor”,
or a “Reactor”. This can be controlled continously with the excitation current. It is called a
“SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR” since it can compensate for REACTIVE POWER.

xformer part1 pg 11