ELEMENZE DE ZNGZNERZE MEZZNZZĂ - ZZRS

ZZRZEZ Z ZZ-Z: ELEMENZE DE ZEZRZZ MEZZNZSMELZR

SZZ. M1: DEFZNZŢZZ ŞZ NZŢZZNZ ZNZRZDZZZZVE DE ZEZRZZ

MEZZNZSMELZR

1. ZnZrZdZZere: ZZZeZZ de sZZdZZ; ZmZZrZZnţă. DefZnZţZZ fZndZmenZZle

ZeZrZZ mZşZnZlZr şZ Z meZZnZsmelZr Z lZZZ nZşZere înZă dZn ZnZZZhZZZZe, ZdZZă ZZ ZZZlZzZreZ ZnZr dZsZZzZZZve
meZZnZZe sZmZle ZreZZm ZârghZZ, ZlZnZl înZlZnZr, sZrZZeZele, ZrZlZZl şZrZZZl eZZ. De exemZlZ, ZrhZmede (287 - 212 î. e. n.) Z
ZnvenZZZ Z serZe de "mZşZnărZZ" menZZe să ZZnZrZZZZe lZ ZZărZreZ ZrZşZlZZ SZrZZZzZ, ZZr HerZn dZn ZlexZndrZZ (118 - 81 î. e. n.) Z
ZZnsZrZZZ ZhZZr meZZnZsme şZ mZşZnZ ZZţZZnZZe ZneZmZZZZ.
DesZrZndereZ ZZesZeZ ZeZrZZ de "ZeZrZZ-mZmă" - MEZZNZZZ - se ZZZZe sZZne Ză s-Z reZlZzZZ ZenZrZ ZrZmZ dZZă ZrZn
ZnZrZdZZereZ în ZlZnZl de învăţămânZ Zl ŞZZlZZ ZZlZZehnZZe dZn ZZrZs de ZăZre GZsZZrd MZnge (1746-1818) Z dZsZZZlZneZ "ZeZrZZ
mZşZnZlZr" şZ ZrZn ZZZlZZZreZ în 1808 Z ZrZmZlZZ ZZrs desZre mZşZnZ şZ elemenZele ZZesZZrZ de ZăZre HZZheZZe, LZnz şZ
ZeZZnZZZrZ.
DZsZZZlZnZ ZeZrZZ mZşZnZlZr şZ Z meZZnZsmelZr Zre ZsZăzZ în ZZZeZZZl săZ de sZZdZZ ZZZrZ ZsZeZZe:
Z. SZrZZZZrZ meZZnZsmelZr se ZZZZă ZZ fZndZmenZZreZ nZţZZnZlZr de ZZză Zle dZsZZZlZneZ: elemenZe ZZnemZZZZe, ZZZle
ZZnemZZZZe, lZnţZrZ ZZnemZZZZe, meZZnZsme şZ meZZnZsme-mZZZr. În ZZeZsZă ZZrZe sZnZ dZZe fZrmZlele sZrZZZZrZle Zle
lZnţZrZlZr ZZnemZZZZe, ZreZZm şZ ZlZsZfZZărZle sZrZZZZrZle Zle ZZesZZrZ;
Z. ZnZlZzZ ZZnemZZZZă Z meZZnZsmelZr se ZZZZă ZZ meZZdele grZfZ-ZnZlZZZZe ZrZn ZnZermedZZl ZărZrZ se "ZrZseZză" (se
deZermZnă ZnZlZZZZ) ZrZZeZZZrZZle dZverselZr ZZnZZe de ZnZeres Zle elemenZelZr ZZnemZZZZe (ZZzZţZZ, vZZeze şZ
ZZZelerZţZZ lZnZZre şZ ZnghZZlZre Zle ZZesZZrZ în deZZrsZl ZZZlZlZZ ZZnemZZZZ);
Z. ZZneZZsZZZZZZ meZZnZsmelZr se ZZZZă ZZ sZZdZZl fZrţelZr exZerZZZre şZ ZnZerZZZre Ze sZlZZZZă elemenZele
meZZnZsmZlZZ, ZreZZm şZ ZZ sZZZZlZreZ vZlZrZlZr reZZţZZnZlZr dZn ZZZlele ZZnemZZZZe şZ Zle fZrţelZr de eZhZlZZrZre;
d. DZnZmZZZ meZZnZsmelZr sZZdZZză mZdZlZZăţZle de eZhZlZZrZre sZZZZZă şZ dZnZmZZă Z meZZnZsmelZr şZ mZşZZreZ
mZşZnZlZr sZZ ZZţZZneZ fZrţelZr exZerZZZre.
ZZnfZrm defZnZrZZ ZZZeZZZlZZ săZ, rezZlZă Ză ZmZZrZZnţZ sZZdZZlZZ dZsZZZlZneZ de fZţă ZZnsZă în fZZZZl Ză reZlZzeZză
ZreZereZ de lZ dZmenZZl meZZnZZZZ ZeZreZZZe sZre ZZnZZşZereZ ZZnsZrZZţZeZ de mZşZnZ şZ ZZZlZje dZn ZrZZe dZmenZZ
ZndZsZrZZl, sZnZeZZzând şZ ZZlZZând înZr-Z ZZnZeZţZe ZnZZZră ZZnZţZZnţe dZn dZmenZZ ZZnexe: mZZemZZZZă, ZehnZlZgZe,
rezZsZenţZ mZZerZZlelZr, ZrgZne de mZşZnZ, desen ZehnZZ, ZrZZeZţZZ mZnZZZ eZZ.

Def.:
- mZşZnă = sZsZemZl ZehnZZ ZZre reZlZzeZză Zel ZZţZn ZnZ dZnZre ZrmăZZZrele fZnZţZZ:
- ZrZnsfZrmă dZferZZe fZrme de energZe (ZermZZă, ZhZmZZă, eleZZrZZă, eleZZrZmZgneZZZă, nZZleZră eZZ.) în energZe meZZnZZă
(lZZrZ meZZnZZ);
- ZrZnsfZrmă şZ ZrZnsmZZe energZZ meZZnZZă;
- ZrZnsfZrmă energZZ meZZnZZă în ZlZe fZrme de energZe.
- meZZnZsmZl = ZărţZ ZZmZZnenZe Zle mZşZnZlZr Ze sZnZ sZsZeme de ZZrZZrZ în ZZre mZşZZreZ ZnZrZ - nZmZZe elemenZe mZZZZre -
se ZrZnsfZrmă în mZşZZreZ deZermZnZZă (desmZdrZmă) Z ZelZrlZlZe - nZmZZe elemenZe ZZndZse.

ZZZrZvZZ fZnZţZZlZr îndeZlZnZZe, mZşZnZle se ZlZsZfZZă în ZrmăZZZrele ZZZegZrZZ:

- mZşZnZ energeZZZe (mZZZZre) = dZferZZe ZZZZrZ de energZe se ZrZnsfZrmă în energZe meZZnZZă (mZZZrZl ZZ Zrdere ZnZernă,
mZZZrZl eleZZrZZ;
- mZşZnZ energeZZZe (generZZZZre) = energZZ meZZnZZă se ZrZnsfZrmă în ZlZe fZrme de energZe (generZZZrZl de ZZrenZ eleZZrZZ
eZZ.)
- mZşZnZ de lZZrZ = Ze ZZzZ ZZnsZmZlZZ de energZe meZZnZZă, reZlZzeZză Zn ZrZZes ZehnZlZgZZ.

2. ElemenZZl ZZnemZZZZ

Def.:
- elemenZ ZZnemZZZZ - ZZrZ mZZerZZl ZZmZZnenZ Zl ZnZZ meZZnZsm ZZre Zre rZl, ZZZnZZ Zând esZe mZZZl, de Z ZrZnsmZZe
mZşZZreZ şZ fZrţZ de lZ elemenZZl ZnZerZZr lZ Ze ZZsZerZZr;
- rZngZl elemenZZlZZ ZZnemZZZZ, j = nZmărZl de legăZZrZ Ze ZZre elemenZZl ZZnemZZZZ le reZlZzeZză ZZ elemenZele veZZne.

ZZnfZrm defZnZţZeZ, Zn elemenZ ZZnemZZZZ ZZZZe fZ:

- mZZZl - nZmZZ în ZZesZ ZZz şZ elemenZ ZZnemZZZZ ZrZZrZZ-zZs (ZrZZrele ZZZZZ, ZZZheZZl, rZZZZ dZnţZZă eZZ.);
- fZx (sZZ ZresZZZs fZx) - nZmZZ în ZZesZ ZZz elemenZ-ZZză (ZZZZZl mZşZnZlZr ZnelZe, ZZrZerZl mZZZrZlZZ eZZ.).

ZnZlZzZ dZferZZelZr elemenZe ZZnemZZZZe ZermZZe ZdenZZfZZZreZ Z ZZnZZ ZZZZrZ ZrZnZZZZle:

- elemenZe rZgZde - sZnZ fZrmZZe dZnZr-Z sZngZră ZZesă nZmZZă ZrgZn de mZşZnă sZZ dZn mZZ mZlZe ZrgZne de mZşZnă
ZsZmZlZZe înZre ele rZgZd;
- elemenZe flexZZZle - sZnZ elemenZe defZrmZZZle fZlZsZZe ZenZrZ ZrZnsmZZereZ lZ dZsZZnţă Z mZşZărZZ şZ, ZmZlZZZZ, Z
ZZZerZZ meZZnZZe (ZZZlZrZ, ZZrele, lZnţZrZ eZZ.);
- elemenZe lZZhZde - esZe vZrZZ de ZZă sZZ ZleZZrZ sZeZZZle ZZZlZzZZe lZ dZsZZzZZZvele hZdrZZlZZe (în generZl Zrese şZ
ZZmZe) ZenZrZ ZrZnsmZZereZ şZ mZlZZZlZZZreZ sZZ demZlZZZlZZZreZ fZrţeZ;
- elemenZe gZzZZse - esZe vZrZZ de ZerZl ZZZlZzZZ în dZsZZzZZZvele ZneZmZZZZe, Zvând ZZelZşZ rZl ZZ elemenZele lZZhZde;
- elemenZe eleZZrZZe - sZnZ ZZmZZnenZe eleZZrZZe ZZre ZrZnsmZZ mZşZZreZ şZ fZrţZ ZrZn ZnZermedZZl ZnZr ZâmZZrZ
eleZZrZZe.

În sZZZZl ZdenZZfZZărZZ elemenZelZr ZZnemZZZZe, ZZnfZrm ZzZnţelZr, se ZZZlZzeZză Z reZrezenZZre ZZnvenţZZnZlă ZrezenZZZă
în ZZZelZl 1:

ZZZel 1. ReZrezenZZreZ elemenZelZr ZZnemZZZZe în fZnZţZe de rZngZl ZZesZZrZ

RZngZl
DenZmZre ReZrezenZZre ZZnvenţZZnZlă
elemenZZlZZ
1 MZnZr, j=1

1
 2 ZZnZr, j=2

3 ZZlZnZr ZZ j=3

4 ZZlZnZr ZZ j=4

SZZ. M2: ZZZLE ZZNEMZZZZE

3. ZZZle ZZnemZZZZe

Def.:
- ZZZlă ZZnemZZZZă = legăZZrZ mZZZlă, dZreZZă şZ ZermZnenZă dZnZre dZZă elemenZe ZZnemZZZZe, reZlZzZZă ZZ sZZZZl lZmZZărZZ
lZZerZăţZlZr de mZşZZre relZZZvă dZnZre ZZesZeZ şZ Z ZrZnsmZZerZZ mZşZărZZ de lZ Zn elemenZ lZ ZlZZl;
- ZlZsZ ZZZleZ ZZnemZZZZe = nZmărZl resZrZZţZZlZr (mZşZărZlZr îmZZedZZZZe) Zle ZnZZ elemenZ în mZşZZre relZZZv fZţă de ZelălZlZ
elemenZ.

DZZă nZZăm ZZ m nZmărZl resZrZZţZZlZr (ZlZsZ ZZZleZ) şZ ZZ l nZmărZl grZdelZr de lZZerZZZe în mZşZZre relZZZvă, Zvem relZţZZ
generZlă ZmZZsă de meZZnZZZ sZlZdZlZZ rZgZd:
ml  6 (1)
ZZ ZrmZre vZm ZveZ ZZnZZ ZlZse de ZZZle, ZZresZZnzăZZZre ZZndZţZZlZr m = 1, l = 5, …, m = 5, l = 1.
În ZZZelZl 2 sZnZ reZrezenZZZe ZrZnZZZZlele ZZZle ZZnemZZZZe fZndZmenZZle, denZmZreZ, nZZZţZZ şZ reZrezenZZreZ
ZZesZZrZ.

ZZZel 2. ZZZle ZZnemZZZZe fZndZmenZZ le

DenZmZre ResZrZZţZ ReZrezenZZre
ZlZsZ SZhemă ZZnsZrZZZZvă NZZZţZe
ZehnZZă Z ZZnvenţZZnZlă

1. S-Z Sferă Ze ZlZn vz=0

ωy=0
2. Z+Z ZZlZndrZ Ze ZlZn
vz=0

vx=0
ZrZZZZlZţZe
3. S vy=0
sferZZă
vz=0

vy=0
ZZZlă
vz=0
4. Z ZZnemZZZZă
ωy=0
ZZlZndrZZă
ωz=0

vx=0
ZZZlă vy=0
R ZZnemZZZZă de vz=0
rZZZţZe ωy=0
ωz=0
5.
vy=0
ZZZlă vz=0
Z ZZnemZZZZă de ωx=0
ZrZnslZţZe ωy=0
ωz=0

SZZZZlZreZ ZlZseZ ZZZleZ ZZnemZZZZese reZlZzeZză în mZdZl ZrmăZZr:

- se fZxeZză ZnZl dZn elemenZele ZZZleZ, în mZd ZâZ mZZ ZZnvenZZZl;
- se ZZZşeZză ZelZZlZlZ elemenZ Zn sZsZem ZrZZrZZgZnZl de Zxe Zxyz şZ Z se sZZdZZză ZZsZZZlZZăţZle de mZşZZre elemenZZre
în ZZesZZ;
- rezZlZZZele se însZrZZ înZr-Zn ZZZel Zvând rZZrZZZle ZrmăZZZre; ZenZrZ fZeZZre ZZsZZZlZZZZe de mZşZZre se însZrZe ZZfrZ
"1", ZZr ZenZrZ fZeZZre mZşZZre ZnZerzZsă se însZrZe ZZfrZ "0"; în fZnZl, vZm ZveZ: l   "1" şZ m  "0"  6  l
ZZZel 3. SZZZZlZreZ ZlZseZ ZZZleZ ZZnemZZZZe
Zxe Zx Zy Zz

2
 MZşZărZ
RZZZţZe
ZrZnslZţZe

ExemZlZ: ZZZlZ ZZlZndrZZă

ZZ fZxZreZ elemenZZlZZ exZerZZr şZ ZlegereZ sZsZemZlZZ de referZnţă ZZrZezZZn ZZ în sZhemZ ZZnsZrZZZZvă dZn ZZZelZl 2,
ZZmZleZZreZ ZZZelZlZZ de ZZZ 3 se fZZe ZsZfel:
Zxe
Zx Zy Zz
MZşZărZ
RZZZţZe 1 0 0
ZrZnslZţZe 1 0 0
ZZnfZrm fZrmZlelZr ZnZerZZZre, rezZlZă:
l = 2, m = 4
SZZ. M3: LZNŢZRZ ZZNEMZZZZE

4. LZnţZrZ ZZnemZZZZe

Def.:
- lZnţ ZZnemZZZZ = sZsZem fZrmZZ dZn elemenZe ZZnemZZZZe de dZferZZe rZngZrZ legZZe înZre ele în mZd ZZnZZnZZ ZrZn ZZZle
ZZnemZZZZe de dZferZZe ZlZse.

În vedereZ reZrezenZărZZ ZrZn desene Z lZnţZrZlZr ZZnemZZZZe şZ meZZnZsmelZr se ZZeleZză lZ sZhemZ de reZrezenZZre. ZrZn
SZZS 1543/1975 s-ZZ defZnZZ:
- sZhemele ZZnsZrZZZZve - sZnZ Zele în ZZre reZrezenZărZle ZZZlelZr ZZnemZZZZe şZ elemenZelZr se dZZ ZZ Znele deZZlZZ
ZZnsZrZZZZve;
- sZhemele ZZnemZZZZe - sZnZ Zele în ZZre elemenZele şZ ZZZlele ZZnemZZZZe ZZ reZrezenZărZle ZZnvenţZZnZle ZrezenZZZe,
lZ sZZră;
- sZheme sZrZZZZrZle - sZnZ sZhemele de reZrezenZZre Z lZnţZrZlZr ZZnemZZZZe şZ meZZnZsmelZr ZrZn lZnţZrZ ZZnemZZZZe,
resZeZZZv meZZnZsme fZndZmenZZle eZhZvZlenZe (desZre ZZre se vZ dZsZZZZ ZlZerZZr).
ZlZsZfZZZreZ nZmerZZselZr ZZZZrZ de lZnţZrZ ZZnemZZZZe se fZZe dZZă fZrmZ ZZesZZrZ, dZZă rZngZl elemenZelZr şZ dZZă
mZşZZreZ ZZesZZrZ. SZnZeZZZ, ZZeZsZZ esZe ZrezenZZZă în ZZZelZl 3.

ZZZel 4. ZlZsZfZZZreZ lZnţZrZlZr ZZnemZZZZe (şZ Z meZZnZsmelZr)

ZrZZerZZ ExemZlZ
Nr. de DenZmZre ZZndZţZZ
sZhemă ZZnsZrZZZZvă sZhemă ZZnemZZZZă
ZlZsZfZZZre

DZZă rZngZl
SZmZlZ
elemenZelZr ≤ 2

DZZă rZngZl
1.
elemenZelZr
DZZă exZsZă
ZZmZlex elemenZe ZZ
rZngZl > 2

DesZhZs

DZZă fZrmZ
2. lZnţZlZZ
ZZnemZZZZ

ÎnZhZs

dZZă mZşZZreZ
ZlZn elemenZelZr
esZe ZlZnă
DZZă
3. mZşZZreZ
elemenZelZr
dZZă mZşZZreZ
SZZţZZl elemenZelZr
esZe sZZţZZlă

Zele dZZă ZZrZZZerZsZZZZ ZmZZrZZnZe Zle lZnţZrZlZr ZZnemZZZZe sZnZ ZrmăZZZrele:

Def.:

3
- grZdZl de lZZerZZZe Zl lZnţZlZZ ZZnemZZZZ, L = nZmărZl ZZsZZZlZZăţZlZr elemenZZre de mZşZZre Zle ZZZZrZr elemenZelZr lZnţZlZZ (Zl
nZmărZlZZ de ZZZrdZnZZe neZesZre desZrZerZZ ZZZZrZr ZZesZZrZ);

DZZă nZZăm ZZ e nZmărZl de elemenZe şZ ZZ Zm Ze Zel de ZZZle de ZlZsă m Zle lZnţZlZZ, în ZZsenţZ ZnZr resZrZZţZZ ZZmZne vZm
ZveZ, evZdenZ:
5
L  6e   mc
m 1
m (2)

FZrmZlZ (2) se nZmeşZe fZrmZlZ sZrZZZZrZlă Z lZnţZrZlZr ZZnemZZZZe. În ZZzZl ZnZr lZnţZrZ ZZnemZZZZe ZlZne, ţZnând ZZnZ Ză
nZmărZl mZxZm de grZde de lZZerZZZe esZe 3, ZZr fZeZZre ZZZlă ZnZleZză (m - 3) grZde de lZZerZZZe, se ZZţZne ZrmăZZZreZ fZrmZlă
sZrZZZZrZlă Z lZnţZrZlZr ZZnemZZZZe ZlZne:
5
L  3e   (m  3)c
m4
m  3e  2c 5  c 4 (2')

Def.:
- mZZZlZZZZeZ (grZdZl de mZZZlZZZZe Zl) lZnţZlZZ ZZnemZZZZ, M = grZdZl de lZZerZZZe Zl lZnţZlZZ ZZnemZZZZ lZ ZZre se fZxeZză Zn
elemenZ;

VZm ZveZ deZZ:

M  L6 (3)
şZ, dZZă nZZăm ZZ n = e - 1 nZmărZl elemenZelZr mZZZle, ZZţZnem exZresZZ:
5
M  6n   mc
i 1
m (4)

Def.:
- lZnţ ZZnemZZZZ desmZdrZm = lZnţZl ZZnemZZZZ lZ ZZre, ZenZrZ Z ZZzZţZe dZZă Z ZnZZZ dZnZre elemenZele ZZnemZZZZe - nZmZZ
elemenZ ZZndZZăZZr - în rZZZrZ ZZ Zn elemenZ Zl lZnţZlZZ ZZnsZderZZ fZx, ZelelZlZe elemenZe ZZZZă
ZZzZţZZ ZZne (ZnZvZZ) deZermZnZZe.

ZsZfel, ZZnfZrm ZZesZeZ defZnZţZZ, dZZă se ZmZrZmă Z mZşZZre ZZreZZre ZnZZ elemenZ, ZZZZe ZelelZlZe vZr ZveZ mZşZărZ
ZZne deZermZnZZe.

SZZ. M4: MEZZNZSME - ZREZENZZRE GENERZLĂ

5. MeZZnZsme

5.1. NZţZZnZ generZle

Def. (ZrZn nZZle nZţZZnZ ZnZrZdZse):

- meZZnZsmZl = lZnţZl ZZnemZZZZ desmZdrZm ZZ Zn elemenZ fZx, nZmZZ ZZză.
- meZZnZsm-mZZZr = meZZnZsmZl ZărZZZ Z se ZreZZzeZză elemenZZl/elemenZele ZZndZZăZZr/ZZndZZăZZZre.

ZeZ mZZ mZre ZZZlZZZZe ZrZZZZZă Z Zre meZZnZsmZl mZZZr lZ ZZre elemenZZl ZZndZZăZZr esZe legZZ lZ ZZză.
ZlZsZfZZZreZ meZZnZsmelZr, ZrZn defZnZţZZ ZZesZZrZ, vZ fZ sZmZlZră ZZ ZeZ Z lZnţZrZlZr ZZnemZZZZe (ZZZelZl 4). Se
dZferenţZZză însă Z ZlZsZfZZZre Z meZZnZsmelZr dZZă fZrmZ ZZnsZrZZZZvă Z ZZesZZrZ, ZZnfZrm ZărZrZ s-ZZ delZmZZZZ ZrmăZZZrele
ZZZegZrZZ ZrZnZZZZle:
- meZZnZsme ZZ ZZre - fZrmZZe dZn elemenZe ZZnemZZZZe ZrZZZZlZZe; dZnZre ZZesZeZ Zele mZZ răsZândZZe sZnZ
meZZnZsmele ZlZne: meZZnZsmZl ZZZrZlZZer, meZZnZsmZl mZnZvelă-ZZsZZn şZ meZZnZsmZl
mZnZvelă-ZZlZsă;
- meZZnZsme ZZ ZZme - sZnZ meZZnZsmele ZZmZZse dZn ZreZ elemenZe ZZ denZmZrZ sZeZZfZZe: elemenZZl fZx 0, ZZmZ 1
şZ ZZZheZZl 2;
- meZZnZsme ZZ rZţZ dZnţZZe -ZZnsZZZZZZe dZn mZnZm dZZă rZţZ dZnţZZe de ZZnsZrZZţZe dZversă, Zvând ZZZZe Zxele de
rZZZţZe fZxe (meZZnZsme ZrdZnZre) sZZ Z ZZrZe mZZZle (meZZnZsme ZlZneZZre);
- meZZnZsme dZverse - meZZnZsmele ZZ ZrZZe de MZlZZ, meZZnZsme ZZ rZţZ de frZZţZZne eZZ.
DZZă rZlZl fZnZţZZnZl, elemenZele ZZmZZnenZe Zle meZZnZsmZlZZ ZZZ fZ:
- elemenZe mZZZZre (ZZndZZăZZZre) - ZrZmesZ mZşZZreZ dZn ZfZrZ meZZnZsmZlZZ;
- elemenZe ZZndZse (ZZmZndZZe) - mZşZZreZ ZZesZZrZ esZe deZendenZă de mZşZZreZ elemenZelZr ZZndZZăZZZre.
MeZZnZsmele ZZZ fZ fZrmZZe dZn lZnţZrZ ZZnemZZZZe desZhZse (ex.: rZZZţZ ZndZsZrZZlZ), dZn lZnţZrZ ZZnemZZZZe înZhZse
(ex.: ZrZnsmZsZZle meZZnZZe) sZZ ZZâZ dZn lZnţZrZ desZhZse, ZâZ şZ înZhZse. ZZ ZrZvZre lZ ZZesZ fZZZ se defZneşZe ZrmăZZZreZ
nZţZZne:

Def.:
- ZZnZZr Zl meZZnZsmZlZZ = lZnţ ZZnemZZZZ înZhZs ZlZăZZZZ dZn elemenZe ZZnemZZZZe ZZmZZnenZe Zle meZZnZsmZlZZ.

ZZs.:
ZreZZZe remZrZZZ Ză mZjZrZZZZeZ ZZnsZderZţZZlZr legZZe de ZZesZ ZsZeZZ fZZ ZZel ZZnsZsZenZ lZ nZţZZnZ de ZeZrZZ grZfZrZlZr.

5.2. FZmZlZZle meZZnZsmelZr

Def.:
- fZmZlZZ meZZnZsmZlZZ, f = nZmărZl resZrZZţZZlZr (ZZnsZrângerZlZr) ZZmZne ZZZZrZr elemenZelZr ZZesZZZZ.

DZZă Zn meZZnZsm esZe fZrmZZ dZn ZZnZZrZrZ de fZmZlZZ dZferZZe, în mZd ZZnvenţZZnZl se defZneşZe fZmZlZZ ZZZrenZă Z
meZZnZsmZlZZ resZeZZZv ZrZn relZţZZ:

4
 N

f
i 1
i
(5)
fa 
N
Znde N esZe nZmărZl de ZZnZZrZrZ, ZZr fZ esZe fZmZlZZ ZZnZZrZlZZ Z.
ZenZrZ mZjZrZZZZeZ meZZnZsmelZr, fZmZlZZ se ZZZZe deZermZnZ dZn ZnZlZzZ resZrZZţZZlZr ZZZZrZr elemenZelZr ZZnemZZZZe
ZZmZZnenZe rZZZrZZZe lZ ZZelZşZ sZsZem de referZnţă şZ sZZZZlZreZ ZelZr ZZmZne. ZzZZl, ZZeZsZă ZnZlZză se reZlZzeZză sZZ fZrmă
ZZZelZră, ZZeZsZZ ZermZţând ZZservZţZZ ZeZ mZZ fZZZlă ZZ ZrZvZre lZ resZrZZţZZle ZZmZne.
De exemZlZ:

ZZZel 5. ExemZle de sZZZZlZre Z fZmZlZeZ ZnZr meZZnZsme

MeZZnZsm
FZmZlZZ
DenZmZre ZnZlZzZ resZrZZţZZlZr ZZmZne
SZhemă ZZnemZZZZă meZZnZsmZlZZ
(desZrZere)
DeZlZsărZ ZZsZZZle = "•"
ElemenZ
ωx ωy ωz Zx Zy Zz
ŞZrZZ de •
ZeZersZZrg • • • 1
•
ResZrZZţZZ ZZmZne: ωx = 0
DeZlZsărZ ZZsZZZle = "•"
ElemenZ
MeZZnZsm ωx ωy ωz Zx Zy Zz
ZlZn •
sZZZZZ în
ZlZnZl Zxy
• • • 3
•
(R-RRR) ResZrZZţZZ ZZmZne: ωx = ωy = Zz = 0

5.3. MZZZlZZZZeZ (grZdZl de mZZZlZZZZe Zl) meZZnZsmelZr

Def.:
- mZZZlZZZZeZ (grZdZl de mZZZlZZZZe Zl) meZZnZsmZlZZ = nZmărZl ZZsZZZlZZăţZlZr sZle de mZşZZre sZZ Zl grZdelZr de lZZerZZZe Zle
elemenZelZr mZZZle în rZZZrZ ZZ elemenZZl fZx.

ZZs.:
DeZermZnZreZ mZZZlZZăţZZ ZnZZ meZZnZsm esZe Z ZZerZţZe ZZlZgZZZrZe, deZZreZe vZlZZreZ sZ ZrZZă dZZă meZZnZsmZl ZZnsZrZZZ fZnZţZZneZză ( M>0) sZZ nZ
(M=0 sZZ M<0) şZ ZndZZă nZmărZl elemenZelZr ZZndZZăZZZre neZesZre îndeZlZnZrZZ ZZndZţZeZ de desmZdrZmZe. ÎnZr-Zdevăr, ZZnfZrm defZnZţZeZ desmZdrZmZeZ,
ZsZgZrZreZ fZeZăreZ ZZsZZZlZZăţZ de mZşZZre ZmZZne Zn elemenZ ZZndZZăZZr; reZZZrZZ, fZeZZre elemenZ ZZndZZăZZr ZsZgZră Z ZZsZZZlZZZZe de mZşZZre.

ZrZZZreZ ZZesZeZ ZrZZleme în ZZdrZl meZZnZsmelZr se fZZe ţZnînd ZZnZ de dZZă mZrZ ZZZegZrZZ de meZZnZsme:

Z) meZZnZsme fără ZZnZZrZrZ ZnZerne (sZmZlZ):

- fără resZrZZţZZ ZZmZne Zle elemenZelZr: esZe grZdZl de mZZZlZZZZe Zl lZnţZlZZ ZZnemZZZZ resZeZZZv, sZrZs ZnZerZZr;
5
M  6n   mc
i 1
m (6)

- ZZ f resZrZZţZZ ZZmZne (meZZnZsm de fZmZlZe f): în ZZesZ ZZz, nZmărZl grZdelZr de lZZerZZZe Zl fZeZărZZ elemenZ
esZe 6 - f, ZZr Z ZZZlă ZZnemZZZZă de ZlZsă m vZ ZveZ nZmZZ m - f resZrZZţZZ, ZsZfel ZZ mZZZlZZZZeZ
meZZnZsmZlZZ vZ fZ dZZă de fZrmZlZ ZdZZZZZă (DZZrZvZlskZ)
5
M f  (6  f ) n   ( m  f )c
m  f 1
m (7)

De remZrZZZ Ză meZZnZsmele ZlZne ZZ fZmZlZZ f = 3.

Z) meZZnZsme ZZ ZZnZZrZrZ ZnZerne (ZZmZlex):

ZenZrZ deZermZnZreZ mZZZlZZăţZZ ZnZZ meZZnZsm ZZ N ZZnZZrZrZ se ţZne seZmZ de fZZZZl Ză Zn meZZnZsm ZZ j ZZnZZrZrZ
se ZZţZne dZnZr-Zn meZZnZsm ZZ j-1 ZZnZZrZrZ lZ ZZre se ZdZZgă Zn lZnţ ZZnemZZZZ desZhZs (sZmZlZ) ZZ nj elemenZe şZ Zj = nj + 1
ZZZle ZZnemZZZZe; Zvem deZZ:
c1  n1  1
c2  n2  1
...............
(8)
cN  nN  1
__________
c nN
Znde Z esZe nZmărZl ZZZZl de ZZZle ZZnemZZZZe, n nZmărZl ZZZZl de elemenZe. ZZ ZZeZsZă relZţZe, mZZZlZZZZeZ meZZnZsmZlZZ se
vZ sZrZe ZsZfel:

5
 5  5  5
M f  6n   mc m

 f n 

 
cm   6n 

 mcm  f ( n  c) 
m  f 1  m  f 1  m  f 1
(9)
5
 6n   mc
m  f 1
m  fN

5.4. ZZsZvZZZZe şZ mZlZZZlZZZZZZe

Def.:
- elemenZe/ZZZle ZZnemZZZZe ZZsZve (de ZrZsZs) = sZnZ elemenZe/ZZZle ZZnemZZZZe Zle meZZnZsmelZr ZZre ZZZ fZ ZdăZgZZe sZZ
elZmZnZZe fără Z se mZdZfZZZ mZZZlZZZZeZ reZlă Z ZZesZZrZ;
- ZZZle ZZnemZZZZe mZlZZZle = sZnZ ZZZle Zle meZZnZsmelZr în ZZre se înZâlnesZ mZZ mZlZ de dZZă elemenZe; dZZă nZZăm ZZ Z
nZmărZl de elemenZe ZnZZdenZ înZr-Z ZZZlă mZlZZZlă, ZZZnZZ ZZeZsZZ esZe eZhZvZlenZă ZZ Z -1 ZZZle
fZndZmenZZle.

De ZZesZe elemenZe ZreZZZe să se ţZnă ZZnZ în sZZZZlZreZ mZZZlZZăţZZ meZZnZsmelZr: elemenZele şZ ZZZlele ZZsZve
ZreZZZesZ elZmZnZZe, ZZr Zele mZlZZZle ZreZZZesZ desZZmZZse.

DZsZZţZZ şZ exemZle:
1. ElemenZele ZZnemZZZZe ZZsZve îndeZlZnesZ Zn ZrZZlZ rZl:
- ZZnsZlZdeZză meZZnZsmZl;
- ZşZreZză ZreZereZ ZrZn ZZzZţZZle exZreme;
- evZZă rZgZdZzZreZ (ZlZZZreZ) ZemZZrZră sZZ ZnversZreZ mZşZărZZ meZZnZsmZlZZ.
2. ZZnsZderăm meZZnZsmZl ZZZrZlZZer ZZnsZlZdZZ Z ZărZZ reZrezenZZre ZZnvenţZZnZlă esZe ZrezenZZZă în fZgZrZ ZrmăZZZre:

FZg. 1. MeZZnZsm ZZZrZlZZer ZZnsZlZdZZ

ZenZrZ ZZlZZlZl mZZZlZZăţZZ ZZesZZZ meZZnZsm ZZlZZăm fZrmZlZ (7). ŢZnem ZZnZ Ză meZZnZsmZl ZZnsZderZZ esZe ZlZn,
deZZ f = 3; Zvem ZZZZ n = 4 şZ Z4 = 0, Z5 = 6, ZsZfel Ză ZZţZnem:
M = 3·4 - 2·6 = 0
ZZeZsZZ Zr însemnZ, în ZrZnZZZZZ, Ză sZsZemZl resZeZZZv esZe rZgZd (nZ fZnZţZZneZză). În reZlZZZZe însă, meZZnZsmZl
resZeZZZv fZnZţZZneZză Zvând Z sZngZră mZşZZre deZermZnZZă ZenZrZ Zn sZngZr elemenZ ZZndZZăZZr. ZsZfel, elZmZnând elemenZZl
ZZnemZZZZ ZZsZv 4 îmZreZnă ZZ ZZZlele sZle Z şZ D şZ reZZlZZlând grZdZl de mZZZlZZZZe Zl meZZnZsmZlZZ, Zvem, de dZZZ ZZeZsZZ n
= 3 şZ Z4 = 0, Z5 = 4, ZsZfel Ză se ZZţZne:
M = 3·3 - 2·4 = 1
ZeeZ Ze ZZresZZnde ZZ reZlZZZZeZ.
3. Zele mZZ ZZnZsZZZe elemenZe ZZ mZşZZre de ZrZsZs sZnZ rZlele. Ele sZnZ ZnZrZdZse în ZZnsZrZZţZZ meZZnZsmelZr ZenZrZ Z
redZZe freZZreZ ZrZn înlZZZZreZ freZărZZ de ZlZneZZre ZZ ZeZ de rZsZZgZlZre, fără Z ZnflZenţZ ZZrZZZerZl mZşZărZZ meZZnZsmZlZZ..

SZZ. M5: GRZZE MZDZLZRE (ZZNEMZZZZE)

SZZdZZl ZZnemZZZZ şZ ZZneZZsZZZZZ Zl meZZnZsmelZr ZmZZne ZdZZZZreZ ZnZZ sZsZem ZnZZZr de ZlZsZfZZZre Z
meZZnZsmelZr ZZre ZZZr în ZehnZZă înZr-Z mZre vZrZeZZZe ZZnsZrZZZZvă. Z ZsZfel de ZlZsZfZZZre Zre lZ ZZză nZţZZneZ de grZZă
sZrZZZZrZlă (grZZă mZdZlZră, grZZă ZZnemZZZZă, grZZă ZssZr - dZZă nZmele ZelZZ Ze Z ZrZZZs ZZeZsZă ZlZsZfZZZre).

6. LZnţZrZ ZZnemZZZZe fZndZmenZZle - nZţZZnZ generZle

Def.:
- lZnţZrZle ZZnemZZZZe fZndZmenZZle = ZZele lZnţZrZ ZZnemZZZZe ZZre ZZnţZn dZZr ZZZle ZZnemZZZZe de ZlZsă V, ZdZZă R
şZ Z.

ZenZrZ ZsZfel de lZnţZrZ mZZZlZZZZeZ vZ fZ dZZă de relZţZZ:

M f  6n  5c  fN (10)
şZ, înlZZZZnd Z = n + N se ZZţZne
M f  n  N (5  f ) (11)
LZnţZrZle ZZnemZZZZe fZndZmenZZle ZlZne (f = 3) vZr ZveZ grZdZl de mZZZlZZZZe exZrZmZZ ZrZn relZţZZ:
M 3  n  2N (12)
ZZ ZrZvZre lZ exZsZenţZ ZneZ legăZZrZ înZre ZZesZeZ şZ lZnţZrZle ZZnemZZZZe generZle, Zvem ZrmăZZZreZ ZeZremă
fZndZmenZZlă Z ZeZrZeZ meZZnZsmelZr:
Zh. de eZhZvZlenţă Z ZZZlelZr ZZnemZZZZe (GrZeZler, HZrZsZerger): Z ZZZlă ZZnemZZZZă de ZlZsă k se
ZZZZe înlZZZZ ZZ Zn lZnţ ZZnemZZZZ sZmZlZ desZhZs, fZrmZZ dZn (5 - k) elemenZe legZZe înZre ele ZrZn (6 - k)
ZZZle ZZnemZZZZe fZndZmenZZle de ZlZsă Z ZZnZeZ (R şZ Z).

6
 7. GrZZe mZdZlZre (ZZnemZZZZe)

Def.:
- GrZZele mZdZlZre (ZZnemZZZZe) = lZnţZrZ ZZnemZZZZe fZndZmenZZle ZZ mZZZlZZZZeZ M dZn ZZre se elZmZnă Zn elemenZ.

ZenZrZ M = 0 se ZZţZn grZZele ZZnemZZZZe ZZsZve, ZZr ZenZrZ M = 1 grZZele ZZnemZZZZe mZZZZre (ZZZZve).

ZZzZl meZZnZsmelZr ZlZne:

În ZZesZ ZZz, dZn relZţZZle ZreZedenZe ZZţZnem ZrmăZZZrele relZţZZ nZmerZZe ZenZrZ ZZţZnereZ grZZelZr ZZnemZZZZe:
n  M  2n
(13)
c  M  3N
ZZ ZrmZre vZm ZveZ:
- grZZe ZZnemZZZZe ZZsZve (M = 0) ZmZZrZZnZe:
- dZZdZ (N = 1, n = 2, Z = 3) - se ZZţZne dZn lZnţZl ZZnemZZZZ fZndZmenZZl zerZmZZZl ZZ ZreZ elemenZe, ZrZn
elZmZnZreZ ZnZZ elemenZ; dZsZZngem 5 ZZZZrZ:

FZg. 2. ZZZZrZle dZZdeZ

- ZrZZdZ (N = 2, Z = 6, n = 4) - se ZZţZne dZn lZnţZl ZZnemZZZZ fZndZmenZZl zerZmZZZl ZZ ZZnZZ elemenZe, ZrZn
elZmZnZreZ ZnZZ elemenZ de rZng j = 3;
- ZeZrdZ (N = 2, Z = 6, n = 5) - se ZZţZne dZn ZZelZşZ lZnţ ZZnemZZZZ fZndZmenZZl zerZmZZZl ZZ ZZnZZ elemenZe, ZrZn
elZmZnZreZ ZnZZ elemenZ de rZng j = 2:

FZg. 3. ZZţZnereZ ZrZZdeZ şZ ZeZrZdeZ dZn lZnţZl fZndZmenZZl zerZmZZZl ZZ ZZnZZ elemenZe

- grZZele mZdZlZre mZZZZre (M = 1) ZmZZrZZnZe sZnZ:

- mZZZelemenZZl (M = 1, N = 1, n = 1, Z = 1) - fZg. 4, Z;
- mZZZdZZdZ (M = 1, N = 1, n = 3, Z = 4) - fZg. 4, Z.

FZg. 4. GrZZe mZdZlZre mZZZZre (M = 1)

8. FZrmZreZ şZ desZZmZZnereZ meZZnZsmelZr

ZrZn fZrmZreZ meZZnZsmelZr se înţelege legZreZ meZZnZZă Z mZZ mZlZe grZZe ZZnemZZZZe în vedereZ ZZnsZZZZZrZZ ZnZZ
meZZnZsm ZZmZlex, ZZ mZZZlZZZZe dZZă şZ ZrezenZând mZşZărZle desmZdrZme dZrZZe. Z ZsZfel de ZZerZţZe resZeZZă, de regZlă,
ZâZevZ regZlZ:
- grZZele ZZsZve nZ se leZgă ZZ ZZZZe ZZZlele exZerZZZre lZ ZZelZşZ elemenZ;
- Zel ZZţZn Z grZZă mZdZlZră mZZZZre se leZgă ZZ ZZZZe ZZZlele exZerZZZre lZ ZZză.
ZrZn desZZmZZnereZ ZnZZ meZZnZsm se înţelege ZZnsZrZZţZZ meZZnZsmZlZZ eZhZvZlenZ ZZesZZZZ, dZr ZlZăZZZZ nZmZZ dZn
grZZe ZZnemZZZZe. Z ZsZfel de ZZerZţZe esZe deZseZZZ de ZZZlă în ZnZlZzZ geZmeZrZZă, ZZnemZZZZă, ZZneZZsZZZZZă ZrZ dZnZmZZă
Z ZnZZ meZZnZsm. ExZsZă ZâZevZ eZZZe de reZlZzZre Ze ZZre le vZm ZrmZ şZ nZZ în ZnZlZzZ ZZZmeZZnZsmZlZZ ZenZZrZZ sZZZZlZre:
- se înZZZmeşZe sZhemZ ZZnemZZZZă Z meZZnZsmZlZZ;
- se înZZZmeşZe sZhemZ sZrZZZZrZlă Z meZZnZsmZlZZ fZndZmenZZl;
- se seZZră elemenZele mZZZZre legZZe lZ ZZză;
- se ZdenZZfZZă ZelelZlZe grZZe mZdZlZre.

SZZ. M6: ZNZLZZZ ZZNEMZZZZĂ Z MEZZNZSMELZR ZLZNE ZZ ZZRE

10. ZnZlZzZ ZZnemZZZZă şZ dZnZmZZă (ZZneZZsZZZZZă) Z meZZnZsmelZr: ZsZeZZe generZle

În ZZdrZl ZneZ ZsZfel de ZnZlZze se sZZdZZză ZZzZţZZle, vZZezele şZ ZZZelerZţZZle elemenZelZr ZZndZse Zle meZZnZsmZlZZ
ZZnsZderZZ (fără Z ţZne seZmZ de fZrţele ZZre le deZermZnă), ZZnZsZând mZşZZreZ elemenZZlZZ ZZndZZăZZr (sZZ Z elemenZelZr
ZZndZZăZZZre).
ZZesZe mărZmZ sZnZ neZesZre ZenZrZ:

7
 Z) DeZermZnZreZ ZrZZeZZZrZZlZr desZrZse de ZZnZZele ZZrZZZerZsZZZe Zle meZZnZsmZlZZ ZenZrZ Zn ZZZlZ ZZnemZZZZ esZe
neZesZră ZZâZ în vedereZ dZmensZZnărZZ ZnsZmZlZrZlZr mZşZnZZ - ZZre nZ ZreZZZe să vZnă în ZZnZZZZ ZZ elemenZele
meZZnZsmZlZZ ZjZnse în ZZzZţZZ exZreme - ZâZ şZ ZenZrZ sZZZZlZreZ gZZZrZZZlZZ Ze ZrmeZză Z fZ ZZZZZZ de meZZnZsm în
ZZdrZl mZşZnZZ (de ex.: ZnZlZzZ ZrZZeZZZrZZlZr desZrZse de dZversele ZZnZZe Zle meZZnZsmZlZZ mZnZvelă-ZZsZZn în rZZZrZ
ZZ ZZrZerZl mZşZnZZ);
Z) ZZnZZşZereZ vZZezelZr dZferZZelZr ZZnZZe şZ elemenZe Zle meZZnZsmZlZZ esZe ZZZlă:
- dZreZZ, ZenZrZ sZZZZlZreZ vZZezeZ de deZlZsZre Z mZşZnZZ dZn ZZre fZZe ZZrZe meZZnZsmZl (ex.: vehZZZle rZZZere, de
ZZle ferZZă eZZ.) sZZ ZenZrZ ZZlZZlZl vZZezeZ ZehnZlZgZZe de deZlZsZre Z elemenZZlZZ ZZndZs (ex.: vZZezZ de ZşZhZere
lZ mZşZnZle-ZnelZe);
- ZndZreZZ, ZenZrZ ZZlZZlZl de dZmensZZnZre Zl elemenZelZr ZZnemZZZZe şZ sZZdZZl dZnZmZZ Zl meZZnZsmZlZZ,
deZZreZe deZermZnZreZ vZZezelZr ZreZede sZZZZlZreZ ZZZelerZţZZlZr;
Z) SZZdZZl ZZZelerZţZZlZr dZferZZelZr ZZnZZe şZ elemenZe ZZnemZZZZe Zle meZZnZsmZlZZ esZe neZesZr deZermZnărZZ fZrţelZr
de ZnerţZe ZZre, lZ mZşZnZle ZZ ZZrZţZZ mZrZ, ZZZng vZlZrZ fZZrZe rZdZZZZe.
ExZsZă mZZ mZlZe meZZde de ZnZlZză ZZnemZZZZă Z meZZnZsmelZr: meZZdZ grZfZZZ, meZZdZ grZfZZnZlZZZZă, meZZdZ
NewZZn-RZZhsZn eZZ. În ZrezenZ, ZZ ZrmZre Z dezvZlZărZZ şZ ZZZlZzărZZ Ze sZZră lZrgă Z ZZmZZZerelZr, s-Z generZlZzZZ meZZdZ
ZnZlZZZZă, meZZdă Ze ZresZZZne sZZdZZl meZZnZsmZlZZ ZZ sZsZem de sZlZde rZgZde ZnZerZZneZZZZe, ZZreZZre. ZZZlZzZreZ
ZZlZZlZZZZrelZr Z fZZZlZZZZ însă şZ ZZZrdZreZ meZZdelZr grZfZZnZlZZZZe (grZfZZă ZsZsZZZă), ZrZn fZlZsZreZ în sZeZZZl Z ZrZdZselZr
ZZD (ZZmZZZer ZZded DesZgn). ZZZlZzZreZ ZZesZZrZ ZermZZe exeZZZZreZ ZZnsZrZZţZZlZr geZmeZrZZe Ze de-Z ZZrZe şZ redZreZ
ZZZrdZnZZelZr ZrZZărZZ ZZnZZ ZndZZZZ. ZZ ZrmZre, meZZdele grZfZZe, deZseZZZe ZrZn sZmZlZZZZeZ lZr, devZn ZZZZZle şZ, în ZZelZşZ
ZZmZ "ZnZlZZZZe", ZrZn ZZZlZzZreZ ZrZdZselZr ZZD.
Zvând în vedere fZZZZl Ză meZZnZsmele se ZZZ desZZmZZne în grZZe sZrZZZZrZle, ZnZlZzZ ZZnemZZZZă se redZZe lZ sZZdZZl
ZZesZZr grZZe, ZZ sZZZZl deZermZnărZZ ZrZZeZZZrZZlZr, vZZezelZr lZnZZre şZ Z ZZZelerZţZZlZr lZnZZre Zle dZverselZr ZZnZZe
ZZrZZZerZsZZZe meZZnZsmZlZZ, ZreZZm şZ Z vZZezelZr şZ ZZZelerZţZZlZr ZnghZZlZre Zle elemenZelZr ZZnemZZZZe.
În Zele Ze ZrmeZză, dZZZrZZă ZsZeZZelZr dZsZZZZZe ZZZZ, se vZ reZlZzZ ZnZlZzZ ZZnemZZZZă Z dZZdeZ RRR (meZZnZsm ZlZn)
ZrZn meZZdZ ZnZlZZZZă (Z ZrZZeZţZZlZr).

11. RelZţZZ ZZnemZZZZe dZn sZZdZZl ZnZlZZZZ Zl meZZnZsmelZr

11.2. SZZdZZl mZşZărZZ ZlZn-ZZrZlele Z elemenZelZr meZZnZsmZlZZ ZlZn

DZsZrZZZţZZ vZZezelZr în meZZnZsm

DZZă ZZm se şZZe dZn meZZnZZZ sZlZdZlZZ rZgZd, dZsZrZZZţZZ vZZezelZr înZr-Zn elemenZ ZflZZ în mZşZZre ZlZn-ZZrZlelă esZe

dZZă de relZţZZ lZZ EZler. ZsZfel, dZZă Z şZ Z sZnZ dZZă ZZnZZe ZZreZZre Zle elemenZZlZZ, ZZr  esZe vZZezZ ZnghZZlZră Z
ZZesZZZZ (ZerZendZZZlZr Ze ZlZnZl mZşZărZZ), ZZZnZZ Zvem relZţZZ:
  
v B  v A    AB (14)
ZzZZl se nZZeZză
 
v BA    AB (15)
şZ
  
v B  v A  v BA (16)


FZg. 5. VZZezZ v BA

EsZe ZZZl de şZZZZ Ză vZZezZ v BA Zre ZrmăZZZrele ZrZZrZeZăţZ:
- esZe ZerZendZZZlZră Ze AB ;

- rZZeşZe segmenZZl ZZ în jZrZl ZZnZZZlZZ Z în sensZl dZZ de vZZezZ ZnghZZlZră  ;
- sZZZsfZZe relZţZZ sZZlZră v BA    AB .
MZşZărZ ZZrZZZZlZre:

- mZşZZreZ de rZZZţZe: ZZnsZderând ZZnZZZl Z dreZZ ZenZrZ de rZZZţZe (ZZz ZzZZl), ZZZnZZ v A  0 şZ se ZZţZne
 
v B    AB , v B    AB (17)
  
- mZşZZreZ de ZrZnslZţZe: Zvem în ZZesZ ZZz  0 şZ ZZZnZZ vB  v A
(18)

DZsZrZZZţZZ ZZZelerZţZZlZr în meZZnZsm

ZZresZZnzăZZr, ZZeZsZă dZsZrZZZţZe esZe dZZă de relZţZZ lZZ RZvZls; în ZZzZl mZşZărZZ ZlZn-ZZrZlele ZZeZsZZ devZne:
  
a B  a A   2 AB    AB (20)

 fZZnd ZZZelerZţZZ ZnghZZlZră. ZzZZl, nZZZţZZle în ZZesZ ZZz sZnZ relZZZv lZ sZZZZţZZ nZrmZlă, resZeZZZv ZZngenţZZlă relZZZv lZ
dreZZZZ ZZ:

aBA   2 AB (21)
 
a BA    AB (22)
Se ZZţZne relZţZZ ZZnemZZZZă
   
a B  a A  aBA  a BA (23)

8
  
FZg. 6. ZZZelerZţZZle a BA , a BA

ZZZelerZţZZ nZrmZlă se ZZZZră de ZrZZrZeZăţZle:

- Zre sensZl de lZ Z sZre Z;
- sZZZsfZZe relZţZZ sZZlZră  2
a BA    AB;
ZZr ZZZelerZţZZ ZZngenţZZlă:
- esZe ZerZendZZZlZră Ze AB ;

- rZZeşZe segmenZZl ZZ în jZrZl ZZnZZZlZZ Z în sensZl dZZ de vZZezZ ZnghZZlZră  ;
- sZZZsfZZe relZţZZ sZZlZră a AB    AB .
MZşZărZ ZZrZZZZlZre:

- mZşZZreZ de rZZZţZe: ZZnsZderând ZZnZZZl Z dreZZ ZenZrZ de rZZZţZe (ZZz ZzZZl), ZZZnZZ aA  0 şZ se ZZţZne
    
a B   2 AB    AB a B  aB  a B aB   2  AB a A    AB (24)
   
- mZşZZreZ de ZrZnslZţZe: Zvem în ZZesZ ZZz 0 ,   0 şZ ZZZnZZ aB  a A
(25)

11.2. SZZdZZl mZşZărZZ relZZZve (ZnZl în rZZZrZ ZZ ZlZZl) Z elemenZelZr meZZnZsmZlZZ ZlZn

DZsZrZZZţZZ vZZezelZr în meZZnZsm

MZşZZreZ relZZZvă ZrezZnZă ZZrZZZZlZrZZăţZ în ZZzZl exZsZenţeZ ZZZlelZr ZZnemZZZZe de ZrZnslZţZe şZ Z ZZZlelZr
sZZerZZZre. În Zele Ze ZrmeZză se vZ ZZnsZderZ în sZeZZZl ZZZlZ ZZnemZZZZă de ZrZnslZţZe.
SZZdZZl mZşZărZZ relZZZve ZZndZZe lZ fZrmZlZ de ZZmZZnere Z vZZezelZr:
  
v a  vt  v r (26)
Znde ZndZZZZ semnZfZZă: Z - mZşZZre ZZsZlZZă, Z - mZşZZre de ZrZnsZZrZ, r - mZşZZre relZZZvă.

FZg. 7. MZşZZreZ relZZZvă în ZZZlZ de ZrZnslZţZe

ZZnsZderăm ZZzZl generZl în ZZre elemenZZl 2 Zre mZşZZre relZZZvă fZţă de elemenZZl 1. Zvem, ZZnfZrm nZZZţZZlZr ZnZerZZZre:
     
v a  v A2 , vt  v A1 , v r  v A2 A1 (27)

ZsZfel Ză relZţZZ (26) devZne:

  
v A2  v A1  v A2 A1 (28)

VZZezZ relZZZvă v A2 A1 esZe, evZdenZ, în lZngZl sZZZrZZlZZ (Δ), deZZreZe elemenZZl 2 nZ ZZZZe lZneZZ deZâZ în lZngZl
elemenZZlZZ 1.
DZZă se sZZdZZză mZşZZreZ elemenZZlZZ 1 fZţă de 2, ZZZnZZ se ZZţZne relZţZZ:
  
v A1  v A2  v A1 A2 (29)
 
Znde v A1 A2  v A2 A1 .

DZsZrZZZţZZ ZZZelerZţZZlZr în meZZnZsm

SZZdZZl mZşZărZZ relZZZve ZenZrZ ZZelZşZ meZZnZsm ZZndZZe lZ ZrmăZZZreZ fZrmZlă de ZZmZZnere Z ZZZelerZţZZlZr:
   
a a  at  a r  aC (30)
Znde ZndZZZZ semnZfZZă: Z - mZşZZre ZZsZlZZă, Z - mZşZZre de ZrZnsZZrZ, r - mZşZZre relZZZvă, Z - efeZZ ZZrZZlZs. DZZă ZZm se
ZrZZă, ZZZelerZţZZ ZZrZZlZs Zre exZresZZ:
  
a C  2  v r (31)

 fZZnd ZZZZ ZZZelerZţZZ ZnghZZlZră Z dreZZeZ sZZZrZ (Δ).
În nZZZţZZ sZmZlZre ZelZr ZnZerZZZre, ţZnând ZZnZ de semnZfZZZţZZ ZelZr ZZZrZ ZZZelerZţZZ,
         
a a  a A2 , a t  a A1 , a r  a A2 A1 , aC  a C
A
 2  v A2 A1 (32)
2 A1

ZZţZnem ZenZrZ ZZZelerZţZZ ZZsZlZZă Z ZZnZZZlZZ Z2 exZresZZ:

   
a A2  a A1  a A2 A1  a C
A (33)
2 A1

9
 DZZă se sZZdZZză mZşZZreZ elemenZZlZZ 1 fZţă de 2, ZZZnZZ se ZZţZne relZţZZ:
   
a A1  a A2  a A1 A2  a C
AA (34)
1 2

Znde
       
a A1 A2   a A2 A1 , aCAA
 a C
A
 2  v A2 A1  2  v A1 A2 (35)
1 2 2 A1

SZZ. M7: ZNZLZZZ ZZNEMZZZZĂ Z DZZDEZ

RRR

12. ZnZlZzZ ZZnemZZZZă Z dZZdeZ RRR

12.1. FZrmZlZreZ ZrZZlemeZ

VZm ZZnsZderZ în ZZnZZnZZre dZZdZ ZZZ dZn fZgZrZ 8:

FZg. 8. DZZdZ RRR

ZnZlZzZ ZZnemZZZZă Z ZZesZZZ meZZnZsm revZne lZ ZrmăZZZreZ ZrZZlemă de meZZnZZZ sZsZemelZr de sZlZde rZgZde:
DZZe: - ZZzZţZZle ZZnZZelZr Z, Z şZ lZngZmeZ segmenZelZr ZZ şZ ZZ, l 2 , resZeZZZv l 3 ;
 
- vZZezele ZZnZZelZr Z şZ Z, vA , resZeZZZv vC ;
 
- ZZZelerZţZZle ZZnZZelZr Z şZ Z, aA , resZeZZZv aC .
ZerZnţe: - ZZzZţZZ ZZnZZZlZZ Z şZ, evenZZZl, ZZzZţZZ ZnZZ ZZnZZ K Ze ZZZrţZn elemenZelZr 2, resZeZZZv 3;
 
- vZZezele ZnghZZlZre Zle elemenZelZr 2 şZ 3, 2 , resZeZZZv 3 ;
- vZZezZ ZZnZZZlZZ Z şZ, evenZZZl, vZZezZ ZZnZZZlZZ K;
 
- ZZZelerZţZZle ZnghZZlZre Zle elemenZelZr 2 şZ 3,  2 , resZeZZZv  3 ;
- ZZZelerZţZZ ZZnZZZlZZ Z şZ, evenZZZl, ZZZelerZţZZ ZZnZZZlZZ K.

RZZZrZând ZZZm dZZdZ lZ Zn sZsZem de Zxe reZZZngZlZre Zxy, ZrZZlemZ se ZZne ZsZfel:

FZg. 9. ReZrezenZZreZ sZhemZZZZă Z dZZdeZ RRR în vedereZ ZnZlZzeZ ZZnemZZZZe ZrZn meZZdZ ZnZlZZZZă

ZZ ZZeZsZă reZrezenZZre, ZrZZlemZ se refZemZleZză ZsZfel:

DZZe: - sZrZZZZrZ dZZdeZ: ZZZrdZnZZele ZZnZZelZr Z şZ Z,  x A , y A  , resZeZZZv  xC , y C  , şZ lZngZmeZ segmenZelZr ZZ şZ ZZ,
l 2 , resZeZZZv l 3 ;
 
- vZZezele ZZnZZelZr Z şZ Z, vA , resZeZZZv vC ;
 
- ZZZelerZţZZle ZZnZZelZr Z şZ Z, aA , resZeZZZv aC ;

- K - Zn ZZnZZ Zl elemenZZlZZ 3 ZenZrZ ZZre se ZZnZsZ dZsZZnţele KZ şZ KZ, l KB , resZeZZZv l KC .

ZerZnţe: - ZZZrdZnZZele  xB , yB  Zle ZZnZZZlZZ Z ;

 
- vZZezele ZnghZZlZre Zle elemenZelZr 2 şZ 3, 2 , resZeZZZv 3 ;
- vZZezZ ZZnZZZlZZ Z şZ vZZezZ ZZnZZZlZZ K;
 
- ZZZelerZţZZle ZnghZZlZre Zle elemenZelZr 2 şZ 3,  2 , resZeZZZv  3 ;
- ZZZelerZţZZ ZZnZZZlZZ Z şZ ZZZelerZţZZ ZZnZZZlZZ K.

12.2. ZnZlZzZ ZZzZţZZlZr

10
 DZermZnZreZ ZZzZţZeZ dZZdeZ lZ Zn mZmenZ dZZ se redZZe, ZZnfZrm sZrZZZZrZZ ZZesZeZZ, lZ deZermZnZreZ ZnghZZrZlZr 1
şZ  2 . ZenZrZ ZZeZsZZ Zvem :
► AC  CB  BC  l AC   xC  x A  2   yC  y A  2

2 l 22  l AC
2
 l 32
- Zh. ZZZZgZrZ generZlZzZZă în ΔZZZ: l 3  l 22  l AC
2
 2l 2 l AC cos  A   A  arccos
2l 2 l AC
yC  y A yC  y A
- Zh. ZZZZgZrZ în ΔZZ'Z: tg  AC    AC  arctg
xC  x A xC  x A
-  2   AC   A ;
(36)

2 l 32 2
 l AC  l 22
- Zh. ZZZZgZrZ generZlZzZZă în ΔZZZ: l 2  l 32  l AC
2
 2l 3l AC cos  C   C  arccos
2l 3 l AC
-  3   AC   C ;
x B  x A  l 2 cos  2
- .
y B  y A  l 2 sin  2

12.3. ZnZlZzZ vZZezelZr

RelZţZZ EZler (14) ne dă ZenZrZ vZZezZ ZZnZZZlZZ Z în rZZZrZ ZZ ZZnZZZl Z şZ ZZZZ Z relZţZZle:
    
v B  v A   2  AB  v C   3  CB (37)
ZrZZeZZând ZlZZmZ egZlZZZZe Ze Zxele de ZZZrdZnZZe ZZrZezZene, ZZţZnem sZsZemZl de 2 eZZZţZZ lZnZZre ZZ neZZnZsZZZele
 2 , 3 :

v Ax   2  y B  y A   vCx  3  y B  yC 

v Ax   2  x B  x A   vCx  3  x B  xC 
(38)

ZZţZnem de ZZZZ exZresZZle vZZezelZr ZnghZZlZre:

 vCx  v Ax  x B  xC   vCy  v Ay  y B  y C 
2 
 x B  x A  y B  y C    x B  xC  y B  y A 
 vCx  v Ax  x B  x A   vCy  v Ay  y B  y A 
(39)

3 
 x B  x A  y B  y C    x B  xC  y B  y A 
VZZezele ZZnZZZlZZ Z vZr fZ ZZZnZZ dZZe de relZţZZ (37), în ZZre ZZZm vZZezele ZnghZZlZre sZnZ ZZnZsZZZe:
v Bx  v Ax   2  y B  y A 
v By  v Ay   2  x B  x A 
(40)

12.4. ZnZlZzZ ZZZelerZţZZlZr

ZnZlZg ZnZlZzeZ vZZezelZr, relZţZZ RZvZls (20) ne dă ZenZrZ ZZZelerZţZZ ZZnZZZlZZ Z în rZZZrZ ZZ ZZnZZZl Z şZ ZZZZ Z
relZţZZle:
    
a B  a A   2  AB   22 AB  a C   3  CB   32 CB (41)
ZrZZeZZând ZlZZmZ egZlZZZZe Ze Zxele de ZZZrdZnZZe ZZrZezZene, ZZţZnem sZsZemZl de 2 eZZZţZZ lZnZZre ZZ neZZnZsZZZele
 2 ,3 :

  2  y B  y A    3  y B  yC   Ax

 2  x B  x A    3  x B  xC   Ay
(42)

Znde Zm nZZZZ mărZmZle ZZnZsZZZe:

11
  Ax  aCx  a Ax   22  x B  x A    32  x B  xC 

 (43)

 Ay  aCy  a Ay   2  y B  y A    3  y B  yC 
2 2

ZZţZnem de ZZZZ exZresZZle ZZZelerZţZZlZr ZnghZZlZre:

Ax  x B  x C   A y  y B  y C 
2 
 x B  x A  y B  y C    x B  xC  y B  y A 
(44)
Ax  x B  x A   A y  y B  y A 
3 
 x B  x A  y B  yC    x B  xC  y B  y A 
ZZZelerZţZZle ZZnZZZlZZ Z vZr fZ ZZZnZZ dZZe de relZţZZ (41), în ZZre ZZZm ZZZelerZţZZle ZnghZZlZre sZnZ ZZnZsZZZe:
  
a Bx  a Ax   2 y B  y A   22 x B  x A 
(45)
  
a By  a Ay   2 x B  x A   22 y B  y A 
12.5. ElemenZele ZZnemZZZZe Zle ZZnZZZlZZ ZrZZZrZr K

- deZermZnZreZ ZZzZţZeZ ZZnZZZlZZ K:

2
2 l BK  l 32  l CK
2
- Zh. ZZZZgZrZ generZlZzZZă în ΔZZK (fZg. 8): l CK  l 32  l BK
2
 2l 3 l BK cos  B   B  arccos
2l 3 l BK
x K  x B  l BK cos 3   B 
y K  y B  l BK sin  3   B 
-

(46)
- deZermZnZreZ vZZezelZr: ZZnfZrm relZţZeZ EZler (40), sZrZsă ZenZrZ ZZZZZl K în rZZZrZ ZZ ZZnZZZl Z, ZZţZnem
v Kx  v Bx   3  y K  y B 
v Ky  v By   3  x K  x B 
(47)

- deZermZnZreZ ZZZelerZţZZlZr: ZZnfZrm relZţZeZ RZvZls (45), sZrZsă ZenZrZ ZZZZZl K în rZZZrZ ZZ ZZnZZZl Z, ZZţZnem
 
a Kx  a Bx   3 y K  y B   32 x K  x B 
(45)
 
a Ky  a Ky   3 x K  x B   32 y K  y B 

12