Oscillations

Discipline Course-I
Semester -I
Paper: Oscllations and Waves
Lesson: Oscillations
Lesson Developer: V.S. Bhasin (Retd.), Amit Kumar
College/Department: Deptt. Of Physics & Astrophysics,
University of Delhi

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 Oscillations

Oscillations and Waves

1.1 Simple Harmonic Motion: Basic Characteristics

To understand the essential features of SHM, consider an idealized model, of a spring

mass system, as an example of a simple harmonic oscillator.

Fig.1.1

A spring-mass system consists of an object of mass m, attached to a horizontal

spring of negligible mass, whose free end is fixed to a rigid support, S. ( Figure: 1.1). As
shown in the figure, the object lies flat on a horizontal frictionless table. Choose the x-axis
along the length of the spring. If the spring is unstretched, the object is at rest at its
equilibrium position, which is defined as x = 0 (Fig.1.1 (a)). When the object is pulled
towards right to the position x the spring is stretched. Due to elasticity a restoring force
comes into play, which tends to bring the object back towards the equilibrium position (Fig.
1.1 (b)). If the spring were compressed, the restoring force would tend to extend the
spring and restore the object back to its equilibrium position (Fig.1.1 (c)). The more the
spring is stretched or compressed, the more is the restoring force acting in a direction
always opposite to the displacement. As long as the displacement is small compared to the
original length, the magnitude of the restoring force is linearly proportional to the
displacement. Mathematically we write

Frestoring = - k x (1.1)

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The negative sign in the equation above indicates that the restoring force opposes the
displacement. The quantity k is called the force constant or spring constant of the spring.
It is numerically equal to the magnitude of restoring force per unit displacement. Its S.I.
unit is Nm-1. The value of k is a measure of the stiffness of the spring. Stiff springs have
larger k values and weak springs have smaller k values.

Q.1 If the spring in Fig. 1.1 is stretched by 4 cm, on applying a force of 2N, what is the
spring constant? How much will the spring be compressed by a force of 2.5N?

Ans. Spring constant, k = Force/displacement

= 2 N 4 ´ 10 -2 m = 0.5 ´ 10 2 Nm -1
= 50 Nm -1
1
The spring compressed will be = 2.5 N / 50 Nm -1 = m
20
 5 cm

Q.2 When the block in Fig 1.1 is displaced to the right of equilibrium position i.e. the
displacement is positive.
(a) What are the corresponding directions of the restoring force and the acceleration?
(b) At the equilibrium position, the displacement equals zero. What are the acceleration and
the restoring force at this position?
(c) If the acceleration is zero at x = 0, what can one say about the velocity?

Ans. (a) Both the acceleration and the restoring force are negative.
(b) Both the acceleration and the restoring force are zero.
dn
(c) Acceleration means = 0 . This implies that ν can be maximum.
dt

We now try to understand the basic cause of the oscillations of a spring mass
system. We observe that as we pull the object, the spring gets stretched. The restoring
force tends to bring the object back towards the equilibrium position. In this process, it
acquires kinetic energy, which makes the object to overshoot the equilibrium position. This
is because of the inertia of the body coming into play. Now, as the object overshoots, and
moves to the other side, the spring gets compressed. The object is now again acted upon by
the restoring force but in the opposite direction. It will now tend to repeat the process from
the other end. Thus the oscillatory motion sets in, and if no other (damping) force is acting,
the spring mass system can, in principle, oscillate forever (indefinitely). Clearly, the
oscillatory motion results from two intrinsic properties of the system; (i) elasticity and (ii)
inertia.

We summarize the above discussion as follows: When a body is under the effect of a
linear restoring force, the body follows a special type of oscillatory motion called simple
harmonic motion. A system, undergoing simple harmonic motion, is called a simple
harmonic oscillator.

Value Addition: Analogy

Heading: Quarks Force and SHM
Body:
Voice over: The force between two quarks, which are the constituents of the neutrons, the
protons, and the building block of matter, is of spring type. At the unstretched position,

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 Oscillations

when the two quarks are close together, there is hardly any force. But at relatively large
distances when there is some stretching, a restoring force comes into play. This becomes
more and more as the relative distance between them increases. It is because of this
reason that quarks are always confined and cannot exist as free entities.

Animation Step1: three quarks bound in a proton

Step 2: green quark is coming closer to red quark and the spring is squeezed

Step 3: blue quark goes away from both red and green quark and the spring is being

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 Oscillations

stretched.

Animation steps: Show the random motion of three balls within big ball and thus the
stretching and squeezing of springs. Also show that after certain stretch it rebounces back
due to spring stretch limit.

Value Addition: Did you know

Heading: Inertia in SHM

Body:

How does inertia of the body come into play in simple harmonic motion?

Ans. Near the equilibrium position, restoring force is maximum and kinetic energy is also
maximum. Therefore, due to inertia, the body remains in its state of motion and overshoots
the equilibrium position when the restoring force again sets in.

Value addition: Activity

Heading: MCQ

When the block, at the end of a spring, is pulled to a position x=a and released, what is
the total distance it would cover in one full cycle of its motion?

A. a

B. 2a

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C. 4a

D. 8a

Ans. C

1.2 Mathematical Representation of Simple Harmonic Motion:

We now proceed to develop a mathematical representation of the motion described

above. Imagine a particle subject to a linear restoring force as given by Eq. 1.1. Applying
Newton’s second law, in the x -direction, to the particle gives

Fs = ma = - k x (1.2)

dn d 2x
We know that acceleration a = = . We can express eqn. (1.2) as
dt dt 2

d 2x d 2x k
m = - k x or = - x (1.3)
dt 2 dt 2 m

Note that the quantity k/m has units of Nm-1 kg-1 = (kgms-2) kg-1 m-1 = s-2.

This enables us to replace k/m by wo2 where wo is called the angular frequency.
Equation (1.3) takes the form

d2x
= - wo x
2
2 (1.4)
dt
We now require a mathematical solution to eqn. (1.4) – that is a function x(t) that satisfies
this second order differential equation. Note that this differential equation is a second order
linear homogeneous equation – it is linear because it involves the first power of the variable
x and its derivatives, and it is homogeneous because it does not have any term independent
of the variable. A general solution of such an equation will involve two arbitrary constants
which can be determined from the given initial conditions.
A close look at eqn. (1.4) shows that x (t ) should be a function such that its
second derivative, with respect to time, is the negative of the function itself. From
elementary calculus we know that sine and cosine functions have this property.
A general solution can thus be expressed as:

x (t) = C1 cos a t + C2 sin a t, (1.5)

where C1, C2 and  are constants to be determined from the initial conditions subject to
their being consistent with the form of the eqn. (1.4). We set

C1 = Ccos f and C2  C sin  in eqn. (1.5)

to get x (t) = C cos (a t + f) (1.6)

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When we differentiate this equation twice with respect to t, we obtain a = ± w o. Clearly the
negative sign is not physically admissible, as it would imply a negative frequency. Thus
eqn. (1.6) becomes

x(t )Ccos(o t  ) (1.7)

The two constants, C and f , are now determined, using the initial conditions on
displacement x and velocity d x /dt. When the mass is held at some distance a from the
equilibrium position and then released at t=0, the relevant initial conditions are :
dx
(i) at t = 0, x = a , and (ii) at t = 0 ,  0.
dt
Using these conditions, we get, from eqn. (1.7),

x (at t = o) = C cos f= a

dx
and   CO sin   0
dt t  0

According to the second condition, f is either zero or np , where n= 1,2,... .

The second choice can be rejected because the first condition requires cos f to be positive.
Thus, with these initial conditions, eqn. (1.7) takes the simple form:
x(t) = a cosw ot (1.8)

1.3 Phase and Amplitude:

The quantity, (w o t + f ), occurring in eqn. (1.7) is called the phase angle or simply
the phase of the oscillating system at time t. At t= 0, the phase is f ; this is called the
initial phase or the phase constant. This provides us the information about the initial
position. If at t = 0, the mass is at x = x o, then from eqn.(1.7) it follows
x o = a cos f
In general, therefore, eqn. (1.7) can be rewritten as

x (t) = a cos (wot + f) (1.9)

Note that, the value of sine and cosine functions lie between + 1 and 1. In other words,
when cos (w o t + f ) = +1 or 1, the displacement has the maximum value, viz, x = +a or a.
The quantity a is called the amplitude of oscillation.

The graphical representation of eqn. 1.9 i.e. the position versus time graph is shown in Fig.
1.2.

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Fig.1.2

Value addition: Activity

Heading: Numerical Problem
Body:
A particle oscillates with simple harmonic motion along the x - axis . Its position varies with
time according to
x = (5.00m) cos (p t + p ),
3
where t is in seconds. Match the following physical quantities with their correct values:

Amplitude  /3
Frequency 2s
Period ½ Hz
Phase 5m

Solution: Amplitude= 5 m ; frequency=½ Hz

Period = 2 s, Phase=  /3

Value addition: Activity

Heading: Graphical problem
Body:
A particle oscillates with simple harmonic motion along the x - axis . Its position varies with
time according to
x (t) = a cos (wot + f) ,
where t is in seconds. draw position (x) versus time (t) graphs when the phase angle is
(i) zero, (ii)  /2 and (iii) 

Answer:

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 Oscillations

change phi with  and pi with  in graph

Value Addition: Concept

Heading: Model for phase in SHM
Body:
Step1: initially ball is at rest at extreme left and starts moving towards right with constant
speed

Step2: the ball has changed its position and moving towards center.

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Step 3: ball has reached extreme right and then it reverses back towards left

Step4: ball has changed its position and moving towards center.

Do mention when the ball is at the center of table and write “mean position”

Value addition: Activity

Heading: numerical problem
Body:
Suppose the mass in Figure oscillates with amplitude a. If time is measured from the
instant when it is at (a) x = +a , (b) x=-a and (c) x= a , calculate the phase constant
2
for the equations:

(i) xa cos(0 t  ); (ii ) x  asin(o t   )

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Ans. As time is measured from the instant x = a,

We have (i) (a)a = a cos f Þ cos f =1 Þ f = 0
(b)a acoscos   1  
a
(c) = a cos f = cos f = 1 Þ f = p 4
2 2
(ii)
(a)a asin sin   1  
2
(b) - a = a sin f Þ sin f = -1 Þ f = - p
2
  
a
(c ) asin sin  1
2 2 4

1.4 Time Period and Frequency:

The time period T of the oscillating particle is the time required to go through one
cycle of its motion i.e. the value of the displacement, x, at any time, t, equals the value of x
at time t +T. Also one cycle of its motion means that its phase has changed from f to f +
2 p . This gives us
x (t) = a cos (wot + f + 2 p ) = a cos (wo (t + T) + f ) (1.10)

In other words
wot + f + 2 p = wot + woT + f

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or woT = 2 p or T = 2p /wo (1.11)

m
Recall that w o 2 = k /m so that T = 2p (1.12)
k
The number of vibrations executed by the oscillator per second is called frequency. The
frequency of motion is the inverse of the time period, T. Thus

1 1 k
no = = (1.13)
T 2p m

The unit of frequency is hertz (Hz). From eqn. (1.13) the frequency is larger for a stiffer
(large values of k) and decreases with increasing mass.

Value Addition: Common Misconception

Heading: Simple harmonic motion
Body:
A periodic motion is not always a simple harmonic motion. It is important to distinguish
between periodic motion and simple harmonic motion. If a body moves such that it retraces
its path regularly after equal intervals of time, its motion is said to be periodic. The time
required to complete one cycle (round trip) of motion is called period. When a body in
periodic motion moves back and forth over the same path, the motion is called vibratory or
oscillatory. In mathematical language, a periodic function has the property
f (  T )  f ( ) , which means that the function has same value when the argument is
increased or decreased by an integral multiple of T for all values of  . Such a periodic
function has a period T. Simple trigonometric functions like sin  or cos  are periodic; their
period is 2  radians.
A simple harmonic motion is a particular type of periodic motion. Here the
restoring force acting on the body is proportional to the displacement from a fixed point in
its path and is always directed towards that point.

Step1:

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Step2:

Step3:

Step4:

Step5:

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Step6:
Then reverse the action from Step6 to Step1 and so on.
Write on top of ball “periodic motion” and on top of spring “simple harmonic motion”

Value Addition: Activity

Heading: Simple harmonic motion
Body:
From the functions of time given below, which functions represent
(a) periodic but not simple harmonic motion, (b) simple harmonic motion?
(1)sin( t )  cos( t ) ; (2) cos 2 ( t ) ; (3) cos( t )  cos(3 t )  cos(5 t )  ..........
Answer: (1) The function sin( t )  cos( t ) can be expressed as
sin( t )  sin( / 2   t )  2 sin( t   / 4) cos( / 4)  2 sin( t   / 4) .
Such a function clearly represents an example of SHM having a period,
T= 2  / .
(2) The function cos 2 ( t ) can be expressed as (1-cos (2 t ) )/2. It is therefore a
periodic function but does not represent simple SHM. It has a period of  /  .
(3) This function is also periodic but does not represent SHM. Its period is 2  /  .
Note that after a period of 2  /  , every term in the sum repeats itself.

Value Addition: Interesting Facts

Heading: Importance of SHM
Body:
Why is the study of SHM considered so important?

Answer: The physics of simple harmonic motion is the key to our understanding of
various diverse phenomena observed in nature, such as production of mechanical waves,
sound waves and light waves and the behaviour of molecules in solids etc. The concept of
simple harmonic motion is quite akin to alternating currents which show a sinusoidal
variation in time and admit a simple harmonic behaviour in nature. The study of simple
harmonic motion thus forms the basis of detailed analysis in A.C circuit networks.

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1.5 Velocity and Acceleration:

We have already seen that the displacement of a mass, executing simple harmonic
motion, is given by (cf eqn. 1.9)
x = a cos (wot + f)
Therefore, the velocity at any instant of time, which is the first time derivative of
displacement, is obtained as
dx
  o asin ( o t  ), (1.14)
dt

 o acos (  o t  ) (1.14a)
2
This can be expressed as
n = - w o [ a2 - a2 cos2 (w ot + f )]
1
2

= - w o (a2 - x 2 ) 2 -a £ ´£ a
1
(1.15)
Similarly, acceleration is the first time derivative of velocity. From Eq.(1.14), we get
dn
= - w o a cos (w o t + f )
2
(1.16)
dt
= wo a cos (p + w ot + f)
2
(1.16a)
In terms of displacement,
dn
= - wo x
2
(1.16b)
dt
On comparing Eqs. (1.9), (1.14a) and (1.16a), it is easy to note that (i) w o a is the velocity
amplitude and w o2a is the acceleration amplitude and (ii) velocity is ahead of displacement
by p /2.

Value addition: Activity

Heading: Displacement, Velocity and Acceralation

Body:
A graph comparing the time variation of displacement, velocity and acceleration of a body
executing simple harmonic motion where equation is x = a cos (w o t + f). (Take the
value of the phase  = 0).

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Solution:

2
For a=5;  where T  10 s
T

Value addition: Activity

Heading: Numerical problem
Body:
The position of a particle executing simple harmonic motion along the x - axis varies with
time according to the equation
x  (5.00) cos ( t   ) m
3
Calculate the velocity and acceleration of the particle at the time t.

Solution: We have:
dx
   (5.00 m.s 1 ) sin ( t   3) )
dt
d 2x
a 2
(5.00 2 ms 2 ) cos( t  3)
dt

Value addition: activity

Heading: numerical problem
Body:
The mathematical representation of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is given by

x (t) = a cos (wot + f )

Suppose the initial position xi and initial velocity, ni of the oscillator of frequency o  

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are
5.00 5.00
xi  m and vi    ms 1
2 2
Find the values of the amplitude and the phase constant; hence the expression for x (t ) .
Solution: Using initial conditions
5.00 5.00
xi  acos   m and  i   o asin   ms 1
2 2
and dividing the second by the first, we have  o tan  
Since w o = p \ tan f = 1, giving f = p / 4 and a = 5.00 m
x(t )  5.00mcos( t   / 4)

1.6 Energy in Simple Harmonic motion:

Considering the spring-mass system as shown in Fig. 1.1, we note that when the
mass is pulled, the spring is elongated. It is, of course, being assumed here that the mass,
attached to the spring, slides on a frictionless surface. The amount of energy, required to
stretch the spring through a distance dx, is the work done, dW. If Fo is the force applied
(say, by hand), dW = Fo dx . This force is balanced by the restoring force acting on the
mass due to the elongated spring. Its magnitude is the same as that of Fs i.e. | Fs |  Fo .
Using Eqn. (1.1) for Fo , dW = k x d x.
Therefore the energy, required to elongate the spring through a distance x , is

x2
W = ò o dW = k ò
x x
o xd x =k
2 (1.17)

This energy is stored in the spring in the form of potential energy,

1
U= k x2 (1.18)
2
On substituting for the displacement x , from eqn. (1.9), we get
1
U  k a 2 cos 2 (t  ) (1.18/)
2
1
Initially at t = 0, U = k a 2 cos2 f.
2
As the mass is released, it moves towards the equilibrium position when the
potential energy starts converting into Kinetic energy (K.E). And the Kinetic energy of the
1
mass at any instant of time is given by mn 2 . Substituting the expression (1.10) for the
2
1
K.E. = m w o a 2 sin 2 (w o t + f )
2
Velocity, we get,
2
1
= k a 2 sin2 (w o t + f ), (1.19)
2

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k = m wo .
2
since
In terms of the displacement x,
a k [1- cos2 (w o t + f )]
1 2
K.E. =
2
1 1
= k a2 - k x2
2 2
1
= k (a 2 - x 2 ) ` (1.20)
2
From eqn. (1.20) it is clear that at equilibrium (i.e x = o) , K.E. is maximum and equal to
1
k a 2 . By adding the potential and kinetic energies, i.e. expressions (1.18) and (1.19), we
2
get the total energy E at any instant of time. Thus

k a2 [ cos2 (wt + f ) + sin 2 (wt + f )]

1
E =
2
1
= k a2
2 (1.21)

Clearly, in such an ideal spring mass system, the total energy remains constant,
independent of time, during one complete cycle of the oscillating mass. As a matter of fact,
the mass and the spring exchange energy as the mass oscillates. Suppose, for simplicity,
we consider the initial phase f = 0 . Therefore, the potential energy stored in the spring
t= 0
æ 1 2ö T 1 2p
at t = 0 is maximum ç= ka ÷ and K.E. ,of the mass ,is zero. At t = = the potential
è 2 ø 4 4 wo

energy is zero since cos  0 cf eqn.1.18 and K.E. is maximum since
2

sin 1 (cf .,eqn.(1.19)) . As the mass oscillates, energy appears to oscillate from K.E. to
2
potential energy and vice versa. At any instant of time, the total energy remains constant –
there is no dissipation of energy in such an ideal spring mass system.

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Fig.1.3(a)

Fig.1.3(b)

Fig. 1.3(a) and Fig. 1.3(b) show the plot of potential and kinetic energy, U and K.E., for a
simple harmonic oscillator with initial phase f = 0. In Fig.(1.3(a)) the plot of K.E. and U
versus time has been shown; in Fig. 1.3 (b), the same plots are versus displacement. Note
that in both the plots the sum of potential energy and K.E. remains constant.

1.7 Time Average Values of Kinetic and Potential Energies:

If you look at the graph, given in answer to Q.7, showing the variation of
displacement, velocity and acceleration with time, you will note that the area under the
curve for the first half is exactly equal to the area under the curve in the second half and

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the two are opposite in sign. This means that over one complete cycle the algebraic sum of
these areas is zero, showing thereby that the average values of displacement, velocity and
acceleration over one complete cycle are zero. However, if you plot x 2 or v 2 versus t, the
curve would lie in the upper half plane only so that the total area will be positive during the
complete cycle. Since kinetic energy and potential energy are related to the square of
velocity and displacement respectively (cf., Eqns (1.18) and (1.19)), this suggests that we
can talk about average values of kinetic and potential energies.

The time average of kinetic energy over one complete cycle is defined as

 K .E dt
K .E  0
. (1.22a)
T
On substituting for K.E from Eq. (1.19), we get

T
ka2
K .E 
2T 0 sin 2 ( 0 t   ) dt . (1.22b)

The integral in Eq. (1.22b) can be easily solved, which is found to give the value T/2. Thus
the expression for average kinetic energy reduces to

ka 2
K .E  (1.23)
4
Similarly, using the expression (Eq. (1.1 8 )) for the potential energy, the average value of
potential energy over one complete cycle can be found as

ka 2
U  (1.24)
4
showing thereby that the average K.E and the average potential energy over one complete
cycle are equal. Thus the total average energy, which is the sum of the average energies of
K.E and potential energy, can be written as

ka2
E  K .E  U  (1.25)
2

Value addition: Activity

Heading: Numerical problem
Body:
An object of mass 0.2 Kg is connected to a mass less spring of force constant 20 N/m,
oscillates on a horizontal frictionless tract.
(a) Find the total energy of the spring-mass system if the amplitude of the motion is 3.0
cm. Also find its maximum velocity.
(b) Find the velocity of the object at position x= 2.0 cm?
(c) At the position x=2.0 cm, calculate the kinetic and potential energy of the object.

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Solution:
1 1
E = k a 2 = ´ 20 N ´ (3 ´10 -2 m) 2
2 2 m
-3
= 9 ´ 10 J
1
U = 0, = m n max
2
At x=0; Therefore E
2
1
= m n max = 9 ´10 -3 J
2

2
12
é 2 ´ 9 ´ 10 -3 ù
n max = ± ê ú 3 10 1 ms 1 0.3 ms 1
ë 0.2 û
± signs indicate that the mass can move to either side of the equilibrium
position.
At the position of 2 cm
k 2
   ( a  x 2 )1 / 2
m
20 N

0.2
m (3  10 2
m) 2  (2  10 2 m) 2 
1/ 2

= ± 100 (5 ´ 10 -4 ) =± (5 ´ 10 -2 ) = 0.22 m s -1

1 1
K .E  m 2   0.2 kg  5  10  2
2 2

= 5 ´ 10 -3 J
1 1
U= k x 2 = ´ (20.0 N ) (2 ´10-2 m) 2
2 2 m
-3
= 4 ´ 10 J
Note that sum (K.E + U) equals the total mechanical energy E obtained in part (a)

1.8 Reference Circle; Rotating Vector:- Representation of SHM:

Consider a particle, P, executing uniform circular motion with constant angular
speed  0 . The circle that this particle’s radius vector traces is called a reference circle and
the particle, P, is called the reference particle (See Fig.1.4). Clearly, the radius vector
joining the centre of the circle and position of the particle on the circumference will rotate
with the same constant angular frequency. Let the magnitude of the particle’s position
vector be represented by radius ‘a’ of the circle. At any instant of time t, the angular
position of the particle is  0 t   , where  is its angular position at t=0. The projection of
particle P on the x-axis is a point P  , which can be taken as a second particle. Thus, on the

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 Oscillations

x-axis, the location x(t) of P satisfies the same equation (1.9), viz
x (t) = a cos (wot + f)

0

P
0t+
aa
P0 

O X
x(t) P/

Fig.1.4.

Rotation of a reference particle P executing uniform

circular motion with constant angular velocity 0.

The projection of the reference particle P, moving in uniform circular motion, on the x-axis
(assumed to be the particle P  ) executes a simple harmonic motion along the diameter
X X  of the circle. In a similar way, the projection of the reference particle P on the y-axis
(say, another particle P  ) will execute a simple harmonic motion along the diameter Y Y  .

Value Addition: Animations

Heading: Rotating vector

Step1: As the blue ball starts from its

initial position (t=0); the yellow ball (projection of blue ball) is at its mean position

  
a cos 2 t    a cos 0  
T 2 2  for t  0

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 Oscillations

Step2: the blue ball has moved from initial position to an

angle 
6
; its projection viz. yellow ball has moved 
a cos   
6 2  where 
6
 2 t
T

Step3: the blue ball has further moved from previous

position to an angle  ; its projection viz. yellow ball has moved
6

a cos   
3 2  where 
3
 2 t
T

Step4: the blue ball has further moved from previous

position to an angle  ; its projection viz. yellow ball has moved
6

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 Oscillations


a cos   
2 2  where 
2
 2 t . The projection has reached its maximum displacement
T
known as the amplitude.

Step5: the blue ball has further moved from previous

position to an angle  ; its projection viz. yellow ball has moved
6

a cos 2  
3 2  where 2  2 t .
3 T

Step6: the blue ball has further moved from previous

position to an angle  ; its projection viz. yellow ball has moved
6

a cos 5  
6 2  where 5
6
 2 t
T
.

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 Oscillations

Step7: the blue ball has further moved from previous

position to an angle  ; its projection viz. yellow ball has moved
6

a cos   
2  where   2 t . The projection has returned to its mean position.
T

Step8: the blue ball has further moved from previous

position to an angle  ; its projection viz. yellow ball has moved
6

a cos 7  
6 2  where 7  2 t .
6 T

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 Oscillations

Step9: the blue ball has further moved from previous

position to an angle  ; its projection viz. yellow ball has moved
6

a cos 4  
3 2  where 4  2 t .
3 T

Step10: the blue ball has further moved from previous

position to an angle  ; its projection viz. yellow ball has moved
6

a cos 3  
2 2  where 3  2 t .
2 T
The projection has reached its maximum

displacement with opposite sign.

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 Oscillations

Step11: the blue ball has further moved from previous

position to an angle  ; its projection viz. yellow ball has moved
6

a cos 5  
3 2  where 5
3
 2 t
T
.

Step12: the blue ball has further moved from previous

position to an angle  ; its projection viz. yellow ball has moved
6

a cos 11  
6 2  where 11
6
 2 t .
T
The animation shows how the SHM can be visualized as the projection of circular motion on
one axis (say x-axis).

Source: http://www.physics.uoguelph.ca/tutorials/shm/phase0.html

Activity:
(a) Set a small block of wood on a record player turntable. As the turntable goes
around, try to look at it from the side using only one eye so as to get rid of your depth
perception. You will observe the apparent motion (i.e., motion projected perpendicular to

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 Oscillations

your line of sight) is harmonic, that is of the form x  a cos(0 t ) ( we assume that the initial
phase  is zero here).

(b) Make a simple pendulum by suspending a small pebble from a string suspended
from the top of the table. Adjust the length of the string to make your pendulum to swing in
synchronization with the projected motion of the block on the turntable when the record
player is set rotating at 45 rpm. This would be a nice demonstration of the fact that the
projection of a uniform circular motion is a harmonic oscillation. You can also make use of it
to measure g.

Value Addition: Historical Context

Heading: Galileo’s observation

Body:
Galileo, in 1610, discovered that there are four principal moons of the planet Jupiter. He
observed that each moon of the planet Jupiter was moving back and forth relative to it, in a
manner characteristic of simple harmonic motion. The disc of the planet Jupiter formed the
midpoint of the motion. Based on his observations the data points showing the position of
the moon Callisto in terms of its angle (measured in minutes of the arc) relative to Jupiter
are plotted in the figure (1.5) given below. In this figure, solid circles represent Galileo’s
data points and curve fitting is undertaken to get the best fit to the data. The curve is found
to obey Eq. (1.9), which denotes the displacement function of SHM, giving a period of
oscillation of 16.8 days for the moon Callisto.

FIG. 1.5

Here 10 minutes of arc corresponds to about 2 x 106 km, at Jupiter’s mean

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 Oscillations

distance.

Summary
In this chapter, the reader:
(i) learns the basic characteristics of simple harmonic motion of a system;
(ii) studies to develop and solve the differential equation for a system executing simple
harmonic motion ;
(iii) learns to define the terms like amplitude, phase and time period of a simple
harmonic oscillator;
(iv)learns to deduce the expressions for kinetic and potential energies of a simple
harmonic oscillator,
(v) studies a reference circle, rotating vector and representation of SHM.

Problems:

1. Consider a spring of negligible mass suspended vertically from a rigid support with
mass m attached to its free end. Show that gravity has no effect on the frequency of
oscillations of the mass hanging vertically.

Solution :
Let us choose X-axis along the length of the spring and take the free end of the
spring as reference point X =0 (origin), when no mass is attached (See figure p1). As the
mass is suspended, let the reference point move down to X 0 . At equilibrium, the weight mg
balances the spring force kX 0 , i.e
mg= k X 0 .

FIG. p1

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 Oscillations

Now, if the mass is pulled downwards, the reference point would shift to X 1 . In that case,
the restoring force acting upward would be k X 1 . The net downward force will therefore be
mg - kX 1 = k ( X 0 - X 1 ) = - kx , where x = X 1 - X 0 .
The resulting restoring force on the mass m is F= - k x, where x is the displacement from
the equilibrium position X 0 . The result is the same as our Eq.1.1. It, therefore, follows that
gravity has no effect on the frequency of oscillations of the spring mass system. It only
affects the reference point.

2. Two springs, of force constants k1 and k2 are connected

(a) in series, (one end is attached to the support and the other free end to mass m ) as is
shown in the figure;

(b) parallel to each other,( both the ends attached to the support while the free ends to the
common mass m ), as given in the figure.
Deduce the expressions for the time periods in the two cases.

Solution:
(a).

Fig. p2 Two springs connected in series

Here the two springs are in series. When the mass is displaced by x, the same restoring
force will act on both the springs. Due to different force constants, the two springs will have
different extensions, say, x1 and x2 . Thus
F F
F  k1 x1   k2 x2 and x  x1  x2   
k1 k2

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 Oscillations

1 1
or x (  )F
k1 k2
1
This gives F   x
1 1
(  )
k1 k2

m
Therefore, the period , is T  2
1 1
(  )
k1 k 2
(b) In the parallel arrangement, the two springs will have the same extension and the total
restoring force will be the sum of the restoring forces in the two springs.
m
Hence F  k1 x  k 2 x   (k1  k 2 ) x, This gives the expression T  2
k1  k 2

Fig. p3 Two springs in parallel

3. Consider a two body harmonic oscillator - a system consisting of two masses,

m1 and m2 , connected by a weightless spring as shown in the figure. Derive the
expression for the time-period of the two body harmonic oscillator.

Solution:
Suppose, at any instant, the length of the spring is increased by x. Then the spring
will exert an inward restoring force k x on each mass. Take the outward direction as the
positive one. If x1 and x2 are the displacements, of m1 and m2 , from their mean
positions, the equations of motion of m1 and m2 would be given by

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 Oscillations

d 2 x1 d 2 x2
m1 = -k x and m2 = -k x
d t2 dt 2
d 2 x1 k d 2 x2 k
=- x and =- x.
dt 2
m1 dt 2
m2
d 2 x d 2 x1 d 2 x2 k k
Now = + = -( + )x
dt 2
dt 2
dt 2
m1 m2

)k x = -(m1 + m2
1 1
= -( + )k x
m1 m2 m1 m2

Fig. Two body harmonic oscillator

m1m2
Defining the reduced mass of the two body system m= ,
m1 + m2
d 2x k
we get = - x.
dt 2
m
This is exactly the equation of motion of a simple harmonic oscillator of mass m and spring
constant k, giving the time-period as
m
T = 2p
k
4. The figures given below depict two uniform circular motions. Their radius, time period of
revolution, initial position of the particles and the direction of revolution are shown.
Determine the expressions of the projection on the x-axis of the radius vector of the
rotating particle P, in each case, executing simple harmonic motion.

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 Oscillations

Fig. p4(a) radius a, Period 5 s, Initial position of P /4 rotating in counter clockwise sense.

Fig. p4(b) radius b, Period 10 s, Initial position of P=/3 rotating in clockwise sense.

Solution:
(a) Initially, at time, t=0, particle P makes an angle of 45   / 4 rad with the x-axis in the
0

2
positive direction. After an interval of time t it covers an angle t in the anticlockwise
T
2 
direction and therefore the angle it makes with the x-axis= t  . The projection of OP,
T 4
at time t, on the x-axis is given by

2 
x(t )  a cos( t  ),
T 4
which is SHM of amplitude a ( radius of the circle) and period T.

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 Oscillations


(b) In this case, the particle P at time t=0makes an angle of rad with the x-
3
axis. However, OP is rotating in the clockwise direction. Therefore at an instant
2
t when it covers a distance of t in the clockwise direction, it would make an
T
2 
angle of t  . with the x-axis. The projection of OP in this case, on the x-
T 3
axis is

2 
x(t )  b cos( t ) ,
T 3
which is again a SHM of amplitude b ( radius of the circle) with period T.

5. A particle is moving in a straight line executing simple harmonic motion. When

the distance of the particle from the equilibrium position has the values x1 and x2 , the
corresponding values of velocity are u1 and u 2 . Show that the period is

1/ 2
 x2  x2 
T  2  2 1
u 2  u 2 
 1 2 
Solution: We have seen above that the kinetic energy of the particle at the position x
from the equilibrium position is given by

1 2 1
mv  K (a 2  x 2 )
2 2
k
Therefore v 2  (a 2  x 2 )
m
  2 (a 2  x 2 )
0
or v  0 (a 2  x 2 )1 / 2

It, therefore, follows that the velocity at the distance from the mean position is given by

u1  0 a 2  x12 .

Similarly, u 2  0 a 2  x22 .

On squaring these equations and subtracting the two, we get

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 Oscillations

u12  u 22
u12  u 22  02 ( x22  x12 ), or 0  x 2  x 2
2 1

x22  x12
2
Hence, time period T   2
0 u12  u 22

6. Two simple harmonic motions are represented by the following equations:

x1  10 sin[( / 4) (12 t  1)]; x2  5[sin 3 t  3 cos 3 t ]

Calculate their time periods and find the ratio of the amplitudes of the two motions.

Solution: x1  10 sin [( / 4) (12 t  1)]  10 sin [3 / t   / 4]

Comparing it with the standard equation x  a sin ( t   ) , we get

2
a1  10; 1  3 ; T1  2 / 1  s.
3
From the sec ond equation x2  5 sin 3  t  5 3 cos 3  t.
Let us put a 2 cos   5 and a 2 sin   5 3.
We rewrite the sec ond equation
x2  a 2 cos  sin 3t  a 2 sin  cos 3t  a 2 sin (3 t   ),
where a 2  5 2  (5 3 ) 2  100 or a 2  10
2
a
T2  2 /  2  2 / 3  2 / 3 s and 1  1.
a2

Value Addition: Animation

Heading: Simple Harmonic motion, uniform circular motion as a

projection of SHM, representation of the physical quantities
associated with it and some interesting examples

Body:The animations in the link given below are divided into four
categories:

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 Oscillations

(i) Physical phenomena which represent SHM

(ii) Mass and spring system executing SHM as a projection of

Uniform Circular Motion

(iii) Representation of displacement, velocity and acceleration in

SHM through mass and spring system oscillations.

(iv) Chladni patterns as examples of SHM

http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/SHM.htm

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