INTEGRATION OF LOAD BALANCING TECHNIQUES FOR

ENHANCING HOMOGENEOUS CELLULAR NETWORK

___________________________________________________

Chapter 2

LETERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 2

2.2 Cellular Network ......................................................................................................................... 3
2.2.1 Homogeneous cellular network ................................................................................................ 3
2.3 Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) .................................................................................... 4
2.4 GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) ..................................................................... 4
2.4.1 GSM Network Architecture...................................................................................................... 5
2.4.1.1 Mobile Station ......................................................................................................................... 6
2.4.1.2 Base Station Subsystem............................................................................................................ 6
2.4.1.3 Network Subsystem ................................................................................................................. 6
Figure 2.2. Network Subsystem ........................................................................................................... 7
2.4.2 GSM Radio Interface ............................................................................................................... 7
Figure 2.3 TDMA Frame Structure. ................................................................................................. 8
I. Burst and its Structure ...................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 2.3. Structure of a Multi frame .............................................................................................. 8
Figure 2.4. Structure of a Frame ...................................................................................................... 8
II. Physical and Logical Channels ......................................................................................................... 8
III. BCH (Broadcast Channel) ............................................................................................................ 9
IV. Common Control Channel (CCCH) .............................................................................................. 9
2.4.2.1 Frequency Reuse Distance and Cluster Size............................................................................ 10
Figure 2.5. GSM Cellular Layout for Frequency Reuse .................................................................. 10
Figure 2.6. Received Signal Power for three Different Values ........................................................ 10
2.4.2.2 GSM Data Transmission ........................................................................................................ 11
I. Voice Coding................................................................................................................................. 11
II. Channel Coding ............................................................................................................................. 12
III. Interleaving................................................................................................................................ 13
IV. Encryption ................................................................................................................................. 15
V. Modulation and Demodulation ....................................................................................................... 15
2.4.2.3 GSM System information ....................................................................................................... 16
2.4.3 GSM load balancing............................................................................................................... 18
2.4.3.1 GSM Load sharing parameters ............................................................................................... 18
I. Power Control................................................................................................................................ 18
a. GSM Power Control Measurement processing ............................................................................... 20
b. Power control Measurement Report Filtering ................................................................................. 21
II. GSM Handover .............................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 2.15 Signals Strength Measurements Handover Procedure ................................................. 22
Figure 2.16. Handover Causes........................................................................................................ 23
a. Handover Types: ........................................................................................................................... 23
PBGT HO ........................................................................................................ 23
Edge HO .......................................................................................................... 24
BQ HO ............................................................................................................ 25
Direct Retry ..................................................................................................... 25
TA HO ............................................................................................................ 25
III. Handover algorithms .................................................................................................................. 26
IV. Handover for load balancing ...................................................................................................... 26
2.4.3.2 GSM Load Balancing mechanisms ......................................................................................... 27
I. Types of load balancing mechanisms used ..................................................................................... 29
References ............................................................................................................................. 30

2.1 Introduction
In this chapter related works of literatures will be reviewed starting from cellular historical background,
GSM architectures and communication follows, GSM load balance challenges, and different author’s
researches obtained plus their shortages.
Also technical related articles which telecommunication vendors developed will be reviewed.
2.2 Cellular Network
The cellular network has passed through several generations. AMPS the first generation of cellular networks
are analog based which is still useable as a standard like U.S cellular network. To increase network capacity
new technologies TDMA (time division multiple access) and CDMA (code division multiple access) were
used in GSM (global system for mobile communications) as a second generation to accommodate more
mobile terminals.
The third generation cellular network comes to provides high speed data transmission with voice
transmission. The following section details the cellular network generation in general. (Zhang, 2006)

2.2.1 Homogeneous cellular network

Here the Homogeneous word used as same generation cellular network like GSM, WCDMA or LTE
separately, in this research we will focus only GSM as Homogeneous cellular Network (HCN). As
technology growth Multi-cell network deployments are envisaged to be the necessary network evolution
for meeting the future capacity and coverage requirements. (Panagiotis Fotiadis, 2014) Hence, cells with
different characteristics will co-exist in the same environment, also denoted as Homogeneous Network
(HomNet), providing a common pool of resources to be efficiently utilized subject to the User Equipment
(UE) capabilities, power consumption, load conditions, requested service, etc. This functionality is also
denoted as Traffic sharing (TS) and its target is to properly distribute traffic such as to accommodate the
optimum combination of the aforementioned factors based on the network operator use cases and
performance indicators.

Figure 2.2 inter layer handover load balance

Focusing specifically on load-based TS schemes, the majority of the state-of-art literature investigates the
potentials of Load balancing (LB) in co-channel deployments, where both small cells and the overlay macro
are deployed at the same band or different band (Q. Ye, 2013)[1]. This involves dynamic range extension
schemes that positively bias measurements from underutilized cells such as to virtually enlarge their power
footprint and attract more users by means of handover (HO) executions. In the context of Inter-cell(IC) TS,
different layer selection schemes are available in (N. T. K. Jorgensen, 2010) where UEs are directed to the
optimal cell during the Radio Signaling Control (RSC) connection establishment. The auto-tuning of
mobility parameters can further be utilized for inter-cell TS. However, unlike to the co- channel case, IC
measurements are not always available. In principle, they should be kept at a reasonable level, since
measurements gaps are required for the device to perform such measurements. High measurements rates
could have an impact on the experienced data rates along with a potential UE power consumption increase
[4]. To maintain IC mobility procedures tightly coupled with TS functionalities requires adequate
measurement availability for mobility events to be triggered. Nonetheless, the overhead cost might be
relatively high, jeopardizing UE power consumption due to excessive cell neighbor measurements.

2.3 Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)

The advanced mobile phone system (AMPS) is the first commercial cellular system ( (PETROS
NICOPOLITIDIS, 2011)). AMPS were invited by Bell labs and introduces in the early 1980 based on the
radio telephone system. AMPS mobile system used analog transmission for voice preservation. Since
AMPS uses FDMA (frequency division multiple access) which means each conservation is divided by using
different channel. Two 25-MHz bands are allocated to AMPS one for transmission from the base station to
mobile terminal (869-894 MHz), the other for transmission from mobile terminal to base station (824-849
MHz). The channels are spaced by 30 kHz away from each other which leave 416 channels per operator.
Twenty one channels are allocated for control and 395 for voice. AMPS cellular network maximized the
cellular concept by frequency reusing, handover and roaming capabilities. As AMPS cellular system is
purely analog using FM; therefore digital traffic is supported only by using modem that convert the digital
data into voice. In first generation (Evolution of Mobile Wireless Communication Networks-1G to 5G as
well as Future Prospective of Next Generation Communication Network, Pankaj Sharma, 2013) cellular
network a cell covers number of channels. At a time a channel is allocated to one user. Limitation associated
with AMPS includes limited spectrum, low calling capacity, lack of data communications and low security.
(Stallings, 2005).

2.4 GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)

GSM is the second generation digital cellular system. The difference between this generation and AMPS is
that this generation digital transmission is used rather than analog transmission in order to improve
transmission quality, system capacity, and coverage area. GSM works on three frequencies 900 MHz, 1800
MHz and 1900 MHz To make efficient use of frequency bands GSM networks uses combination of FDMA
(frequency division multiple access) and TDMA (time division multiple access). GSM operators have set
up roaming agreement with foreign operator which help users to travel abroad and use their cell phones.
(Ghaderi, 2006).

2.4.1 GSM Network Architecture

The GSM network can be divided into three broad parts. The Mobile Station is carried by the subscriber;
the Base Station Subsystem controls the radio link with the Mobile Station. The Network Subsystem, the
main part of which is the Mobile services Switching Center, performs the switching of calls between the
mobile and other fixed or mobile network users, as well as management of mobile services, such as
authentication. And Operations and Maintenance center, which oversees the proper operation and setup of
the network. The Mobile Station and the Base Station Subsystem communicate across the Um interface,
also known as the air interface or radio link. The Base Station Subsystem communicates with the Mobile
service Switching Center across the A interface.

Figure 2.1 : GSM Architecture (Muneer M. Al-Zu'bi, 2014)

2.4.1.1 Mobile Station
The mobile station (MS) (NATHAN, 2008)consists of the physical equipment, such as the radio transceiver,
display and digital signal processors, and a smart card called the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). The
SIM provides personal mobility, so that the user can have access to all subscribed services irrespective of
both the location of the terminal and the use of a specific terminal. By inserting the SIM card into another
GSM cellular phone, the user is able to receive calls at that phone, make calls from that phone, or receive
other subscribed services.

2.4.1.2 Base Station Subsystem

The Base Station Subsystem is composed of two parts, (NATHAN, 2008) the Base Transceiver Station
(BTS) and the Base Station Controller (BSC). These communicate across the specified Abis interface,
allowing operation between components made by different suppliers.
The Base Transceiver Station houses the radio transceivers that define a cell and handles the radio link
protocols with the Mobile Station.
The Base Station Controller manages the radio resources for one or more BTSs. It handles radio channel
setup, frequency hopping, and handovers, as described below. The BSC is the connection between the
mobile and the Mobile service Switching Center (MSC).

2.4.1.3 Network Subsystem

The central component of the Network Subsystem is the Mobile services Switching Center (MSC).
(NATHAN, 2008) It acts like a normal switching node of the PSTN or ISDN, and in addition provides all
the functionality needed to handle a mobile subscriber, such as registration, authentication, location
updating, handovers, and call routing to a roaming subscriber. These services are provided in conjunction
with several functional entities, which together form the Network Subsystem. The MSC provides the
connection to the public fixed network (PSTN or ISDN), and signaling between functional entities uses the
ITUT Signaling System Number 7 (SS7), used in ISDN and widely used in current public networks.
The Home Location Register (HLR) and Visitor Location Register (VLR), together with the MSC, provide
the call routing and (possibly international) roaming capabilities of GSM. The HLR contains all the
administrative information of each subscriber registered in the corresponding GSM network, along with the
current location of the mobile.
The Visitor Location Register contains selected administrative information from the HLR, necessary for
call control and provision of the subscribed services, for each mobile currently located in the geographical
area controlled by the VLR.
The other two registers are used for authentication and security purposes. The Equipment Identity Register
(EIR) is a database that contains a list of all valid mobile equipment on the network, where each mobile
station is identified by its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). The Authentication Center is
a protected database that stores a copy of the secret key stored in each subscriber's SIM card, which is used
for authentication and ciphering of the radio channel. (Kriegl, J. (2000) Location in Cellular Networks. Diploma
Thesis,)

Figure 2.21. Network Subsystem

2.4.2 GSM Radio Interface

The ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union) standardized the 890-915 MHz frequency for uplink
transmission and 935-960 MHz for downlink transmission to GSM network in Europe. Due to the limited
radio bandwidth GSM utilizes a combination of FDMA and TDMA called Multi-Carrier TDMA to access
the available radio spectrum. Older standards of mobile system use only FDMA. In FDMA system one
specific frequency is allocated for every user during a call. FDMA overload network in case of high user
demand. The overload problem which leaded mobile communications systems by defining two dimensional
access schemes, where that the TDMA allows several users to share the same frequency channel by dividing
the signal into different timeslots. This allows multiple stations to share the same radio frequency channel
while using one part of its bandwidth. GSM system always uses TDMA with in FDMA structure. TDMA
major advantage is that the radio part of mobile needs to listen and from its own timeslot. All the time
mobile can transmit measurements on the network detecting surrounding transmitters on different
frequencies. This makes handover simpler and safe.
 Figure 2.32 TDMA Frame Structure.
The above figure shows the TDMA frame structure showing a data stream divided into frames and those
frames divided into timeslots.

I. Burst and its Structure

All carrier frequency is divided according to time slot using TDMA scheme. Each carrier frequency is
further divided into a 120ms multi frame which is made up of 26 frames. In which two frames are used for
control purpose while remaining 24 frames are used for traffic.

Figure 2.3. Structure of a Multi frame

Each frame is further divided into 8 burst and each of the 8 bursts is assign to a single to single user. In
TDMA system burst is a unit of time and every burst ends in 0.577ms.

Figure 2.4. Structure of a Frame

II. Physical and Logical Channels

In GSM a number of logical channels multiplexed onto physical channels, which allows system to run
multiple activates in parallel which does not require to use dedicated every slot transmission. (khan, 2010)
Thus the logical channels improve the physical channels reuse capabilities to high level. Logical channels
are linked on the physical channels so called laid over grid of physical channels. Another important feature
of logical channels that during a call MSC sends its signal periodically at the same TDMA frame on the
 same time slot to BTS and same from the BTS to MSC in reverse directions. GSM channels are mainly
group into two categories traffic channels and control channels. Traffic channels carry speech and data
information. A traffic channel using 26 TDMA frames in this standard traffic channels for uplink and
downlink are separated by 3 burst. In other words traffic channels use 1 time slot in each traffic frame.
Control channels deals with network management and channel maintenance tasks. Control channels involve
system signaling and synchronization data for control procedure such as location registration, mobile station
synchronization, paging, random access between base station and mobile station. Their main categories of
control channels are defined.

III. BCH (Broadcast Channel)

Broadcast control channel is a downlink channel that is used by the BTS to broadcast information to mobile
station and inform them about the incoming calls. (Muhammad Abdur Rahman Haider, 2007) It is required
in initial to provide a time slot for a call. BCCH broadcast general information such power control
parameters, access methods, network parameters etc required to set up calls. The three broadcast channels
are defined. First broadcast channel is FCCH (Frequency Correction Channel) Provides MSC with the
frequency reference of the system to allow synchronization with the network and frequency drift correction.
Second broadcast channel SCH (Synchronization Channel) Provides frame synchronization for MSC and
identification of BSC. The synchronization channel transmits the sequence that is needed for link quality
estimation and equalization. Third broadcast control channel (BCCH) which is also downlink channel that
is used by BT to broadcast information to mobile station and inform them about the incoming calls. It is
required in initial to provide a time slot for a call. BCCH broadcast general information such power control
parameters, access methods, network parameters etc required to set up calls.

IV. Common Control Channel (CCCH)

The common control channel is a combination of common control channels that is used between MSC and
BSC before a dedicated control channel is allocated. There are three downlink paging, access grant and cell
broadcast channels and one random access uplink channel. Paging channel (PCH) is activated for selective
addressing of a mobile station during a connect request from the network. Random access channel (RACH)
is transmitted by mobile station as uplink and to access the network and request channel capacity form the
BSC to establish a connection. The access grant channel (AGCH) channel is transmitted by the BSC in
response of random access from MSC. According to the call setup mechanism selected by network operator
is allocated for call. Cell broadcast channel (CBCH) channel containing broadcast messages information
about the traffic information etc. (Dirk, 2007).
Available, 2002).
2.4.2.1 Frequency Reuse Distance and Cluster Size
A GSM cellular network is made of number of radio cells or cells served by fixed base station. These cells
are used to cover different areas to provide radio coverage over wider area. These radio cells are combined
into clusters and each frequency is used once per cluster. The capacity in cellular network can be increased
comes from the fact that the same radio frequency can be reused in different area for completely different
transmission in a regular way. The ruse of frequencies enables a cellular system to handle huge number of
calls with limited numbers of channels. GSM cellular layout typically involves the frequency reuse factor
which is inversely proportional to K (where K is number of cell per cluster). The value of K is 7 for TDMA
system. The co- channel interference is serious problem in this scheme while adjacent co-channel
interference is not a big problem. Where R is the radius of the cell and D is the distance from the center of
the cell to its neighbor using the same frequency. The minimum separation between two cells using the
same frequency so that the two cells don’t not interference with each other can be calculated by D/R= 3K
(Chaiko, 2006).

Figure 2.5. GSM Cellular Layout for Frequency Reuse

In TDMA the engineers should also make sure that the power level at the cell boundaries is weak enough
not to drop over into adjacent cells. By placing a base station at the center and the interfacing stations on
the perimeters of circle radius D we can simulate the received signal with co–channel interference at mobile
coming from its own with interfering base station known as forward CCI (co-channel interference). The
simulation results show that the shown interference level grows near the cell boundaries and its level
changes with cell radius as in the figure 6.

Figure 2.6. Received Signal Power for three Different Values

2.4.2.2 GSM Data Transmission
Radio channel has totally different characteristics from wired channel. Radio channel has a strong time-
varying characteristic. It has a high error rate when the signal is influenced by interferences, multipath
fading, or shadow fading. In order to solve these problems, it is necessary to protect the signals through a
series of transformation and inverse transformation from original subscriber data or signaling data to the
information carried by radio wave and then to subscriber data or signaling data. These transformations
include channel coding and decoding, interleaving and de-interleaving, burst formatting, encryption and
decryption, modulation and demodulation. (Wei, 2007)

I. Voice Coding
Modern digital communication system usually uses voice compression technology. GSM takes tone and
noise from human throat as well as the mouth and tongue filter effect of acoustics as voice encoder to
establish a model. The model parameters transmit through TCH channel.
Voice encoder is based on residual excited linear prediction encoder (REIP) and its compression effect is
strengthened through long term predictor (LTP). LTP improves residual data encoding by removing the
vowel part of voice.
Voice encoder divides voice into several 20ms voice blocks and samples each block. (Wei, 2007)

Figure 2.7 Forward and reverse data transmission process

Modern digital communication system usually uses voice compression technology. GSM takes tone and
noise from human throat as well as the mouth and tongue filter effect of acoustics as voice encoder to
establish a model. The model parameters transmit through TCH channel.
Voice encoder is based on residual excited linear prediction encoder (REIP) and its compression effect is
strengthened through long term predictor (LTP). LTP improves residual data encoding by removing the
vowel part of voice.
Voice encoder divides voice into several 20ms voice blocks and samples each block with 8 kHz, so each
block has 160 samples. Each sample is quantified through frequency A 13 bits (frequency μ 14 bits). Since
the compression rates of frequency A and frequency μ are different, add three and two “0” bits to the
quantification values respectively, and then each sample gets 16 bits quantification value. Therefore, 128
Kbit/s data flow is obtained after digitizing but before encoding. This data flow is too fast to transmit in
radio path and has to be compressed in encoder. With full speed encoder, each voice block is encoded into
260 bits to form a 13 Kbit/s source coding rate. Next is channel coding. With 20 ms as a unit, 260 bits are
output after compression encoding, so the encoding rate is 13Kbit /s.
Compared with the direct coding transmission of voice in traditional PCM channel, the 13kbps voice rate
of GSM is much lower. More advance voice encoder can reduce the rate to 6.5kbps (half rate encoding).

II. Channel Coding

Channel coding is used to improve transmission quality and remove the influence of interferential factors
on signals at the price of increasing bits and information. (https://www.huawei.com/en/, 2014) The basic
way of coding is adding some redundant information to the original data. The added data is calculated on
the basis of original data with certain rules. The decoding process of receiving end is judging and correcting
errors with this redundant bit. If the redundant bit of received data calculated with the same way is different
from the received redundant bit, errors must have occurred in transmission. Different code is used in
different transmission mode. In practice, several coding schemes are always combined together. Common
coding schemes include block convolutional code, error correcting cyclic code and parity code.
In GSM, each logical channel has its own coding and interleaving mode, but the principle is trying to form
a unified coding structure.
Encode information bit into a unified block code consisting of information bits and parity check bits.
Encode block code into convolutional code and form coding bits (usually 456 bits).
Reassemble and interleave coding bits and add a stealing flag to form interleaving bits.
All these operations are based on block. The block size depends on channel type. After channel coding, all
channels (except RACH and SCH) are made of 464-bit block, that is, 456 coded information bits plus 8-bit
header (header is used to distinguish TCH and FACCH). Then these blocks are re-interleaved (concerning
channel).
In TCH/F voice service; this block carries one speech frame of information. In control channel, this block
usually carries one piece of information. In TCH/H voice service, speech information is transmitted by a
block of 228 coded bits block.
For FACCH, each block of 456 coded information bits is divided into eight sub blocks. The first four sub
blocks are transmitted by even bits of the four timeslots borrowed from the continuous frames of TCH, and
the rest four sub blocks borrows odd bits of the four timeslots from the four continuous frames delayed for
two or four frames after the first frame. Each 456 coded bit block has a stealing flag (8 bits), indicating
whether the block belongs to TCH or to FACCH. In the case of SACCH, BCCH or CCCH, this stealing
flag is dummy.
The synchronous information in Downlink SCH and the random access information in uplink use short
coded bit blocks transmitted in the same timeslot.
In TCH/F, a 20ms speech frame is encoded into 456-bit code sequence. The 260 bits of the 13 Kbit/s 20ms
speech frame can be divided into three categories: 50 most import bits, 132 important bits and 78
unimportant bits. Add 3 parity check bits to the 50 most important bits, and these 53 bits together with 132
important bits and 4 tail bits are convolutional encoded ( with 1/2 convolutional coding rate ) into 378 bits,
plus the 78 unimportant bits, and the 456 bits code sequence is obtained.
In BCCH, PCH, AGCH, SDCCH, FACCH and SACCH, data is transmitted by Link Access Procedure on
the Dm channel (LAPDm). Each LAPDm frame has 184 bits, together with 40 bits error correcting cyclic
code and 4 tail bits, through 1/2 convolutional coding rate, and the 456 bits code sequence is obtained.
Each SCH contains 25-bit message field. Among them, 19 bits are frame number and 6 bits are BSC
number. These 25 bits plus 10 parity check bits and 4 tail bits are 39 bits. Through 1/2 rate convolutional
coding, 78 bits are obtained, which occupy an entire SCH burst. .
RACH message only has 8 bits, including 3-bit setup cause message and 5-bit discrimination symbol. On
the basis of these 8 bits, add 6 bits of color code (obtained through the MOD 2 of the 6-bit BSIC and 6-bit
parity check code), plus 4 tail bits to get 18 bits. Through 1/2 rate convolutional coding, 36 bits are obtained,
which occupy an entire RACH burst. 。

III. Interleaving
If speech signal is modulated and transmitted directly after channel coding, due to parametric variation of
mobile communication channel, the long trough of deep feeding will affect the succeeding bits, leading to
error bit strings. That is to say, after coding, speech signal turns into sequential frames, while in
transmission, error bits usually occur suddenly, which will affect the accuracy of continuous frames.
Channel coding only works for detection and correction of signal error or short error string. Therefore, it is
hoped to find a way to separate the continuous bits in a message, that is, to transmit the continuous bits in
a discontinuous mode so as to change the error channel into discrete channel. Therefore, even if an error
occurs, it is only about a single or very short bit stream and will not interrupt the decoding of the entire
burst. (Huawei, https://www.huawei.com/en/, 2014)
This method is called interleaving technology. Interleaving technology is the most effective code grouping
method to separate error codes.
The essence of interleaving is to disperse the b bits into n bursts in order to change the adjacent relationship
between bits. Greater n value leads to better transmission performance but longer transmission delay.
Therefore, these two factors must be considered in interleaving. Interleaving is always related to the use of
channel. GSM adopts secondary interleaving method.
After channel coding, The 456 bits are divided into eight groups; each group contains
57 bits. This is the first interleaving, also called internal interleaving. After first interleaving, the continuity
of information in a group is broken. As one burst contains two groups of 57-bit voice information, if the
two-group 57 bits of a 20 ms voice block after first interleaving are inserted to the same burst, the loss of
this burst will lead to 25% loss of bits for this 20 ms voice block. Channel coding cannot restore so much
loss. Therefore, a secondary interleaving, also called inter-block interleaving, is required between two voice
blocks. The entire interleaving process is shown in 1.3.3.

Figure 2.8. Interleaving process

After internal interleaving, the 456 bits of a voice block B are divided into eight groups. Interleave the first
four groups of voice block B (B0, B1, B2, and B3) with the last four groups of voice block A (A4, A5, A6,
and A6), and then (BO, A4), (B1, A5), (B2, A6), and (B3, A7) form four bursts. In order to break the
consistency of bits, put block A at even position and block B at odd position of bursts, that is, to put B0 at
odd position and A4 at even position. Similarly, interleave the last four groups of block B with the first four
groups of block C.
Therefore, a 20 ms speech frame is inserted into eight normal bursts after secondary interleaving. Theses
eight bursts are transmitted one by one, so the loss of one burst only affects 12.5% voice bits. In addition,
as these bursts have no relations with each other, they can be corrected by channel coding.
The secondary interleaving of control channel (SACCH, FACCH, SDCCH, BCCH, PCH, or AGCH) is
different from voice interleaving which requires three voice blocks. The 456-bit voice block is divided into
eight groups after internal interleaving (the same as that of voice block), and then the first four groups are
interleaved with the last four groups (the same interleaving method as that of voice block) to get four bursts.
Interleaving is an effective way to avoid interference, but it has a long delay. In the transmission of a 20 ms
voice block, the delay period is (9*8)-7=65 bursts (SACCH occupying one burst), which is 37.5 ms.
Therefore, MS and trunk circuit have echo cancellers added to remove the echo due to delay.

IV. Encryption
Security is a very important feature in digital transmission system. GSM provides high security through
transmission encryption. This kind of encryption can be used in voice, user data, and signaling. It is used
for normal burst only and has nothing to do with data type.
Encryption is achieved by XOR operation of poison random sequence (generated through A5 algorithm of
encryption key Kc and frame number) and the 114 information bits of normal burst.
The same poison random sequence generated at receiving end and the received encryption sequence
together produce the required data after XOR operation

V. Modulation and Demodulation

Modulation and demodulation is the last step of signal processing. GSM modulation adopts GMSK
technology with BT being 0.3 at the speed of 270.833 Kbit/s and Viterbi algorithm. The function of
modulation is to add a certain feature to electromagnetic wave according to the rules. This feature is the
data to transmit. In GSM, the phase of electromagnetic field bears the information.
The function of demodulation is to receive signals and restore the data in a modulated electromagnetic
wave. A binary numeral has to be changed into a low-frequency modulated signal first, and then into an
electromagnetic wave. Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation.

2.4.2.3 GSM System information

System information is sent to MS from network in broadcast form. (Huawei, https://www.huawei.com/en/,
2014) It informs all the MSs within the coverage area of location area, cell selection and re-selection,
neighbor cell information, channel allocation and random access control. By receiving system information,
MS can quickly and accurately locate network resources and make full use of all kinds of services that
network provides. There are 16 types of system information: type1, 2, 2bis, 2ter, 3, 4, 5, 5bis, 5ter, 6, 7, 8,
and 13.
System information is transmitted on BCCH or SACCH. MS receives system information in different mode
from different logic channel.
 In idle mode, system information 1– 4, 7, and 8 are transmitted on BCCH ;
 In communication mode, system information 5 and 6 are transmitted on SACCH; The
content of system information is as follows:
 System information 1 ： cell channel description + RACH control parameter,
transmitted on BCCH
 System information 2 ： frequency description of neighbor cell + RACH control
information + network color code (NCC) permitted, transmitted on BCCH, used for cell re-
selection
 System information 2bis： Extended neighbor cell BCCH frequency description
 + RACH control information, transmitted on BCCH, used for cell re-selection.
 System information 2ter： Extended neighbor cell BCCH frequency description,
transmitted on BCCH, used for cell re-selection.
 System information 3 ： Cell identity + location area identity (LAI) + control channel
description + cell selection + cell selection parameter + RACH control parameter, transmitted
on BCCH.
 System information 4 ： LAI + cell selection parameter + RACH control parameter
+ CBCH channel description + CBCH mobile configuration, transmitted on BCCH.
 System information 5 ： Neighbor cell BCCH frequency description, transmitted on
SACCH channel, used for cell handover.
 System information 5bis： Extended neighbor cell BCCH frequency description,
 transmitted on SACCH channel, used for cell handover.
 System information 5ter： Extended neighbor cell BCCH frequency description,
transmitted on SACCH channel, used for cell handover.
 System information 6 ： Cell Global Identification (CGI) + cell option ＋ NCC
Permitted, transmitted on SACCH.
 System information 7： cell re-selection parameter
 System information 8： cell re-selection parameter
BCCH is a low-capacity channel, every 51 multi frames ((235ms) have only four frames (one information
block) to transmit a 23 byte LAPDm message.
Each information unit contains:
 Cell channel description contains all the frequencies used in this cell.
 RACH control information contains parameters such as Max Retransmit, TX integer,
CBA, RE, EC, and AC CN.
 Neighbor cell BCCH frequency description contains the BCCH frequency that the
neighbor cell uses.
 Allowed PLMN is used to provide NCC Permitted that MS monitors on BCCH TRX.
 Control channel description contains parameters such as
MS ATTACH/DEATTACH allowed Indicator ATT, BS-AG-BLKS-RES, CCCH-
CONF,
BA-PA-MFRMS, and T3212.

 Cell selection contains parameters such as power control (PWRC)

indication, discontinuous Transmission (DTX) indication, and RADIO-
LINK-TIMEOUT.
 Cell selection parameter contains parameters such as cell re-selection
hysteresis, MS-TXPWR-MAX-CCH, and RXLEV-ACCESS-MIN.
 CBCH channel description contains channel type and TDMA deviation
(the combination mode of dedicated channel), timeslot number (TN),
training sequence code (TSC), hopping frequency channel indication H,
mobile allocation index offset (MAIO), hopping frequency sequence
number (HSN) and absolute radio frequency channel number ( ARFCN).
 CBCH mobile configuration contains the relationship between hopping
channel sequence and cell channel description.
 Cell re-selection parameter contains CELLRESELIND, cell bar qualify
(CBQ), and cell reselection offset (CRO), temporary offset (TO), and
penalty time (PT).
2.4.3 GSM load balancing
In (Abebe2, 2017)Load balancing is a mechanism whereby overloaded BTSs distribute some
of their traffic to less loaded neighbors in order to make the radio resource more efficient (K.
Raymond, 2010).
Telecommunication infrastructures originally designed to carry a defined amount of traffic are
often congested by an overwhelming request of resources. A naive solution is to expand the
infrastructure to match the increasing demand. Due to limitations in available space and
shortness of resources, this solution is not possible. The best solution is to carefully tune the
parameters of the existing system to accommodate the new traffic demands (S. Scellato, 2010).

2.4.3.1 GSM Load sharing parameters

Is GSM there several important parameters when it coming load sharing, below we listed the main
parameters and their descriptions.

I. Power Control
The power control of MS includes two adjustment stages: stable adjustment stage and initial adjustment
stage. Stable adjustment is the common way to implement power control algorithm. Initial adjustment is
used at the beginning of call connection. When a connection occurs, MS sends signals with nominal power
(before receiving power adjustment commend, the nominal transmission power of MS is the maximum
transmission power on BCCH of the cell. If MS does not support this power level, it will adopt other power
level most close to this level, such as the maximum power level supported by the class mark of MS in
indication message establishment). Therefore, MS accesses to network through RACH with the maximum
power broadcast on BCCH. When MS power is lower than this value, it will transmit with its maximum
transmission power. The system specifies that the power level of the first message that MS sends on DCH
is also this value. The system control begins after MS receives the power control command in SACCH
information block from SDCCH or TCH. (Huawei, https://www.huawei.com/en/, 2014)

Since BTS can support multi-call at the same time, the Rxlev should be quickly reduced in
 the new connection. Otherwise, other calls supported by this BTS will deteriorate and the
calls in other cells will also be affected. The purpose of initial adjustment stage is to quickly
reduce the transmission power of MS to get the stable MR, so MS can be adjusted according
to stable power control algorithm.

The required parameters in uplink power control, the expected uplink Rxlev, and the uplink
received quality can be adjusted according to the situation of the cell. After receiving a
certain number of uplink MRs, the system compares the actual uplink Rxlev and received
quality obtained by interpolation, filtering, and other methods with the expected values and
calculate the power level that the MS should be adjusted to through power control algorithm.
If the calculated power level differs from the output power level of MS and meets certain
limit conditions (such as step limit of power adjustment and range limit of MS output
power), the system will send power adjustment command.
The command of changing MS power and the required time advance will be sent to MS in the layer 1 header
of each downlink SACCH information block. MS will configure the power level it uses now in its uplink
SACCH information block and send it to BTS in measurement report. This level is the power level of the
last burst in the previous SACCH measurement cycle. When MS receives the power control information in
SACCH information block from DCH, it will transmit with this power level. One power control message
does not make the MS switch to the required level immediately. The maximum change rate of MS power
is 2 dB for every 60ms. For 12 dB, before MS receives the next power control message, it will not end as
one SACCH measurement cycle takes 480ms. In addition, it takes three measurement cycles to send power
control message and execute the command. Therefore, the power control cycle should not be too short in
order to ensure its accuracy. (REFF)

Figure 2.9 Execution of power control command

 The purpose of uplink power control adjustment is to minimize the difference between the
actual uplink Rxlev and received quality and the expected uplink Rxlev and received quality.
The purpose of interpolation and filtering is to process the lost measurement reports and
remove temporary nature to ensure the stability of power control algorithm.
The difference between initial adjustment and stable adjustment is that the expected uplink
Relev and received quality and the length of filter in initial adjustment are different from
that of stable adjustment, and the initial adjustment only has downlink adjustment.

a. GSM Power Control Measurement processing

Each measurement report has a sequence number. If network detects in continuous sequence
numbers, it means some of the measurement reports are missing. The network will complete
the reports based on interpolation algorithm.

As shown in, the network receives measurement reports n and n+4. It detects the sequence
numbers are not continuous, so it uses an algorithm to add n+1, n+2, and n+3 (yellow) to
complete the reports.

The purpose of measurement report interpolation is to avoid call loss when the power is too
low.

Figure 2.10 Measurement report interpolation

b. Power control Measurement Report Filtering
Network will not judge the state of MS based on only one measurement result, because that
is too incomprehensive, in addition, the MS may be fluctuating. Therefore, filtering is
required. Filtering combines several continuous measurement results together to determine
the state of MS during this period of time. In II, the network uses four measurement reports
(yellow).

TA has filters for Rxlev and received quality of uplink and downlink

The purpose of measurement report filtering is to remove temporary nature and ensure the algorithm
stability.

Figure 2.11 Measurement report filtering

II. GSM Handover

Handover is the procedure that transfers an ongoing call from one cell to another as the user’s moves
through the coverage area of cellular system. (Bhatt, 2014)The purpose of the handover procedure it to
preserve ongoing calls when the mobile station moving from one cell to another. In GSM measurements
reports to perform the handover, which is made by the serving BSC which has no direct knowledge of the
radio quality. These measurements reports contain the radio signal quality of the downlink from the BTS
to MSC of the call and up to five neighboring cells. The serving BTS measures the uplink from the MSC
to BTS radio signal quality of the call and forward in the measurements reports. The information in the
measurements reports the BSC is able to decide whether a handover to another cell is needed. These
measurements reports are periodically transmitted from the MSC to BSC on the SACCH channel assigned
to each communication for every connection. The repetition duration of the SACCH produces a fixed time
grid of 480 ms in the measurements reports. The following figure 7. Shows that the measurement of
RXLEVs comes from serving and neighbor cells to the measurements reports submitted during a call are
shown.

Figure 2.15 Signals Strength Measurements Handover Procedure

The above figure horizontal axis shows the measurements reports. In many cases these measurements
reports takes place to take handover procedure in a way to avoid shortcomings. A connection is
continuously measured and evaluated by the respective base station and MSC. Handover is based upon that
evaluation. As the mobile users leaves the coverage area of the one base station must obtain coverage from
the neighboring station in order to keep the connection keep on. Cut off connection or drop call are not
acceptable at any level during the call. Handover take places when the traffic level of cell reaches to high
level or when neighboring are being underutilized. The figure 8. Summarizes the handover causes showing
the percentage of different reasons of handover (Fournogerakis, P., Kyriazakos, S., & Karetsos, G. (2001)
Enhanced Handover Performance in Cellular Systems based on Position Location of Mobile Terminals. ).
 Figure 2.16. Handover Causes

According to the above pie-chart the main reason for handover initiations is the uplink, downlink level with
61%. Other reasons are; power budget is 18%, downlink quality 13%, umbrella-cell handover, interference,
directed retry and OMC shortcomings. In GSM cellular network a number of different performance metrics
is commonly used to make the handover decision. These performance metrics gives foundation after many
research into the microcellular handover and overlaid system handover as Cell Blocking Probability, Call
Dropping Probability, Call Completion Probability, Probability of Unsuccessful Handover, Handover
Blocking Probability, Rate of Handover, Interruption Duration and Handover Delay.

a. Handover Types:
HO must be performed on time under different conditions to ensure the quality of
communication. According to the cause of the HO, it can be divided into Power Budget
(PBGT) HO, edge HO, bad quality (BQ) HO, direct retry, and timing advance (TA) HO.
(huawei, 2011)

PBGT HO

PBGT HO is based on path loss. PBGT HO algorithm looks for a cell with less path loss to
decide whether HO is necessary. The biggest difference between the PBGT HO and others
is that the triggering condition is path loss but not receiving power.
The formula of PBGT HO is as follows:

PBGT (n) > PGBT_Ho_Margin (n) (2-5)

PBGT(n) = ( BSTX_MAX - RXLEV_DL - PWR_C_D ) - ( BSTX_MAX(n)-

RXLEV_NCELL(n) )- ( RXLEV_DL - RXLEV_UL - SENSI_CORRECT)- max
( BSTX_MAX(n)- min(MSTX_MAX(n),P) - BSTX_MAX + min (MSTX_MAX,P) ,0 )

BSTX_MAX: The maximum transmit power of BS in service cell BSTX_MAX

(n): The maximum transmit power of BS in neighbor cell RXLEV_DL: The
downlink received signal level in service cell RXLEV_UL: The uplink received
signal level in service cell SENSI_CORRECT: The correct factor of MS/BS
receiver sensitivity RXLEV_NCELL (n): the received signal level of MS from
neighbor cell n PWR_C_D: the decrease of the transmission power in BTS
power control P: Max MS Transmission power
MSTX_MAX (n): Max MS transmit power allowed of the neighboring cell n
MSTX_MAX: Max MS transmit power allowed of the service cell
The neighbor cell with the biggest PBGT (n) is selected as the target cell for HO. The
PGBT_Ho_Margin is the defined RXLEV difference value between the service cell and the
neighbor cell when the HO is initiated. If this value is too low, it may lead to ping-pong
handover; if it is too high, HO hysteresis may occur and the HO efficiency is reduced. Since
the PGBT_Ho_Margin is defined for the specific neighbor cell, the traffic load can be
adjusted accordingly. For example, when cell A and cell B are adjacent, A is the high-
traffic cell and B is the low-traffic cell, the call distribution can be balanced by reducing the
PGBT_Ho_Margin from A to B and increasing that from B to A. In fact, this way to balance
the call distribution equals the decrease of the coverage area for cell A and the increase of
the coverage area for cell B.

PBGT HO only happens between the peer cells. . (huawei, 2011)

Edge HO

The uplink/downlink edge HO margin is defined in the HO parameters. When BSC finds in
the MRs from the MS and BTS that the uplink or downlink RXLEV is lower than the edge
HO margin defined, it selects a proper neighbor cell from the MRs as the target cell to initiate
HO, thus avoiding the call drop.

In the edge HO, the RXLEV of the neighbor cell should be higher than that of the service
cell by a certain value. This value is called the edge HO margin. This algorithm is also used
to avoid ping-pong handover. The edge HO margin should be higher than the minimal access
level of the MS.

BQ HO

The decision mechanism of BQ HO is similar to that of the edge HO. When BSC finds in
the MRs from the MS and BTS that the bit error rate of the uplink or downlink is higher
than the BQ HO margin defined, the BQ HO is initiated. To further differentiate the BQ HO,
the interference HO is introduced. If the RXLEV is higher than the defined RXLEV margin
of the interference HO and the RXQUAL is higher than the quality HO margin, the
frequency interference exists. The interference HO will trigger the intra- cell HO (when the
intra-cell HO is available) first to improve the bad conversation quality due to interference,
and then trigger the inter-cell HO. The intra-cell HO is not effective when the frequency
hopping is used. By improving the interference HO margin, the BQ HO will be mainly
performed between cells. (huawei, 2011)

Direct Retry

During the call establishment, the SDCCH is assigned first and then is the TCH. If the
service cell has no idle TCH, the call attempt usually fails because of TCH congestion. To
fully utilize the radio resources and reduce the congestion, the direct retry function is
introduced. When the SDCCH is assigned, but no TCH is available, the assignment request
is sent in the form of MR and the call is accessed to the idle speech channel. After the direct
retry function is enabled, the queuing function can be activated to provide enough time for
the system to select the neighbor cell available for direct retry.

TA HO

TA HO can be used to control the coverage area of the BTS. When the BSC finds the TA
value reported by the MS is higher than the defined margin, the TA HO is initiated. If the
 TA margin is relatively low, the frequent ping-pong handover may be triggered. Therefore,
special attention should be paid to the matching of different kinds of HO.

III. Handover algorithms Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.25", First line: 0"

In (Huawei, Handover Decision Based on Handover Algorithm II, 2013) HUAWEI proposed
several schemes for handover implementations, the algorithm involves measurement reporting (MR)
processing, handover decision, and HO execution. The proposed algorithms is based on number of
mechanisms depend on the priority whether it is high or normal. The BSC selects a handover type with the
highest priority from all the handovers that can be performed on each neighboring cell. Handover types
with high priority are included forced handover, BQ handover and PBGT.
The proposed forced handover does not require a handover decision and is triggered either If no
TCH is available in the serving cell which the MS attempts to access and DIRECTRYEN is set to YES, the
BSC triggers a directed retry procedure and When a BTS is under maintenance, the MSs served by the BTS
should be handed over to the cells controlled by a functional BTS. This ensures that no call drop occurs
during the BTS maintenance. In BBQ handover, the triggering conditions of the BQ handover are either
the UL RX Quality is greater or equal to the UL Quality Threshold of the serving cell or the DL RX Quality
is greater than or equal to the DL RX Quality threshold of the serving cell.

IV.Handover for load balancing

There may be different reasons why a handover might be conducted:
• When the phone is moving away from the area covered by one cell and entering the area covered
by another cell the call is transferred to the second cell in order to avoid call termination when the phone
gets outside the range of the first cell;
• When the capacity for connecting new calls of a given cell is used up and an existing or new call
from a phone, which is located in an area overlapped by another cell, is transferred to that cell in order to
free-up some capacity in the first cell for other users, who can only be connected to that cell;
• In non-CDMA networks when the channel used by the phone becomes interfered by another
phone using the same channel in a different cell, the call is transferred to a different channel in the same
cell or to a different channel in another cell in order to avoid the interference; • Again in non-CDMA
networks when the user behavior changes, e.g. when a fast-travelling user, connected to a large, umbrella-
type of cell, stops then the call may be transferred to a smaller macro cell or even to a micro cell in order
to free capacity on the umbrella cell for other fast-traveling users and to reduce the potential interference to
other cells or users (this works in reverse too, when a user is detected to be moving faster than a certain
threshold, the call can be transferred to a larger umbrella-type of cell in order to minimize the frequency of
the handovers due to this movement);
 in CDMA networks a handover (see further down) may be induced in order to reduce the
interference to a smaller neighboring cell due to the "near-far" effect even when the phone still has an
excellent connection to its current cell (NWALOZIE G.C, 2013). So what is the effect of the signal break
and the hard handover process in the packet loss or time delay is the main problem of this theses.

2.4.3.2 GSM Load Balancing mechanisms

There are a number of methods to balance traffic load among BTS (P. Muñoz, 2011). One of the
most important methods is based on antenna down tilting (K. A. Akpado, 2013). With the down
tilt, one directs the antenna radiation further down to the ground. The down tilt is advisable when
one wishes to decrease interference and coverage in some specific areas, each BTS to meet only
its designed area. When selecting the optimum tilt angle, the goal is to have as high signal strength
as possible in the area where the BTS should be serving traffic (K. A. Akpado, 2013). Beyond the
serving area of the BTS, the signal strength should be as low as possible. A too aggressive down
tilting strategy however leads to an overall loss of coverage and creates coverage holes which
eventually lead to call drop.
The second method is to adjust the BTS coverage by varying transmitter power. A minimal
transmitter power effectively disallows more distant mobiles to access the BTS, thereby decreasing
the coverage area and prohibiting distant mobile users to access the BTS (K. A. Ali, 2007). Hence,
reducing BTS coverage area runs at the danger of creating coverage holes. Having the coverage
holes on the cellular system adversely affect the performance of cellular system leading to call
drop. Conversely maximum transmitter power effectively allows mobile at distance to access the
BTS, at the cost of producing interference on those BTSs using the same frequency (K. A. Ali,
2007).
The antenna height is fundamental to BTS coverage area. If the antenna height is increased, path-
loss will reduce. The relation between antenna height and coverage area is stated on two-ray model
(Goldsmith, 2005). If antenna height is doubled, then coverage will be increased by 6 db
(Goldsmith, 2005). To prohibit the distant mobile user from accessing BTS, reducing the height
of antenna is good alternative.
Mobile station (MS), in the presence of random networks with overlapping cellular coverage, can
connect to any of BTSs. MS in a wireless network switches its current Point of Attachment (PoA)
to a new wireless network using a process called handoff (S. Srinivas, 2012). To have global
connectivity, handoffs are extremely important cellular communication because of the cellular
architecture employed to maximize spectrum utilization. When a mobile terminal moves away
from a base station, the signal level drops and there is a need to switch the communications channel
to another base station. That time there is a need for a handoff to be executed. Handoff is the
process of changing the communications channel associated with the current ongoing connection
while a call is in progress (Behera, 2009).
Therefore, by adjusting the handoff regions between neighboring BTSs, it is possible to cause cell
edge users in overloaded BTS to migrate to less load neighboring BTS. Such an approach is
referred to as mobility load balancing, thereby increasing the efficiency of resource utilization
(Behera, 2009).

Method Description

Bandwidth barrow Is to barrow some frequency resources from Neighbor congested

cell to less load cell

Force handover This technique is force the users to redirect from the overloaded
cell to one of its neighbors that is under loaded.
It can be done by modifying the hysteresis margin in the
handover scheme between the overloaded cells and the under
loaded cells
Less load cell power This is manual modifying radio parameters by playing with less
loaded cell power to adjust suitable scenario.
modifying
 Cell coverage change The overloaded base stations reduce the antenna beam power in
the direction where some users are in outage, while the under
loaded base stations increase their beams power

Auto load sharing This method is developed by telecommunication vendors, its

activation is optioned to the service provider. Its automatically
optimizes radio parameters according to the load distribution
among the cells.

Many metrics have been used to support handoff decisions, including received signal strength
(RSS), signal to noise ratio (SIR), power budget, and distance between the mobile station and BTS,
traffic load, and mobile velocity, among others. The single criteria handoff decision compares one
of the metrics from the serving BTS with that from one of the neighboring BTSs, using a constant
handoff threshold value. The selection of the threshold is important to handoff performance. If the
threshold is too small, a lot of unnecessary handoffs may take place. On the contrary, the quality
of service (QoS) could be low and calls could be dropped if the threshold is too large.
However, all the above techniques of load balancing are not self-adaptive. The problem of network
congestion control remains a critical issue and a high priority, mainly given the growing size,
demand, and speed of the networks. Therefore, network congestion is becoming a real threat to the
growth of existing real time networks (circuit switching). It is a problem that cannot be ignored.

I. Types of load balancing mechanisms used

The followings we listed the most used technics for load balance
References
Abebe2, S. T. (2017). Mobility Load Balancing in Cellular System with Multicriteria Handoff Algorithm.
Advances in Fuzzy Systems, 1-2.

Behera, C. a. (2009). Use of adaptive resonance theory for vertical handoff decision in heterogeneous
wireless environment. International Journal of Recent Trends in Engineering, vol. 2, no. 3, .

Bhatt, B. (2014). Handover Management in GSM Cellular System. IJEDR, 1-5.

Chaiko, Y. (2006, JAN 6). http://www.tmf.rtu.lv. Retrieved from <:http://www.tmf.rtu.lv:

<:http://www.tmf.rtu.lv/DATA_FILES/blank_sc_publication/6/1001/34/2005_03_02_10_34_11/
paper_formatting_Caiko.doc>

Dirk, H. (2007, January 4). http://www.aws.cit.ie. Retrieved from http://www.aws.cit.ie:

http://www.aws.cit.ie/personnel/dpesch/notes/msc_sw/GSM_radi o_interface.pdf >

Ghaderi, M. a. (2006). Call Admission Control in Mobile Cellular Networks: A Comprehensive survey.
Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing, 69-93.

Goldsmith, A. (2005). Wireless Communications,. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, USA, 1st
edition.

huawei. (2011). GSM Radio Network Planning and Optimization. 第 2 章 GSM 系统原理及呼叫流程, 1-
80.

Huawei. (2013). Handover Decision Based on Handover Algorithm II. huawei training DOCs, 1-7.

Huawei. (2014, Match 28). https://www.huawei.com/en/. Retrieved from

https://www.huawei.com/en/: https://www.huawei.com/en/

K. A. Akpado, O. S. (2013). Investigating the impacts of BTS antenna height, tilt and transmitter power on
network coverage,. International Journal of Engineering Science Invention, vol. 2, no. 7, 32–38.

K. A. Ali, H. S. (2007). Directional cell breathing based reactive congestion control in WCDMA cellular
networks. IEEE International Symposium on Computers and Communications, 685–690.

K. Raymond, R. A. (2010, September). mobility load balancing for LTE systems. IEEE 72nd Vehicular
Technology Conference Fall, pp. 1-2.

khan, J. (2010). Handover management in GSM cellular system. International Journal of Computer
Applications (0975 – 8887, 1-3.
Muhammad Abdur Rahman Haider, A. B. (2007). Radio Resource Management in 3G UMTS networks. In
A. B. Muhammad Abdur Rahman Haider, Radio Resource Management in 3G UMTS networks-
interfaces (pp. 5-7). Blekinge Institute of Technology: Blekinge Institute of Technology.

NATHAN, M. C. (2008). GSM system artituture . In M. C. NATHAN, WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS (pp.

171-176). PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.

NWALOZIE G.C, O. V. (2013). OPTIMIZATION OF HARD HANDOFF IN MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS USING

IPv6. 2-5.

P. Muñoz, R. B.-R. (2011, MAY). Optimization of a fuzzy logic controller for handover-based load
balancing,. IEEE 73rd Vehicular Technology Conference, IEEE,.

PETROS NICOPOLITIDIS, G. I. (2011). ADAPTIVE WIRELESS NETWORKS USING LEARNING AUTOMATA .

UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN MACEDONIA, 1-5.

S. Scellato, L. F.-G. (2010). Traffic optimization in transport networks based on local routing. The
European Physical Journal B, vol. 73, no. 2, 303–308.

S. Srinivas, A. S. (2012). Efficient load balancing in cloud computing using fuzzy logic. IOSR Journal of
Engineering (IOSRJEN), 65–71.

Stallings, W. (2005). Wireless Communications & Networks. USA: 2nd Ed.

Wei, H.-Y. (2007). Mobile WiMAX: Toward Broadband Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks. london:
auerbach.

Zhang, J. (2006, September 17). <http://www.site.uottawa.ca/. Retrieved from uottawa:

<http://www.site.uottawa.ca/~ivan/cellular.pdf >