Cicero Music Us

Cicero Musicus
Author(s): P. R. Coleman-Norton
Source: Journal of the American Musicological Society, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Summer, 1948), pp.
3-22
Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the American Musicological
Society
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Cicero Musicus
BY P. R. COLEMAN-NORTON
SINCE well and to what extent Cicero ' may

from the pre-Christian period
no Latin treatise on music sur- help us here is the purpose of the in-
vives, 1 perhaps in the writings ofvestigation
no of which the results fol-
other Latin author of that era than low. 5
M. Tullius Cicero (Io6-43) can we
expect to find a richer mine of infor- I
mation on music among the Romans.
Not only is Cicero now our most Perhaps it is best to clear the ground
voluminous of ante-Christian writers by the traditional negative approach
before proceeding to assay what posi-
in Latin, but also Cicero's literary ef-
forts still extant cover the widest tive contribution Cicero made. First,
it should be stated that there are musi-
area, in that he plowed in the fields
of oratory, rhetoric, philosophy, epi-
'It has been suggested by J. F. Mountford.
stolography, and poetry.2 At any rate,
" Greek Music and its Relations to Modern
in the works of Cicero, whose mental
Times," Journal of Hellenic Studies, XL
interests were not canalized into few (192o) 22, that Cicero doubtless derived from
Poseidonius, whose lectures on philosophy
literary channels, but were both com-
Cicero sems to have heard in 78 (Plutarchus,
Cicero, 4. 2 al. 4; cf. Cicero, De Natura
prehensive and indeed cyclopaedic Deorum,
in I. 3. 6), much of what musical
concern, we have, if anywhere, the knowledge is found in his writings.
To support his claim that Poseidonius was
best chance to find something of im-
"no mean musician" Mountford cites Athe-
naeus, Deipnosophistae, XIV. 635 CD; but
portance on almost any subject of
I think Mountford reads too much into this
culture in which an educated person locus. Even if we give to the witness of
Athenaeus all the weight which Mountford
may be interested. Among such sub- wishes, we still do not know how much in
music Cicero learned from Poseidonius.
jects music should find a place. 3 HowThat a knowledge of music was considered
a necessity for an orator may be seen from the
1Aurelius Augustinus (354-430) and Anicius testimony of Quintilianus (op. cit., I. io. 9-33),
Manlius Severinus Boethius (ca. 480-524) where he remarks (?29) that he would have
each composed treatises on music (De Musica) discussed the subject at more length, if there
which are extant. Chapters on music (De had been anything novel in his insistence on
Musica) are embedded in the writings of the study of music as part of an orator's
Martianus Minneus Felix Capella (ft. 420), training.
De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii, IX, and
of Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus (ca. "It is perhaps unnecessary to preface this in-
49o-ca. 583), Institutiones Divinarum et Sae- quiry with the statement that I have not the
cularium Litterarum, II. 5. Beside these much intention to survey sounds produced by Nature
incidental information on musical matters mayand by animals, unless by trope those tones
be gleaned from M. Vitruvius Pollio (ca. 65- may be considered appropriately musical, when
ca. 5), De Architectura, V. 4-5, 8 and X. 8. the same or a similar sound can be made by
human or instrumental agency, despite the
2I do not forget M. Terentius Varro Reatinus apocalyptic authority of Daniel iii, 6o-8i (Vul-
(i 16-27), who is estimated to have written 74 gate), which appears in the canticle Benedicite,
different works consisting of 620 volumes. Omnia Opera, a part of "The Song of the
But what of this prodigious production sur- Three Holy Children " (as the translators of
vives is small: some nine books and poetic or the King James Version of the Holy Bible
semi-poetic fragments totalling some 6oo lines. quaintly call it), and notwithstanding the
Of him it may be written: Eius modi homines musician's injunctions in Psalms xcvi, I1-12,
vix singuli singulis saeculis ttascuntur. xcviii, 7-8, cxlviii, 3-1o, and cl, 6, where
" Nature with open volume stands/To spread
her Maker's praise abroad " (Watts) and is
"In his Institutio Oratoria, I. Io0. 30, Quintili-
anus testifies to the fact that from prehistoric exhorted to "make a joyful noise unto the
times to his own day music continued to be Lord . . . make a loud noise, and rejoice, and
studied by all who did not have a hatred for sing praise " (Psalm xcviii, 4). Suo cuique
any regular course of study. iudicio utendum est.
4 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETY
cal terms appearing in Latin writings

of which we may suppose most either
were known or could have been
of Cicero's predecessors and contem-
poraries which seem not to existknown
in to Cicero, even though Cicero
seems not to have cared to mention
Cicero's extant vocabulary. Obvi-
ously, since Cicero was neither a these
pro- in what of his works are extant. 6
fessional musician nor an amateur In treating these terms it is convenient
writer on musicology, it can notto bedistribute them alphabetically and
anticipated by even the most preju- by the several parts of speech (noun,
diced that Cicero would have had adjective, adverb, verb) among these
occasion to employ every musical categories: (i) performers (whether
word found in Latin either before or singers or players), (2) instruments,
during his generation. Second, it must (3) songs and sounds and scales, (4)
be observed, though it is well known,miscellaneous. 7
that there are in Latin words suscep-
tible of more than one meaning. (i) Performers: cantator (Varro),
Cicero sometimes uses such a word cantrix (Plautus), choragus (Plaut.),
citharicen (Var.), citharistria (Te-
in a non-musical sense, while other
writers, whether anterior to or con-
rentius), crotalistria (Propertius), fi-
temporary with or posterior to Ci- dicina (Plaut.), modulator (Hora-
tius), organicus (Lucretius),Phemius8
cero, employ the same word in a musi-
cal connotation. Fata sua habent (Ovidius), phonascus (Var.), pulsus
verba. And that he happens to write (Ov.), pythaules (Var.), sambucina
such a word in its non-musical mean- (Plaut.),sambucistria (Livius), siticen
ing must not be counted to Cicero's (Cato), subulo (Ennius), thymelicus
discredit. Third, it ought not be (Vitruvius), tympanotriba (Plaut.);
charged as censure against Cicero argutus (Hor.), hymnifer (Ov.), in-
that in his works we vainly look for centivus (Var.), succentivus (Var);
that musical terminology either in- accanere (Var.), citharizare (Nepos),
vented by Latin authors of the im- conspirare (Vergilius), emodulari
perial period or recorded as of no (Ov.), incinere (Prop.), intercinere
superior antiquity by such writers. (Hor.), ludere (Ver.), obloqui (Ver.),
occanere (Sallustius), percutere
II
(Ov.), psallere (Sal.), queri (Hor.),
Dismissing, therefore, the second recanere (Ver.), recinere (Hor.), suc-
and the third points just made, it is canere (Var.), sufflare (Plaut.), tem-
fair, however, to register those words perare (Hor.), tendere (Luc.).
61n listing Latin words of musical significancefer his name is used by Ovidius (Amores,
according to the meanings given by the latestIII. 7. 61) to mean "a good player on the
edition of Lewis and Short, (Harper's) A New cithara." Cf. our extravagant encomium for
a pianist who finds public favor: "He's a
Latin Dictionary, it appears that preciceronian Paderewski."
and conciceronian words are outnumbered by
postciceronian terms in the proportion of al- Atticus, who occasionally purchased slaves
most one to four. The reason for this ratio with musical talents (musici eruditi) and who
is due doubtless in part to the phenomenon apparently had expected Caesar's expedition
noticed in note I and in the text ad loc. to Britain to procure some (Epistulae ad At-
ticum, IV. x6. 7), had a slave named Phemius.
While he may have known how to play a
'When more than one author preserves the cithara, this Phemius is mentioned as a per-
word, the oldest writer only is named. former on the KipaC, for Cicero thrice writes
to Atticus that he is searching during his pro-
consulate of Cilicia for such a wind instrument
SPhemius was a celebrated Ithacan citharist
mentioned by Homerus (Odyssea, I. 153-155, for him (Att., V. 20. 9, 2x. 9, VI. I. x3). See
XVII. 261-263, XXII. 330-333) and by trans- below, text at note 64.
CICERO MUSICUS 5
(2) hexachordos
Instruments:9 aes (Vit.), hydraulicus ave
(Enn.),
(Ver.), barbitos (Vit.), lyricus (Hor.),buxus
(Hor.), multiforus (V
or buxum (Prop.), (Ov.), octachordos
calamus (Vit.), organicus(Lu
canna (Ov.), chelys (Ov.), cicuta (Cato), orthopsalticus (Var.), recur-
(Luc.), cithara (Var.), classicum vus (Ver.), simplex (Hor.), surdus
(Ver.), concha (Ver.), crepitacillum (Prop.), taureus (Ov.), testudineus
(Luc.), filum (Ov.), foramen (Hor.), (Tibullus), tetrachordos (Vit.), ti-
harundo (Ver.), lotos or lotus (Ov.), binus (Var.); bucinare (Var.), in-
merulus (Vit.), nablium (Ov.), ner- crepere (Ver.), queri (Ov.), strepere
via (Var.), pecten (Ver.), sambuca (Ver.), temperare (Hor.), tendere
(Plaut.), sistrum (Ver.), stamen (Luc.).
(Ov.), stomis (Lucilius), syrinx
(Ov.), tubus (Var.), tympanum (3) Songs and sounds and scales:1'
(Plaut.); acer (Hor.), argutus (Ver.),aelinos (Ov.), bombus (Luc.), canor
attenuatus (Ov.), biforis (Ver.), ca-(Ver.), cantatio (Var.), cantio
norus (Ver.), consonus (Ov.), fidi-
cinius (Plaut.), harundineus (Ov.),I. 37. 133, 38. 136, 41. 146; Brut., 66. 233, 91.
316; De Or., I. 61. 261, III. 60. 224 et 225,
61. 227. continens: De Or., III. 57. 216. con-
'This category would be enlarged excessively tractus: De Or., III. 57. 216. demissus: De
if I should include in it all the technical terms Or., III. 58. 218. diffusus: De Or., III. 57.
found in a description of the hydraulus or 216. dulcis: Or., 18. 57. durus: Pro Plancio,
water-organ, which Cicero merely mentions 13. 31; N. D., II. 58. 146; Phil., VIII. 5. 16.
(Tusculanae Disputationes, III. 18. 43). This effusus: De Or., III. 58. 219. flebilis: De
machine, invented by Ctesibus of Alexandria, Or., III. 58. 217. flexibilis: De Or., III. 58.
who flourished in the reign of Ptolemaeus VII217; N. D., II. 58. 146. fractus: De Or., III.
57. 216. fuscus: N. D., II. 58. 146. grandis:
Euergetes II Physcon (I45-II6), according
to Athenaeus (op. cit., IV. 174 B-D), is de- Brut., 84. 289. gravis: Sull., 28. 78; N. D.,
scribed fully by Cicero's younger contemporary II. 58. 146; Or., 17. 57, 51. 173; T. D., II.
Vitruvius (op. cit., X. 8), who discovered the 24. 57; De Or., III. 57. 216, 58. 217 et 219;
task of description to be difficult and not easy cf. Or., 54. 182; De Or., I. 59. 251; De
to the general comprehension except of those Divinatione, I. 36. 80; Epistulae ad Familiares,
with experience in such matters (op. cit., X. I. 14. 5. haesitans: De Or., III. 58. 218, cf.
8. 6). None of these terms appears in a musi- I. 25. 115. hilaratus: De Or., III. 58. 219.
cal connotation amid Cicero's writings. imminens: De Or., III. 58. 219. incitatus:
De Or., III. 58. 217. inclinatus: Or., 8. 27, 17.
xOTaking as a precedent the procedure of the 56; cf. Brut., 43. 158. inflatus: De Or., III.
preceding note, I omit Vitruvius's translitera- 57. 216. inflexus: De Or., II. 46. 193;Or., 17.
tion of the eighteen names for sound, of the 56 et 57, cf. I8. 57. intentus: De Or., III. 57.
five types of tetrachords, and of the six kinds 216; cf. Or., 18. 59. intermissus: De Or., III.
of concords (op. cit., V. 4. 5-7). The notes 57. 216. interruptus: De Or., III. 58. 217;
of the scales are illustrated in Plate F at the Pro Caelio, 24. 59. languens: Off., I. 37. 133.
end of the first volume of F. Granger'slenis: De Or., III. 57. 216, 58. 219, cf. II. 43.
edition
and translation of Vitruvius's book in the Loeb 182, III. Ii. 43. levis: N. D., II. 58. 146.
Classical Library (London & New York, 193i). magnus: De Or., III. 8. 31, 56. 213, 57. 216;
None of these nouns appears in Cicero's works. Brut., 55. 203, 66. 233, 68. 241 ; C. M., 5. 14;
The following adjectives applied to vox by Caec., 32. 92; Sull., ii. 33; Pro Flacco, 15.
Cicero, while these can carry a musical or a 34; De Re Publica, I. 35. 55; T. D., III. 17.
rhythmical connotation, yet do not indicate 38; cf. Brut., 66. 235. mollis: De Or., III.
a singer's tones in these loci: abiectus: De ii. 41. obductus: De Or., III. 58. 219. ob-
Oratore, III. 58. 218. absonus: De Or., I. 25. duratus: De Or., III. 58. 219. parvus: De Or.,
115, III. 1i. 41. absurdus: De Or., III. 11. 41. III. 57. 216. peracutus: Brut., 68. 241.
acerbus: Philippicae, II. 26. 64; In Senatu, permanens: Brut., 38. 141. plenus: De Or.,
10. 26. acutus: N. D., II. 58. 146; Orator, I. 29. 132, III. 8. 31, 58. 217; Pro Archia,
17. 57, 18. 58, 51. 173; De Or., III. 57. 216, 6. 14; Brut., 84. 289. remissus: De Or., III.
58. 217, cf. I. 59. 251. asper: De Or., III. 12. 58. 219; cf. Or., 18. 59; De Or., I. 61. 261,
45, 57. 216; N. D., II. 58. 146; Or., 44. 150. III. 61. 227. scissus: De Or., III. 57. 216.
attenuatus: De Or., III. 57. 216. candidus: splendidus: Brut., 55. 203, cf. 68. 239, 71.
N. D., II. 58. 146. canorus: Brutus, 66. 234, 250. suavis: Off., I. 37. 133; De Or., I. 29.
70. 247, 77. 268, 88. 303; Cato Maior, 9. 28; 132, III. 56. 213; Brut., 55. 203, 66. 234, 88.
De Oficiis, I. 37. 133; N. D., II. 58. 146. 303; cf. Or., 18. 58, 54. 182; Brut., 66. 235,
citus: De Or., III. 57. 216. clarus: Or.,74.18. 259. summissus: Flacc., 28. 66; Or., 17.
57; Pro Caecina, 8. 22; Pro Cluentio, 8. 23, 56 ; cf. Off., I. 41. 146. summus: De Or., I. 61.
48. 134; Pro Sulla, I2. 34; T. D., V. 7. I9, Io. 261; cf. Brut., 91. 313. suppressus: Or., 25.
30, 26. 75; Off., I. 37. 133, III. 33. 121. 85; Sull., 10. 30. surraucus: Brut., 38. 141.
contentus: Or., 17. 56; De Or., III. 58. 219; tardus: De Or., III. 57. 216. tener: De Or.,
cf. Or., 25. 85; T. D., II. 24. 56 et 57; Off., III. 58. 219. vehemens: De Or., III. 58. 219.
(Plaut.), chroma (Vit.), chromatice This list totals about 200 musical
(Vit.), clangor (Ver.), classicum terms not used by Cicero,'2 though
(Caesar), diagramma (Vit.), diatonon these by his time were in the Latin
(Vit.), diesis (Vit.), harmonice language. On the other hand, we
(Vit.), hemitonium (Vit.), melodina have in Cicero's works some I25
(Var.), modulatio (Vit.), mortualia words which can be considered de-
(Plaut.), murmur (Hor.), pecten scriptive of the several departments
(Ov.), phthongus (Vit.), qualitas11 of music.
(Vit.), querela (Luc.), sibila (Luc.),
sonor (Luc.), strepitus (Hor.), tara- III
tantara (Enn.), tetrachordon or tet-
rachordum (Vit.), tonus (Vit.); Before drawing conclusions about
chromaticus (Vit.), discors (Hor.), Cicero's knowledge of music it will
imus (Hor.), liquidus (Luc.), meli-be best to eliminate by collection
cus (Luc.), modulatus (Hor.), queru-those terms which carry only a casual
lus (Hor.), raucisonus (Luc.), raucus
significance for the subject, thus mak-
(Ver.), sonabilis (Ov.), sonorus ing room for the more important as-
(Tib.), suavis (Plaut.), suavisonus pects. These words will be arranged
(Naevius), tener (Ov.), tinnulus as in the preceding list.
(Catullus), vocalis (Ov.); consonan-
ter (Vit.), musice (Plaut.); circum- ( i) Performers: artifex (Acad., II.
sonare (Liv.), concordare (Ov.), 7. 22 [bis]; De Finibus Bonorum et
consonare (Plaut.), dissonare (Vit.),
Malorum, V. 3. 7),13 cantor (Pro Ses-
insonare (Ov.), mugire (Ver.), prae- tio, 55. i18 [bis]; T. D., III. 19. 45;
sonare (Ov.), reboare (Luc.), recre- De Or., I. 55. 236),'4 chorus (Phil. V.
pare (Cat.), remugire (Cat.), resultare6. 15),15 citharista (Phil., V. 6. 15; In
(Ver.), stridere (Cat.), tonare (Luc.), Verrem, II. I. 20. 53),6" cornicen
(Rep., II. 22. 40),7 liticen (Rep., II.
(4) Miscellaneous: amusia (Var.),
amusos (Vit.), choragium (Plaut.),style." On this phrase see V. Brugnola,
" Cicerone ed i poetae novi," Bollettino di
odeum (Vit.), tubulustrium (Var.)Filologia Classica, V (1898-1899) i6-18; A.
or tubilustrium (Ov.). Gandiglio, same title in same periodical, VII
(1900-1901) 205-208; C. Marchesi, "I Can-
tores Euphorionis," Atene e Roima, IV (1901)
183-191; W. S. Messer, "Ad Cic. Tusc. Disp.
nAlthough Cicero coined qualitas to represent 3. 19. 45," Mnemosyne, XLV (1917) 78-92;
7rot6vgo"C (Academia, I. 7. 25), which itself had T. Frank, " Cicero and the Poetae Novi,"
been invented by Plato (Theaetetus, 182 A), American Journal of Philology, XL (1919)
and used it six times (Acad., I. 6. 24 - 7. 28; 396-415. In the last locus Cicero describes a
N. D., II. 37. 94), yet its first use in a iurisconsultus as a cantor formularum.
musical sense seems to have been made by
Vitruvius (op. cit., V. 4. 4). "1This is the only Ciceronian passage in which
this word includes musicians, among whom are
mentioned
2"Including the exceptions mentioned in notes the citharistae. His five other uses
9 and io ad init. of chorus are metaphorical and of these two,
as here, have a disparaging connotation; these
'SThe context in each locus shows that artifex, passages will be mentioned later.
which signifies the master of an ars, whether
theoretical or practical, includes the musician. "'Allusion to the first passage is made in the
Additional corroboration comes from Pro preceding note.
Murena, 13. 29, a passage reserved for later The second passage describes the famous
discussion, and from Cicero's use of artificium, statue of the Citharist of Aspendus in Pamphy-
which will be noted. lia. Apparently the sculpture was so lifelike
that the performer seemed to be enjoying his
own
1'In the first place it seems that chanters of a music. At any rate the figure occasioned
claque, not bona fide singers, are intended. a proverb (the only one on music, so far as
The second passage refers to the celebrated I can discover, in Cicero's works), which the
phrase cantores Euphorianis and apparentlyGreeks applied to one who does things for
means "writers of jingles in Euphorion's one's own pleasure. Cicero quotes the saying
CICERO MUSICUS 7
22. 40),17 musicus (Rep.,

(T. D., I. 25. II. IO.
62), ut
T. III.
Div., II. 3. 9; Fin., D., I.V.
4, 36.
V. 3-Io4)
7;
D., I. 2. 4; De Or., I. 10o. 44, 49. 21
III. 44. 174, 49. 19o), psaltria (T.b
(2) Instruments:
III. 19. 46; Sest., 54.
4.- 44i i6; Frag.
96),21 Ora
cornu
A, XIII. 22),18 crepundia
tibicen (Or.,(Brut.,
55. 9i
De Or., I. 60. (Pis.,
254; 9. 20),23
Att., VI. i. cy
23
D., V. 36. 104; Verr.,
20),24II. 3. 34-
fides 78,
(Acad
12. 31, 5. 31. 81); symphoniac
II. 57. 144; Div., II.
(Divinatio in Caecilium,
D., V. 36. 17. 55;Frag
104; Ver
fidicula
II. 5. 25. 64, 5. 28. (N. D., II
73; In Pisonem,
83; Pro Milone, (Att.,
21. 55);I. canere (Di
16. II ),26
II. 59.
T. D., 122;
III. I. 35.
i8. 85), nervu
43),27 cant
(Off., 145;19 I. 40.
In Catilinam,
N. D., II. 58. 146, II.
6
23), concinere (De(T. Haruspicum
D.,I. 44. io6),Re
cantare (T. D., III. 22. 53), discrepa
scabellum (Cael.,
(De Or., III. 50.(N.196), D., II. 57. 144), inflare
tibia (Frag. (Ac
II. 27. 86), meditari Philos. F, V. 91; N. D., II. Or.,
(De 8. 22, 58. II.
325),occentare (Rep., IV. 10. 12),
pellere (Div., II. 146, (N.
late 60.
14. I50;II.T.8.33),
D., D., I. 44.numerose
22),29 I07); modu-
temper (N.
D., II. 8. 22); canere (N. D., II. 8. 22;
Div., II. 59. 122), meditari (De Or.,
in a Latin dress (intus canere) here and in
De Lege Agraria, II. 26. 68, where he trans- II. 80. 325), pellere (Div., II. 14. 33),
fers it from instrumental to vocal music
(carmen) and applies it to P. Servilius Rullus.
Asconius explains the expression to mean "1This is the only place in Cicero's works where
that a citharist holds the plectrum in his right this noun can not be interpreted as used for
hand (foris canere) and has his left hand on military purposes.
the strings (intus canere). And so in that
way the statue must have been made. This "'Although this was one of the typical means
information Asconius gives in his Commenta- of identification or of recognition in the New
tiones in aliquot M. Tullii Ciceronis Orationes, Comedy, there is no reason to reject its in-
where he comments on the Verrine locus. sertion here on the ground that it cannot pro-
This explanation may be true, but it hardly duce what some connoisseurs may consider a
elucidates the proverb. Probably we should musical tone. Certainly our modern orchestras
follow Zumpt's suggestion that the statue was -at least those which cater to dancers - use
sculptured with such skill that the citharist it, albeit with hideous effect, and to some ears
seemed to be "feeling" his music within it provides a discordant note in the most
himself, but that no other person could hear it. section of the Mass (whether Roman
solemn
As he had all his playing to himself, so Verres or Anglican). It occurs only here in Cicero's
played for himself alone and so Rullus worked writings.
in his father-in-law's interest. Zumpt inserts
this interpretation in his M. Tullii Ciceronis 23Most editors bracket this word, which in
Orationes Tres de Lege Agraria (Berlin, Cicero's works occurs only here.
1861), where he comments on the Rullan
passage. "4From the context perhaps I should record
this word later, when I reserve for another
"TOnly occurrence in Cicero's works.category a recurrence of it.
"'The last locus is cited from C. F. W. Mueller's 2"Only occurrence in Cicero's works.
M. Tulli Ciceronis Scripta Quae Manserunt
Omnia, Pt. IV, Vol. III (Leipzig, 190o4). 26HereThis with the adjective pastoricia. In another
passage for additional discussion (see below,
volume of Mueller's stereotyped edition will
be used for following fragments, no matter text at note 74) Cicero applies to the in-
from what class of Cicero's writing these come.strument the adjective eburneola, evidently a
more expensive example. The latter adjective
'"Here Cicero castigates one qui in foro cantetappears to be &ira E)y'6,uevov in Latin.
as guilty of multa ab humanitate discrepantia.
Nay more, in foro cantare is only one phase of "See above, note 9.
alia magna perversitas, of which other ex-
80Only occurrence in Cicero's writings.
pressions are in faro saltare (Off., III. 19. 75)
and in foro alea ludere (Phil., II. 23. 56).
2"Apparently i~rra? tey64evov in the sense in
"Only occurrence in Cicero's writings. which it is used here.
resonare (N. D., II. 57. 144; Div., II.

55. I18),"2 concentus (De Or., III. 50o.
14- 33), sonare (N. D., II. 8. 22), uti
I96),33 distinctio (N. D., II. 58.
(T. D., V. 36. 104; Acad., II. 7. 22).
146),4 embolium (Sest., 54. I16),"
flexio (De Or., III. 25. 98), gradus
(3) Songs and sounds and scales:
(De Or., III. 6i. 227),36 harmonia
canticum (Or., 18. 57; Fam., IX. 22.
(Rep., I. io. 16), hymnus (De Or., I.
i), cantilena (De Or., I. 23. 105; Fam.,
59 251),3 m intervallum (N. D., II. 58.
XI. 20. 2;30 Att., I. 19. 8), cantus (Or.,
I46),3 modus (Div., II. 3.9; Or., 58.
17. 57, i8. 57, 55. I83 [bis]; De Or.,
I. 60. 254, II. 8. 34, III. 25. 98, 44. 174,
a3This reference may refer to speaking and not
to singing; but the juxtaposition of catervae
51. 197; Fin., V. i8. 49; N. D., II. 35.;
and concentus, if not accidental, may be set
89, 58. 146, III. 11. 27; Div., II. 55.
with the union of caterva and concentio in
I13; T. D., IV. 33. 71, V. 36. 104, 40.Sest., 55. 118 for what it is worth.
16; Verr., II. 5. I3. 31, 5. 35.92; Mil.,
34Distinctio with intervallum (below, note 38)
29. 8o), carmen (Acad., II. 27. 86; andT. varietas (below, note 43) merely may
constitute a periphrasis for d6ta"rya here.
D., IV. 2. 4; Rep., IV. 10. I2; De Or.,
"8Aristoteles in his Ars Poetica, 1456 A ad fin.,
II. 86. 352 [bis]),31 concentio (Sest.,
describes an ip/6lOqtov as an intercalary song
(intermezzo). In this passage Cicero uses the
cognate form embolium in the same sense and
30This is in a letter from D. Iunius Brutus in his Epistulae ad Quintum Fratrem, III. i.
Albinus to Cicero. 24, its Greek original kypdiXtov to mean an
addendum to a poem.
31While carmen is in general an air or a note
or a song or a sound or a strain or a tune, it 36Sonorum gradus (the phrase here) is applied
especially means a composition in verse or a to the range of an orator's voice in Or., i8. 59.
poem, in restricted sense either epic or lyric
poetry, though it is extended to dramatic E37ymnum, an emendation conjectured by
poetry; moreover it is used for an oracular Ritschl, contests the field chiefly with nomio-
response, for a prophecy, for an incantation, neri, a lection attributed to Talon, for the
for an inscription, for a religious or a legal meaningless manuscriptal munionem (or some
formula. That cantus refers chiefly to the kindred corruption). Hymnus is as old as
tune and carmen principally alludes to the Lucilius, though Cicero seems not to have
words is seen from De Or., II. 8. 34: Qui used it, unless it be the real reading here.
enim cantus . . . aptius? Also carmenNomio is apparently is a critical chip from
found more frequently in poetry in the Talon's sense atelier; but, since munionem is pre-
of a song, whereas in prose is substituted for ceded by paeanem aut and since a paean could
it cantus. Consequently the exact significance be addressed to 'Air623;(vIat6uv, perhaps a
of carmen must be determined from the con- nomio could be chanted to 'A7r6?rdwv N6oFtoc.
text - and even then there is doubt. In the Other proposals include nomum (Orelli),
text, therefore, only what I consider incon- munychiam (Reid), neniam (Owen).
trovertibly musical meanings are indicated.
But that others may judge, if they care to 3"Cicero uses intervallum seven times in
search the references, here are Cicero's other Timaeus, 7. 23-25, in his description of how
uses of carmen: the demiurge constructs the world-soul from
Legal Formula: Mur., 12. 26; Pro Rabirio the three elements of sameness, otherness,
Perduellionis Reo, 4. 13; De Or., I. 57. 245; essence. But in my opinion the interpretation
De Legibus, II. 23. 59 (the locus classicus for of intervallum there is mathematical rather
the statement that in Cicero's boyhood school- than musical, despite the close connection be-
boys committed to memory the Twelve Tables tween music and mathematics. While the
as a carmen necessarium). Timaeus may be one of the most significant o
Inscription : C. M., 17. 61; Arch., 11. 27. Plato's dialogues, it is one of the most difficult
Prophecy: Laelius, 7. 24; Div., II. 54. 111 to understand, even in English. We can claim
et 112. with confidence that Cicero knew Greek better
Poem: N. D., I. 38. 107, II. 41. 104 (didac- than any modern scholar and, while he knew
tic); De Or., II. 8. 34, III. 51. 197; Mil., what Plato wrote, yet Cicero failed to give
29. 80; Pro Rabirio Postumo, 16. 43; Cael., the readers of his version a clear idea of what
8. 18 (dramatic) ; C. M., 6. 16 (epic), 7. 22 Plato meant. Cicero himself may have con-
sidered his translation a failure, because in
(dramatic) ; Fin. V. i. 3 (dramatic) : Rep.,
I. 36. 56 (didactic), IV. 10. 12; Leg., II. 3. 7 telling us that obscurity may be due to abstruse-
(didactic); T. D., I. 16. 37 (dramatic), 26. ness of subject and not of style he proffers as
64, III. 19. 46 (dramatic), 25. 59 (dramatic), evidence Plato's Timaeus (Fin., II. 5. I5).
IV. 2. 3 (didactic), 2. 4 (bis: of which the This judgment is justified by St. Jerome
second probably was didactic), 33. 71 (perhaps (Sophronius Eusebius Hieronymus), who calls
lyric, at any rate autobiographical). the Timaeus an obscurissimus
qui ne Ciceranis quidem aureo .are
. . fit
liber . . .
planior
32This appears to be the abusive chanting of (Commentarii in Amos, II. 5. 283). Cf. above,
claqueurs (cf. above, note 14 ad init.). note 34.
CICERO MUSICUS 9
198; De Or., I. 42. 187, 60.
(4) Miscellaneous: 254,
admotio (N. D., III.
26. 102, 44. 174),II. 60.
numerus
I50),46 artificium (T. (Paradoxa
D., I. 25.
Stoicorum, 3. 26; 62; Acad.,
Acad., II. 27. 86),II.
audientia
7. (De 22; De
Or.,D.,
Or., I. 42. 187; T. II. 80. 235),
V. auditus
36.(N.I04 D., II. 39),40
paean (De Or., I. 59.
35. 89), 251),
auris (T. D., I. 25. 62;signum
Rep.,
(Verr., II. 4. 44.VI.96),
i8. 18 et 19sonus
[bis]; Acad., II. 7.(De
20; Par-
titione Oratoria, N. D., II. 35-
23. 80; 89, 58.Brut.,
146; De Or., III.51. 192
44. 174), 17.
T. D., I. 25. 62; Or., ludus (Off., I. 42. 150),47
57;41 De Or.,
III. 61. 227;41 N. musica
D.,(Fin.,II.III. 2. 58.
5; N. D., 146,
II. 8. 60.
150), spondallum (De Or., II. 46. 22; Acad., II. 28. 91; De Or., I. 3. 10o,
i93),42 symphonia ( Verr., II. 5. I3- 31, 42. 187, III. 21. 79; Att., IV. i6. 7),48
5- 35- 92), varietas (N. D., II. 58. percussio (Or., 58. 198), tibicinium
I46;43 T. D., I. 25. 62; Or., 17. 57), (Or., 58. 198; N. D., II. 8. 22); musi-
vocula (De Or., III. 25. 98), vox (Div., cus (De Or., II. 15. 66; Leg., II. I5.
II. 59. 122; N. D., II. 58. 146 [bis]; T. 39).49
D., III. 18. 43, V. 40. i 16; Or., 17. 57; IV
De Or., I. 42. 187; III. 44. 174); acu-
tus (Or., 17. 57), cycneus (De Or., A few of the musical terms in Ci-
III. 2. 6),"44 gravis (Or., 17. 57), in- cero's writings are embedded in quo-
flexus (Or., 17. 57), numerosus (De tations from either Greek or Latin
Or., III. 48. 185); audire (T. D., III. authors. In the former case it is Ci-
i8. 43, V. 40. i i6; N. D., II. 35. 89), cero's practice to turn these into
augere (De Or., III. 26. I02), dis- Latin.5?
crepare (De Or., III. 50. 196),46 dis- In commenting on the Homeric
tinguere (De Or., III. 26. I02), ex- account (Od., XII. 39-54, 158-200) of
tenuare (De Or., III. 26. I02), inflare the Sirens' songs (cantus) Cicero
(De Or., III. 26. I02), summittere (De claims (Fin., V. 18. 49) that these
Or., III. 26. 102), variare (De Or., III. singers seemed to restrain those who
26. 102). passed, not by the sweetness of their
voices (vocum suavitas) or by a cer-
"3Cantus numerosque I construe as hendiadys. tain novelty and variety of singing
(varietas cantandi), but that it was be-
"Cicero's translation for kviyi6d: Or., 20. 67,
51. 170.
41Cf. above, note 36. 4"Taking after it digitorum, it is applied to the

'The most popular emendation for this
lyre and to the flute: what we may term
word,
" fingering," especially when we compare what
which is written as spondalli in the codices, is in Brut., 54. 200 : animis iudicum
Cicero wrote
spondaulia, by which in its singular form De
admovere orationem tamquam fidibus manum.
Saumaise corrected spondalium, described by
Not until the fifth century does admatio make
Diomedes in his De Arte Grammatica, III.
its final reappearance in ancient Latin, when
ad init. (p. 472 fin. P), where it is airaf it then is used as a medical term.
Xley6dzevov. A spondaulium seems to have been
a sacrificial hymn sung to the accompani- 7TWith talarius here. The ludus talarius " was
ment of a flute. Other suggested readings in- a kind of play in which loose songs were sung
clude: e sponde illa (Hermann), ut sua sponte and dances exhibited to the accompaniment of
aliena (Jeep), sponte aliena illa (Madvig), cymbals and castanets " (Holden, ad lac., in
splendida illa (Ribbeck and Sandys), e suo his 8th ed. [Cambridge, 1899] of this treatise).
aliena (Harnecker). Plautus mentions (Rudens, 43) a ludus fidi-
cinius, which may mean a school for flutists.
a3Cf. above, note 34.
'The first two passages present musica as
"Although swan-songs are mentioned by feminine singular; the remaining references
Homerus (Ilias, II. 459-463), yet the earliest give musica as neuter plural.
association of the swan's song with death ap-
parently is made by Aeschylus (Agamemnon, "Adjective.
I444-1446).
"The notable exception is a Sophoclean
'Cf. above, note 33. couplet, which will be discussed presently.
IO JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETY
cause they professed to know many reference carries the connotation of

things that men through desire prophesying
for in verse.56 The object
learning clung to their rocks. Ciceroof Ennius seems to be to pour scorn
on primitive songs sung by Fauns and
illustrates this interpretation by trans-
bards.
lating the Sirens' invitation to Odys-
seus (184-191), in which appear the To the Antiope of Pacuvius is as-
musical phrases auribus agnoscere signed Amphion's description of the
cantus and vocum dulcedine captari tortoise (testudo), which gave its
and wherein they assert that whoever name to any stringed instrument of
music with an arched shape and cap-
stayed his course to hear them reached
his native shores a wiser man. Cicero able of producing sound (sonus)
concludes that Homerus saw that thewhen played. Cicero offers the ex-
story could not be made credible ifcerpt as an example of obscurity,
such a hero as Odysseus were held which overpowers the Athenians, un-
ensnared by alluring strains (canti-
til Amphion, whom Cicero character-
unculae).51 Cicero introduces the izes somewhat contemptuously as a
citharista, replies that he refers to a
episode as an example of the passion-
ate desire for knowledge implanted tortoise (Div., II. 64. 133)-
in the minds of eminent men. His The fourth of six verses (440-445)
from the Eunuchus of Terentius sup-
interpretation seems to be original.
Cicero criticizes Cn. Pompeius
plies Cicero with the verb cantare
(Fam., I. 9. 19). The context shows
Magnus in an untranslated Sopho-
clean couplet 52 (Att., II. I6. that
2), Cicero signifies that he is counter-
which contains these words of musical
poising politically Publius (Vatinius)
against Publius (Clodius), just as
meaning: ~0axo;,
An allusion op t, ,d,Antiope
to Euripides' uwav.
Gnatho advises Thraso to play off
(De Inventione, I. 50. 94), in which
Pamphila against Phaedria in the game
of love.
appears Amphion, gives us the word
for music (musica). A long passage from the Medea of
Accius describes (N. D., II. 35. 89)
Two Epicurean dicta on the pleas-
the amazement of a shepherd at see-
ures which songs (cantus) 53 afford
are quoted by Cicero (T. D., III.ing
i8. the Argo and shows how the
41, 20. 46).54 singing of the sailors brings to his
Cicero preserves parts of the same ears and hearing a song (cantus) simi-
passage from the Annales of Ennius 55 lar to the tune (melos) played by
Silvanus.
in four places (Div., I. 50. 114; Or.,
51. 1i7; Brut., 18. 71, 9. 76), but only To illustrate types of jests Cicero
the last locus lacks the musical term quotes part of a couplet of Novius 57
of canere, which only in the first
it is used once by Diogenes Laertius (De Vitis
et Dogmatibus et Apophthegmatibus Clarorum
"'Apparently airar Aey6ye-vov in Latin. Philosophorum, X. 6) and thrice by Athenaeus
"Sophoclean fragment numbered 7o01 in A. (op. cit., VII. 278 F, 280 A, XII. 546 E).
Nauck, Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, Cicero's translation, which he summarizes in
znd ed. (Leipzig, 1889). Part of each line isFin., II. 3. 7, preserves more of the context
preserved also by Longinus or whoever wrotethan either Diogenes or Athenaeus retains of
De Sublimitate, 3. 2, where by it is castigatedthe original.
Cleitarchus, the contemporary historian of"5Placed in the seventh book. Varro also quotes
Alexander the Great.
part of it in his De Lingua Latina, VII. 36.
"The first locus has auditu et cantibus in
hendiadys. "Cf. below, text at note 96.
"The first passage is from his Ilept Tekov?, "I suppose that it is superfluous to say that
a work on the summum bonum and in 37 books. Novius is not a misprint for Naevius. They
Cicero translates an oft-quoted sentence, for are confused frequently in the manuscripts.
CICERO MUSICUS II
(De Or., II. But

69. 279).
Cicero's chief The
interest in Aristoxe-
situation is
unknown,
nus is philosophical, since but
Aristoxe- th
yields nus (musicus idemque philosophus)
cantare.
held that the soul is a sort of tension
V
(intentio) of the body, like what in
song (cantus) and instrument (fides)
Cicero mentions more than a score is called pppovia, 59 and that, corre-
of musicians or students of music,58 sponding to the nature and the confor-
some mythological, but most histori- mation of the whole body, varied
cal. vibrations are caused, just as sounds
Among the former are the Sirens (soni) in song (cantus) are produced
(Fin., V. 18. 49), the Fauns (Div., (T.
I. D., I. 10. 19). While he thinks
that
50. 114; Or., 51. 171; Brut., i8. 71), Aristoxenus has not departed
from his profession (artificium) in
Amphion (Inv., I. 50. 94; Div., II. 64.
133), Orpheus (N. D., I. 38. 107 proposing this principle (T. D., I. io.
[bis]), Silvanus (N. D., II. 35. 89).20), Cicero later cancels this thought
The musical importance of all these by deciding to ignore his contribu-
save Orpheus has been discussed. Be- tion, by chiding Aristoxenus for be-
side naming Orpheus twice Cicero ing so delighted with his own songs
mentions a carmen Orphicum, which, (cantus) that he tries to transfer these
of course, may have been merelyinto a philosophical speculation, and
poem not necessarily set to music. by suggesting that Aristoxenus leave
Among the historical musicians are philosophy to his master Aristoteles
the following personages, who are and continue to teach singing (can-
noted for various accomplishments ere). While he admits that we can
in music: recognize melody (harmonia) from
The introduction of Antigenidas, the distances in pitch (intervalla) be-
who was contemporary with Alex-tween sounds (soni), of which the
ander the Great, provides Cicero withvaried arrangement also produces
the words tibicen and canere, the lat-several melodies (harmoniae), yet
ter of which is used twice (Brut., 50o.Cicero cannot see how the position
187). of the limbs and the attitude of the
Not neglected is Aristoxenus, the body can make melody (harmonia)
Peripatetic philosopher, whose work when the body lacks a soul (T. D.,
Hnpi 'Apovcxi~v 20tzoeaio seems to I. 18. 4i). In any case Cicero claims
be the oldest Greek treatise on that the harmony (harmonia) of Aris-
music extant. With reference to him toxenus is dissolved by death (T. D.,
musica appears in two forms: femi-I. II. 24).
nine singular (De Or., III. 33. 132) Connus, who taught Socrates to
and neuter plural (Fin., V. 19. 50).
has been established that by dp[Lovta (har-
monia) the ancients understood what we call
sOnly passages witnessing to their musical " harmony," which is the sounding of several
ability will be noted.
tones together, and that consequently they
"The only other occurrence of this Greek word could produce polyphony, on which is based
in Cicero's vocabulary appears in Tim., 8. 27, harmony. This may seem strange to some,
where it has a mathematical meaning and is but it was not until our own century that the
equivalent to concentio in Cicero's terminology.idea of harmony became familiar to African
An inspection of a good Greek lexicon will and Asiatic peoples, for harmony always has
characterized only European and its derived
prove thatapplications.
had other before its reference
AlthoughtoAristoxenus
music dpfpoviaAmerican music. The ancient evidence shows
applied this word in its musical acceptance that the classical peoples only played and sang
to the soul, yet his use of it seems metaphori-one-part music. So dppovia to them meant
cal only. Despite much discussion it never merely " melody."
play the lyre (fides),60 was a An unnamed flutist (or flautist, as

very
the aficionados favor the term) from
famous lyrist (nobilissimus fidicen)
in Cicero's judgment (Fam., Rhodes
IX. 22.(Rhodius tibicen) was the
3). man from whom Verres took Tertia,
Another instructor of Socrates was
the daughter of the mimic actor Isi-
Damon,61 to whose specialization indorus (Verr., II. 3. 34- 78; 5. 12. 31; 5-
music (musica) Cicero testifies (De 31. 81).
Or., III. 33. 132). An anecdote about Simonides of
Cicero states that Diodotus, the Ceos tells us that this poet sang a
blind Stoic, who lived with him for poem (carmen canere) of his own
many years, played the lyre (fides) composition (De Or., II. 86. 352).
in the Pythagorean manner (T. D., Cato the Censor envied Socrates'
V. 39- 113).62 skill on the lyre (fides),65 an instru-
" Very devoted to music " (musi- ment (fides) which the ancients used
corum perstudiosus) is one of Ci- to study (C. M., 8. 26).
cero's comments on Dionysius the M. Tigellius Hermogenes, both a
Elder of Syracuse (T. D., V. 22. 63).63 tibicen and a cantor,66 was not kindly
Cicero records that Epaminondas disposed toward Cicero (Famn., VII.
sang excellently to the accompani- 24. 2).
ment of the lyre (fidibus praeclare Cicero preserves the story that the
canere) (T. D., I. 2. 4). Spartans cut all the strings (nervi)
A Roman knight named Numerius on the lyre (fides) of Timotheus be-
Furius, who was a friend of L. Licini- yond the traditional seven (Leg., II.
us Crassus (i40-9i), is said to sing 15. 39).67
(cantare) when it suits him (De Or., A certain Valerius (otherwise un-
III. 23- 87). known) used to sing (cantare) daily,
Cicero mentions the boast of Hip- because he was an actor (De Or., III.
pias of Elis, the sophist, that in music 23. 86).
(musica) there was nothing that he While for the sake of the argument
did not know (De Or., III. 32. 127). he asserts that a musician (musicus),
Phemius, the slave of Atticus, was as opposed to an orator, pursues one
a performer on the xipaq (Att., V. 20. of the leviora artium studia (De Or.,
9, 21. 9, VI. I. I3).64 I. 49. 212), yet generally Cicero has
Proficiency in music (musica) is only high praise for students of mu-
attributed to Plato (De Or., I. 50. 217; sic and the study of music. Cicero
Fin., I. 21. 72). says that the Greeks considered that
the highest education (summa erudi-
"?Cf. below, text at note 65.
B6So Diogenes Laertius, op. cit., II. I9. 'The manuscripts give unctorem, which may
"What the allusion is in Pythagoreorum mos be due to anagrammatism. The emendation
is not immediately apparent. Perhaps it means cantorem is quite clever on the part of Manu-
merely that there was a certain Pythagoreanzio, for we have evidence from Horatius
method to play the lyre, if it does not mean (Sermones, I. 3. 1-4, 129-130) that Tigellius
that the Pythagoreans considered music as had an established reputation as a singer.
contributing to moral culture. For a third "6It appears that Timotheus had the temerity
possibility cf. below, text at note 73. to affront Spartan conservatism by carrying
"3From the context, in which the tyrant is an eleven-stringed lyre to one of their musical
festivals (Dio Chrysostomus, Orationes,
called a tragic poet, I think that from Cicero's
phrase we must conclude that Dionysius had XXXIII. 57). The mutilated instrument,
musical talents and was not just a person who which the ephors had confiscated, was still on
liked to hear music, as the bald phrase might exhibition at Sparta some 500 years after the
persuade us to believe. event (Pausanias, Descriptio Graeciae, III. 12.
Io). Cf. also Plutarchus, Instituta Laconica,
"Cf. above, note 8 ad fin.
?I7, and Vitae Parallelae: Agis et Cleomenes,
OCf. above, text at note 60. Io0. 4.
CICERO MUSICUS 13
tio) lay in instrumental
Phrygian songsand vocal
(Phrygius cantus)
music (nervorum vocumque
arouse disembodiedcantus);
souls (Div., I. 50.
therefore musicians (musici)
I14). To flour-
Cicero's fragmentary treat-
ished in Greece andise all
De Consiliis
used Suistois assigned
study an an-
the subject; a man ecdote
whoabout knew the Phrygian
noth- mode.69
It seems that some
ing about it was thought not tipsytoyouths,
bein-
completely educated cited by(T. D.,
the music I. 2.
of flutes 4).
(tibiarum
cantus), wereas
From Plato's Academy, about to break a chaste
from an
woman's house-door,
atelier of artists, musicians when Pytha-
(musici)
came (Fin., V. 3. goras
7).70 Persons who
advised a female flutist (tibi-
want to play on the cina) 71 to play aor
lyre spondaic
ontune (spon-
the
deum canere).
flute (fidibus aut tibiis uti) When she hadto
apply done
this, through
musicians (musici) for their the sluggishness
training of the
measures
(Div., II. 3. 9). Like others (modi) and by the slowness
engaged
of themusicians
in specialized studies, singer (canere) their mad wan-
(mu-
tonness subsided
sici) speak in their own (Frag. Philos. F, X.
characteristic
3). Those who are
way (Fin., III. I. 4).
trained in music (cantus)In quoting a couplet
hear from Pacu-
more
vius' Iliona Cicero remarks
than the ordinary person, for that such
at the
lines, when sung
first note of the flutist (concinere) in
(primus in-
measured and plaintive
flatus tibicinis) they can identify the modes (modi),
inflict sadness upon all in the theater
play about to be presented, when
others have not even (T. D., I.a44. suspicion
o6). of
which play it will Bybe songs (cantus)
(Acad.,men's souls often II. 7.
zo). To recognizearea stirred rather violently
song (Div., I.
(carmen
36. 80).72
agnoscere) as soon as a flutist (tibi-
cen) has blown (inflare) To turn theira note minds from is mental
the
mark of one who intensity
has tobeen tranquillitytrained
by means of
(Acad., II. 27. 86).vocal and instrumental music (cantus
fidesque) was a Pythagorean prac-
VI tice (T. D., IV. 2. 3).73
In several passages Cicero illus- In this category perhaps belongs
trates the influence which music exerts a tale first told by Cicero (De Or.,
over persons.18
are the same, that Ionian and Hypophrygian
are similar, that Syntonolydian is akin to
"In the already discussed episode of the Sirens
Lydian and Hypolydian. Of course, the places
(cf. above, text at note 50) Cicero weakens in which occurred intervals of tones and
their power by supposing that voyagers stayed semitones differed from mode to mode.
their course not so much because of the Sirens' But from Boethius (op. cit., I. I ad fin.) we
musical charms as on account of the knowl-
learn that the type of music involved in the
edge which the Sirens professed to impart. initial part of this incident was the Phrygius
"We look in vain to Cicero for any mention, modus. Augustinus also preserves Cicero's
as such, of the several Greek modes of music words, although in briefer measure (Contra
and their variations. The traditional theory is lulianum Pelagianum, V. 23).
that originally there were three main modes: 7"Boethius accounts for the presence of Pytha-
Dorian, Lydian, Phrygian. On these three goras by telling that he was in the vicinity
fundamental modes there were invented later engaged in nocturnal astronomical pursuits
three variations: Hypodorian, Hypolydian, (loc. cit. in note 69 above).
Hypophrygian (i7r6 signifying "lower in
pitch "). No settled agreement among scholars "The only occurrence of this feminine noun
in Cicero's works.
has established the place of a fourth variation,
Mixolydian, or to which seven modes can be "Practically the same thing is said about
equated the Aeolian, the Ionian, the Lesbian, savage beasts, which by song (cantus) are in-
the Locrian, the Syntonolydian, the Theban, fluenced and made to stand still (Arch., 8. I9).
of which we also hear. Some support is given
to the supposition that Aeolian and Hypodorian "sCf. above, note 62.
ter of commonwealths can be changed

III.6o. 60. 225 - 6. 227). C. Sempronius
Gracchus had a skilled slave, who (Leg.,
was III. 14. 32).76 Cicero's elabora-
tion of this thesis occupies some space
wont to stand behind him out of sight
with a little ivory pipe (eburneola (Leg.,
... II. 15. 38-39). Cicero concurs
fistula),74 when his master was mak-with Plato that nothing so easily
ing an address, and to blow a note
makes its way into youthful and yield-
(inflare ... sonum) quickly, thating
heminds as the various notes of song
might rouse him when he had (variibe- canendi soni), of which it
come negligent or that he might scarcely
re- can be told how great is
their
call him from straining his voice. In power both for good and for
explaining the principle on whichevil. For it stimulates the listless and
the pipe (fistula) influenced it calms the excited; now it releases,
the
speaker Cicero says that in every
now it restrains men's spirits. For
voice there is a mean pitch (quiddam many Greek states to preserve their
medium), but each voice has its own: ancient type of tunes (vocum modus)
for the voice to rise gradually from once was a matter of importance; but,
this is both pleasant and also salutary when their songs (cantus) had be-
for strengthening the voice; then there come effeminate, their characters de-
is an extreme point of elevation (quid- generated and likewise were changed
dam contentionis extremum), which to effeminacy, either because they
nevertheless is lower than the shrillest were depraved by this sweet corrup-
screech (acutissimus clamor), beyondtion, as some suppose, or because,
which the pipe (fistula) will not let when their strict pattern of life had
one advance and will recall one from
collapsed because of other vices, in
the actual top (ipsa contentio); and
their changed ears and hearts there
likewise on the other side there is a was place also for this alteration. For
deepest point in descent (quiddam
this reason indeed the wisest and by
in remissione gravissimum) and tofar it the most learned man of Greece
one descends, as it were, by steps [Plato]
[i. exceedingly feared this ca-
e., scales] of sounds (tamquam sono- tastrophe, for he denies that the laws
rum gradus). But, Cicero concludes, of music (musicae leges) can be
changed without change of the pub-
the piper (fistulator) 75 you will leave
at home and into the forum you will lic laws. However, Cicero considers
take with you only the instinct de- that this change should neither be
rived from this practice. dreaded so greatly nor be entirely dis-
But the best or the largest exampledained; and yet he observes that
those
of the power exercised by music who were wont once to be satis-
doubtless is Cicero's mention of the
fied with the agreeable strictness of
the tunes (modi) of Livius [Androni-
Platonic theory that, when the songs
of their musicians (musicorum can-cus] and Naevius now jump up and
tus) have been changed, the charac-turn their necks and eyes in time with
the modulation of [modern] meas-
ures (modorum flexiones).
C Cf. above, note 26.
""Only here in Cicero's writings. VII

""Developed by Plato in his Politeia, IV. 424
B-E. Additional treatment, especially along Musical customs, not strictly con-
ethical and social lines in respect to the powersidered in the classof private enter-
of music, is in op. cit., III. 401 D-4o2 D and
in Leges, III. 7oo D-7oi A. tainment, secure some attention from
CICERO MUSICUS I 5
Cicero.77 All these appear to be toas-
tion of property the gods, as was
sociated in one or another seen when
wayC.withAtinius Labeo had a
religious observances. flutist (tibicen) attend upon him in
In connection with funerals Cicero
devoting the possessions of Q. Cae-
preserves a statute from the Twelve cilius Metellus Macedonicus (De
Tables which forbade that more than
Domo Sua, 47. 123), his political
ten flute-players (tibicines) be em-enemy, and when Clodius had a flutist
(tibicen) as witness to his dedication
ployed (Leg., II. 2 3- 59). A laudatio
of the site of Cicero's Palatine house
funebris, says Cicero, customarily was
succeeded by a song (cantus) sung
to Liberty (Dorm., 48. 125), after he
to the accompaniment of a flutist
had engineered his exile.
(tibicen). This song was known as aAt sacrifices, such as those which
nenia, a word which meant mourning
Cicero watched at Capua, where a
songs (cantus lugubres) in Greek colony had been established in 83, a
(Leg., II. 24. 62).7 Funeral rites, flute-player (tibicen) assisted (Leg.
which included ordinarily singing Agr., II. 34- 93).-81
(cantus), were lacking in the case of The lyre and the flute (fides ac
P. Clodius Pulcher (Mil., 32. 86). tibiae) were employed at ceremonial
In compiling laws for his ideal Statebanquets as early as the reign of
Cicero proposed that at the public
Numa Pompilius (De Or., III. 51.
197).82 On the lyre (fides) were
games the public pleasure be provided
with moderation in respect to vocalplayed preludes (praecinere) at feasts
and instrumental music (cantus et for gods and at banquets for magis-
fides et tibiae) and that this entertain- trates (T. D., IV. 2. 4).
ment be combined with honor to the
gods (Leg., II. 9. 22). In explaining
this provision, since the public games VIII
were divided between the theater and
the circus, Cicero says that the theater Many references to music at pri-
shall flourish with song, lyres, flutesvate entertainments are found in
(cantus ... fides et tibiae), providedCicero's writings.
that this be with moderation, as will A curious word for performer is
be prescribed by law (Leg., II. 15. acroama, which Cicero uses thrice.
38).79 A preliminary chant (prae-Originally meaning something like an
centio) was a feature of the gamesaural gratification, such as reading or
and was supervised by priests (H. R.,music, especially at meals, by me-
10. 2 I).80 tonymy it seems to mean an enter-
Music accompanied the consecra- tainer (Verr., II. 4. 22. 49), whether
"7The sweeping statement that all Greeks used

S0Particularly by members of the collegium
to study music (T. D., I. 2. 4) and the epulonum, which was composed of three at
Pythagorean custom of withdrawal from in-
first and afterwards of seven members, who
tense cogitation by the use of vocal and superintended
instru- sacrificial banquets to the gods.
mental music (T. D., IV. 2. 3) have been The Lentulus to whom Cicero speaks and to
mentioned in the text after note 67 and at whose sacerdotium Cicero says the praecentio
note 73 respectively. pertains seems to have been L. Cornelius
Lentulus Niger, who was a flamen Martialis.
T8What this Greek word was we know not.
S1The flutist played to drown any ill-omened
Nenia occurs only here in Cicero's works.
sound (Plinius, Naturalis Historia, XXVIII.
2. II).
"Then follows Cicero's agreement with Plato's
'The
statement about the influence of music on traditional date (for what little it is
youth
(cf. above, text after note 76). worth) is 715-672.
a reader (Arch., 9. 20o) or a musician us and L. Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus
(Sest., 54. I I6).83 the former used to dance naked at
Cicero reports that M. Porcius banquets in his house, which re-
Cato Censorius in his Origines 84 re- sounded (personare) with song and
cords that guests at banquets were ac- cymbals (cantus et cymbala), while
customed to sing (canere) to the ac- the latter earned from Cicero the epi-
companiment provided by a flutist thet of musicus 89 for his participation
(tibicen) the virtues of famous men in a sort of feast of Lapiths and Cen-
(T. D., I. 2. 3).85 Cicero repeats this taurs (Pis., o. 22).
statement twice in slightly different The devotion of Chrysogonus to
words. In the first repetition (T. D., music was so great that the entire
IV. 2. 3) Cicero, using canere and neighborhood rang (personare) with
tibia, deduces that in those early times the daily sound of vocal and instru-
songs (cantus) and poems (carmina) mental music (cantus vocum et ner-
had been written in accordance withvorum et tibiarum) and with the
vocal notes (vocum soni). In the noise of nocturnal banquets (Pro
second reiteration (Brut., 19. 75) Roscio Aimerino, 46. 134).90
Cicero, using cantitare 86 and carmina, Q. Apronius used to feast in public,
wishes that the songs were still extant.while a combination of choral sing-
It was from feasting that the sameing and instrumental accompaniment
Cato as a youth used to see in his old(symphonia) provided music (can-
age C. Duilius, who was the first Ro-ere) and wine was served in very
man to conquer the Carthaginians in large cups (Verr., II. 3. 44. io5)-
a naval battle, returning homeward, That there were poets before Ho-
attended by a torch-bearer and by amerus is clear to Cicero on the ground
flute-player (tibicen), 87 - a displaythat songs (carmina) were sung (can-
which without precedent as a privateere) at the banquets of the Phaeacians
citizen he had assumed (C. M., I3.and of the suitors for Penelope (Brut.,
44) .8s 18. 71).91
During the consulate of A. Gabini- At dinner in another person's house
Simonides of Ceos honored his host
"There is in my mind no doubt about the
meaning in the last locus, because in the two by singing a poem (carmen . . .
relative clauses describing acroama appear
first embolium and second psaltria. "Only occurrence in Cicero's writings.
"Cicero uses Cato's account in two ways: (x)
To show the influence of Pythagoreanism upon"'Presumably the flutist of Duilius assisted in
the Romans. His reasoning is remarkable: thethe musical amenities of the meal.
Pythagoreans conveyed precepts in metrical
form and quieted their minds by singing to the"But Livius (Periochae, XVII) says that this
lyre (cf. above, text at notes 62 and 73); thehonor was conferred on Duilius in recognition
early Romans at banquets sang about heroic of his victory.
deeds to the flute; therefore the ancient
"Here an adjective used apparently meta-
Romans were acquainted with Pythagorean
principles. (2) To corroborate this statement phorically, as is the sole appearance of the
by the testimony of the Twelve Tables, whichadverb musice in Latin (Plautus, Mostellaria,
prove that at that time 1451-4491 it was usual728). It seems to mean "living luxuriously"
to compose songs (carmen), because the law in each instance.
declared that this could not be done to another's
"It is doubtful that Cicero meant to distinguish
injury (T. D., IV. 2. 4; cf. Rep., IV. 0o. x12,
where the same statute is mentioned, giving between music by day and feasting by night,
the words carmen and occentare, on which but it is unlikely that the banquets featured no
latter word cf. above, note 20). musical divertissement. The adjective cotidi-
acus used need not mean necessarily "during
"In the next section (4) of this treatise Cicero
daylight "; hence I have put here this passage.
tells that Themistocles was held to be rather
uncultured, because he refused to play the lyre
"gFor the former by Demodocus (Homerus,
(lyra) at banquets. Lyra occurs only here in
Od., VIII. 43-47, 62-99, 470-543); for the
Cicero's writings. latter by Phemius (cf. above, note 8 ad init.).
CICERO MUSICUS 17
canere) of his own composition
we should (De
not hear those signals,
Or., II. 86. 352). which sound the retreat (signa ...
quae receptui
A brief description of a canunt), to recall even
luxurious
banquet provides the
those phrase
who already sym-
have preceded us
phoniae cantus (Frag. Orat.
Rep., I. 2. 3). A, VI. I).
Other references to entertainments Bellicum canere 92 (to give the sig-
not necessarily feasts include these: nal for march or for attack) Cicero
Tiro had an invitation to Lyso's mu- uses thrice, characterizing thus Thu-
sical party (symphonia), which Ci- cydides' description of war (Or., 12.
cero wished that his faithful freedman 39), telling that others apply this
had declined because of his delicate idiom to himself on account of his
health (Fam., XVI. 9. 3). Clodiaactivities
at against Antonius (Phil., VII.
Baiae organized recitals (cantus) andI. 3), employing this phrase to indi-
concerts (symphoniae) for her guests cate the inception of a disturbance
(Cael., 15. 35). destructive of the peacetime pursuit
IX
of oratory (Mur., 14. 30).
An example of Cicero's antiquarian
Allusions to martial music are not interests is his etymology of lituus,
infrequent in Cicero's writings. the staff marking the augural office.
Four times Cicero mentions the This wand, which was crooked and
signal to retreat. The orator asks at the top slightly curved, took its
why, when the senate has sounded
name from its likeness to the trumpet
(lituus) with which was sounded
the recall (receptui canere), the army
en route to Mutina should hasten to (canere) the charge to battle (Div.,
fight (Phil., XII. 3. 8). In an appeal
I. 17. 30).
to M. Aemilius Lepidus it is asserted To illustrate that in canvassing for
that the weapons of patriotic Romansthe consulate military distinction
cannot be wrested from their hands brings much more dignity than dis-
and that the signal for retreat (recep-
tinction in jurisprudence, Cicero con-
tui signum) they cannot hear (Phil.,trasts the lives of Ser. Sulpicius Rufus
XIII. 7. I5). Reason prohibits pay- and L. Licinius Murena (Mur., 9. 22),
ment of observance to vexations, claiming inter alia that the former is
withdraws from crabbed thoughts, awakened by the call of cocks, but
makes its edge dull in contemplatingthe latter is aroused by the sound of
miseries and, when it sounds a retreat
trumpets (bucinarum cantus).
(canere receptui) from these, again In an imaginative flight Cicero as-
sures Caesar that the trumpets' sound
impels and incites the soul to perceive
(tubarum sonus) somehow seems to
and to participate in various pleasures
with all one's mental powers (T. drown
D., even the reading of the dicta-
tor's praises won in war (Pro Mar-
III. 15- 33). In a noble passage Cicero
proclaims that, since we are urged
cello, 3. 9).
especially to increase the resourcesTrumpets (tubae) and bugles
of the human race and since we wish (cornua) were sent to Catiline's army
(Cat., II. 6. 13; Sull., 5. 17).93
by our plans and efforts to make men's
life safer and richer and since by the
incentives of Nature herself we are 92Bellicum as a military signal seems always
to be used with canere.
impelled to this desire, we should
maintain that course, which has been
'Tubae in the first reference; in the second
reference cornua and also tubae, which com-
ever that of every excellent man, monly
and is accepted for the manuscriptal tubes.
To the measure of the flute (modusa fissure in a liver and a paltry finan-
ac tibia) marched the Spartans (T. D., cial profit (Div., II. 14. 34). When is
II. I6. 37). seen clearly the range of the theory
X whereby the causes and the issues of
things are understood, a certain won-
Several musical terms take meta-
derful, so to speak, agreement and
phorical meanings in Cicero's works.
harmony (quasi concentus) of all
Among such words are the following:
studies is found (De Or., III. 6. 21).
Cicero's son in a letter to Tiro
Cicero uses wa),vwp2ia three times
(Farm., XVI. 2 I. 2) calls him(Att.,
"the II.9. I, IV. 5. 1, VII. 7- i).
trumpeter of my reputation " In(buci-
the first place Cicero advises Atti-
nator . .. existimationis meae).94
cus to expect a brilliant recantation
Chorus carries twice an unfavor-
of the superfine orations which he
able connotation, when Cicerohas
ap-delivered in favor of Pompeius,
plies it to Catiline's crew of youths
if Pompeius can not keep Clodius un-
(Mur., 24. 49) and to idlers at Baiae
der control. The third occurrence
of it refers to Cicero's reluctance to
(Att., XIV. 8. i); but Cicero also uses
it in a good sense, when he attachesmake a volte face about his freedman
to it philosophi (Fin., I. 8. 26) Dionysius,
and whose character at times
virtutes (Off., III. 33. I 6; T. D.,displayed
V. a lack of gratitude, but
5. '3). whose literary attainments influenced
In attacking Stoic syllogisms Ci- Cicero too much at the time of writ-
cero complains that by such reasoning ing to prevent Cicero from retracting
it can be shown that the world is a his recommendation of him. The
musician (musicus) and he asks second passage has occasioned much
whether he must admit that the world discussion as to the form of Cicero's
is a lyrist (fidicen) and a trumpeter recantation, which clearly was an
(tubicen),95 because men of thoseoverture to Caesar and a renuncia-
professions are produced by it (N. tion of the optimate policy espoused
D., III. 9- 23)- by Cicero. Some suppose that the
When Clodia is " on the warpath" palinode was Cicero's poem either
for him, Cicero writes of her litui, De Consulatu Suo or De Temporibus
which here probably mean the sounds Suis; others suggest that it was Ci-
made by a bugle (Att., II. I2. 2). cero's oration either De Provinciis
Attributed to Caesar is the expression Consularibus or Pro Balbo; most favor
lituus meae perfectionis (Att., XI. 12. a formal letter to Caesar. If the last
i), applied by him to Cicero's hypothesis be true, the communica-
brother Quintus with reference to tion has not survived.
Marcus.
Canere in the sense of "to pro-
Tuba belli civilis is a characteriza-
phesy " occurs four times (Div., I. 50.
tion of T. Ampius Balbus (Fam., VI.
115, II. 47- 98; Cat., III. 8. i8; Sest.,
12. 3). 2 1. 47)."96 It also means " to compose "
Cicero asks from what symphony, verses (Q. F., III. 5-6- 4) and "to
so to speak (quasi concentus), can descant " a speech (Or., 8. 27).
there be a common ground between Perhaps the only place in republi-
can prose where cantare is found in
"This is the only occurrence of bucinator in
Cicero's writings. the general meaning of praising a
"5Some manuscripts record tibicen for tubicen,
which appears only here in Cicero's works. "Cf. above, text at note 56.
CICERO MUSICUS 19
person without the in construction
laudation of a speech,
being where in
verse is Cicero's statement (Q.
the opening part should F., II.
be connected
ii11 [3]. i) that closely
he with sings Caesar's
what follows and should
be a member of the whole structure
praises (cantare Caesarem).
Decantare in Cicero's
(De Or., II. 80. writings,
325).100
where it is found frequently, though
Just as, when flutes blown upon
(tibiae
it is rare elsewhere ininflatae)
the do not return a
republican
sound (sonus),
period, appears usually in thea flutist (tibicen)
secondary
sense " to repeat reckons
often that these
" or must"beto discarded,
say
over and over again " orator
so for the (Fin., IV.
the ears of the4. 10;
popu-
lace are,
Rep., II. 31. 55; Div., I.as 47.
it were, flutes Att.,
105; (tibiae);
XIII. 34. I; De Or.,if II.
the ears
I8.do not
75,receive the breath
32. 140).
The only occurrence of (inflatus)
blown into these praecen- or if the
tare in Cicero's works carries the hearer, like a horse, does not respond,
meaning "to heal by incantation"
there must be made an end of urging
(Fin., II. 29. 94). (Brut., 5-. 192). Akin to this state-
XI ment is this comparison: A crowd
has such an effect that, as a flutist
But it is in numerous similes that (tibicen) cannot make music (ca-
we see Cicero's knowledge of music nere) without a flute (tibiae), so an
at its best and in its widest extent.
orator can not be eloquent without
Here is the truest touchstone to Ci-
a listening throng (De Or., II. 83.
cero's contribution to music as a sci- 338).
ence and an art. As from the sound (sonus) of the
Orators and oratory compared with
strings (nervi) on the lyre (fides) one
musicians and music furnish these ex-
is wont to perceive how skillfully
amples: these have been struck (pellere), so
As they say in the case of Greek from the emotion of men's minds is
musicians (artifices), those who can seen what an orator accomplishes in
not become singers to the lyre (citha- playing upon these (Brut., 54. 199).
roedi)97 are singers to the flute This simile leads to two others like
(auloedi),98 so we see that those who it: In the case of inattentive jurors,
cannot become orators turn aside to
who yawn and gossip and inquire
the study of law (Mur., I3. 29).9" what is the time and ask for adjourn-
As a prelude (prooemium) ofment, a one realizes that in that law-
singer to the lyre (citharoedus) suit
ap- there is not present an orator who
parently served simply as some kind can make his oration play on the
of an introduction to the main part jurors' minds as one can make one's
of the music, so Cicero warns his hand play on the lyre (admovere ...
readers not to adopt that convention fidibus manum); but if one sees
jurors alert and attentive and agree-
"'That a citharoedus played on and sang to
the cithara seems clear from T. D., V. 4o. I16, ing and hanging on the orator's words,
where Cicero remarks that deaf persons do not
hear the voice of the singer to the lyre (vox
citharoedi). A citharista merely played the "Quintilianus (op. cit., VIII. 3. 79) quotes
cithara. this simile to illustrate the figure redditio (re-
ciprocal representation), whereby each subject
"Apparently the only occurrence of this word
of comparison is placed, so to speak, before
in Cicero's writings. Following the preceding
our eyes and is displayed side by side.
note, we can say that an auloedus sang to the
ai?6c (the word does not occur in Latin x1?How universal was this lack of musical
integration we know not, but from Cicero's
dress) and that an abi-lr?f (this word is sweeping statement it seems that an exception
wanting in Latin) merely played the aia6.
was extremely unusual, if not unconventional.
like a bird lured by some song (can-

fault is wont to be noticed by an ex-
tus), one recognizes that an orator
pert, soisin life we must watch, lest
engaged in the trial and that perhaps
the ora- anything be out of tune (dis-
crepare),
tor's work is in process or already has or even much more, be-
been accomplished (Brut., 54. 200).
cause the harmony (concentus) of
A double illustration from the actions is more important and better
stage provides another comparisonthan
in that of sounds (soni). And so,
this category: As Roscius in his as
oldthe ears of musicians (musici) dis-
age sang (canere) the rhythms cern
(nu-even the slightest errors in lyres
meri) in song (cantus) more slowly
(fides), so we, if we wish to be keen
than previously and made evenand thecareful observers of failings,
flutes (tibiae) play more slowly, so shall perceive important mat-
often
daily you are mitigating somewhat
ters from trifling things (Off., I. 40.
the terrific tensions (contentiones)
I45 - 41. I46).
which you used to employ, so that In blasting the Stoic paradox that
now your speaking is not much alldif-
transgressions are equal Cicero
ferent from the mildness of philoso-
puts into the mouth of a Stoic pro-
phers (Leg., I. 4. ii1). To add toponent
his this comparison: As in the
likeness of an orator Cicero employs
case of several lyres (fides), if none
this example again: Roscius is wontof these is so strung (contendere) in
to say that, as he grows older,101 he to its strings (nervi) that it
respect
will make the flutist's (tibicen) meas-
can keep its tune (concentus), all are
ures (modi) slower and the songs equally out of tune (incontentus),103
(cantus) slower (De Or., I. 60. 254)-
so transgressions, because these fail
Music and morality produce these to harmonize (discrepare), are equally
comparisons: 102 discordant (discrepare); therefore
Just as the man wishing to be these
con- are equal. Cicero calls this an
sidered a musician (musicus) but equivocation and answers that it hap-
singing out of tune (absurde canere)
pens that all the lyres (fides) equally
are out of tune (incontentus), but
would be the more disgraced, because
that it does not follow that all are
he fails in the very subject of which
he professes knowledge, so a philo-
equally out of tune (incontentus).
sopher erring in his rule of life is Cicero
the concludes that therefore this
more disgraced, because in the duty
comparison does not aid the argu-
of which he desires to be a teacher he
ment (Fin., IV. 27. 75).
stumbles and he fails in his conductSeveral similes concern the physi-
of life, though professing the art
calofside of life. Here belong these:
living (T. D., II. 4. 12). Man's whole body and his every
To illustrate the correction of our
facial expression and all his vocal
faults is the aim of these two similes:
tones (voces), like strings (nervi) in
As in lyres or flutes (fides aut tibiae), lyres (fides), so sound (sonare) as
though only a little out of tune (pau- these are touched (pulsare) by each
lum discrepare), nevertheless the emotion of the mind. For vocal tones
(voces), like strings (chordae), are
101Since Q. Roscius [Gallus], the celebrated set (intendere) so as to answer to
comedian, died in 62 when he was senex
(Arch., 8. I7), Cicero seems to be guilty of each touch (De Or., III. 57. 216).
anachronism when he represents him as speak-
ing of his advancing age in 91, which is the
supposed date of this dialogue. 1'"In Latin this adjective seems to be airat
1Cf. above, text at note 76. e2y6 Pevov.
CICERO MUSICUS 2 I
A more detailed comparison

wealth, is
the closes
rived from the of
Stoic school: in
security That
ev
tongue is likeand
the quill of
without the
justic
(plectrum),o"0 the (Rep.,
exist teeth II. like
4
strings (chordae), the
Two miscellaneous similes nostril
conclude
those horns (cornua)105
this collection: which
(resonare) to the strings
In disparaging lawyers who are (ner
instrumental readymusic (cantus),
to advise any litigant, whether
philosophers or arenot rightaccustomed
is on his side, Cicero says t
(N. D., II. 59. (Mur.,
149). 12. 26) that the same juris-
Cicero says that, just
consult deserts as for
the plaintiff itthemus
said that lyres
defendant(fides) and
in the manner of a Latin f
(tibiae) have been made for the
flutist (tibicen).108
of them who use these,
To illustrate so it mu
choice of avocations
admitted that to those
occupy one'sthingsspare time Cicerowhic
has mentioned
notes 106 have
(De Or., III. been
15. 58) that, as
vided only for those
persons accustomedwho
to constantuse
daily t
(N. D., II. 63. work,
157). when they are kept from work
A sustained analogy
because of the weather,comes
turn their at- fr
the field of politics and oris
tention to ball-playing rathe
to dicing
nowned: As inor lyres (fides)
even invent some new game or in f
(tibiae) and as their
inleisure,
vocal music
so of those who either (c
ipse ac voces)have
must be
been debarred mainta
from political
from different tones
affairs (distincti
by the circumstances of the
a certain concerttime or have taken a vacation volun-
(concentus), w
when altered tarily,
or some discordant
have betaken themselves (d
pare), trained ears
entirely cannot
to poets, others to geome-end
and as this concert
tricians, others(concentus)
to musicians (musici),
regulation of while very unlike t
others even as dialecticians
(voces) still is have
madecreated forto be a new
themselves concor
(concors) and interest
consistent,
and amusement, and in these so fr
highest and lowest and
pursuits, which middle
were devised to mold cl
when intermingledchildren's mindslike
to culture tones
and to (
a commonwealth, when
virtue, they have spent all theirsyste
time
and their lives.109
cally regulated, is in accord
cinere) through the agreemen
XII
most dissimilar elements; and wha
musicians (musici) isto called
If we adhere harm
the limitation of
(harmonia) in this
music
investigation(cantus)
as already deter- is
cord (concordia)107 in a comm
mined,109 Cicero's presentation of the
doctrine of the music of the spheres,
"'Only occurrence in Cicero's writings. which he offers in the so-called Som-
'1OCornua was applied to the so-called horns
of the lyre. Since these were hollow, the
sound of the strings, when played, was in- discords (discordiae) are produced from varia-
tensified. tions of interest, when different measures are
advantageous to different persons.
t10The produce of the earth (N. D., II. 62. 156).
108The tibicen was supposed to have ac-
"'Earlier Cicero has said (Rep., I. 32. 49) that companied on the tibia the actors, when they
concord (cancordia) exists most easily in that alternately recited the cantica.
commonwealth in which the same object is
undertaken for the benefit of all and that 1Cf. above, note 5.
assembled
nium Scipionis, the celebrated con- to show Cicero's contribu-
clusion of his De Re Publica (VI. to
tion I8.musical science and art, a
I8-I9),11O must be omitted. contribution
Apart which appears to be the
most extensive extant in Latin of the
from his treatment of that theory
enough evidence perhaps has been age of Roman antiquity.
republican
1'0Cicero has several other references to the
music of the spheres in N. D., II. 7. 19, 46. Princeton University
119, III. II. 27.

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Cicero Musicus

SINCE well and to what extent Cicero ' may

cal terms appearing in Latin writings

22. 40),17 musicus (Rep.,

resonare (N. D., II. 57. 144; Div., II.

41Cf. above, note 36. 4"Taking after it digitorum, it is applied to the

cause they professed to know many reference carries the connotation of

(De Or., II. But

play the lyre (fides),60 was a An unnamed flutist (or flautist, as

ter of commonwealths can be changed

""Only here in Cicero's writings. VII

"7The sweeping statement that all Greeks used

like a bird lured by some song (can-

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