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 8117831

P ava, C a lv in H a rm o n P e t e r

TOWARDS A CONCEPT OF NORMATIVE INCREMENTALISM: ONE

PROSPECT FOR PURPOSEFUL NON-SYNOPTIC CHANGE IN HIGHLY
FRAGMENTED SOCIAL SYSTEMS

University o f Pennsylvania PhJD. 1981

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Copyright 1981
by
Pava, Calvin Harmon Peter
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University
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International
 TOWARDS A CONCEPT OF NORMATIVE INCREMENTALISM

One P r o s p e c t

For

P u r p o s e f u l N o n -S y n o p tic Change

In H ig h ly F ragm ented S o c ia l System s

CALVIN HARMON PETER PAVA

A DISSERTATION

in

SOCIAL SYSTEMS SCIENCE

P r e s e n te d to th e G ra d u a te F a c u l t i e s o f th e U n i v e r s i ty o f P e n n s y lv a n ia i n
P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t of th e R e q u ire m e n ts f o r th e D egree o f D o c to r of
P h ilo s o p h y .

1981

S u p e r v is o r o f d i s s e r t a t i o n
 © COPYRIGHT

CALVIN HARMON PETER PAVA

1981
 ACklTOWLEDGELlENTS^
I

No e n d e a v o r i s c o m p le te ly s o l i t a r y , e s p e c i a l l y a d o c t o r a l t h e s i s . My

th a n k s to th e p e o p le who p ro v id e d e s s e n t i a l i d e a s , q u e s ti o n s , p r o v o c a tio n s ,

and e n c o u ra g e m e n t: Jo h n E ld r e d , M a rtin E lto n , Bob K i e d e l, Tom G ilm o re , B i l l

H e n d e rso n , L a rry H ir s h o r n e , P a u l L aw rence, H asan O zbekhan, Tom R a n k in , and

G e ra ld Susman.

D e e p e s t g r a t i t u d e g o e s to E r ic T r i s t , a n e n t o r of g r e a t r i g o r , v i s i o n , and

c o m p a ssio n . P ro v id in g b o th th e c h a lle n g e a n d s u s te n a n c e t o k eep me m oving,

E r ic h e lp e d make w r i t i n g t h i s docum ent a g e n u in e p r o c e s s o f l e a r n i n g . No

w ords can f u l l y e x p r e s s my t h a n k s .

iii
 Table of Contents

P re fa c e v ii

C h a p te r Is The C h a lle n g e o f O r g a n iz a tio n & P la n n in g 1

I n a S ystem s Age

C h a p te r 2: S t r i k i n g N orm ative Change Betw een D iv e rg e n t 36

F a c ti o n s : The E x p e rie n c e o f Ten L a b o r-
Management C om m ittees

C h a p te r 3: A C oncept o f N orm ative I n c re m e n ta lis m 59

C h a p te r 4: D i s t i n c t i v e P r o p e r t i e s o f N orm ative 95
I n c re m e n ta lis m

C h a p te r 5: N orm ativ e In c re m e n ta lis m And E s t a b l i s h e d 137

A pproaches t o S o c ia l P la n n in g

C h a p te r 6: Summary, F u tu re D i r e c t io n s And C o n c lu d in g 198

Rem arks

A p p en d ix : Sum m eries o f P r o j e c t Network Labor-M anagem ent 209

C om m ittees

In d e x 266

B ib lio g r a p h y 270

iv
L i s t of F igures

F ig u re 1.1 Some Examples of D iv erg en t F a c tio n s .......................................... 9

F ig u re 1.2 S tatem en t and M eta-S tatem en t ....................................................... 12

F ig u re 1.3 D if f e r e n t Prim ary M ed iatin g R e la tio n s h ip s

in I n d u s t r i a l and Prem odern S o c ie tie s ....................... 23

F ig u re 2.1 Summary o f P r o je c t Network S ite V a rie ty ................................. 47

F ig u re 3 .1 N orm ative In crem en talism ................................................................ 61

F ig u re 3 .2 P ro g ram atic Theme L o g ic a lly R etyping S o c ia l

R e la tio n s Between F a c tio n s . . ........................................ 64

F ig u re 3 .3 A P r o f i l e of N orm ative I n c r e m e n ta lis t V isio n

In d ic a te d By Robust Network S i t e s . . . . . . . 69-70

F ig u re 3 .4 Norm ative I n c r e m e n ta lis t A ctio n a s In d ic a te d by

Robust Network S i t e s .............................................................. 77

F ig u re 3 .5 A ctio n o f Less Robust Network S ite s ................................. 78-79

F ig u re 4 .1 C o n tra s t Between P r o a c tiv e Norm ative

M o b iliz a tio n And R eac tiv e
Emergency M o b iliz a tio n ...................................................... 101

F ig u re 4 .2 T races o f N orm ative In crem en talism

O u tsid e P r o je c t Network ............................................. 125-126

F ig u re 5.1 Braybrooke & Lindbloom Dim ensions o f A n a ly sis . . . . 142

F ig u re 5 .2 L o g ical Type of Change As A Dimension D i s t r i c t

From S iz e - ................................................................................... 143

F ig u re 5 .3 S te p s of The N orm ative P lan n in g P ro c e ss ............................. 157

F ig u re 5 .4 N orm ative Systems R edesign & N on-Synoptic Systems

Change: D if f e r e n t Em phasis on O rd erly and
A n a ly tic a lly S e q u e n tia l P ro c e sse s ............................... 179

F ig u re 5 .5 D is tin c tiv e Com petencies of Four M ajor

P lan n in g A p p ro a c h e s ................................... 189

F ig u re 5 .6 Examples o f D if f e r e n t P lan n in g Methods In A

C ontingency Framework ........................................................ 190

F ig u r e 5 .7 A pproxim ate S c a tte rg ra m L o c a tin g D if f e r e n t

P lan n in g A pproaches In A
Contingency Framework .......................................................... 191

v
F ig u re A -l S ta te of C o n n e c tic u t Labor-Management
Committee S tr u c tu r e .......................................................... 215

F ig u re A-2 Pima County Labor-Management Committee

S t r u c t u r e ................................................................................ 224

F ig u re A-3 Columbus QWL Program S tr u c tu r e .............................................. 244

F ig u re A-4 Jamestown School System Labor-Management

Committee S tr u c tu r e .......................................................... 259

vi
 P re fa c e

My t h e s i s i s t h a t norm ative system s change can a c t i v e l y ta k e p la c e

betw een t r a d i t i o n a l l y a n t a g o n is ti c p a r t i e s . T h is d iv e rg e s from th e

l i t e r a t u r e recommending in t e r v e n ti o n w ith " a p p r o p r ia te c l i e n t s " who a r e

"read y " to tra n sfo rm t h e i r system . I t a ls o d e p a r ts from more

p e s s im is tic c o u n s e l, to abandon p u rp o s e fu l c o l l e c t i v e change in fa v o r o f

u n b rid le d s e l f - i n t e r e s t .

The i n t e g r a t i v e b e n e f its o f no rm ativ e change a r e most o fte n needed

w here th e s o c ia l f a b r i c i s a lre a d y d ee p ly t o r n . Thus, o f te n th o s e who

most need to p la n no rm ativ e change a r e l e a s t d isp o se d to ; t h e i r

t r a d i t i o n a l r i f t s o f te n sto p c o l la b o r a t iv e p la n n in g from even g e t tin g

s ta rte d .

My re s e a r c h s u g g e s ts one s p e c i f i c way i n which norm ative change can

develop betw een v e ry r e l u c t a n t p a r t i e s . I c a l l t h i s no rm ativ e

in c re m e n ta lis m . N orm ative in c re m e n ta lism i s a p ro c e ss t h a t v i o l a t e s

many canons p re s c rib e d a s e s s e n t i a l i n most system s p la n n in g .

S p e c i f i c a l l y , th e d a ta s u g g e s ts t h a t p u rp o s e fu l change through n o rm ativ e

p la n n in g can d ev elo p in a p ro c e ss w ith s u r p r i s i n g l y d is o r d e r ly f e a t u r e s

lik e :

- U n c le a r purpose by which a u t h o r i t i e s le a d th e way b u t d o n 't

know where t h e y 'r e going

- Backwards im p lem en tatio n w ith g o a ls and t a c t i c s a r t i c u l a t e d

a f t e r th ey a r e ex ecu ted

- Sloppy assessm en t and feed b ack t h a t ig n o re s u su a l

m easurem ents o f e f f i c i e n t accom plishm ent

T h is i s a v ag u e, i l l o g i c a l , n o n - s e q u e n tla l, im p re c is e way to p la n

norm ativ e system s change. But I have had th e d is q u ie tin g e x p erien ce o f

vii
s e e in g i t work where more o r d e r ly ap p ro ach es f a i l .

The co n cep t o f norm ative in c re m e n ta lism developed a c c id e n t a lly . It

a ro s e from two s o u rc e s , one e m p iric a l and one t h e o r e t i c a l . The

e m p iric a l b a s is was P r o je c t Network r e s e a r c h . This was a 2 1/2 y e a r

stu d y o f p u b lic s e c to r labor-m anagem ent co m m ittees. I was b o th p r o je c t

manager and one o f th r e e o n - s i t e r e s e a r c h e r s . While w r itin g th e f i n a l

p r o j e c t r e p o r t, my a n a l y s i s re v e a le d th r e e p r o je c t s i t e s w ith

c o n s is te n tly ro b u s t p erfo rm an ce. T h is le d to c l o s e r s c r u tin y of how

th e y worked, which re v e a le d p u z z lin g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s li k e u n c le a r

purpose and sloppy a s s e s sm e n t.

The t h e o r e t i c a l a s p e c t th e n came in t o p la y . To make sen se of th e se

s u r p r is in g f e a t u r e s , I tap p ed a c o rre s p o n d in g ly un u su al b ran ch o f

sy stem s th in k in g based upon th e th e o ry o f l o g i c a l ty p e s . T h is i s a

r e l a t i v e l y o b scu re domain i n which I had an e x te n s iv e background. It

tu rn e d out to be an e x c e p tio n a lly in fo rm a tiv e le n s th ro u g h which to make

sense o f my s u r p r is in g d a ta . U n ex p ected ly , I a ls o found t h a t p io n e e rin g

work by Ozbekhan (1969, pp. 146-151) illu m in a te d a c o n c e p tu a l lin k a g e

between t h i s f i e l d o f th o u g h t and th e more w idely known id e a s of s o c ia l

system s s c ie n c e . The r e s u l t of a l l t h i s was a con cep t of n o rm ativ e

in c re m e n ta lis m . I t r e p r e s e n ts one a l t e r n a t i v e way to c o n c e p tu a liz e and

p u rsu e a c tiv e a d a p ta tio n th ro u g h n o rm ativ e change.

The m a te r ia l in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s l a i d - o u t to p erm it th e r e a d e r

t o r e t r a c e th e s e s te p s :

- C h ap ter 1 a r t i c u l a t e s th e e s s e n t i a l framework c r a f t e d to s i f t
th ro u g h my unexpected f in d i n g s . Much of t h i s i s ro o te d in
th e o ry t h a t I s u b s c rib e d to b e fo re managing P r o je c t Network
re se a rc h .

viii
 - C h ap ter 2 sum m arizes th e e m p iric a l e v e n ts t h a t f i r s t l e f t
such p u z z lin g f o o ts te p s . More d e t a i l e d sy n o p sis of each
Network s i t e i s p ro v id ed i n th e A ppendix.

- C h ap ters 3-6 fo rm u la te th e con cep t t h a t appeared when I put

th e d ata and my framework to g e th e r :

o C h ap ter 3 o u tlin e s a p ro cess of n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism

d isc o v e re d a t c o n s is te n tly r o b u s t Network s i t e s .

o C h a p te r 4 e l a b o r a te s some in t r ig u in g p r o p e r t i e s of t h i s
p ro c e s s .

o C h ap ter 5 lo c a te s no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism w ith in th e

la r g e r u n iv e rs iv e of a l t e r n a t i v e p lan n in g ap p ro ac h es.

- A summary o f th e t h e s i s and p r o s p e c ts f o r f u tu r e in q u iry a r e

p re s e n te d in C h ap ter 6.

T h is i s th e g e n e ra l p r o f i l e of m a te r ia l developed i n th e c h a p te rs ahead.

The t h e s i s p re s e n te d h e re i s a th e o ry b u ild in g e n d ea v o r. The

o b je c tiv e i s to c o n s tr u c t a new, p la u s a b le co n cep t, in s te a d of te s t i n g a

sample to c o n firm p re -fo rm u la te d h y p o th e s is . T h is approach was more by

d e f a u lt th a n d e s ig n . U n a n tic ip a te d s u r p r i s e s in my d a ta fo rced a

th e o r y - b u ild in g approach, when e x i s t in g co n ce p ts p ro v id ed lim ite d

e x p la n a tio n .

The r e s e a r c h component o f my t h e s i s fo llo w s a case stu d y

m ethodology. T h is s t i p u l a t e s lo o k in g f o r p a t te r n s a c r o s s e th n o g ra p h ic

d a ta . Comparison a c ro s s c a se s i s u sed to defend a g a in s t in v a lid

c o n c lu s io n s .

For t h i s w ork, th e power of case stu d y i s b o ls te r e d by two

ad v an tag eo u s c o n d itio n s . F i r s t , P r o je c t Network in v o lv e d lo n g itu d in a l

re s e a r c h a c ro s s a r e l a t i v e l y la rg e number (1 0 ) o f d iv e rs e c a s e s . T h is

en co u rag es r e c o g n itio n of g e n e r a l, e n d u rin g phenomena t h a t e x i s t beyond

unique in s t a n c e s . The r e l i a b i l i t y of o b s e rv a tio n i s th e r e f o r e enhanced.

Second, P r o je c t Network r e s e a r c h used m u ltip le o i r s i t e in v e s t i g a t o r s ,

ix
c a lle d s i t e c o o r d in a to r s . Each s i t e c o o rd in a to r in te n s e ly re s e a rc h e d

one s u b s e t of Network s i t e s . They a ls o k ep t ta b s , d ir e c t and

i n d i r e c t , on e v e n ts a t s i t e s assig n ed to o th e r c o o r d in a to r s . I have

checked a l l o b s e rv a tio n s about s p e c i f i c s i t e s made h e re to v e r if y them

w ith th e o th e r two P r o je c t Network s i t e c o o r d in a to r s . T h is enhances th e

v a l i d i t y of o b s e rv a tio n s by d efen d in g a g a in s t o b se rv e r b ia s .

The t h e s i s proposed h e r e a p p a re n tly ru n s a g a in s t many cannons of

e x i s t i n g in t e r v e n ti o n T heory. T h is i s n o t in te n d e d to re p u d ia te o r

r e j e c t e s ta b lis h e d w ork. I n s te a d , i t i s shown (C h ap ter 5 ) how n o rm ativ e

in c re m e n ta lism complements o th e r approaches to p la n n in g . N orm ative

in c re m e n ta lis m i s th u s n o t an u ltim a te approach to system s change. It

in h a b its a n ic h e a s one type of p la n n in g methodology th a t s u i t s a

s p e c if ie d s e t of c o n d itio n s . Development of t h i s co n c e p t, upon a

fo u n d a tio n of i n t e r p l a y between th e o ry and d a ta , and lo c a tio n of i t

w ith in th e w id e r f i e l d of p la n n in g , makes f o r th e c o n tr ib u tio n which

t h i s t h e s i s seek s to o f f e r .

x
 CHAPTER 1

THE CHALLENGE
OF
ORGANIZATION & PLANNING
IN A SYSTEMS AGE

C h ap ter 1 s p e l l s o u t b a s ic id e a s t h a t u n d e r lie su b se q u en t m a te r ia l.

T h is p ro v id e s a frame of r e f e r e n c e in which to s c r u t i n i z e e m p iric a l

d a ta . I t a ls o s in k s a c o n c e p tu a l fo u n d a tio n n e c e s s a ry f o r l a t e r

argum ents based upon re s e a r c h .

The co n ce p ts h e re a re e s s e n t i a l to u n d e rs ta n d in g work in l a t e r

c h a p te r s . The re a d e r w i l l fin d su b seq u en t m a te r ia l in a c c e s s a b le w ith o u t

th e v o cab u lary a r t i c u l a t e d h e r e . Three m ajor a re a s a r e c o v e re d .

F i r s t , a h i s t o r i c a l s h i f t i s o u tlin e d . T his i s a fundam ental change

in th e f a b r ic o f s o c i e t a l e v e n ts ; i t makes in v e n tin g new ways to

o rg a n iz e human a c t i v i t y an im p e ra tiv e c h a lle n g e . W idespread norm ative

p la n n in g i s n o ted a s one p rom ising way to manage system s in th e s e

changing tim e s . The growing p re se n c e of d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s i s th en posed

to be a c r i t i c a l b o ttle n e c k in p u rsu in g t h i s o p tio n .

Second, one view o f a b a s ic change p ro c e ss i s fo rm u la te d . T his i s a

co n cep t of th e u n d e rly in g developm ent needed between d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s .

A r tic u l a ti o n of t h i s co n cep t draws upon a n o v el co rp u s o f system s

th in k in g c a l le d th e th e o ry o f l o g i c a l ty p e s .

T h ird , th e im p lic a tio n s o f l o g i c a l ty p in g a r e r e f in e d beyond t h e i r

c u r r e n t re n d e rin g in th e l i t e r a t u r e . This i s accom plished by f o ld in g

th e co n cep t of " p la n n in g " in t o a n a ly z in g th e l o g i c a l ty p e s o f s o c ia l

system s r e l a t i o n s h i p s . With t h i s a d d i tio n , th e id e a of changing l o g i c a l

 2

ty p e s of r e la tio n s h ip betw een f a c t io n s becomes more a p p r o p r ia te to

contem porary s o c ie ty .

H is to r ic a l Change R a isin g The C h a l l e n g e o f O rg a n iz a tio n & P lan n in g

S ince th e l a t e 1 9 6 0 's a grow ing number o f s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s n o te a

fundam ental change in th e way s o c i e t a l e v e n ts u n fo ld . T his i s a b a s ic

s h i f t in th e ty p e o f p e r tu b a tio n s t h a t o r g a n iz a tio n s must d e a l w ith .

Ozbekhan (1 9 6 9 )(1 9 7 3 )(1 9 7 1 )(1 9 7 6 ) i s one o f th e f i r s t to n o te t h i s

s h ift. He c a l l s a t t e n t i o n to th e grow ing in t e r p e n e t r a t i o n o f e v e n ts

in t o co n tin u o u s c r i t i c a l problem s. A ccording to Ozbekhan, th e s e form a

g e n e ra l p ro b lem atiq u e w hich can n o t be so lv e d by s e p a r a te te c h n ic a l

im provements made th ro u g h i s o l a t e d o r g a n iz a tio n s . I n s te a d , he p ro p o ses

t h a t such complex problem s a re managed th ro u g h w id esp read n orm ative

changes evoked by p la n n in g .

Many o th e r a u th o rs converge on a s im i la r d ia g n o s is . Emery and T r i s t

(1973) c o n c e p tu a liz e t h i s change in term s o f a new ty p e of s o c ia l

environ m en t. They n o te t h a t th e in c r e a s in g r a t e o f change, th e growing

in terd ep en d en c y o f o r g a n iz a tio n s , and th e in c r e a s in g power o f tech n o lo g y

a l l change th e te x tu r e o f s o c ie ty as an en vironm ent. They c la im s o c ie ty

behaves in c r e a s in g ly l i k e an a c t iv e f i e l d , in s te a d o f a random p a s s iv e

background. P e r tu b a tio n no lo n g e r a r i s e s from a s in g le i d e n t i f i a b l e

s o u rc e . R a th e r, change ap p ea rs to come from th e environm ent i t s e l f .

They c a l l t h i s c o n d itio n a tu b u le n t ty p e IV en v iro n m en t.

Emery and T r i s t proceed to arg u e t h a t a tu r b u le n t environm ent

r e q u ir e s in c re a s e d c o o p e ra tio n among i t s in h a b ita n t s , even though

th e f i r s t i n c l i n a t i o n i s r e v e r s io n to co m p etativ e b e h a v io r. This i s

because changes a r i s i n g from an a c t iv e f i e l d have no s in g le ,

id e n tif ia b le o rig in . The te m p ta tio n i s to i s o l a t e a s in g le "cau se" to

manage o r a s o l i t a r y " c u l p r i t " to blam e. But in a tu r b u le n t e r a th in g s

no lo n g e r a re caused by j u s t one lo c a l i z e d , c o n t r o l la b l e f a c t o r .

C h a lle n g e s a r i s e from th e f i e l d a s a w hole. Everyone i s j o i n t l y

e f f e c te d and j o i n t l y r e s p o n s ib le .

Emery and T r i s t m a in ta in t h a t t h i s p la c e s a premium on c o o p e ra tio n

o v er c o m p e titio n . A ttem pts to manage c h a lle n g e a n a l y t i c a l l y , by f in d in g

s i n g l e c a u se s o r c u l p r i t s a r e m a la d a p tiv e . They o n ly in c re a s e

tu r b u le n c e . A d i f f e r e n t approach i s n eed ed , i n which a l l p a r t i e s

i n t e n t i o n a l l y ta k e com plementary i n i t i a t i v e s . Like Ozbekhan, Emery and

T r i s t propose t h a t such c o o p e ra tio n be d riv e n by sh ared v a lu e s (a k in to

O zbekhan's "norm ative ch an g e "). T his p e r s p e c tiv e i s summarized by T r i s t

(1 9 8 0 ).

A ckoff (1974, pp. 3 -1 9 ) a ls o re n d e rs a co n v erg en t d ia g n o s is . He

c a l l s t h i s a tim e o f t r a n s i t i o n in to a system s a g e . This age i s

c h a r a c te r iz e d by in c re a s in g r a t e s of change and g r e a t e r in terd ep en d en cy

among p ro b lem s. This y ie ld s in te r lo c k in g com plexes o f problem s, what

A ckoff c a l l s m esses. The co m p lex ity o f mess management i s beyond th e

a b i l i t y o f a n a l y tic management t h a t s t i l l h o ld s a machine age w orld

v ie w . A ccording to A ck o ff, much o f th e s t r a i n now i n s o c i e t i e s a r i s e s

from m ism atch betw een m achine age d e s ir e f o r i s o l a t e d cau ses and

s o l u t i o n s , and th e complex new r e a l i t i e s o f m esses i n a system s a g e . He

a l s o c la im s th e r e i s a growing need to manage m esses w ith w id esp read

n o rm ativ e change v ia p la n n in g .
 4

Schon (1971) c h a r a c te r iz e s th e modern e r a a s going beyond th e s t a b l e

s ta te . He n o te s t h a t v a lu e s f o r d e fin in g is s u e s change q u ic k ly ,

muddling problem s to g e th e r and i n v a l i d a t i n g e f f o r t s of s in g le o rg a n iz a ­

ti o n s to impose s o lu tio n s c e n t r a l l y . T h is d is s o lv e s th e p re v io u s ly

s t a b l e n o rm ativ e co n sen su s ab o u t what c o n s t i t u t e s "a problem " and how i t

sh o u ld be rem edied. And a g a in , t h e r e i s a c a l l f o r more a t t e n t i o n to

ways of evoking n o rm ativ e change.

T o f f le r (1980) d e f in e s t h i s s h i f t a s th e th i r d wave of p o st­

in d u s tria liz a tio n . He n o te s t h i s a r i s e s from an in c r e a s in g r a t e of

change coupled w ith grow ing i n t e r r e l a t i o n betw een o r g a n iz a tio n s and th e

ev e n ts in t h e i r en v iro n m en t. Under th e s e c o n d itio n s t r a d i t i o n a l

i n d u s t r i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e m a la d a p tiv e . They a r e u n ab le to accomodate

o r c o o rd in a te in c r e a s in g ly fragm ented v a lu e s .

These view s a r e only a sample i n d i c a ti v e of s im i la r d ia g n o s is by

many o th e r s . A more d e t a ile d acco u n t co u ld e a s i l y expand to in c lu d e

o th e r p eo p le from d iv e rs e a r e a s such as c y b e r n e tic s (B eer, 1975),

econom ics (H enderson, 1978), p la n n in g (M ichael, 1973), system s

management (V ic k e rs, 1968 and 1965), and s o c ia l p sy chology (B en n is and

S l a t e r , 1968).

T here i s rem ark ab le convergence among th e s e a u th o rs . W hile they

have t h e i r d if f e r e n c e s , th e o v e r a l l d r i f t of t h e i r th o u g h t i s c o n g ru e n t.

Each, i n h i s own way, o u t l i n e s a b a s ic change in th e f a b r ic of s o c ie ty ;

th in g s a r e more in te r d e p e n d e n t, change i s q u ic k e r , and tech n o lo g y i s

more p o w erfu l. A lso , each fin d s t h a t th e s e changes c r i p p l e t r a d i t i o n a l

v e h ic le s u se d f o r managing s o c ia l i s s u e s . S in g le o r g a n iz a tio n s p u rsu in g

i s o l a t e d te c h n ic a l s o lu ti o n s a r e no lo n g e r enough to g e t by w ith .
 5

F u rth e r alo n g in th e same d i r e c t i o n , everyone p o in ts to a new way t h a t

is s u e s a r i s i n g from t h i s new p ro b lem atiq u e can be managed. For most

a u th o rs t h i s in v o lv e s m u ltip le groups o r o r g a n iz a tio n s t h a t i n i t i a l l y

work to develop i n t e g r a t i v e changes i n v a lu e s . T h is means th a t

i n i t i a t i v e w i l l in c r e a s in g ly need to ru n a c ro s s form al o r g a n iz a tio n a l

b o u n d a rie s, and t h a t more e f f o r t m ust be in v e s te d in fo rg in g new v a lu e s

and g o a ls p r io r to c o n s id e rin g te c h n ic a l o p tim a lity .

T h is ty p e of th in k in g o f f e r s one p o s iti v e s c e n a rio f o r fa c in g e v e n ts

i n a p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l w o rld . I t o u tl in e s a h o p e fu l p ro sp e c t f o r system s

management th ro u g h w idespread no rm ativ e p la n n in g . T h is p o s s i b i l i t y i s

an a t t r a c t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e to "doomsday s c e n a r io s " p r o je c tin g i n e v i t a b l e

d eca y . I t ' s som ething w o rth p u rs u in g .

But hooking m u ltip le o r g a n iz a tio n s i n t o n o rm ativ e change i s no easy

fe a t. I t r e q u ir e s g e t tin g new c o a l i t i o n s of p eo p le to work to g e th e r .

F re q u e n tly , th e r e must be s h a rin g betw een p a r t i e s who u s u a lly oppose

eac h o th e r , su ch a s :

consumer groups & c o r p o r a tio n s

la b o r & management

d e v e lo p e rs & c o n s e r v a t io n is ts

The system s management s c e n a rio of m u l ti- o r g a n iz a tio n p la n n in g and new

sh a re d v a lu e s r e q u ir e s t h a t th e s e s o r t s o f groups s t a r t o p e ra tin g

jo in tly . The tr o u b le i s t h a t th e y in c r e a s in g ly seem to be engaged in

com bat, n o t c o o p e ra tio n .

H ere, th e s e g roups a r e c a l le d d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s . D iv erg en t

f a c t io n s a r e i n t e r r e l a t e d groups w ith opposing v a lu e p r e f e r e n c e s .*

The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f f a c t io n s a r i s e s from t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in

th e same ex ten d ed f u n c tio n a l system (Schon, 1971, p p . 6 8 - 7 9 ) .t An

extended f u n c tio n a l system s i s a lo o s e ly co u p led o r g a n iz a tio n . U su ally

unnamed, i t perform s some m ajor s o c ia l f u n c tio n th ro u g h th e i n t e r a c t i o n

o f elem en ts t h a t a r e m ost o f te n c o n sid e re d to be s e p a ra te e n t i t i e s .

Seem ingly d is p a r a t e groups a r e th u s lin k e d v ia co p ro d u cer r e l a t i o n s h i p s

(A ckoff & Emery, 1972, p . 2 3 ); eac h f a c t io n in v i s i b l y su p p o rts th e

c o n d itio n s h e lp in g make th e o th e rs p o s s ib le .

Occupying d i f f e r e n t n ic h e s o f th e same extended system , th e s e groups

f r e q u e n tly d ev elo p fragm ented v a lu e s ( s e e Simon and March, 1958, p . 42

and pp . 156-157 f o r a c l a s s i c d is c u s s io n o f s u b u n it g o a l fo rm a tio n ).

These develop in s p i t e o f u n d e rly in g in te rd e p e n d e n c ie s t h a t a ls o e x i s t

by v i r t u e o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e same extended sy stem .

Sim ultaneous need f o r d i f f e r e n t o r i e n t a t i o n s w h ile p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n

th e same ex ten d ed system r a i s e s u n av o id ab le c o n tr a d ic tio n , o r s o c ia l

paradox (P ava, 1 978). S o c ia l paradox i s p e r v a s iv e , c o n tin u in g dilemma

betw een in c o m p a tib le y e t in te rd e p e n d e n t a c t i v i t i e s ( i . e . betw een

r e g u la to r s and th e r e g u la te d ) . T his goes beyond th e u s u a l id e a s o f

c o n f l i c t o r game th e o ry ; b o th o f th e s e a r e based upon a n o tio n of

"outcom e," an a c t u a l o r p o t e n t i a l te rm in a tio n p o in t, when d i f f e r e n t

* Beer (1979, p . 36) s u g g e s ts a s im i la r n o tio n o f "co n ten d in g p a ir s "

t h a t u n d e re s tim a te each o t h e r 's v a r i e t y .

t T h is resem b les th e IOR co n ce p t of ex te n d e d , i n t e r - c o r p o r a t e p o lic y

system s (F r ie n d , Power, Y e w le tt, 1974, p . 2 4 )(F rie n d & Noad, 1977,
p . 2 0 ).
 7

p a y o ffs a c ru e to each p la y e r . S o c ia l paradox cannot have a fro z e n o u t­

come s t a t e i n w hich one o r i e n t a t i o n comes to dom inate f i n a l l y . There

must be c o n tin u e d in t e r p l a y . O therw ise d i v e r s i t y (and hence redundancy)

n e c e ss a ry f o r th e e n t i r e extended system s d e c a y s. Thus, s o c ia l paradox

forms a "wicked" c la s s o f c h a lle n g e s t h a t can n o t be f i n a l l y so lv e d — " a t

b e s t th e y a r e re s o lv e d , o v e r and ov er a g a in ” ( R i t t e l and Weber, 1974,

p . 2 2 4 ).

In an e r a of tu rb u le n c e , th e d i s p a r i t y o f o r i e n t a t i o n s and th e i n t e r ­

dependence encompassed by ex ten d ed s o c ia l system s b o th grow. I n c r e a s in g

s p e c i a l i z a t i o n and th e p r e v a ilin g t r a d i t i o n of s o l i t a r y o r g a n iz a tio n s

encourag es g r e a t e r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and s e p a r a tio n between each

o r i e n t a t i o n in th e s o c ia l f i e l d . T h is makes p a r t i c i p a t i o n in extended

f u n c tio n a l system s in c r e a s in g ly o b scu re to a l l in v o lv e d p a r t i e s ; th e

i l l u s i o n o f "u s a g a in s t th e w orld" becomes more and more co m p ellin g . At

th e same tim e , in te rd e p e n d e n c ie s a c t u a ll y in c r e a s e amid s o c i e t a l

tu rb u le n c e . Extended f u n c tio n a l system s th e r e f o r e become in c re a s in g ly

im p o rta n t, even though t h e y 'r e more e a s i l y f o r g o tte n th a n e v e r.

H eightened in terd ep en d en c y and g r e a t e r fra g m e n ta tio n a r i s i n g from

tu rb u le n c e make s o c ia l p aradox in c r e a s in g ly u n te n n a b le . I t becomes a

grow ing so u rc e o f p e r tu b a tio n , g iv in g r i s e to more and more o u tb re a k s o f

s p e c i f i c c o n f l i c t s and r e s u l t i n g a d v e r s it y .

E v e n tu a lly , g ro u p s p a r t i c i p a t i n g in th e same extended s o c ia l system

b eg in to a c t more l i k e f o r e ig n enem ies th a n r e l a t e d a d v e r s a r i e s . At

t h i s p o in t, g ro u p s in th e same extended f u n c tio n a l system can be s a id to

form d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s . Like two s id e s o f th e same c o in , th e y a r e

in te r c o n n e c te d , b u t o r ie n te d in co m p lete ly d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s .
 8

F o r g e ttin g t h e i r u n d e rly in g i n t e r r e l a t i o n , d iv e rg e n t f a c tio n s proceed to

b a t t l e under e s ta b lis h e d p r a c t i c e s of s o - c a lle d r a ti o n a l problem

s o lv in g . For exam ple, th e y commonly draw upon c o n f li c ti n g " e x p e rt

w itn e s s e s " to s a n c ti f y t h a t t h e i r own view s a r e te c h n ic a lly o p tim a l

compared to a l l o th e r s . The r e c e n t u p sw ell of s in g le is s u e p o l i t i c s

f u r t h e r e x e m p lifie s t h i s grow ing te n d en cy . F ig u re 1.1 on th e fo llo w in g

page s k e tc h e s an overview of examples th a t i l l u s t r a t e some d iv e rg e n t

f a c t io n s in extended f u n c tio n a l sy stem s.

These a re th e very same groups t h a t must b eg in w orking to g e th e r i f

th e s c e n a rio of m u lti- o r g a n iz a tio n /n o r m a tiv e change i s going to w ork.

W ithout jo i n t involvem ent th e r e can be l i t t l e i n i t i a t i v e a c ro s s

b o u n d a rie s to b u ild new v a lu e s and g o a ls . F or exam ple, i f d e v e lo p e rs

and c o n s e r v a t io n is ts w i l l n o t work j o i n t l y , th e r e can be no e f f e c t i v e

community p lan n in g p ro c e s s . And f r e q u e n tly , when r e p r e s e n ta tiv e of

f a c tio n a te d groups do ta k e p a r t , th e y can q u ic k ly be ex p u rg ated by t h e i r

com rades f o r s e ll in g o u t.

T his p o in ts to a growing n e e d . The te n s io n between d iv e rg e n t

o r i e n t a t i o n s m ust be k e p t a l i v e .* But i t m ust not be allow ed to

e s c a l a te e a s i l y and g e t out of h an d . The c u r r e n t l i t e r a t u r e o f f e r s only

g e n e ra l g u id an ce in t h i s a r e a . The p r e v a ilin g recom m endation in th e

system s l i t e r a t u r e i s : promote c o o p e ra tio n under sh ared v a lu e s

developed th ro u g h p la n n in g ( s e e p. 4 of t h i s c h a p te r ) . But th e is s u e of

g e t tin g d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s to even b eg in j o i n t e f f o r t s rem ains

* The word " te n s io n " h e re does n o t invoke a b io m e c h a n istic assu m p tio n

t h a t a l l te n s io n sh o u ld id e a l l y be e lim in a te d . R a th e r, some m easure
of i t i s e s s e n t i a l . See Buckley (1967) and H o llin g s (1 9 7 6 ).

One D l s c e r n a b l e
E x te n d e d R u n c t i o n a l S y stem
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S a fe , and P r o f it a b le
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Some E x a m p les o f D i v e r g e n t F a c tlo n B
Com ponent F a c t io n s
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E m p lo y ees/M a n a g em en t
E m p lo y e r s /U n io n s
O u t s id e R e g u l a t o r s
( I . e . OSHA)
D e v e lo p e r s
C o n s e r v a t io n G roups
Com m unity I n t e r e s t
G rou ps and A g e n c i e s
P r o d u c e r s /M a r k e te r s
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com pared t o f o r e i g n
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 10

u n illu m in a te d . How do you get them i n t o a room to g e th e r in th e f i r s t

p la c e (e x c e p t p arh ap s to f i r e f i g h t one c r i s i s ) ? Many id e a s e x i s t f o r

ways to proceed once people d ecid e th e y w i l l p la n . But s t r a t e g i e s to

s t a r t p lan n in g betw een i n i t i a l l y a n t a g o n is ti c <_nd r e l u c t a n t ( i . e .

d iv e rg e n t) f a c tio n s a r e la r g e ly n e g le c te d .

The e x te n s iv e l i t e r a t u r e on c o n f l i c t management and r e s o lu t io n does

fo c u s much upon t h i s a r e a . W alton (1 9 6 9 ), Eisem an (1 9 7 7 ), Low (1 9 7 6 ),

M cK ersie (1 9 6 5 ), von Neumann and M o rg en stein (1 9 5 3 ), and o th e rs w r e s tle

w ith how to get c o n f l i c t i n g p a r t i e s to accommodate each o th e r. But

p red o m in ate ly t h i s work a p p l i e s to " h ig h v o lta g e " s i t u a t i o n w here c r i s i s

i s e i t h e r imminent o r a lre a d y e r u p tin g . There i s l i t t l e d ir e c tio n f o r

how to in te r v e n e p r o a c tiv e ly a t th e u n d e rlin g le v e l of s o c ia l paradox

b e fo re th e bin d sp ark s a c t u a l o u tb re a k s . A ls o , th o s e sp e a k in g to t h i s

c o n c e rn do not p rete n d to o f f e r a s u r e - f ir e d f i n a l answ er. S u b s ta n tia l

a d d itio n to e x i s t i n g th o u g h t can be immensely h e lp f u l; th e re i s p le n ty

o f room f o r c o n t r ib u tio n .

T r i s t (1979) re n d e rs one of th e more d e t a ile d analys.es o f

s u c c e s s f u lly hooking d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s in to norm ative change. U nlike

most c o n f l i c t - r e s o l u t i o n work, t h i s lo o k s to community le v e l develop­

m ents ru n n in g beyond th e le v e l of smal 1 -group dynam ics. Looking a c r o s s

fo u r r o b u s t community r e v i t a l i z a t i o n e f f o r t s , he d is c e rn s a new s o c ia l

ty p e of o r g a n iz a tio n c a lle d in n o v a tin g o r g a n iz a tio n s . T h is i s a

"grounded co n ce p t" (G la s e r and S tr a u s s , 1967) th a t p ro v id es a ra y of

h o p e. I t shows th a t on a m o d erate s c a le , d iv e rg e n t f a c tio n s can

som etim es be engaged to c r e a te a d i f f e r e n t f u tu r e between them .

T h is o u t l i n e of n o v e l o c c u rre n c e s c a l le d in n o v a tin g o rg a n iz a tio n s

 11

p ro v id es a s u g g e s tiv e p o in t o f d e p a r tu r e : can a b a s ic p ro c e ss be

i d e n t i f i e d t h a t hooks d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s i n t o no rm ativ e change? T his i s

an e s s e n t i a l q u e s tio n . In i t hangs th e p ro s p e c t o f th e m u lti­

o rg a n iz a tio n /n o rm a tiv e change s c e n a rio f o r p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l s o c ie t y .

The fo llo w in g s e c tio n of t h i s c h a p te r s ta k e s - o u t a n o v el v o cab u lary

f o r p u rsu in g t h i s is s u e .

F o rm u latin g A B a sic Concept Of Change Between D iv erg en t F a c tio n s

One fo rm u la tio n of a b a s ic tr a n s f o r m a tio n p ro c e ss between d iv e rg e n t

f a c t io n s i s now p ro p o sed . T his i s based upon a p p ly in g th e th e o ry of

l o g i c a l ty p e s to s o c i a l sy stem s. P rev io u s a p p l ic a t io n s o f th e th e o ry o f

l o g i c a l ty p e s a r e rev iew ed . A g e n e r a l co n cep t o f change between

d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s i s b u i l t upon t h i s h e r i t a g e .

The co n cep t dev elo p ed h ere i s n o t in te n d e d to be t h e o r e t i c a l l y

u ltim a te . I t i s n o t a c o n te n d e r to become th e o n ly le g itim a te image o f

such ch an g e. R a th e r, th e i n t e n t i s to p ro v id e an a l t e r n a t i v e

d e s c r i p t i o n , one t h a t s u g g e s ts a f r e s h p e r s p e c tiv e and i n t r i g u i n g

o p tio n s f o r engaging d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s w ith n orm ative change e f f o r t s .

The id e a of l o g i c a l ty p e s was f i r s t developed by W hitehead and

R u s s e ll (1 9 1 0 ). C o n fro n tin g th e s e l f - r e f l e x i v i t y o f human

com m unications, t h a t p eo p le can communicate ab o u t com m unicating, th e y

d is tin g u is h e d between s ta te m e n ts and s ta te m e n ts ab o u t s ta te m e n ts .

D ire c t s ta te m e n ts a r e r e f e r r e d to as s ta te m e n ts . S tatem en ts ab o u t

s ta te m e n ts a r e c a l le d m e ta -s ta te m e n ts . A ccording to W hitehead and

R u s s e ll, th e s e a r e phenomenon o f d i f f e r e n t o r d e r s . M e ta -sta te m e n ts

encompass d i r e c t s ta te m e n ts . They r e f e r to them and q u a l if y them.

 F ig u re 1.2

S tatem en t and M eta-S tatem en t

M eta-S tatem ent

(S tatem en t About S ta te m e n t)
t V 1
C o n s tra in s & Q u a lif ie s I
/ 1
I \
i
V /
\
S tatem en t
!
D ire c t S tatem en t I
 13

But s ta te m e n ts do n o t r e f e r to and q u a l if y m e ta -s ta te m e n ts (see f ig u r e

1.2 on th e p reced in g p a g e ).

T h e re fo re , W hitehead and R u s s e ll m a in ta in t h a t m e ta -sta te m e n ts a r e

o f a h ig h e r lo g i c a l type th a n s ta te m e n ts . The h ig h e r lo g i c a l type

c o n s tr a in s and q u a l i f i e s th e low er l o g i c a l ty p e , even i f b o th le v e ls a re

a p p a r e n tly made of th e same s t u f f ( i . e . words in a s ta te m e n t) . A c la s s

o f sta te m e n ts i s a h ig h e r l o g i c a l type th a n s p e c i f i c s ta te m e n ts w ith in

th a t c la ss .

For exam ple, to c a l l someone a l i a r i s to d i s c r e d i t a l l o th e r

s ta te m e n ts by a p erso n ; t h i s i s a m e ta -s ta te m e n t encom passing a l l

p a r t i c u l a r s ta te m e n ts . Because i t i s c l a s s i f i e d by a sta te m e n t ab o u t

s ta te m e n ts , th e d e s ig n a te d l i a r can n o t e a s i l y d is c o n firm t h i s c l a s s i f i ­

c a tio n by j u s t ta lk in g ( i . e . by j u s t making more s ta te m e n ts ) .

B ateson (1 9 7 2 )(1 9 7 9 ) a b d u c ts t h i s c o n ce p t and a p p lie s i t to human

and s o c ia l b e h a v io r. His work y ie ld s many complex i n s i g h t s co n ce rn in g a

number o f s u b je c t a r e a s . H ere, o n ly a few o f th e s e id e a s a r e

summarized.

B ateso n n o te s t h a t b e h a v io r makes se n se on ly in c o n te x t. He o f f e r s

th e example of two young monkeys p la y in g (1972, p . 1 79). The n ip of one

monkey to a n o th e r d u rin g th e c o n te x t c a l le d "p lay " h a s a much d i f f e r e n t

meaning th a n th e same n ip made in th e c o n te x t c a l le d " f i g h t i n g . ” The

d if f e r e n c e betw een c o n te x ts i s n o t e x p l i c i t l y com m unicated. I n s te a d , i t

i s evoked t a c i t l y , th ro u g h s u b tle cues t h a t s e t a frame f o r b e h a v io r.

T h is frame p ro v id e s a c o n te x t in which s p e c i f i c a c t io n s , such a s a n ip ,

make s e n s e .

B ateso n f u r t h e r p ro p o ses t h a t t h i s c o n te x t of r e l a t i o n s i s a h ig h e r
 14

l o g i c a l ty p e th a n any p a r t i c u l a r b eh a v io rs w ith in i t . The frame o f

b e h a v io r c o n s tr a in s and q u a l i f i e s s p e c if i c a c t io n s , b u t once c l a s s i f i e d

in s id e i t s p e c i f i c a c tio n s w ith in th e c o n te x t w ill n o t e a s i l y q u a l if y

it. T his i s e x e m p lifie d by th e o ld t a l e of c ry in g "w olf" to o o f te n .

P rev io u s c a l l s sounding f a l s e alarm le a d o th e r s to frame th e s p e c i f i c

b e h a v io r of c a l l i n g "w olf" a s a f a l s e com m unication. Once t h i s o ccu rs

no amount o f d is c u s s io n w ith in t h i s c o n te x t w ill e a s i l y d is q u a l if y i t .

The more adam antly one c r i e s "w olf" th e g r e a t e r i s a n o t h e r 's b e l i e f t h a t

i t ' s a l l a hoax. Thus, th e fram e o f b eh a v io r i s a h ig h e r l o g i c a l type

th a n s p e c if i c b e h a v io rs w ith in i t . The c o n te x t w i l l c o n s tr a in and

q u a lif y s p e c i f i c a c t s , b u t th e r e v e r s e does n o t e a s i l y happen. The

fram e becomes p a r t of th e prem ise system m a in tain ed by p eo p le. T h is

frame i s th u s lo n g e r l a s t i n g and more d i f f i c u l t to d is c u s s o r change

e x p l i c i t l y th a n s p e c if i c b eh a v io rs in s id e i t .

B ateson (1972, pp. 279 -3 0 8 )(1 9 7 9 , pp. 133-134) f u r t h e r m a in ta in s

t h a t mammals, and p a r t i c u l a r l y humans, can le a r n new c o n te x ts of

b e h a v io r. He c a l l s t h i s d e u te r o - le a r n in g . B ateson (1979, pp. 122-123)

(1972, pp. 276-277) s k e tc h e s a g e n e ra l p r o f i l e of d e u te r o - le a r n in g th a t

can ap p ly to humans:

- D eu tero -L earn in g i s Immensely F r u s t r a t i n g

The e x p e rie n c e le a d in g to d e u te r o - le a r n in g i s n o t j u s t being wrong,

b u t b ein g wrong ab o u t c o n te x t. What i s i n e r r o r i s n o t any
p a r t i c u l a r p ie c e o f b e h a v io r, b u t o n e 's e n t i r e approach to th e
s i t u a t i o n . Any resp o n se i n th e o ld fram e i s wrong. H ab it com pels
one to only t r y new co m b in atio n s w ith in th e o ld framework. Many
unearned re in fo rc e m e n ts w i l l be needed to s u s t a in th e le a r n in g
r e l a t i o n s h i p d u rin g th e s e h ard tim e s.
 15

- A New Frame o f B ehavior I s D isco v ered by A ccident

A new frame o f b e h a v io r i s u s u a lly d is c o v e re d th ro u g h a c c id e n ta l o r

unplanned e x p e rie n c e s . S e re n d ip ito u s resp o n se th a t b reak s o ld
p a tte r n s i s evoked by f r u s t r a t i o n . With enough su p p o rt in a
le a r n in g r e l a t i o n s h i p (a c o n te x t o f c o n te x t o f c o n te x t) t h i s b rin g s
i n s ig h t in to a new c l a s s , o r frame o f b e h a v io r. T h is new frame i s
u s u a lly a new w o rld , p re v io u s ly unim aged. I t i s s im i la r t o what
Kuhn (1962) c a l l s paradigm s h i f t .

D e u te ro -le a rn in g i s le a r n in g ab o u t fram es of b e h a v io r, o r c l a s s e s of

b e h a v io r, in s te a d o f j u s t s p e c i f i c i s o l a t e d b e h a v io rs. The p ro c e s s i s

immensely f r u s t r a t i n g , g r e a t ly ta x in g any such le a r n in g r e la tio n s h ip .

T h is f r u s t r a t i o n i s , how ever, n e c e s s a ry . I t evokes s e r e n d ip ito u s

resp o n se t h a t can ig n i t e a p p r e c ia tio n o f a new b e h a v io r a l fram e.

D e u tro -le a m in g i s p a in f u l and n o t fr e q u e n tly done. I t happens only

when a change in c o n te x t demands i t f o r c o n tin u e d e f f e c t iv e n e s s .

The d e u te r o - le a r n in g p ro c e ss i s rem arkably u n lik e r a t i o n a l le a r n in g

p ro c e sse s a d m in is te re d by modern e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . I t more

c lo s e ly resem b les te c h n iq u e s f o r m oral and s p i r i t u a l e d u c a tio n p r a c tic e d

in some r e l i g i o n s , and c e r t a i n te c h n iq u e s of th e ra p y .

O thers have fo llo w ed B a te s o n 's le a d i n a p p ly in g l o g i c a l ty p in g to

human b e h a v io r. Most a p p l ic a t io n has o c c u rre d i n th e f i e l d o f th e ra p y

and fam ily th e ra p y (W atzlaw ick, B eavin, and Ja c k so n , 1967)(W atzlaw ick,

W eakland, and F is c h , 1974)(H aley, 1 9 6 7 )(B erg er, 1 9 7 8 )(S lu zk i and Ransom,

1976). A ll th e s e approaches work to make th e ra p y d eal w ith th e c o n te x ts

of problem s r a th e r th an problem s th e m selv es. T h is i s t o work w ith

c o n te x t a s a h ig h e r l o g i c a l ty p e th a t e f f e c t s s p e c if i c c o n te n t.

W atzlaw ick, Weakland and F is c h (1974, pp. 91-109) summarize th is

approach a s refram in g a problem . R efram ing i s done by chan g in g th e

c o n te x t o f b e h a v io r r a th e r th an th e symptom i t s e l f . T h is o ccu rs
 16

thro u g h enactm ent evoking a new c o n te x t, r a t h e r th a n p u re ly c o n c e p tu a l

r e f l e c t i o n p r io r to c a r e f u l ly c o n s id e re d a c tio n ( r e c a l l t h a t deuteror-

le a r n in g i s f r u s t r a t i n g and s e r e n d ip i to u s ) . R efram ing i s a r e j e c t i o n of

c h o ic e between e i t h e r one a l t e r n a t i v e o r a n o th e r, and in s te a d d e a ls w ith

changing th e frame or c l a s s c o n ta in in g a l l a l t e r n a t i v e s . To u s e

W ittg e n s t e in 's la n g u a g e , re fra m in g "does n o t draw a t t e n t i o n to an y th in g

— does n o t produce ( a n a l y t i c a l ) i n s i g h t — but te a c h e s a d i f f e r e n t game,

th e re b y making th e o ld one o b s o le te ." The o th e r "now s e e s som ething

d i f f e r e n t and can no lo n g e r n a iv e ly go on p la y in g " (W atzlaw ick,

W eakland, and F is c h , 1974, p. 10 4 ).

W ilden (1972) and W ilden and W ilson (1976) ta k e th e id e a o f l o g i c a l

ty p in g f u r t h e r , beyond th e s c a le of sm all in te r p e r s o n a l sy stem s. They

employ l o g i c a l ty p in g to a n a ly z e s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s i n i n d u s t r i a l s o c ie ty .

Argument proceeds from B a te s o n 's id e a of p u n c tu a tio n . In t h i s view

ex p e rie n c e i s a c o n tin u in g u n d if f e r e n tia t e d stre a m of e v e n ts . This

stream can be p arsed and p ie c e s lin k e d to g e th e r in m u ltip le w ays.

D if f e r e n t p u n c tu a tio n s of ex p e rie n c e le a d to d if f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s

o f th e same e v e n ts , j u s t as th e same s e n te n c e can be p u n ctu ated more

th a n one way to e x p re s s d i f f e r e n t m eanings. This i s s im ila r to A c k o ff's

(1974, pp. 20-21) n o tio n th a t peo p le tak e o n ly one of many p o s s ib le

fo rm u la tio n s to make se n se of t h i n g s .

Two b a s ic ways to p u n c tu a te , o r code, e x p e rie n c e a r e analog o r

d i g i t a l co d in g (W ilden, 1972, p . ll) ( W ild e n & W ilson, 1976, pp. 268—270)

(B a te so n , pp. 3 7 2 -3 7 4 )(W atzlaw ick, B eavin, and Ja c k so n , pp. 6 0 -6 7 ).

D ig it a l codes employ d is c o n tin u o u s , e i t h e r / o r r e p r e s e n t a tio n . They a r e

l i k e b in a ry com puter m achine la n g u a g e . D ig it a l codes do not resem ble

 17

what th e y map. Y et, o n ly d i g i t a l codes can e x p re ss n e g a tio n , th a t one

th in g i s n o t a p a r t of a n o th e r. The second b a s ic way o f coding i s

a n a lo g . Analog codes a r e c o n tin u o u s m agnitudes th a t resem b le what th e y

map, l i k e p ic tu r e s . They "do n o t c o n s i s t of d i s c r e t e elem en ts

d is tin g u is h e d from each o th e r by u n b rid g e a b le gaps, gaps which a re

e s s e n t i a l c o n s ti tu e n t s of th e code" (W ilden and W ilson, 1976, p. 2 6 9 ).

Analog co d in g th u s cannot ex p ress n eg atio n ^ i t p re s e rv e s a fu n d am en tal

i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s among w h atev er d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e coded.

D i g i t a l and an alo g co d in g a r e th e r e f o r e d r a m a tic a lly d i f f e r e n t . In

p a r t i c u l a r , th e two ty p e s of coding invoke d i f f e r e n t forms o f

o p p o s itio n a l r e l a t i o n s between d is tin g u is h e d ele m e n ts:

an alo g com m unication h as n o th in g com parable to th e l o g i c a l sy n ta x of

d i g i t a l la n g u ag e. T h is means th a t i n a n a lo g ic language th e r e a r e no
e q u iv a le n ts fo r su ch v i t a l l y im p o rta n t elem ents o f d is c o u rs e a s
" i f - t h e n , " " e i t h e r / o r , ” and many o t h e r s . . . . F u rth erm o re ,
a n a lo g ic language s h a r e s w ith a n a lo g ic com puting th e la c k of th e
sim p le n e g a tiv e , i . e . a n e x p re s s io n f o r " n o t." (W atzlaw ick, B eavin,
and Ja c k so n , 1967, p. 6 7 .)

L o g ic a l sy n ta x h a s o b v io u s b e n e f i t s f o r reaso n in g and c a l c u la tin g . But

th e s e ad v an tag es a re p u rch ased a t a p r i c e . D ig it a l co d in g p o s its

e i t h e r / o r o p p o s itio n a l r e l a t i o n s . I t i s b e s t f o r m a n ip u la tin g and

a n a ly z in g th in g s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Analog co d in g p o s i t s b o th -an d

re la tio n s . I t i s b e s t f o r a p p re c ia tin g and r e g u la tin g complex r e l a t i o n ­

s h ip s between r e l a t i o n s h i p s (W atzlaw ick, B eavin and Ja c k so n , p. 6 3 ).

Humans, and p e rh a p s c e ta c e a n s , a r e th e o n ly an im als t h a t c o n s ta n tly

t r a n s l a t e between an a lo g and d i g i t a l c o d in g . Human d i g i t a l co d in g i s

f r e q u e n tly v e r b a l and fo rm a liz e d com m unication ( i . e . d is c u r s iv e

com m unication, m a th em a tic s, l o g i c , e t c . ) . Human an alo g co d in g i s

 18

f r e q u e n tly n o n -v e rb a l o r afo rm a l com m unication ( i . e . g e s tu r e , v o c a l

to n e , a r t , m u sic, t h e a t e r , e t c . ) . Human v e r b a l o r form al com munication

i s good f o r managing th in g s and r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h i n g s .

N on-verbal o r afo rm al com m unication i s good f o r managing r e la tio n s h ip s

and r e l a t i o n s h i p s between r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T r a n s la tio n in e i t h e r

d i r e c t i o n i s ex ce ed in g ly d i f f i c u l t , and f r e q u e n tly lo s e s in fo rm a tio n .

W ilden and Wilden and W ilson (1976) arg u e t h a t an alo g and d i g i t a l

coding a r e two d i f f e r e n t lo g i c a l ty p e s . They m a in ta in t h a t betw een th e

tw o, e i t h e r can be th e h ig h e r l o g i c a l ty p e . E ith e r can be made p rim ary

i n r e l a t i o n to the o th e r . The prim ary ty p e of coding w i l l be th e h ig h e r

l o g i c a l ty p e . I t w i l l c o n s tr a in , q u a l i f y , and m ed iate th e low er ty p e o f

c o d in g . Analog and d i g i t a l coding can th u s r e p r e s e n t two b a s ic ways to

s l i c e th e p ie o f r e a l i t y and to a s s o c ia te between th e r e s u l t i n g p ie c e s .

W ilden (1972) and W ilden and W ilson (1976) arg u e th a t t h i s b a s ic

d i s t i n c t i o n g iv e s r i s e to c o rre s p o n d in g ly b a s ic a l t e r n a t i v e s fo r ty p e s

o f s o c ia l r e la tio n s . One type of b a s ic r e l a t i o n i s c o m p e titio n .

C om petition i s i n t e r a c t i o n where th e r e i s o p p o s itio n ; e i t h e r one p a r ty

g a in s ^ r a n o th e r. T h is i s a s s o c ia te d w ith d i g i t a l , e i t h e r / o r co d in g ,

which evokes u n b rid g e a b le gaps as an e s s e n t i a l c o n s ti tu e n t of th e co d e.

T h is co n cep t o f c o m p e titio n i s s im i la r to a zero-sum game (von Neumann

and M o rg en stein , 1953), in which th e g a in o f one p la y e r and th e lo s s o f

h i s opponent always sum to z e ro ; t h e r e i s p u re c o m p e titio n , w ith th e

lo s s o f one p la y e r becoming th e g a in of a n o th e r .

The o th e r type o f b a s ic s o c ia l r e l a t i o n i s c o o p e ra tio n . C o o p eratio n

i s i n t e r a c t i o n where th e re i s no e s s e n t i a l o p p o s itio n ; b o th one p a r ty

 19

g a in s and a n o th e r. T his i s a s s o c ia te d w ith a n a lo g , b o th -an d c o d in g ,

which does n o t draw u n b rid g e a b le s e p a r a tio n s betw een th in g s . T his

co n cep t of c o o p e ra tio n i s s im i la r to a nonzero-sum game (von Neumann and

M o rg en stein , 1953), i n which th e g a in and lo s s a re n o t in v e rs e ly f ix e d

and do n o t n e c e s s a r i ly sum to z e ro .

C o m p etitio n and c o o p e ra tio n a r e n o t j u s t s e p a r a te i s o l a t e d

b e h a v io rs . They a r e two b a s ic ty p e s o f b e h a v io ra l seq u en ce s. These

sequences a r e p ro lo n g e d , ru n n in g a c r o s s many s e p a r a te a c t s . They a r e

what B ateson c a l l s a c o n te x t, o r fram e f o r b e h a v io r. As su ch ,

c o o p e ra tio n and c o m p e titio n m e d ia te , c o n s tr a i n , and q u a lif y o th e r

b e h a v io rs . For exam ple, th e a c tio n o f ch o o sin g where th e fa m ily e a t s

d in n e r can be c o o p e ra tiv e o r c o m p e titiv e . What a c t u a ll y ta k e s p la c e

g r e a t ly d i f f e r s depending w hich i s th e c a s e . The n a tu re o f s p e c if i c

b eh a v io r i s th u s fram ed by i t s u n d e rly in g c o o p e ra tiv e o r c o m p e titiv e

c o n te x t. The cues m arking d if f e r e n c e in c o n te x t w i l l be s u b tle , and

d i f f i c u l t to e x p l i c i t l y change (B ateso n , 1972, pp. 177-193).

W ilden (1972) and W ilden and W ilson (1976) m a in ta in t h a t c o m p e titio n

and c o o p e ra tio n a ls o m e d ia te , c o n s tr a i n , and q u a lif y each o th e r . One of

them becomes th e prim ary m e d iatin g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n . J u s t l i k e an alo g

and d i g i t a l co d in g , c o m p e titio n and c o o p e ra tio n a r e two d i f f e r e n t

lo g i c a l ty p e s . E ith e r can be th e h ig h e r l o g i c a l ty p e w ith r e s p e c t to

th e o th e r . E ith e r can be made p rim ary i n r e l a t i o n to th e o th e r ; i t w i l l

c o n s tr a in , q u a l if y , and m ed iate th e low er ty p e o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s . *

* R etu rn in g to B a te s o n 's example o f monkey p la y m ight c l a r i f y t h i s by

way o f a sim p le exam ple. Between monkeys any n ip i s j u s t one p ie c e of
 20

T his prim ary m e d ia tin g s o c ia l r e la tio n s h ip i s n o t ju s t a s in g le

v alu e ( i . e . " a l l men a re b r o th e r s " ) o r one chunk of p r e s c r ib e d b eh av io r

( i . e . pure s u r r e n d e r o r p u re a g g re s s io n ) to be d is p la y e d in every

s itu a tio n . I t i s a c o n te x t, o r frame f o r the many a c t s and v alu es

co m p risin g s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s . As th e prim ary m e d ia tin g s o c ia l

r e l a t i o n s h i p c o m p e titio n o r c o l la b o r a t io n p ro v id e a c o n te x t fram ing

o th e r s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s ( in c lu d in g w hichever one of them i s made low er in

l o g i c a l ty p e ) . I t c o n s tr a in s and q u a l i f i e s a l l v a rio u s r e l a t i o n s i n a

s o c ie ty . I n s te a d o f b ein g a s in g le r e l a t i o n s h i p , th e prim ary m ed iatin g

s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p i s an o v e r a ll p a t t e r n among r e la tio n s h ip s ^ i t i s a

r e l a t i o n s h i p between r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h is is n o t a s in g le t h i n g or

e n tity . R a th e r, i t i s an eco lo g y , a complex s e t of r e l a t i o n s betw een

o th e r i n t e r r e l a t i n g e le m e n ts. In th e c a s e of s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s , th e s e

elem en ts a r e in te n tio n s and a c tio n s among p e o p le . A q u a lita tiv e ly

d i f f e r e n t eco lo g y i s evoked by c o m p e titio n and c o o p e ra tio n a s

a l t e r n a t i v e prim ary m ed iatin g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s .

W ilden (1972) and W ilden and W ilson (1976) m a in ta in th a t th e prim ary

m ed iatin g r e l a t i o n s h i p o f i n d u s t r i a l s o c ie ty i s c o m p e titio n . In t h i s

e co lo g y o f v alu e a l l o p p o s itio n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s are u l t i m a t e l y

b e h a v io r. I t s meaning i s d i f f e r e n t depending upon i t s fram e . In

p la y , th e p rim ary m ed iatin g r e l a t i o n s h i p i s c o p e r a tio n . I n th is frame
th e n ip i s an i n v i t a t i o n to p la y f u l ly r e t a l i a t e , an d mock f ig h t in g
e n s u e s . I n com bat, th e prim ary m ed iatin g r e l a t i o n s h i p i s c o m p e titio n .
In t h i s frame th e nip i s a t h r e a t to e x is te n c e th a t must b e
e lim in a te d . The type o f r e l a t i o n p rim a rily m e d ia tin g b eh av io r a f f e c t s
th e c h a r a c te r of com m unication and exchange. When c o o p e ra tio n i s made
th e h ig h e r l o g i c a l ty p e , th e c o m p e titio n between n ip p e rs i s not
a b s o lu te . I t i s m ed iated by p la y f u ln e s s and p r e v e n ts a b s o lu te
com bative c o m p e titio n .
 21

d ig ita liz e d in to e ith e r /o r d is tin c tio n s :

man v e r s u s n a tu re

s e l f v e rsu s o th e r

us v e r s u s them

man v e rsu s woman

re a s o n v e r s u s em otion

e x p e r t v e rs u s layman

mind v e rs u s body

( L is t based on W ilden, 1972, p. 2 2 1 ). T h e ir c la im i s r a d i c a l , t h a t i n

i n d u s t r i a l s o c ie t y , an y such e n t i t i e s a re u ltim a te ly p e rc e iv e d to be

un b rid g eab ly s e p a r a t e , and t h a t th e y must compete fo r advantage in

r e s p e c t to each o th e r .

Any d i s t i n c t i o n s made betw een th i n g s , o r any r e l a t i o n s drawn between

th in g s thus d is ti n g u is h e d , a r e p rim a rily r e l a t e d th ro u g h a d i g i t a l

" e it h e r /o r " lo g i c t h a t evokes c o m p e titio n . This a p p lie s even t o

e x i s t i n g c o o p e ra tiv e r e l a t i o n s . Because they a r e a low er lo g i c a l type

in i n d u s t r i a l s o c ie t y , even th e y a r e fu n d am e n tally m ediated by and

s u b o rd in a te to co m p etitiv e r e l a t i o n s .

T h is i s i n c o n t r a s t to th e l o g i c a l ty p in g of s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s found

i n many s o - c a lle d p r im itiv e c u l t u r e s , su ch as th e Dobu (M alinow ski,

1922). In th e s e s o c ie t ie s th e r e i s an o v e r a ll c o o p e r a tiv e r e l a t i o n to

which a l l c o m p e titio n i s s u b o r d in a te . T h is also seems to apply to n a tu ­

r a l eco sy stem s (see W ilden an d W ilson, 1976, pp. 2 7 9 -2 8 1 ). T h is does

n o t mean th a t c o m p e titio n d o es n o t e x i s t . However, i t i s c o n ta in e d i n a

la r g e r eco lo g y of b o th -a n d s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . S p e c if ic e i t h e r / o r

d e c is io n s a r e thus fram ed by a c o o p e ra tiv e c o n te x t th a t m e d ia te s them:

 22

In a n th r o p o lo g ic a l s o c i e t i e s , th e two p o le s of an e i t h e r / o r
c o n s tr u c tio n o r r e l a t i o n a r e n e v e r f u l l y s e p a r a te d , s in c e they a r e
alw ays m ediated and c o n s tra in e d by b o th -an d r e l a t i o n s which w i l l
e v e n tu a lly b rin g them to g e th e r a g a in . However, i n W estern
s o c i e t i e s , no b o th -an d r e l a t i o n s h i p i s ev er f u l l y a u n io n , because
i n our c u l tu r e , t h e n e c e s s ity o f c o m p e titiv e s p l i t t i n g e v e n tu a lly
m e d ia te s.
(W ilden and W ilson, 1976, p. 280)

T h is i s n o t a m a tte r of q u a n t ity , a s i f th e r e i s "more" o r "more

f re q u e n t" b o th -an d com m unication in p r im itiv e s o c i e t i e s . I t i s a m a tte r

o f l o g i c a l ty p e , of p rim acy, th a t q u a l i t a t i v e l y " a l l th o u g h t and a c tio n

i s m ediated by th e dom inant b o th -an d r e l a t i o n s such th a t th e use of th e

e i t h e r / o r le v e l of l o g i c u ltim a te ly im p lie s a b o th -an d r e s u l t " (W ilden

and W ilson, 1976, p. 2 8 0 ). In t h i s view any e i t h e r / o r d i s t i n c t i o n in

p r im itiv e s o c ie ty i s made to denote t h a t " th in g s have t h e i r p lace"

( L e v i- S tr a u s s , 1962, p . 10). In c o n t r a s t , any b o th -an d r e l a t i o n in

i n d u s t r i a l s o c ie ty i s u ltim a te ly to m a in ta in , g a in , o r maximize

ad v an tag e in r e s p e c t to some o th e r u n i t .*

W ilden and W ilson (1976, p. 281) summarize th e d if f e r e n c e betw een

l o g i c a l ty p in g i n i n d u s t r i a l and p r im itiv e s o c i e t i e s . T h is i s d is p la y e d

in F ig u re 1.3 on th e fo llo w in g page.

The prim ary m ed iatin g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n i s a h ig h e r lo g i c a l type th a n

o th e r r e l a t i o n s in th e s o c ie t y . T h is makes i t most d i f f i c u l t to

e x p l i c i t l y d is c u s s o r im m ediately ch an g e.

The d ia g n o s tic p e r s p e c tiv e of t h i s v iew p o in t i s t h a t i n d u s t r i a l

s o c ie ty s u f f e r s from m alad ap tiv e and immoral lo g ic a l ty p in g . In t h i s

* T h is i s l a r g e l y sy n o p sis and p a ra p h ra s e of W ilden and W ilson (1976,

pp. 27 9 -2 8 0 ).
 F ig u re 1 .3
D if f e r e n t P rim ary M ed iatin g R e la tio n s h ip s
in
I n d u s t r i a l and Premodern S o c ie tie s
(Based upon W ilson & W ilson, 1976, p. 281)

INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES PRIMITIVE SOCIETIES

P rim ary M ed iatin g Prim ary M ediating

S o c ia l R e la tio n : S o c ia l R e la tio n :

COMPETITION COOPERATION

E ith e r /O r | Both-And
R e la tio n s | R e la tio n s
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
c o n s tr a in & q u a lif y c o n s tr a in & q u a lif y
I r I I
' I
; i I I
COOPERATION COMPETITION
I I
I {
!

Both-And | I E ith e r /O r
R e la tio n s | I R e la tio n s
 24

view , o u r e n t i r e p ro b lem atiq u e a r i s e s from s u b s c r ip tio n to c o m p e titio n

a s a prim ary m e d ia tin g s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p . The e i t h e r / o r lo g ic of

c o m p e titio n q u a l i f i e s a l l r e l a t i o n s people draw between t h e i r s e l f s ,

t h e i r v a lu e s , and o th e r s .

A few o th e r contem porary th in k e r s go in t h i s d i r e c t i o n . Ozbekhan

(1969, pp. 146-151) i s an e a r l y ad v o c a te of t h i s ap proach:

. . . th e ecosystem e q u a tio n p ro v id e s us w ith r e l a t i v e l y sim ple

to o l- c o n c e p ts which happen to be h ig h ly p e r ti n e n t to any p la n n in g
th e o ry ; th e s e a r e r e l a t i o n s t h a t d e f in e m utual d e te rm in a tio n ,
com p lem en tarity and c o m p e titiv e n e s s . When th e s e r e l a t i o n s a r e
p laced in th e frame of r e f e r e n c e o f our c o n tin u o u s c r i t i c a l problem s
we b eg in to u n d erstan d t h a t th e is s u e s which c o n fro n t us a f f e c t th e
in t e r f a c e s o f th e v a r io u s com ponents o f our ecology and t h a t th e
s o lu tio n s we e n v is io n must be d esig n ed f o r such i n t e r f a c e s . T his
s u g g e s ts t h a t we m ust aim a t im plem enting i n t e g r a t i v e s o lu tio n s
which o rg a n iz e th e ecosystem a t a h ig h e r l e v e l . Such h ig h e r o rd e r
o r g a n iz a tio n I s h a l l c a l l e c o lo g ic a l b a la n c e . . . . t h i s norm . . .
does n o t d is p la c e o r e lim in a te t r a d i t i o n a l o n e s , but i t does
in tro d u c e a new c o n f ig u r a tio n in t o th e n o rm ativ e scheme and th e re b y
r e d e f in e s t h e i r v a lu e c o n te n t (1969, p p . 146-147).

T h is i s a fo re ru n n e r of th e co n ce p ts l a t e r developed by W ilden (1972)

and W ilden and W ilson (1976) t h a t b u ild upon a d i f f e r e n t t r a d i t i o n

( B a te s o n 's e a r ly w ork).

A few o th e r contem porary th in k e r s a ls o head in t h i s d i r e c t i o n .

Hamden-Turner (1979) d ev elo p s a co n cep t of th e ecology o f v a lu e s . He

n o te s t h a t a l l v a lu e s a r e e s ta b lis h e d by a f f ir m a ti o n . A ffirm a tio n

im p lie s d is c o n f irm a tio n , and hence a l l v a lu e s th e r e f o r e imply

c o u n te r - v a lu e s . Hamden-Turner m a in ta in s t h a t in v e rs e v a lu e s have

e s s e n t i a l r e c i p r o c it y ; th e y d ev elo p to g e th e r by m u tu al c o n firm a tio n .

For exam ple, th e v alu e o f grow ing p ro d u c tio n can o n ly develop th ro u g h

c o n firm a tio n by i t s r e c ip r o c a l of grow ing consum ption. V alues a re

th e r e f o r e f u l f i l l e d by i n d i r e c t i o n , by a p ro c e ss o f co n n e c tin g

r e c i p r o c a l s and g a in in g i n t e g r i t y . T h is i s n o t done from above by

 25

tra n s c e n d in g a l l v a lu e , b u t by w o rk in g -th ro u g h r e c i p r o c a l v a lu e s v ia

m utual c o n firm a tio n . F o r Hamden-Turner th e tendency to s h o r t - c i r c u i t

t h i s complex w o rk in g -th ro u g h p ro cess i s th e i l l of our tim e s . He claim s

t h i s i s ag g rav a ted by th e d i g i t a l e i t h e r / o r lo g ic of m ost lan g u ag e.

The l o g i c ia n V a re la (1976) n o te s th e modern tendency to t r e a t

d u a l i t i e s a s b in a ry o p p o s ite s t h a t a r e m u tu a lly e x c lu s iv e . T h is

o b scu res t h e i r fu n d am en tal i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s .

Emery (1977, p. 76) h i n t s a t a s im i la r id e a in th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f

th e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of c o n f l i c t . T his i s "th e d em o n stratio n t h a t

c o n f l i c t s a r e c o n ta in a b le w ith in a h ig h e r o rd e r of ends, a h ig h e r

r a t i o n a l i t y " (p . 7 6 ) . The im p lic a tio n i s t h a t p r im a r ily e i t h e r / o r

c o m p e titiv e d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e drawn to d ay .

Rozack (1977) pro p o ses a s im ila r arg u m en t. He m a in ta in s th a t th e

same k in d of r e l a t i o n s t h a t n a t u r a lly p r e s id e i n th e b io s p h e re should

a ls o p re s id e in s o c ia l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l r e l a t i o n s . T ran sp o sed i n t o th e

framework o f l o g i c a l ty p in g , t h i s p r e s c r ib e s r e l a t i o n i s b o th -an d

c o o p e ra tio n a s th e prim ary m e d ia tin g s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p .

The s p l i t t i n g in h e r e n t to e i t h e r / o r d i g i t a l r e l a t i o n s i s in

consonance w ith th e O b ject R e la tio n s School i n P sy c h o a n a ly sis (K le in ,

1959). T h is p o s i t s t h a t one v i t a l a s p e c t of p sy c h o lo g ic a l developm ent

i s coming to w orking term s w ith a w orld where th e same o b je c ts have

i r r e c o n c i l a b l y o p p o s ite a t t r i b u t e s ( i . e . g o o d /b ad ). In t h i s view

m a tu r ity i s th e a b i l i t y to allo w b o th -an d r e l a t i o n s m ed iate e i t h e r / o r

re la tio n s . Form t h i s p e r s p e c tiv e one m ig h t term i n d u s t r i a l c u l tu r e a s

b ein g immature o r s c h iz o id p a ra n o id .
 26

B erry (1978, p. 2 2 ) converges upon a s im ila r c o n c lu sio n from h is

a n a l y s i s of a g r i c u l t u r e in i n d u s t r i a l s o c ie ty :

Because by d e f i n i t i o n they la c k any such sen se of m u tu a lity of

w h o len ess, our s p e c i a l i z a t i o n s s u b s i s t on c o n f l i c t w ith one a n o th e r.
The r u le i s n ev er to c o o p e ra te , b u t r a t h e r to fo llo w one’ s own
i n t e r e s t a s f a r a s p o s s ib le . Checks and b alan ces a r e a l l a p p lie d
e x t e r n a ll y , by o p p o s itio n , n e v e r by s e l f - r e s t r a i n t . L abor, manage­
m ent, th e m i l i t a r y , th e governm ent, e t c . , n e v e r f o r b e a r u n t i l t h e i r
e x c e sse s aro u se enough o p p o s itio n to _force them to do so. The good
of th e whole . . . i s n ev er a c o n s id e r a tio n because i t i s n ev er
th o u g h t o f; our c u l tu r e now sim ply la c k s th e means f o r th in k in g of
it.

T h is r e p r e s e n ts y e t a n o th e r view ech o in g Ozbekhan th a t th e r e i s

som ething am iss in th e o v e r a ll c o n te x t o f v alu es (th e l o g i c a l type of

r e l a t i o n s betw een them ), and not sim ply i n v a lu e s them selves.

F in a l ly , B ateso n (1976, pp. 128-152) arg u es i n th e same d i r e c t i o n ,

t h a t d i g i t a l e i t h e r / o r lo g ic e s s e n t i a l l y m e d ia te s r e l a t i o n s i n

i n d u s t r i a l c u ltu r e :

. . . mere p u rp o siv e r a t i o n a l i t y unaided by such phenomena as a r t ,

r e l i g i o n , dream , and th e lik e i s n e c e s s a r ily p ath o g en ic and d e s tr u c ­
t i v e o f l i f e . . . i t s v ir u le n c e s p rin g s s p e c i f i c a l l y from th e
c irc u m s ta n c e s t h a t l i f e depends upon in te r lo c k in g c i r c u i t s of
c o n tin g e n c y , w hile c o n sc io u sn e ss can o n ly se e s h o rt a rc s o f such
c i r c u i t s t h a t human purpose may d i r e c t (1972, p. 1 4 6 ).

T his p ro p e rty o f c o n scio u s th o u g h t i s e x a g g e rated in contem porary

i n d u s t r i a l c u l tu r e (B ateso n , 1976, pp. 440-4 4 7 ). He claim s t h a t

e i t h e r / o r i s th e h ig h e s t l o g i c a l ty p e we impute to r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

The p reced in g summary o f one lo g i c a l ty p in g p e r s p e c tiv e can now b e

s tr u n g to g e th e r in t o a co h e re n t s y n o p s is . From a v iew point o f l o g i c a l

ty p e s:

- T h ere a r e two b a s ic ways to s l i c e th e p ie of r e a l i t y and to

a s s o c ia t e between th e r e s u l t i n g p ie c e s . D ig it a l co d in g p u n c tu a te s
e i t h e r / o r r e l a t i o n s . Analog coding p u n c tu a te s b o th -an d r e l a t i o n s .
A nalog and d i g i t a l a r e d i f f e r e n t l o g i c a l ty p e s .
 27

Tll’ se g iv e r i s e to c o rre s p o n d in g ly b a s ic ty p e s of s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s .
C<£apetitive r e l a t i o n s c o rre sp o n d to e i t h e r / o r d i g i t a l c o d in g .
C o o p erativ e r e l a t i o n s co rresp o n d to both-and d i g i t a l co d in g . These
h th can p ro v id e g e n e ra l c o n te x ts th a t frame s p e c i f i c b e h a v io rs. As
f ames they a r e a h ig h e r lo g i c a l type th a n any p a r t i c u l a r b e h a v io ra l
e; change.

Ii i n d u s t r i a l s o c ie ty c o m p e titio n i s made a h ig h e r l o g i c a l type th a n

c e o p e ra tio n . C o m p e titio n i s th e prim ary m ediating s o c i a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p of i n d u s t r i a l s o c ie t y . I t c o n s tr a in s , q u a l i f i e s , and
m e d iate s a l l o th e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , in c lu d in g a l l s o - c a lle d
c o o p e ra tiv e o n es.

As a l o g i c a l type h ig h e r th a n an y o th e r s o c ia l r e l a t i o n , th e frame
of c o m p e titio n i s d i f f i c u l t to e x p l i c i t l y se e , speak o f , o r change.

The change of b e h a v io ra l c o n te x ts i s d e u t e r o - le a r n i n g . T h is i s
le a r n in g a new l o g i c a l ty p e of b e h a v io r. I t i s a f r u s t r a t i n g e f f o r t
th a t r e q u ir e s e x te n siv e s u p p o rt in a le a r n in g r e la tio n s h ip . This
f r u s t r a t i o n evokes a c c id e n ta l o r a r b i t r a r y d is c o v e ry of new types o f
b e h a v io rs.

- I n te r v e n tio n to f o s t e r new l o g i c a l ty p in g of r e l a t i o n s i s l i k e l y t o
in v o lv e re fra m in g . R efram ing evokes a new c o n te x t o f c o o p e ra tio n
around e x is tin g r e l a t i o n s . I t d o es n o t im m ediately change c u r r e n t
r e l a t i o n s . The new frame of c o o p e r a tio n makes i t th e prim ary
m ed iatin g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p o f h ig h e s t l o g i c a l ty p e .

T h is seems to be a f r e s h p e r s p e c tiv e . One would expect i t to s tim u la te

e x te n s iv e work r e g a r d in g a p p l i c a t i o n to l a r g e - s c a l e s o c ia l sy stem s. To

d a te such e f f o r t i s n o t fo rth co m in g .

B a te s o n 's r e s p e c t f o r system s co m p lex ity p r o h ib its him from

pro p o sin g d e f i n i t e a c t i o n s . He on ly s u g g e s ts (1972, p. 493) t h a t

d i f f e r e n t v a lu e s m ight change human s o c ia l b e h a v io r. Beyond t h i s he

o f f e r s h i s own work t h a t seek s to in f lu e n c e p r e v a ilin g a p p r e c ia tio n s

(1972, p . 505).

In s p i t e o f many a p p l ic a t io n s o f l o g i c a l ty p in g to th e r a p y , few o f

th e s e c l i n i c i a n s have been c o m fo rta b le step p in g o u t to d is c u s s

l a r g e r - s c a l e s o c i a l sy stem s. F a ll in g back on ta s k assignm ent te c h n iq u e

i n th e ra p y (se e M inuchin, 1974, pp. 138-157 and H aley, 1976, p p . 48-80)

 28

W atzlaw ick, Ja c k so n , and F isch (1974, p . 159) on ly recommend

in c re m e n ta l, c o n c re te s o c i a l program s t h a t do not have v a s t and vague

a im s. T h is seems u n lik e ly to work as a s tr a t e g y fo r s h i f t i n g th e

lo g i c a l ty p e of prim ary s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s .

F in a l ly , W ilden (1972) and Wilden and W ilson (1976) s h a re B a te s o n 's

r e lu c ta n c e , f e a r in g t h a t a c tio n on t h e i r b e h a lf w ill only b e a n o th e r

m istak en e i t h e r / o r s o lu tio n " a g a in s t" a problem . In t h e i r view t h i s

o n ly r e p l i c a t e s w hat they see a s the fun d am en tal e p is te m o lo g ic a l e r r o r

of i n d u s t r i a l s o c ie t y . They a r e of a more M arx ist tem peram ent, c o n te n t

to w a it f o r th in g s to be re s o lv e d th ro u g h " h i s t o r i c a l outcome" (1976,

p. 286).

Much m ore can be done using th e th e o ry o f l o g i c a l ty p e s to m o b iliz e

change in s o c ia l sy ste m s. That i s th e o v e r a ll th r u s t of t h i s document.

To beg in w ith , draw ing u p o n th e theory o f l o g i c a l ty p e s , i t i s p o s s ib le

to a r t i c u l a t e a v e ry r o b u s t co n cep t of th e change re q u ir e d betw een

d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s . T h is p ro v id e s a new vocabulary w ith w hich to

s c r u t i n i z e e f f o r t s a tte m p tin g t o hook d iv e rg e n t f a c tio n s i n t o n orm ative

change. A lso , t h i s opens the p o s s i b i l i t y of d e v e lo p in g new in t e r v e n t i o n

s t r a t e g i e s , based upon t h i s new c o n c e p tu a l fram ew ork. The r e s t of

C h ap ter 1 d ev elo p s one co n cep t o f the b a s ic change p ro c e s s t h a t needs to

ta k e p la ce between d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s . The rem a in d er of t h i s document

e x p lo re s th e im p lic a tio n s of t h i s th in k in g to su g g est one new s tr a te g y

of in te r v e n tio n t h a t can complement e x i s t in g a p p ro a c h e s.

One new r o b u s t view o f the n o rm ativ e change needed among d iv e rg e n t

f a c t io n s ( in c lu d in g T r i s t 's in n o v a tin g o r g a n iz a tio n ) i s now re n d e re d .

The lo g i c a l ty p in g approach o u tlin e d above p ro v id e s id e a s to more

 29

com preh en siv ely d e p ic t th e n a tu re of su ch change. In t h i s p e r s p e c tiv e ,

the need i s to refram e r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een e x is tin g f a c t io n s . I n s t ead

of d i r e c t l y chan g in g th e s e f a c tio n s and t h e i r ongoing r e l a t i o n s h i p s ,

c o o p e ra tio n m ust be made th e h ig h e s t l o g i c a l ty p e of b e h a v io ra l c o n te x t.

This makes c o o p e ra tio n th e prim ary m e d ia tin g s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p between

a lre a d y e x i s t in g r e l a t i o n s . C o o p e ra tio n i s n o t j u s t a s in g le new

b eh av io r le a rn e d th ro u g h some f ix e d te c h n iq u e . I t i s a new c o n te x t, a

new fram e, f o r many b e h a v io rs . I t m ust become a new h ig h e r lo g ic a l

type.

A v a r ie ty o f im p lic a tio n s c a n be drawn from t h i s c o n ce p tu al

e la b o r a tio n . As a new l o g i c a l type h ig h e r th a n c o m p e titio n , c o o p e ra tio n

w ill b eg in to c o n s tr a in , q u a l i f y , and m ed iate o th e r e x is tin g r e l a t i o n s ,

even c o m p e titiv e o n e s , b u t i t w i l l n o t im m ediately e lim in a te o r

com pletely r e p la c e them. T h is a ls o means t h a t change engendered between

f a c t io n s w ill be h a r d to a n a l y t i c a l l y d e t e c t. Like any change i n

lo g i c a l type i t w i l l not e a s ily be ex p ressed i n v e r b a l o r a n a l y tic a l

( d i g i t a l ) form . A ls o , i t w ill escap e d e te c tio n i f b e h a v io r a l c o n te x t i s

ig n o re d , i f one m easures only th e tr e e s and does not observe th e f o r e s t .

As a s h i f t in l o g i c a l ty p e s, lin k a g e betw een d iv e rg e n t f a c tio n s can

u n fo ld as a w id esp read p ro c e s s o f d e u te ro r-le a rn in g . E x p erien ce

in d i c a te s t h i s w i l l not be an e a s y , sm ooth, r a t i o n a l l y l i n e a r p ro c e s s .

I t i s more l i k e l y t o grow th ro u g h f r u s t r a t i n g , i n i t i a l l y s e n s e le s s

e f f o r t , w ith s e r e n d ip ito u s d isco v ery an d s u r p r i s e .

The need f o r d iv e r g e n t f a c tio n s to work j o i n t l y h a s now been tra c e d

through th e co n ce p t of l o g i c a l ty p in g . T h is g iv e s r i s e to a f r e s h view .

From t h i s v an ta g e p o in t, a number of g e n e r a l p r o p e r t i e s a r e su g g ested :

 30

- The e s s e n t i a l c h a lle n g e i s to change th e l o g i c a l type of prim ary

m e d ia tin g s o c ia l r e l a t i o n between d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s . I t s h i f t s to
c o o p e ra tio n r a t h e r th a n c o m p e titio n .

- T h is means t h a t e x i s t in g groups and v a lu e s a r e n o t d i r e c t l y changed

o r th r e a te n e d . I n s te a d , th e y a r e refra m e d , and g iv en a new c o n te x t.

- As a new fram e, o r b e h a v io ra l c o n te x t, th e changes produced by f a c ­

ti o n s j o i n t l y o p e ra tin g w i l l be a h ig h e r lo g i c a l type th a n any
s p e c i f i c b e h a v io rs . They w i l l th e r e f o r e be d i f f i c u l t to a n a l y t i c a l ­
ly d e s c r ib e o r m easure. Myopic fo cu s e x clu d in g c o n te x t w i l l m iss
t h i s change a l to g e th e r .

- By provoking a change in th e l o g i c a l ty p e of s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s ,
lin k a g e betw een f a c t io n s can be an in s ta n c e of d e u te r o - le a r n in g . I t
w i l l th e r e f o r e te n d to be f r u s t r a t i n g , w ith s e r e n d ip ito u s p r o g r e s s .
R arely w i l l i t be an e a s y , sm ooth, r a t i o n a l l y s e q u e n tia l p ro c e s s .

This i s a more com prehensive p r o f i l e th a n th e i n i t i a l a n a ly s is o f

in n o v a tin g o r g a n iz a tio n s o f f e r e d by T r i s t (1 9 7 9 ). I t f i t s w ith h i s

case-gro u n d ed c o n c e p t, b u t i s more g e n e ra l and s u g g e s ts f u r t h e r

in tric a c ie s .

The use o f l o g i c a l ty p in g a lo n e , however i s n o t enough to more

g e n e r a lly c h a r a c te r i z e t h i s p ro c e s s . A m a jo r problem rem ain s. The

l o g i c a l ty p in g p e r s p e c tiv e se e s th e malady o f i n d u s t r i a l s o c ie ty a s th e

p re v a la n c e o f e i t h e r / o r c o m p e titio n . I t n o te s t h a t c o o p e ra tin g i s

p o s s ib le a s an a l t e r n a t i v e p rim ary m e d iatin g r e l a t i o n s h i p . It is

claim ed t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e i s d em o n strated by th e prim acy o f c o o p e ra tio n

i n many s o - c a ll e d p r im itiv e s o c i e t i e s (W ilden and W ilson, 1976, p p . 275-

2 8 1 )(B ateso n , 1972, pp. 107-152, 159-176, 4 2 6 -4 4 7 ).

T his a l t e r n a t i v e way o f l i f e i s u s e f u l to p i c t u r e . I t d em o n strates

t h a t p eo p le a c t u a ll y c a n l i v e d i f f e r e n t l y , t h a t c o o p e ra tio n a s th e

prim ary m e d ia tin g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p i s n o t j u s t an u n reac h ab le p ip e

dream . But t h i s on ly opens th e d o o r. A t r u l y w orkable f u tu r e i s n o t

d i r e c t l y im p lie d by t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y . R eturn to p r im itiv e s o c ia l

 31

o rg a n iz a tio n i s an im p o ssib le o p tio n fo r th e modern w o rld . The

c h a lle n g e i s to go beyond n e g a tio n of c o m p e titio n w ith i t s o p p o s ite ,

premodern c o o p e ra tio n , to b reak f r e e o f d u a l i t y between c o m p e titio n and

c o o p e ra tio n . The next sta g e of s o c ia l developm ent m ust change lo g ic a l

ty p e s to som ething more th a n j u s t c o o p e ra tio n as i t i s embodied by

p r im itiv e s o c i e t i e s .

P l anning And The L o g ic a l Typing Of S o c ia l R e la tio n s

The sim ple r e - ty p in g of c o o p e ra tio n between d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s i s

only s u f f i c i e n t f o r r e tu r n to p r im itiv e r e l a t i o n s . The advance of t h i s

r e - ty p i n g to som ething beyond p r im itiv e n a iv e te must be gain ed by a

f u r t h e r s te p t h a t i s n o t c u r r e n tly i n th e lo g i c a l ty p in g l i t e r a t u r e ; th e

co n cep t of p la n n in g must be added to th e l o g i c a l ty p in g of s o c ia l

re la tio n s .

A ccording to Ozbekhan (1 9 6 9 )(1 9 7 1 ), p la n n in g i s w ill in g a q u a l i t a ­

t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t f u tu r e and making i t happen. O zbekhan's v i s i o n i s a lso

confirm ed by o th e r a u th o rs (A ckoff, 1 9 7 0 ) ( T r is t, 1 976)(Friedm an, 1973).

T h is means info rm in g p r e s e n t a c tio n s w ith v i s i o n of a d e s ir e d f u t u r e .

T h is f u tu r e i s n o t j u s t a l i n e a r e x tr a p o la tio n of th e p r e s e n t. I t is

q u a l i t a t i v e l y d is c o n tin u o u s w ith th e c u r r e n t s t a t e of th in g s . T h is i s

n o t j u s t empty u to p ia n w ish in g . P lan n in g a ls o in v o lv e s lin k in g t h i s

v i s i o n w ith a c t io n to make i t happen.

As su ch , p la n n in g does n o t occur i n p r im itiv e s o c i e t i e s . In th e s e

s o c i e t i e s a n a lo g ic both -an d r e l a t i o n s p rim a rily m e d ia te . T h is le a d s to

u n d e r - d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g d i s t i n c t i o n s e s s e n t i a l to p la n n in g . I n g e n e ra l,

p r im itiv e s o c i e t i e s ten d to f in d t h a t :
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- Humanity i s co n fu sed w ith n a tu re , becoming a h e lp le s s p a r t . T here

i s no room f o r w i l l .

- P a st i s b lu r r e d w ith f u t u r e , making h i s t o r y an u n b reak ab le c y c le .

There i s no tem p o ral u n fo ld in g t h a t le a v e s room f o r p ro g re s s .

- Id e a l and a c tu a l a r e not d i s t i n c t . Things a lre a d y co rresp o n d to

h ea v e n ly o r d e r . There i s no room f o r q u a l i t a t i v e im provem ent.

These te n d e n c ie s a r e n o ted by E lia d e (1 9 5 4 ). He shows t h a t p r im itiv e

s o c ie t ie s a r e c h a r a c te r iz e d by a c y c l i c a l n o tio n of tim e . T his

e lim in a te s th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f any s u b s t a n t i a l d if f e r e n c e between p a s t,

p r e s e n t, and an u n fo ld in g f u t u r e . E lia d e a ls o f in d s t h a t p r im itiv e

s o c i e t i e s m eld th e id e a l and th e a c tu a l to g e th e r . They assume r e a l i t y

a lre a d y im ita te s some d iv in e p e r f e c t io n w ith no fundam ental gap between

them. A lso , he i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t p r im itiv e s o c i e t i e s u s u a lly draw no

b a s ic d i s t i n c t i o n between hum anity and n a tu r e . A ll p h y s ic a l,

b io l o g ic a l , and s o c i a l e v e n ts a re of the same u n c o n tr o lla b le dom inion.

There i s l i t t l e o p p o rtu n ity f o r p u rp o s e fu l human change.

Of c o u rs e t h i s i s an extrem e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . I t i s o v e rly

g e n e r a l, an d sp eak s in only th e b ro a d e s t te rm s . No j u s t i c e i s done to

th e i n t r i c a c i e s and a d a p t iv it y of p r im itiv e s o c ia l o r d e r s . R appaport

(1908) Moore (1965) B ateson (1958) and o th e r a n th r o p o lo g is ts have

docmuented th e wisdom in h e r e n t in many seem ingly " p rim itiv e " o r

" s u p e r s t iti o u s " b e h a v io rs . But in g e n e ra l th e s e s o c ie t ie s p ro v id e a

c o u n te r p o in t to i n d u s t r i a l c u l t u r e s . L ib e rty i s th e r e f o r e tak en h e re to

b u ild upon E l i a d e 's v e ry g e n e ra l c r o s s - c u l t u r a l a n a l y s i s .

On th e w hole, p la n n in g i s th u s n o t even a c o n c e iv a b le p o s s i b i l i t y i n

p rim itiv e s o c ie t y . The n e c e s s a ry o n to lo g ic a l d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e n o t

a p p re c ia te d w ith s u f f i c i e n t c l a r i t y . They a r e e x c e s s iv e ly fu s e d .
 33

C o o p eratio n i n p rim itiv e s o c ie t ie s i s th e r e f o r e devoid of p la n n in g .

P r im itiv e c o o p e ra tio n i s e s s e n t i a l l y sy n c h ro n ic , i t ta k e s p la c e a g a in s t

a background th a t seems to be a tim e le s s and unchanging w o rld .

P r im itiv e c o o p e ra tio n does n o t s t r i v e to c r e a te a q u a l i t a t i v e l y

d iffe re n t f u tu r e . I t o n ly e x i s t s to r e p e a t what a lre a d y e x i s t s .

Today th e lo g ic a l r e - ty p in g of r e l a t i o n s betw een d iv e rg e n t f a c tio n s

can in s te a d be d riv e n by w ill in g a d i f f e r e n t f u t u r e . T his q u a l i t a t i v e l y

d is c o n tin u o u s f u tu r e could be an outcome d e s ire d by a l l f a c t io n s

in v o lv e d . I t m ight a r i s e e i t h e r i n resp o n se to a t h r e a t or to s e iz e an

o p p o rtu n ity . But i t i s in p u r s u i t of t h i s d e s ir e d p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t

d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s come to r e - ty p e t h e i r s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s .

In f a c t , a l l of T r i s t 's (1979) exam ples of in n o v a tin g o rg a n iz a tio n s

aim to move tow ards a f u tu r e th a t i s q u a l i t a t i v e l y d is c o n tin u o u s w ith

th e p a s t. T h is i s in h e re n t i n th e r e v e r s a l of n e g a tiv e s e lf image which

i s u n d erta k en by th e fo u r c a s e s o b se rv e d .

By co n n e e c tin g lo g ic a l r e - ty p in g w ith p la n n in g , i t i s p o s s ib le to

av o id sim p ly b a c k s lid in g to a premodern eco lo g y o f v a lu e . C o o p e ra tiv e

b o th -an d r e l a t i o n s a r e lo g i c a ll y r e - ty p e d to become th e prim ary

m e d ia tin g s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p . But t h i s i s n o t a l l . P la n n in g i s made

an i n t e g r a l a s p e c t of t h i s c o o r d in a tio n , th e p a s t i s n o t

re p e a te d — in s te a d a f u tu r e i s c r e a te d .

W ithout movement in to a choosen f u tu r e , prem odern c o o p e ra tio n i s not

p u rp o s e fu l. I t i s sim p ly c o o p e ra tio n : " j o i n t e f f o r t o r o p e r a tio n ”

(W ebster, 1966, p . 3 2 4 ), l i k e th e u n s e lfc o n s c io u s m eshing of n ic h e s in

an eco sy stem . There i s no p a r t i c u l a r , p re fe re d d e s ti n a ti o n .

W ith th e in c lu s io n of p la n n in g , c o o p e ra tio n becomes p u rp o s e fu l. It

 34

may th e n be s a id to c o n s t i t u t e c o l la b o r a t io n : " th e a c t o f working

to g e th e r " (W ebster, 1966, p . 2 8 6 ). T his i s p u rp o s e fu l c o o p e ra tio n

a p p ro p r ia te to modern tim e s . Hence, th e a s p i r a t i o n to r e - ty p e

c o o p e ra tio n between d iv e rg e n t f a c tio n s does n o t im ply u n te n a b le

r e v e r s io n to n a iv e prem odern m e n ta lity .

T his d i s t i n c t i o n , betw een d i f f e r e n t d e g re e s o f co n sc io u sn e ss and

in s tr u m e n ta l ity , i s drawn in a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t f a s h io n by Ozbekhan

(1971, p p . 129-135 & pp. 2 1 9 -2 2 1 ). He tr a c e s th e developm ent o f c re a ­

t i v e a b i l i t i e s r e q u i s i t e to p la n n in g , n o tin g th a t e a r l y humanoids had

low er c a p a b i l i t i e s f o r c r e a tiv e im a g in a tio n t h a t i s n e c e ss a ry to p la n .

Summary o f C h ap ter 1

C hapter 1 p ro v id e s a fo u n d a tio n f o r su b seq u en t m a t e r i a l s . F irs t,

co n v erg e n t view s o f h i s t o r i c a l change r e q u ir in g a new approach to

system s management a r e rev iew ed . O v e ra ll th e s e i n d i c a te th e need to

i n i t i a t e more n o rm ativ e p la n n in g a c r o s s m u ltip le o r g a n iz a tio n s . The

grow ing p resen ce of d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s i s n o te d to pose an in c re a s in g

b o ttle n e c k upon t h i s developm ent. Second a new framework f o r view ing

n o rm ativ e change betw een d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s i s d ev elo p ed . This i s b ased

upon th e th e o ry o f l o g i c a l ty p e s . T h ird , t h i s framework i s e la b o ra te d

by lin k in g th e co n cep t of p la n n in g to th e id e a of s h i f t i n g lo g i c a l ty p e s

o f s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s . T his makes changing l o g i c a l ty p e s more th an

r e v e r s io n to p r im itiv e n a i v i t e .

The p ro d u ct o f a l l t h i s i s a new framework f o r view in g no rm ativ e

change between d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s . Some key ele m e n ts o f t h i s framework

a re :
 35

~ The lo g i c a l type of prim ary m e d ia tin g s o c i a l r e la tio n s h ip betw een

d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s must be s h i f t e d to c o o p e ra tio n from c o m p e titio n .

- T h is means th a t e x i s t in g g ro u p s, v a lu e s , and b eh av io rs a r e n o t
d i r e c t l y th r e a te n e d . I n s te a d th ey a r e g iv e n a new c o n te x t, and
hence refram ed .

- S t r i c t l y a n a l y t i c o b s e rv a tio n ig n o r in g th e o v e r a l l s i t u a t i o n i s
l i k e l y to m iss t h i s s o r t of change.

- T h is change p ro c e s s i s a n in s ta n c e of d e u te r o - le a r n in g . I t w i l l
th e r e f o r e te n d to be f r u s t r a t i n g , w ith s e r e n d ip ito u s p ro g re s s ,
R arely w i l l i t be easy , sm ooth, o r r a t i o n a l l y s e q u e n ti a l.

- The p ro s p e c t of s h i f t i n g th e prim ary m ed iatin g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p

does n o t imply f o o li s h l y t r y i n g to r e c a p tu r e p rim itiv e n a i v e t e .
I n s te a d , th e s h i f t in lo g i c a l ty p e s i s lin k e d to c r e a tin g a d e s ir e d
f u t u r e . T h is means t h a t changing l o g i c a l ty p es of s o c ia l
r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i l l in c lu d e p la n n in g .

T his i s a n o v e l framework fo r view ing n o rm ativ e change betw een

d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s . I t p ro v id e s a new s e t of id e a s about a b a s ic change

p ro c e s s to keep i n mind when view ing e f f o r t s to develop n o rm ativ e change

betw een d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s .

But to be w o rth w h ile, t h i s new v an tag e must prove u s e f u l . I t must

il lu m i n a te new phenomena t h a t s u g g e st m ore e f f e c t iv e in te r v e n tio n

s tra te g ie s . The a c id t e s t i s e x p e rie n c e , th e w orld of e m p iric a l e v e n ts .

T h e re fo re , C hapter 2 p ro cee d s to review a s p e c if ic s e t of endeavors to

c r e a te n o rm ativ e change betw een d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s . L a te r m a te r ia l th e n

a p p l ie s id e a s from th e framework d ev elo p ed in t h i s C h ap ter to propose

one new in t e r v e n ti o n s t r a t e g y .
 CHAPTER 2

STRIKING NORMATIVE CHANGE

BETWEEN DIVERGENT FACTIONS:
THE EXPERIENCE OF TEN LABOR-MANACEMENT COMMITTEES

The e m p iric a l o b je c ts r e s e a r c h e d to develop th e t h e s i s fo rm u lated in

l a t e r c h a p te rs a r e now in tro d u c e d and rev iew ed . T h is c h a p te r b eg in s

w ith a g e n e ra l in tr o d u c tio n to th e co n cep t o f labor-m anagem ent

com m ittees. The h is to r y o f th e se com m ittees in th e U nited S ta te s i s

b r i e f l y tr a c e d . Then, labor-m anagem ent com m ittees a re i d e n t i f i e d as one

in s ta n c e of a tte m p tin g no rm ativ e change to s h i f t l o g i c a l ty p e s of

m e d iatin g r e l a t i o n s between d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s . N ex t, i s a g e n e ra l

o u t l i n e of one m a jo r r e s e a rc h p r o je c t t h a t in v e s tig a te d te n p u b lic

s e c to r labor-m anagem ent co m m ittees. F i n a l l y , th e r e i s an overview of

r e l a t i v e perform ance drawn a c ro s s s i t e s . C o n s is te n tly r o b u s t s i t e s

su g g e st a b a s ic p ro c e ss d e s e rv in g f u r t h e r s c r u tin y .

Summaries of each c o m m itte e 's developm ent a r e pro v id ed i n Appendix I

(p . 2 0 4 ). These a r e b ased upon m a te r ia l from th e f i n a l P r o je c t Network

r e p o r t (MBSC, 1980). They a r e lo c a te d i n th e appendix to allo w

p ro g re s s io n s t r a i g h t th ro u g h n e c e s s a ry m a te r ia l, w ith o u t g e ttin g bogged

down i n te n d e t a ile d case summaries. Reading th e s e synopses can h elp

f i l l - i n many d e t a i l s . The r e a d e r i s a d v ise d to b r i e f l y sample t h i s

m a te ria l. L a te r , th e re a d e r i s encouraged to s e l e c t i v e l y check back

w ith app en d ix summaries to v e r if y ( o r d is c o u n t) g e n e r a liz a tio n s made in

su b se q u en t c h a p te r s .

36
 37

The Concept Of Labor-Management Comm ittees

L abor management com m ittees a r e a r e g u la r forum f o r c o o p e ra tiv e

p ro b lem -so lv in g between la b o r and management. They complement, b u t do

n o t r e p la c e c o m p e titiv e , a d v e r s a r i a l r e l a t i o n s t r a d i t i o n a l in th e

o r i g i n a l c o l l e c t i v e b a rg a in in g r e l a t i o n s h i p . The c o o p e ra tiv e com m ittee

p a r a l l e l s th e b a rg a in in g p ro c e s s , o f te n in v o lv in g an o v erla p p in g s e t of

p e o p le , b u t does n o t e lim in a te c o m p e titiv e r e l a t i o n s .

The con cep t of labor-m anagem ent c o m itte e s im p lie s t h a t th e se two

d i s t i n c t p ro c e s s e s , c o m p e titiv e and c o l l a b o r a t i v e , do n o t rem ain

s e p a r a te . E x p erien ce in newfound c o o p e ra tiv e r e l a t i o n s th ro u g h a la b o r -

management com m ittee enhances m utual u n d e rsta n d in g and r e l a t i o n s betw een

la b o r and management. Many o f th e s e same peo p le a ls o i n t e r a c t f o r

a d v e r s a r i a l p ro cee d in g s ( i . e . c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a in in g , g rie v a n c e s , union

membership d r iv e s , e t c . ) . The labor-m anagem ent com m ittee co n cep t

s u g g e s ts t h a t enhanced r e l a t i o n s w i l l th e r e f o r e s p i l l over in to

c o m p e titiv e r e l a t i o n s ; t h a t c o o p e ra tiv e r e l a t i o n s w ill c o n s tr a in and

m e d iate p re v io u s ly u n m itig a te d c o m p e titio n . T his im p lie s r e g u la tio n o f

c o m p e titio n i n a l a r g e r c o o p e ra tiv e framework, n o t th e t o t a l e lim in a tio n

of c o m p e titiv e r e l a t i o n s ( i . e . b a r g a in in g ) .

In summary, labor-m anagem ent co m m ittees a r e a r e g u la r forum f o r

c o o p e ra tiv e p ro b lem -so lv in g between la b o r and management. They

com plim ent, b u t do n o t re p la c e e s ta b l is h e d c o m p e titiv e r e l a t i o n s . The

e s ta b lis h m e n t of com plem entary c o o p e ra tio n i s in te n d e d to s p i l l o v er

in to e x i s t in g a d v e rsa ry r e l a t i o n s , c o n s tr a in in g and m ed iatin g them in a

la r g e r fram ework.
 38

The P o s s i b i l i t y Of L abor-Management Com m ittees I n d ic a te d By The

L ite ra tu re

Very l i t t l e has y e t been p u b lish e d re g a rd in g labor-m anagem ent

co m m ittees. The now d efu n ct N a tio n a l C e n te r fo r P r o d u c tiv ity and

Q u a lity o f Working L if e d i s t r i b u t e d a few pam p h lets (1 9 76)(1978)

d e s c rib in g v a rio u s com m ittees and p r e s c r ib in g g e n e ra l p o in te r s ab o u t

com m ittee fo rm a tio n . More r e c e n tly , th e Management and B eh av io ral

S cie n ce C e n te r (1 9 7 8 a )(1 9 7 8 b )(1 9 7 9 a )(l9 7 9 b )(1 9 8 0 ) h as o f f e r e d

lo n g itu d in a l a n a ly s is of te n p u b li c - s e c to r com m ittees. T h is d o v e ta ils

w ith Susm an's (1979) r e c e n t g u id e t o p u b lic s e c to r com m ittees.

Some e a r l i e r work i n la b o r r e l a t i o n s from an o r g a n iz a tio n develop­

ment p e r s p e c tiv e o u tl in e s th e g e n e r a l p o s s i b i l i t y fo r labor-m anagem ent

com m ittees. W alton and M cK ersie (1965) d i f f e r e n t i a t e betw een

d i s t r i b u t i v e and i n t e g r a t i v e a s p e c ts of la b o r r e l a t i o n s . D i s tr ib u t iv e

c o n f l i c t i s w in -lo s e , zero-sum c o m p e titio n . By c o n t r a s t , i n t e g r a t i v e

c o n f l i c t i s w in-w in, n o n -zero sum, w ith em phasis upon common problem s.

T h is p a r a l l e l s an e a r l i e r d i s t i n c t i o n by Buetzkow and Gyr (1954) betw een

s u b s ta n tiv e and e f f e c t i v e c o n f l i c t .

The n e t im p lic a tio n of t h i s b e h a v io ra l s c ie n c e p e rs p e c tiv e i s t h a t

two realm s o f c o n f l i c t and c o o p e ra tio n e x i s t in la b o r r e l a t i o n s . Some

ta k in g t h i s approach proceed to recommend t h a t r e l a t i o n a l im provem ents

from ta c k lin g win-win is s u e s c a r r y - o v e r to a d v e r s a r ia l c o m p e titio n

(W alton and M cK ersie, 19 6 5 )(B lak e, S h ep p ard , and Mouton, 1964). A

b e h a v io r a l s c ie n c e v ie w p o in t, s t r e s s i n g o r g a n iz a tio n a l developm ent,

i n d i c a t e s th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f m e d ia tin g and c o n s tra in in g e x is tin g

c o m p e titio n w ith new c o o p e ra tiv e r e l a t i o n s . T his opens th e door to

 39

labor-m anagem ent com m ittees in th e g e n e ra l scheme o f more a d v e r s a r ia l

la b o r r e l a t i o n s l i t e r a t u r e .

The H is to ry Of Labor-Management Committees I n America

Labor-management com m ittees have play ed a f lu c t u a t i n g r o le on th e

A merican la b o r r e l a t i o n s sc e n e . Some p r iv a t e s e c to r com m ittees e x is te d

in th e 1 9 2 0 's a t th e B altim o re and Ohio R a ilro a d and amid t e x t i l e

i n d u s t r i e s i n C hicago and C lev elan d ( S l i c h t e r , 1941). During th e second

w orld w ar, an e s tim a te d 5,000 com m ittees were s t a r t e d to promote w artim e

p r o d u c tiv ity and v o lu n ta ry e f f o r t . Few such com m ittees were c o n tin u ed

a f t e r th e w ar. T his c o o p e ra tio n was an emergency resp o n se to w artim e

c o n d itio n s . 1946 became a re c o rd s t r i k e y e a r prom pting th e

Labor-Management R e la tio n s Act o f 1947 ( th e T a f t- H a rtle y A c t).

Some com m ittees were c re a te d d u rin g th e 1 9 5 0 's and 1 9 6 0 's , m o stly to

d e a l w ith in d u s try -w id e is s u e s such a s te c h n o lo g ic a l change and poor

la b o r r e l a t i o n s . One of th e m ost w idely known such com m ittees was th e

Human R e la tio n s R esearch Committee in th e s t e e l in d u s tr y , formed a f t e r

th e lon g and b i t t e r 1959 s t r i k e . In th e 1 9 7 0 's some labor-m anagem ent

com m ittees have a g a in been formed between u n io n s and s p e c if i c com panies.

Sometimes th e s e a r e c re a te d to upgrade p r o d u c tiv ity and q u a l ity o f

w orking l i f e a t th e p la n t and company l e v e l .

Thus, labor-m anagem ent com m ittees have long been p r e s e n t, i f n o t

p e rv a s iv e i n American la b o r r e l a t i o n s . Except f o r th e w ar, th e c o n ce p t

was n ev er w id ely u se d . A lthough some com m ittees have e x is te d , m ost

p eo p le do n o t know about them. Because th e y a r e u n f a m ilia r th e y rem ain

a n in n o v a tiv e fo rm at of la b o r r e l a t i o n s in th e U .S. p r iv a t e s e c to r .
 40

In th e p u b lic s e c to r labor-m anagem ent com m ittees a r e even more

n o v e l. W idespread u n io n iz a tio n d id n o t occur in th e p u b lic s e c to r u n t i l

th e l a t e 1 9 6 0 's . U n til t h i s u n io n iz a tio n th e r e had been no m a trix o f

i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d a d v e r s a r ia l r e l a t i o n s th a t labor-m anagem ent com m ittees

could com plement. Thus, u n t i l 1970, labor-m anagem ent com m ittees were

v i r t u a l l y n o n - e x is te n t in th e p u b lic s e c to r . S in ce t h i s tim e th e use of

com m ittees i n th e p u b lic s e c to r i s d r a m a tic a lly in c r e a s in g . The

D ire c to ry o f Labor Management Com m ittees (NCPQL, 1976) l i s t s 49 p u b lic

s e c to r labor-m anagem ent co m m ittees. Even more have been s t a r t e d in th e

second h a l f o f th e decade.

Labor-management com m ittees a r e more n o v el to th e p u b lic s e c to r th a n

th e p r iv a t e s e c to r . T h e ir developm ent in p u b lic s e c to r o r g a n iz a tio n s i s

sp u rre d by grow ing u n io n iz a tio n in an e r a when p u b lic s e c to r r e s o u rc e s

no lo n g e r grow s w i f tly .

In c o n t r a s t to e a r l i e r e f f o r t s , th e 1 9 7 0 's has been a tim e o f la b o r -

management com m ittee developm ent on a m icro s c a le , i n bo th p u b lic and

p r iv a t e s e c t o r s . The predom inance of r e c e n t c o m itte e s have a r is e n below

th e n a tio n a l l e v e l . In p r iv a t e in d u s tr y t h i s i s e v id e n t in th e pro­

f u s io n o f p l a n t , company, and community-wide a r e a co m m ittees. In th e

p u b lic s e c t o r th e fra g m e n ta tio n and d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n of u n ion lo c a ls

a c t u a l l y p re v e n ts macro com m ittee fo rm a tio n . There a r e no la r g e ,

homogeneous, u n if ie d p u b lic s e c to r employee g ro u p s t h a t d e a l w ith o n ly a

s e l e c t and u n if ie d in d u s tr y . T h e re fo re , most p u b lic s e c to r com m ittees

a r e a t th e s t a t e , county and m u n icip al l e v e l s . P u b lic and p r iv a t e

s e c to r com m ittees have th u s grown a t a m icro s c a le below a m o n o lith ic

n a t io n a l l e v e l .
 41

Comm ittees a r e g e n e ra lly u n d erta k en to move tow ards some d e s ire d

f u tu r e c o n d itio n . I t i s o f te n an improvement in one a s p e c t of la b o r

r e l a t i o n s t h a t i s d is c o n tin u o u s w ith p a s t o r p re s e n t d i f f i c u l t i e s

betw een th e two f a c t i o n s , such a s "im proved com m unication," "avoidance

of u n n ece ssary s t r i k e s , " "sm oother g rie v a n c e p r o c e s s e s ," and

" m a in ta in in g a c lim a te of m utual u n d e r s ta n d in g .”

To sum m arize, labor-m anagem ent com m ittees rem ain an in n o v a tiv e forum

f o r c o o p e ra tiv e la b o r r e l a t i o n s in A m erica. In th e p r iv a t e s e c to r ,

c o m itte e s have been s p a r in g ly u s e d , ex cep t fo r th e w ar, th e re b y

rem ainin g a la r g e ly u n f a m ilia r fo rm a t. In th e p u b lic s e c to r , la b o r-

management com m ittees a r e even more n o v e l. They were v i r t u a l l y

n o n - e x is te n t u n t i l th e 1 9 7 0 's , when p u b lic s e c to r u n io n s p r o l i f e r a t e d .

R ecent grow th in th e number of p u b lic s e c to r com m ittees h a s la r g e ly

occured below th e m acro s c a le of n a t i o n a l - l e v e l forum s.

Labor-llanagem ent Com m ittees As I n s ta n c e s Of Changing L o g ic a l Types

Between D iv erg en t F a c tio n s

Labor-management com m ittees ex em p lify one way people a tte m p t

s t r i k i n g n orm ative change betw een d iv e r g e n t f a c t io n s . They a ls o

fr e q u e n tly a re in s ta n c e s of changing l o g i c a l ty p e s; th e y t r y to s h i f t

th e prim ary m ed iatin g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n betw een d iv e rg e n t f a c tio n s from

c o m p e titio n to c o l la b o r a t io n .

L ab o r and management a r e th e q u in t e s s e n t d iv e r g e n t f a c t io n s , a s

d e fin e d in C h ap ter 1. Both a r e i n t e r r e l a t e d members of th e same

extended system ( e . g . " th e w o rk p la c e ", " p ro v id in g good p ro d u c tiv e jo b s " ,

e t c . ) ; th e y each h e lp produce c o n d itio n s n e c e ss a ry fo r th e o th e r. But

a t th e same time they have d iv e rg e n t v a lu e o r ie n t a ti o n s t h a t can g e t out

 42

of han d . Some of th e s e d if f e r e n c e s a r e v e s tig e s of A m eric a's com bative

e a r l y la b o r r e l a t i o n s . Y et o th e r a s p e c ts of th e s e d if f e r i n g

o r i e n t a t i o n s stem from dilemmas t h a t seem in h e r e n t to any c o l l e c t i v e

human endeavor ( e . g . in d iv id u a l v e rs u s c o l l e c t i v e g o o d )(se e Pava, 1979).

Committees u s u a lly a tte m p t to s h i f t th e p rim ary m e d iatin g r e l a t i o n

betw een th e se d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s from c o m p e titio n to c o lla b o r a tio n .

T h is i s done i n d i r e c t l y . The s t a t u s quo i s n o t c h a lle n g e d h ead -o n .

T h ere i s no t h r e a t to e lim in a te " la b o r" o r "management". U su a lly o rg an s

fo r a d v e r s a r i a l p ro cee d in g s ( e . g . b a rg a in in g and g rie v a n c e s ) a re n o t

tam pered w ith . I n s te a d , e s ta b lis h m e n t of a com m ittee opens p a r a l l e l

ch an n els fo r c o l la b o r a t iv e problem s o lv in g .

U su a lly th e hope i s t h a t e x p e rie n c e in t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e sp h ere of

c o l la b o r a t io n w i l l have good e f f e c t s t h a t " s p i l l o v er" i n t o more

a d v e r s a r i a l , t r a d i t i o n a l p ro c e e d in g s . The id e a i s t h a t s p i l l over w i l l

change th e to n e th a t pervades a l l labor-m anagem ent p ro c e e d in g s; t h a t

g r e a t e r m utual u n d e rs ta n d in g and t r u s t w i l l in f u s e even c o l l e c t i v e

b a rg a in in g (w hich to be e f f e c t i v e must alw ays c o n tin u e to have an

a d v e r s a r i a l dynam ic).

T his s p i l l over i s e q u iv a le n t to what C h ap ter 1 c a l l s re fra m in g .

S p i l l ov er i s i n d i c a ti v e of a new framework f o r o ld th in g s . I n s te a d of

e lim in a tin g e x i s t in g c o m p e titio n , labor-m anagem ent com m ittees o fte n

a tte m p t to change th e c o n te x t of i t . But u n lik e u s u a l p ro c e s s

c o n s u lt a ti o n (S c h ie n , 1 9 6 9 ), i t does t h i s by h a v in g people ta c k le

c o n c re te o p p o r tu n itie s and c o n s t r a i n t s . R a th e r th a n changing en tre n ch ed

a d v e r s a r i a l r e l a t i o n s , p ro b lem -so lv in g com m ittees a tte m p t to change th e

 43

prim ary m e d iatin g r e l a t i o n s h i p su rro u n d in g them a t a h ig h e r l o g i c a l

le v e l. T h is p e rm its c o n tin u a tio n of n e c e ss a ry te n s io n s , but w ith more

a p p r o p r ia te r e s t r a i n t .

Com m ittees f r e q u e n tly evoke t h i s c o o p e ra tio n i n c o n tr ib u tio n tow ards

some d e s ir e d f u t u r e . U su a lly t h i s i s e x p ressed a s some q u a l i t a t i v e

im provement in la b o r r e l a t i o n s , such a s " la b o r p e a c e ," " q u a lity o f work

l i f e , " o r " s t r ik e - p r e v e n tin g c o n s u lta tio n an d problem s o lv in g ." By

seek in g to move tow ards a q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t f u tu r e ,

labor-m anagem ent com m ittees o fte n p u rsu e c o l la b o r a t iv e c o o p e ra tio n .

Thus, labor-m anagem ent ccm m ittees u s u a lly f i t th e g e n e ra l framework

proposed i n C h ap ter 1 . They:

1. Reframe th e e x i s t in g c o m p e titio n in s te a d o f d i r e c t l y c h a lle n g in g

it.

2. A ttem pt to make c o o p e ra tio n th e prim ary m ed iatin g s o c ia l

r e l a t i o n between d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s .

3. P ursue a q u a l i t a t i v e l y d is c o n tin u o u s f u t u r e , making t h i s

c o o p e ra tio n t h a t i s c o l la b o r a t iv e i n n a tu re .

T his i s n o t th e language used by la b o r and management to d e s c rib e t h e i r

com m ittees. R a th e r, i t i s a v e r s io n of th e " l a t e n t " d i r e c t i o n running

b en eath th e "m a n ife st" s u rfa c e of e v e n ts . A lso , th e a s p ir a t io n s of some

com m ittees may n o t r e f l e c t t h i s p a t t e r n . But i t seems r a r e t h a t

com m ittees cannot be seen i n t h i s l i g h t .

A ll t h i s means t h a t labor-m anagem ent com m ittees a r e good e m p iric a l

o b je c ts fo r r e s e a r c h , e x p lo rin g a b a s ic p ro cess t h a t hooks d iv e rg e n t

f a c t io n s in to no rm ativ e change. F in d in g s c a n be p la u s ib ly ex ten d ed to

s u g g e st im p lic a tio n s fo r in t e r v e n t i o n w ith o th e r d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s , n o t

j u s t la b o r and management.
 44

An O verview Of Pr o j e c t Network

P r o je c t Network was s t a r t e d by th e N a tio n a l C e n te r f o r P r o d u c tiv ity

and Q u a lity o f Working L if e (NCPQWL) i n Septem ber, 1977. The o b je c tiv e

o f th e p r o je c t was to p ro v id e m ore knowledge about p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r

developm ent o f labor-m anagem ent com m ittees i n th e p u b lic s e c to r , where

few had been e s ta b l is h e d . T hree m ajo r concerns of th e N a tio n a l C en ter

w ere:

1. The i n i t i a l c o m p a ta b ility of c o o p e ra tiv e com m ittees w ith

e x i s t in g a d v e r s a r i a l r e l a t i o n s : c o u ld c o o p e ra tio n even g e t
s ta r t e d ?

2. The e v e n tu a l e f f e c t of c o o p e ra tio n upon c o m p e titio n between

la b o r and management: would c o o p e ra tio n have s p i l l - o v e r e f f e c t s
t h a t b egin to m ed iate a d v e r s a r ia l r e l a t i o n s ?

3. The e v e n tu a l e f f e c tiv e n e s s of labor-m anagem ent com m ittees as

v e h ic le s f o r change: co u ld com m ittees produce change im proving
th e p r o d u c tiv ity and q u a l i t y of working l i f e i n p u b lic s e c to r
o r g a n iz a tio n s ?

T h is knowledge was to be developed e x p e r i e n t i a l l y , by a number of

e x p e rim e n ta l s i t e s i n c o n ta c t w ith each o th e r , and a n a l y t i c a l l y by

o u ts id e case re s e a r c h of th e s e s i t e s . The C en ter th e r e f o r e sought to

b o th c u l t i v a t e change and le a r n from i t . T h is i s b a s i c a l l y th e approach

of a c tio n r e s e a r c h (Lewin, 1946)(C la rk e , 1976)(Susman and Everd, 1978).

The aim was to ex ec u te a change t h a t co u ld l a s t and develop even a f t e r a

s tu d y was co m pleted.

F i r s t , e x p e rim e n ta l s i t e s w ere r e c r u i te d by th e N a tio n a l C e n te r.

Those e x p re s s in g i n i t i a l i n t e r e s t were i n v i t e d to a one day p la n n in g

c o n fe re n c e . H ere, la b o r and management r e p r e s e n t a tiv e s w ere inform ed

about th e g e n e ra l co n cep t o f labor-m anagem ent com m ittees and th e id e a of

P r o je c t N etwork. In n o v a tin g s i t e s would r e t a i n c o n tr o l of t h e i r

 45

co m m ittee, th e y d id n o t need to conform to any d e ta ile d g u id e lin e . The

C e n te r d id s t i p u l a t e t h a t la b o r and management b o th sig n a n o n -b in d in g

s ta te m e n t o u tl in in g t h e i r g e n e ra l i n t e n t to form a labor-m anagem ent

com m ittee program. In t h i s docum ent la b o r and management w ere asked to

s p e c if y a p a r t i c u l a r o r g a n iz a tio n a l change th e y w ould p u rsu e th ro u g h

t h e i r com m ittee. T h is i n i t i a t i v e would be one p a r t i c u l a r fo cu s of

re se a rc h . T his s ta te m e n t a ls o p ro v id es fo r a c c e s s by P r o je c t Network

r e s e a r c h e r s , ev en i f a com m ittee e x p ire s , and th e u se of s i t e s by name

i n r e s e a r c h docum ents. To f a c i l i t a t e com m ittee developm ent, th e

N a tio n a l C en ter p ro v id ed minimal f i n a n c i a l s u p p o rt, $1,500 f o r b o th

y e a rs of th e p r o je c t to allo w t r a v e l and le a rn in g between s i t e s o r

procurem en t of te c h n ic a l a s s is ta n c e .

A fte r th e p la n n in g c o n fe re n c e , n in e s i t e s s te p p e d forw ard to jo i n

P r o je c t Network. Two of th e se a lre a d y had labor-m anagem ent com m ittee

program s, Columbus and U rbana. New York C ity H ea lth and H o s p ita l

C o rp o ra tio n was form ing com m ittees a t th e time of P r o je c t N etw o rk 's

in c e p tio n , in re sp o n se to th e c i t y ' s d ra m a tic f i s c a l c r i s i s . S ix s i t e s

i n i t i a t e d t h e i r com m ittees to j o i n th e p r o je c t: C o n n e c tic u t, Jamestown,

Nevada, W ich ita , Pima, and Tacoma. A year i n t o th e p ro je c t Troy jo in e d

a s a te n th s i t e , w ith a com m ittee a lre a d y s t a r t e d .

T h is p ro v id ed a sample o f g r e a t d i v e r s i t y . In c lu d e d were s t a t e ,

c o u n ty , and m u n icip al j u r i s d i c t i o n s . Large and s m a ll s c a le o rg a n iz a ­

t i o n s were in v o lv e d . Some were i n c r i s i s , w h ile o th e rs fa c e d r e l a t i v e l y

tra n q u il s itu a tio n s . Alm ost th e e n t i r e spectrum of p u b lic s e c to r

b a rg a in in g law c o n te x ts was a ls o r e p r e s e n te d . F in a l ly , th e sample

touched alm o st every m ajo r a re a of th e U nited S ta t e s , e x c e p t fo r th e

 46

S outh. The d i v e r s i t y of t h i s sam ple i s summarized on th e fo llo w in g p ag e

i n F ig u re 2 .1 .

This sample o f s i t e s was b ia s e d . I t on ly would in d i c a te th e

p o t e n t i a l i t y o f com m ittees f o r s i t e s d e s ir in g to e s t a b l i s h them.

However, s in c e a labor-m anagem ent com m ittee would only be s t a r t e d i f

b o th f a c tio n s d e s i r e i t , th e sample i s r e le v a n t. Committees a r e not a

tre a tm e n t th a t can be a d m in is te re d to b o th w ill in g and u n w illin g

p o p u la tio n s ( l i k e s c h o o lb u sin g , f o r exam ple). They a r e p u rp o s e fu l

in n o v a tio n s th a t can on ly be u n d erta k en th ro u g h i n i t i a t i v e o f th e p eo p le

a ffe c te d . T h ere fo re th e b ia s o f th e sam ple, e x clu d in g r e l u c t a n t s i t e s ,

i s s t i l l in fo rm a tiv e .

To s tu d y th e s e s i t e s th e N a tio n a l C e n te r s o l i c i t e d p ro p o s a ls from a

number o f m ajor r e s e a r c h c e n te r s . Based upon a unique p ro p o s a l

(d is c u s s e d l a t e r ) , a c o n tr a c t to do case h is to r y re s e a r c h was awarded to

th e Management and B e h a v io ra l S cien ce C e n te r (MBSC) a t th e Wharton

School i n th e U n iv e r s ity o f P e n n sy lv a n ia . This p ro v id ed fo r a two y e a r

sp an of r e s e a r c h . S ite s w ere broken in to th r e e g ro u p s, each o f which

was a ssig n e d to a s i t e c o o r d in a to r . The s i t e c o o r d in a to r would v i s i t

a s s ig n e d s i t e s a t l e a s t once ev ery s i x m onths, k eep in g c lo s e c o n ta c t b y

phone and m ail betw een v i s i t s .

In a d d itio n to in d iv id u a l s i t e s , MBSC a ls o became in v o lv e d i n

developm ent of th e netw ork betw een them. Under a s e p a r a te c o n tr a c t,

re s e a rc h team members took th e le a d in d e s ig n and f a c i l i t a t i o n o f two

netw ork c o n fe re n c e s . These g a th e re d many d i f f e r e n t p u b lic s e c t o r la b o r -

management com m ittee s ta k e h o ld e rs to g e th e r ( i . e . , n a tio n a l u n io n and

management r e p r e s e n t a tiv e s , netw ork s i t e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , p o t e n t i a l s i t e

 47

F i g u r e 2*1
Summa r y o f P r o j e c t N etw o rk
S i t e V a r ie ty

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iAepecCsi S c a le o f R e g io n S ta tu s o f S i t e LHC B a r g a in ­ 3 rd of In>:
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 48

re p re s e n ta tiv e s , th ir d p a r tie s , e t c . ) . S e s sio n s would develop under­

sta n d in g ab o u t com m ittees and p la n n in g f o r t h e i r f u tu r e in th e p u b lic

s e c to r .

The N a tio n a l C e n te r ex p ire d i n Septem ber, 1978. At t h i s tim e th e

a d m in is tr a tio n of P r o je c t Network was s h i f t e d to th e In ter-G o v ern m e n tal

P e rso n n e l Program of th e U.S. C iv il S e rv ic e Commission O f f ic e of

P e rso n n e l Management. Under t h e i r a d m in is tr a tio n P r o je c t Network

co n tin u e d w ith o u t d is r u p ti o n , fo rm a lly ending i n S eptem ber, 1979.

P r o je c t N etw o rk 's U nique C h a ra c te r

In term s of f i s c a l o u tla y and number of p a r t i c i p a n t s , P r o je c t

Network a p p e a rs to be a m inor e f f o r t . However, a s a unique s ty le of

F e d e ra l-L o c a l p a r tn e r s h i p , th e p r o je c t i s a s i g n i f i c a n t and m eaningful

in n o v a tio n in th e p ro c e s s of f o s te r in g in n o v a tio n .

P r o je c t Network r e p r e s e n ts an im p o rta n t d e p a rtu re from t r a d i t i o n a l

f e d e r a l p a t t e r n s of s tim u la tin g change. U su a lly t h i s fo llo w s what Schon

(1971) term s th e c e n te r - p e r ip h e r y model, i n which a c e n t r a l a u th o r ity

d i c t a t e s change to p e rip h e ry u n i t s . T h is i s m ost f r e q u e n tly embodied in

th e approach of p i l o t p r o je c t r e p l i c a t i o n . F i r s t , a lim ite d number of

p i l o t p r o j e c t s a r e c a r e f u l ly c h o se n . These a r e o f te n h e a v ily funded f o r

a li m it e d tim e . Because th e y a r e c a p i t a l i n t e n s i v e , th e F e d e ra l

Government im poses numerous d e t a i l e d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s such a s b u d g etin g

p ro c e d u re s , r e p o r tin g p r o c e s s e s , employment p r a c t i c e s , and g e n e ra l

m iss io n .

Second, p i l o t p r o je c ts a r e c a r e f u l ly s c r u ti n iz e d to determ in e t h e i r

" e f f e c t iv e n e s s ." T h is o f te n in v o lv e s e x p erim en tal o r q u a s i-e x p e rim e n ta l

 49

re s e a r c h , which i s a ls o ex p en siv e and d i f f i c u l t to p ro p e rly manage. For

many p u b lic s e r v ic e s outcomes such a s p r o d u c tiv ity and q u a l ity o f c a r e

elu d e p r e c is e m easurem ent. O ften t h i s am biguity i s h id d en behind

im p re ssiv e s t a t i s t i c a l m a n ip u la tio n of fu zzy o u tp u t d e f i n i t i o n s , le n d in g

an a i r of c e r t a i n t y and o b j e c t i v i t y t h a t i s more f i c t i o n a l th an r e a l .

T h ird , p i l o t p r o j e c t s a r e e v a lu a te d and d is s e m in a te d . V ario u s p i l o t

e f f o r t s a r e a s s e s s e d as r e s e a r c h i s com p leted . S i f t i n g th ro u g h

d i f f e r e n t perform ance r e p o r ts , o f f i c i a l s and r e s e a r c h e r s i d e n t i f y th e

"most c o s t - e f f e c t i v e " program d e s ig n s . These a r e th e n packaged in t o

co n c ise program s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and program developm ent p ro c e s s e s ( i . e . ,

w orksh o p s). The id e a i s to r e p l i c a t e s u c c e s s f u l p i l o t p r o je c ts th ro u g h

c e n t r a l l y c o n t r o l le d in fo rm a tio n c h a n n e ls. W ider usage of e f f e c t iv e

p i l o t programs i s f u r t h e r s tim u la te d by r e q u ir in g u se of th e s e d e sig n s

to p ro c u re fu n d in g .

T h is mode of s tim u la t in g in n o v a tio n seem s, a t f i r s t s ig h t, most

p ra c tic a l. To b eg in w ith , p i l o t p r o je c t r e p l i c a t i o n ap p ears to be

ex trem ely econom ic, in t h a t c o s tl y ex p e rim e n ta l le a r n in g i s c e n t r a li z e d

to a lim ite d number of p i l o t s i t e s . E v a lu a tio n of program e f f e c t iv e n e s s

i s a ls o c e n t r a l i z e d , to p ro v id e ex p en siv e p r o f e s s io n a l a n a ly s is w ith o u t

c o s tl y red u n d an cy . T h is a l l sh o u ld m inim ize program s la c k r e s o u r c e s and

r e s e a rc h c o s t s . Second, p i l o t p r o je c t r e p l i c a t i o n sh o u ld be r a t h e r

q u ic k . C e n tr a liz e d e x p e rim e n ta tio n sh o u ld y i e l d r a t i o n a l l y e f f e c t i v e

d esig n s t h a t can be o f f e r e d in a condensed form . T his should red u ce th e

la g tim e in h e re n t to d e c e n tr a liz e d change. T h ird , p i l o t p r o je c t

r e p l i c a t i o n ap p ears to smooth d is s e m in a tio n of change. Com prehensive,

e x p e r t re s e a rc h sh o u ld en ab le lo c a l d e c is io n m akers to
 50

adopt in n o v a tio n w ith re g a rd to h ig h ly r a t i o n a l c o n s id e r a tio n of

e f f e c t iv e n e s s . T h is sh o u ld overcome n o n - r a tio n a l p o l i t i c s . *

While th e s e adv an tag es seem o b v io u s , in a c t u a l i t y th e y a r e r a r e l y

o b ta in e d . T h is f a i l u r e may b e tra c e d to th e c o re assum ptions which le a d

people to suppose th a t p i l o t r e p l i c a t i o n w i l l y i e l d such b e n e f i t s .

These assu m p tio n s a r e t h a t:

- Change i s b e s t managed c e n t r a l l y , t h a t new b e h a v io rs and p a t te r n s

of o r g a n iz a tio n a r e b e s t d efin e d by a c e n t r a l , h ig h e r - l e v e l
c o n t r o l sy stem .

- L ocal s i t e s a r e u n s o p h is tic a te d re g a rd in g in n o v a tio n , t h a t " th e

f i e l d " i s n o t as q u a l i f i e d a s c e n t r a l e x p e rt a u th o r ity to
fo rm u la te and t e s t in n o v a tio n .

- Change i s r e p l i c a b l e , t h a t s u c c e s s f u l in n o v a tio n can be

" b lu e p r in te d " in t o d esig n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s which can th e n be
i d e n t i c a l l y f a b r ic a te d a t o th e r s i t e s .

- Change i s adopted th ro u g h la r g e ly r a t i o n a l in q u ir y , t h a t
in n o v a tio n i s f i n a l l y judged r a t i o n a l l y , i n term s of perform ance,
a f t e r i n i t i a l n o n - r a tio n a l argum ents a r e e lim in a te d .

- C e n tr a lly e x e c u te d , e m p ir ic a l s t y l e r e s e a rc h co n v in ces l o c a l s i t e s
to adopt change, t h a t " s o c ia l e x p e rim e n ta tio n " le a d s to
e n lig h te n e d in n o v a tio n .

When made e x p l i c i t , th e r e a l i t y of th e s e assu m p tio n s ap p ears to be

m a rg in a l. F i r s t , i n an in c r e a s in g ly complex w o rld , change i s o f te n n o t

b e s t managed c e n t r a l l y . The v a r i e t y of s i t e n e e d s , and t h e i r

f lu c t u a ti n g r a t e s of change, o f t e n make c e n t r a li z e d in n o v a tio n to o slow

and i r r e l e v a n t . T h is i s i l l u s t r a t e d in th e p u b lic p o lic y p ro c e ss by

Schon (1971) and by F r ie n d , Power, and Y e w le tt (1974, pp. 350-354), and

i n s o c ie ty a t la rg e by T o f f l e r (1980) and Ozbekhan (1 9 6 9 ).

* The m ista k in g of r a t i o n a l i t y a s a rep la cem e n t f o r p o l i t i c s i s most

c o n c is e ly e la b o r a te d by Lindblom and Cohen (1 9 7 9 ).
 51

Second, l o c a l s i t e s a r e o fte n very s o p h is tic a te d in fo rm u la tin g and

t e s t i n g in n o v a tio n s . T h is i s e s p e c ia lly tr u e f o r s o c ia l system s

in n o v a tio n s t h a t go beyond te c h n ic a l f i x e s , in v o lv in g developm ent of

co n sen su s about " fu z z y outcom es" t h a t elu d e p r e c is e d e f i n i t i o n . For

in n o v a tio n s r e g a r d in g th e s e th e re a r e no c e n t r a l e x p e r ts . I n s te a d , a

premium d ev elo p s upon d iv e rs e lo c a l a b i l i t y to in n o v a te in th e fa c e of

d iv e rg e n t l o c a l v a lu e s and power s t r u c t u r e s .

T h ird , change i s o f te n n o t e a s i l y r e p l i c a t a b l e . T h at i s , b l u e p r i n ts

f o r an e f f e c t i v e p i l o t program o f te n cannot be rep ro d u ced a t many o th e r

s ite s . D iv erse lo c a l c o n d itio n s and lo c a l s i t e p a ro c h ia lis m (b o th

en co u n tered d u rin g P r o je c t N etw ork) make im p o rta tio n of p r e f a b r ic a te d

change u n li k e ly .

F o u rth , change i s r a r e l y adopted th ro u g h p r im a r ily r a t i o n a l

p ro c e e d in g s . W hile in n o v a tio n h as an a n a l y t i c a l l y r a t i o n a l component,

th e p ro c e ss as a whole i s d e c id e d ly n o n - r a ti o n a l. In t h i s c o n te x t,

e x p e rt e m p iric a l re s e a rc h i s r a r e l y an overpow ering m o tiv a tio n to

in n o v a tio n f i e l d s i t e s . T h is s q u a re s w ith M in tz b e rg 's (1973) f in d in g

t h a t e x e c u tiv e s p r e f e r " s o f t " in f o r m a tio n through f a c e - t o - f a c e

d is c u s s io n and d i r e c t e x p e rie n c e .

The p resu m p tio n s u n d erly in g p i l o t r e p l i c a t i o n ap p ear to be

in c r e a s in g ly i n v a l i d . The ev id en ce of t h i s a c c ru e s in r o u tin e f a i l u r e s

o f the p i l o t approach to o b ta in many o f i t s supposed b e n e f its :

- Supposed s a v in g s in c o s t d u rin g c e n t r a li z e d f o rm u la tio n and

t e s t i n g a r e o f te n c o u n te rb a la n c e d by e s c a l a ti n g c o s ts of
d is s e m in a tio n .

- Supposed q u ic k n e s s i n fo rm u la tio n and e v a lu a tio n of change i s

o f te n n u l l i f i e d by e x te n s io n of tim e ta k e n fo r d is s e m in a tio n .
 52

- Supposed r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of change d e c is io n s o f t e n does not tak e

p la c e . I n s te a d is s u e s become in c r e a s in g ly muddled. " O b je c tiv e
f a c t o r s " ( a r i s i n g from e l e g a n t s t a t i s t i c s about fuzzy outcom es
d e f i n i t i o n s ) a r e u sed to cam ouflage and a v o id fra n k management of
" i r r a t i o n a l " n o rm ativ e d is s e n s u s .

T h is p a t te r n c h a r a c te r iz e s a tte m p ts a t p i l o t program r e p l i c a t i o n t h a t do

n o t ta k e .

The im porance and meaning of P r o je c t Network as a f e d e r a l endeavor

a r i s e s n o t from th e sum of m onies s p e n t, b u t from an atte m p t to break

t h i s p a t t e r n w ith som ething d i f f e r e n t . T h is change d id not a r i s e

b ecau se of e x p l i c i t d e s i r e to avoid th e problem s of p i l o t p r o je c t

re p lic a tio n . I n s te a d , a d i f f e r e n t approach was developed to meet two

key c o n s t r a i n t s , (1 ) only skimpy fu n d in g was a v a i l a b l e , and ( 2 ) l o c a l

p u b lic s e c to r la b o r and management would r e fu s e to in n o v a te under

c e n t r a l f e d e r a l d i r e c tio n . N eil H e r r ic k , a v i s i t i n g fe llo w a t the

C e n te r, moved to u t i l i z e th e s e c o n d itio n s as o p p o r tu n itie s f o r

in n o v a tio n .

The a l t e r n a t i v e ap p ro ach developed i n P r o je c t Network i s h ere c a lle d

th e m a tic f a c i l i t a t i o n of ch an g e. Them atic f a c i l i t a t i o n of change i s a

d e c e n tr a liz e d approach to f o s t e r i n g in n o v a tio n . As p r a c tic e d in netw ork

i t in v o lv e s c u l t i v a t i n g i n t e r e s t i n an ambiguous theme w ith l o c a l

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r th e i n i t i a t i o n and c o n tr o l o f ch an g e .-

In P r o je c t Network, th e ambiguous d ev elo p m en tal theme was

"Improvement of P r o d u c tiv ity and Q u a lity of Working L if e th ro u g h L ab o r-

Management C om m ittees." B eneath th e g e n e ra l u m b re lla of t h i s theme

l o c a l unions and management could d ev elo p com m ittees a s they p le a s e d .

* An i n i t i a l fo rm u la tio n of th e m a tic f a c i l i t a t i o n can be found in

re f e r e n c e to community l e v e l in t e r v e n ti o n i n K eid el (1 9 7 9 ).
 53

T here were no volum inous re q u ire m e n ts f o r program m iss io n , r e p o r tin g , o r

o p e r a tio n s . Each s i t e was r e s p o n s ib le f o r doing w hat i t wanted t h a t was

in harmony w ith th e o v e r a l l them e. Some (Columbus and T roy) even

re fu s e d to s t i p u l a t e s p e c if i c p r o j e c t s f o r r e s e a rc h e v a lu a tio n , w ith o u t

any p u n itiv e a c tio n ta k en a g a in s t them .

The p r o je c t a d m in is tr a tio n o f f i c e la r g e ly f u l f i l l e d a boundary

management r o l e (Susman, 1976). They c r e a te d e x te r n a l c o n d itio n s

allo w in g c o n tin u a tio n of l o c a l l y d ir e c te d change. T h is s p e c i f i c a l l y

in v o lv e d s h e l t e r i n g s i t e s from prem ature c r i t i c i s m by n a tio n a l la b o r and

management le a d e r s , p ro v id in g o p p o r tu n itie s f o r c r o s s - s i t e le a r n in g , and

s u g g e s tin g id e a s upon r e q u e s t.

T h is a l t e r n a t i v e th e m atic p ro c e s s o p e r a te s on assu m p tio n s q u it e

d i f f e r e n t th a n th o se d r iv in g p i l o t p r o je c t r e p l i c a t i o n , t h a t :

- Change i s b e s t managed d e c e n tr a ll y .

- L o ca l s i t e s can be s o p h is tic a te d c o n c e rn in g in n o v a tio n . The

com petence of l o c a l s i s p o t e n t i a l l y s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t i c u l a r l y
re g a rd in g "fu z z y outcome" p u b lic s e c to r o p e r a tio n s , where
o b je c tiv e m easu res a r e i n f e r i o r to s u s ta in e d , e v o lv in g consensus
f o r prom oting e f f e c t i v e n e s s .

- Change i s n o t m e c h a n ic a lly r e p l i c a t a b l e . L ocal v a r ia tio n allo w s

s i m i l a r i t y i n ty p e , n o t in d e t a i l .

- Change in v o lv e s more th a n a n a l y t i c a l l y r a t i o n a l in q u ir y . O th er
dynam ics must be g iv e n room to e f f e c t change.

- C e n tr a lly ex ecu ted e m p iric a l r e s e a r c h does n o t n e c e s s a r i ly compel

a d o p tio n of ch an g e. R a th e r, c o n v ic tio n a r i s e s from a c t u a l
c o n tr ib u tio n to l o c a l in n o v a tio n . T h is can be in a n a r r a t i v e
f a s h io n , o f which e m p iric a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n may o n ly b e a p a r t .

The su c c e ss o f m o b iliz in g i n d i v id u a l s , many w ith i n i t i a l s u s p ic io n and

h e s i t a t i o n , s u g g e s ts t h a t th e se assu m p tio n s a r e p erh ap s more v a l i d in

th e p u b lic s e c to r th a n th e la b o r a to r y - ty p e s u p p o s itio n s u n d e rly in g th e

p i l o t r e p l i c a t i o n ap p ro ach .
 54

In c o n t r a s t to u s u a l b lo ck ag es found i n p i l o t p r o je c t r e p l i c a t i o n ,

th e m a tic f a c i l i t a t i o n p o t e n t i a l l y o f f e r s a number of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

ad v an tag es:

- S avings in c o s t b o th th ro u g h low er c e n t r a l agency overhead and

th ro u g h d e c re a se d im p lem en tatio n c o s ts .

- Q u ick er resp o n se tim e to lo c a l is s u e s and lo c a l m a n if e s ta tio n s of

la r g e r i s s u e s . T here ap p ears to be an i n i t i a l tr a d e - o f f whereby
i t ta k e s lo n g e r to fo rm u la te change and l e s s time to im plem ent i t .

- C l a r i f i c a t i o n r a t h e r th a n e lim in a tio n of n o ir-a n a ly tic is s u e s , w ith

e a r l y agreem ent ( i f any i s p o s s ib le ) on c o n tin u in g p ro c e sse s f o r
managing such d if f e r e n c e s .

These advantages a r e , of c o u rs e , o b ta in e d a t a p r i c e . They a r i s e o n ly

i n r e tu r n f o r a s u r r e n d e r of so v e re ig n ty by th e c e n t r a l agency prom oting

in n o v a tio n .

These r e l a t i v e ad v an tag es of th e m atic f a c i l i t a t i o n f i t w ith some

re c e n t fin d in g s in r e s e a r c h of p o lic y and o r g a n iz a tio n b e h a v io r. On th e

b a s i s of c a s e r e s e a rc h Schon (1971) a rg u e s f o r a " p e r ip h e r y - c e n te r "

p a t te r n of change t h a t i s s im ila r to th e m a tic f a c i l i t a t i o n . More

sy s te m a tic e m p iric a l r e s e a rc h by L orsch and A lle n (1973) s p e c i f i c a l l y

in d i c a te s t h a t c e n t r a l - s i t e r e l a t i o n s in complex environm ents a r e most

l i k e l y to y i e l d e f f e c t i v e p e rip h e ry o p e r a tio n s i f th e r e i s l e s s , r a t h e r

th a n more i n t e g r a t i o n imposed by c e n t r a l a u t h o r i ty .

P r o je c t netw ork i s th u s a s i g n i f i c a n t d e p a r tu r e from th e t r a d i t i o n

of p i l o t p r o je c t r e p l i c a t i o n . I t a tte m p ts an a l t e r n a t i v e p a t t e r n ,

c a lle d th e m a tic f a c i l i t a t i o n of chan g e. The p r e v a ilin g p i l o t approach

i s o fte n r i g i d , slo w , and c a p i t a l i n t e n s i v e . In c o n t r a s t , th e th e m a tic

approach i s f l e x i b l e , q u ic k , re s p o n s iv e , and in fo rm a tio n r a t h e r th an

c a p i t a l in t e n s i v e . The p r ic e of th e s e ad vantages i s s u rre n d e r of

 55

u n i l a t e r a l c o n tr o l by th e c e n t r a l agency. E x te rn a l c o n s tr a i n ts fo rced

th e N a tio n a l C en ter to take t h i s c o u rs e .

P r o je c t Netwo rk Re s e a rc h

To f i t th e in n o v a tiv e approach of P r o je c t Network th e Management and

B e h av io ral S c ie n c e C e n te r (MBSC) proposed th e use of a no v el a c tio n

re s e a rc h assessm en t (ARA) m ethodology fo r P r o je c t Network re s e a r c h

(MBSC, 1977). Based upon th e t r a d i t i o n of a c tio n re s e a rc h (Lewin, 1946)

(C la rk e , 1976)(Susman and E verd, 1978), ARA em phasized th e e s ta b lis h m e n t

o f c o - le a r n in g betw een s i t e s and r e s e a r c h e r s . T h is m utual r e l a t i o n

e n s u re s c o l la b o r a t iv e in v e s t ig a t io n allo w in g growth and developm ent in

b o th s u b je c t and r e s e a r c h e r sy stem s. The m ain d i r e c t i o n of ARA was to

use e x te r n a l assessm en t a s a means f o r prom oting s e lf - a s s e s s m e n t.

I n s te a d of p u re ly a s s e s s in g s i t e s from th e o u ts id e , MBSC proposed to

have s i t e s e v a lu a te th e m s e lv e s . T h is p la c e d a premium upon developm ent

o f c o l la b o r a t iv e but fran k r e l a t i o n s betw een MBSC and network s i t e s .

To f a c i l i t a t e t h i s im p o rta n t s i t e - r e s e a r c h e r i n t e r f a c e , MBSC c r e a te d

an a p p r o p r ia te re s e a rc h o r g a n iz a tio n s t r u c t u r e in c lu d in g th e r o le of

" s i t e c o o r d in a to r ." Each MBSC s i t e c o o r d in a to r was r e s p o n s ib le fo r

m a in ta in in g c o n ta c t and re s e a rc h in g 3-4 netw ork s i t e s . T h is allow ed

c o n tin u ity f o r developm ent of r e l a t i o n s h i p s h a v in g s u f f i c i e n t

c o l la b o r a t io n and openness to s u s t a i n j o i n t assessm en t of s i t e s

e x t e r n a ll y and i n t e r n a l l y .*

* The two s i t e c o o r d in a te r s b e s id e s th e a u th o r have v e r i f i e d a l l case

d e s c r ip tio n and c r o s s - s i t e a ss e s m e n ts . T his p ro v id es an u n u su al
m easure of c o n v e rg e n t v a l i d a t i o n t h a t b o l s t e r s v a l i d i t y a g a i n s t
o b s e rv e r b i a s .
 56

The a c t u a l p ro cess o f ARA un fo ld ed d u rin g th e two y e a rs of P r o je c t

N etwork. S i t e s w ere i n i t i a l l y c o r d i a l , b u t somewhat h e s i t a n t in

r e l a t i n g to Network r e s e a r c h e r s . I t was v e ry d i f f i c u l t fo r them to see

i n advance j u s t how th e proposed re s e a rc h r e l a t i o n s h i p would a c tu a lly

d i f f e r from u s u a l e v a lu a tio n i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . The term " e v a lu a to r ,"

w hich s i t e s c o o r d in a to r s f e l t was to o p u n itiv e i n c o n n o ta tio n to be

a p p ro p r ia te f o r ARA, was u se d s t i l l by most s i t e s to i n i t i a l l y d e s c rib e

th e s i t e c o o r d in a to r 's r o l e . L a te r th e term was dropped by most s i t e s .

Most in fo rm a tio n was g a th e re d e th n o g r a p h ic a lly , th ro u g h case stu d y

m ethod. S p e c if ic s o u rc e s of d a t a in c lu d ed phone c o n v e rs a tio n s ,

in te r v ie w s , a r c h i v a l r e s e a r c h and f i r s t - h a n d o b s e r v a tio n . In a d d itio n ,

th e feedback o f s i t e c o o r d in a to r a sse ssm e n ts to com m ittee p a r t i c i p a n t s

p ro v id ed f u r t h e r d a ta from s i t e s . The r ic h n e s s of th e s e so u rces o f fe re d

ample o p p o r tu n itie s to e s t a b l i s h p a t t e r n v a l i d i t y (K aplan, 1964, pp.

332-334) (D ie s in g , 1971, pp. 159-167) fo r t e s t i n g h y p o th e sized

re g u la ritie s .

As th e p r o je c t c o n tin u e d th e r e s e a rc h agendas of s i t e c o o r d in a to r s

g r a d u a lly expanded to in c lu d e f a c i l i t a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s . T h is ex p an sio n

was re q u e s te d by th e s i t e s th e m s e lv e s , as th e y dev elo p ed t r u s t and

a p p r e c ia tio n of th e o u ts id e w itn e s s p ro v id ed by s i t e c o o rd in a tio n s .

T his expanded th e number of o p p o r tu n itie s fo r v a l i d a t i n g h y p o th eses by

o f f e r in g avenues f o r d i r e c t a c tio n w hich c o u ld t e s t g e n e r a liz a tio n s , i n

a d d itio n to d etach ed o b s e r v a tio n .

 57

A ll s i t e c o o rd in a to r o b s e rv a tio n s were fe d back to com m ittees

b e fo re c i r c u la t in g them. T h is promoted s i t e s e lf - a s s e s s m e n t. In

t e s t i n g and c h a lle n g in g s i t e c o o r d in a to r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , netw ork

com m ittee p a r t i c i p a n t s w ere led to make sense of t h e i r own a c t i v i t i e s as

a s to ry . T h is i s a la r g e r saga b u i l t between r e s e a r c h e r s and s u b je c ts

t h a t c h a r a c te r i z e s th e developm ent of a com m ittee.

The a c tio n r e s e a r c h a s s e ssm e n t method came to be a case stu d y

s to r y - b u ild in g method t h a t moved network com m ittees to in c r e a s in g ly ta k e

s to c k of th e m s e lv e s . T his a ls o pro v id ed o p p o rtu n ity to e x te r n a lly

survey th e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s f o r labor-m anagem ent com m ittees in th e p u b lic

s e c to r . By allo w in g c o l la b o r a t iv e e x te r n a l and i n t e r n a l assessm en t th e

ARA approach was s u i t a b l e f o r th e novel th e m atic em phasis of P r o je c t

Network.

R e la tiv e Pe r f o rmanc e A cross Network S i t e s

P r e c is e m easurem ent of r e l a t i v e p erfo rm an ce a c ro s s network s i t e s i s

u n a t ta in a b le . The d i v e r s i t y of s i t e s , th e e x p lo ra to r y te x tu r e of t h i s

new r e s e a r c h a r e a , and th e o v e r a l l c lim a te of th e p r o je c t d id n o t allo w

th is . But one v iv id d if f e r e n c e i n r e l a t i v e perform ance i s ap p a re n t

lo o k in g a c r o s s s i t e s .

T hree Network s i t e s m a in ta in e d o u ts ta n d in g ly ro b u s t perform ance:

Columbus, Jam estown, and Troy. In c o n t r a s t w ith th e seven o th e r Network

s i t e s , th e s e labor-m anagem ent com m ittee programs were c o n s i s t e n t l y more

r o b u s t i n a number of o b s e rv a b le d im en sio n s. They each w ere a b le to :

- M o b iliz e m u ltip le p r o je c ts and p ro c u re more re s o u rc e s

- Engage s u b s t a n t i a l l y la r g e r numbers and p ro p o rtio n s of people i n

producing change
 58

- O utreach m ore c o n s i s t e n t l y and a m b itio u sly to o th e r o r g a n iz a tio n s

to in fo rm them of t h e i r program

- Widen "ow nership" of th e com m ittee program f a r beyond i t s i n i t i a l

champions

- S u s ta in v ig o ro u s a c t i v i t y and grow th a f t e r P r o je c t Network

fo rm ally ended i n 1979

I t was o n ly th e s e th r e e s i t e s th a t c o n s is te n tly d id w e ll in th e se

d im en sio n s. They c o n s is te n tly had a g r e a te r tr a n s fo rm a tiv e im pact on

t h e i r re s p e c tiv e homebase o r g a n iz a tio n . More so th a n o th e r s i t e s . Y et

a t th e same tim e, Columbus, Jamestown and Troy d i f f e r w ith each o th e r in

a number of im p o rta n t r e s p e c t s . They a r e h etero g en o u s i n term s of t h e i r

r e l a t i v e s i z e , a g e , l e g a l c o n te x t, f a c i l i t a t i o n , w ork fo rce c o m p o sitio n ,

prim ary work ta s k s , e t c . (See p. 47 ) .

The s tr o n g p erfo rm an ce of th e se th r e e Network s i t e s cannot be sim ply

e x p la in e d by a p p e a l to m a n if e s t s i m i l a r i t i e s . T h e ir c o n s is te n tly ro b u s t

perform anc e i n s p i t e of h e te r o g e n e ity s u g g e sts t h a t some d eep er p ro c e ss

i s a t wor k . T h ere i s a need to tr a c e the u n d e rly in g r e l a t i o n s h i p s th a t

p erm it su ch d i f f e r e n t s i t e s to a l l p erfo rm so w e ll.

 CHAPTER 3

A CONCEPT OF NORMATIVE INCREMENTAL!SM •

A co n c e p t of no rm ativ e in crem en talism i s now d ev elo p ed based upon

P r o je c t Network c a se d a ta . Normative in c re m e n ta lis m i s a new concept o f

system s developm ent and in t e r v e n ti o n b elo n g in g to th e w orld of norm ative

change (Ozbekhan, 1969) and " v a r ie ty in c re a s in g " system s d e s ig n (A ckoff

and Emery, 1972, pp. 2 1 5 -2 1 8 ). The e x is te n c e of t h i s p ro c e ss i s

in d ic a te d by ro b u s t Network s i t e s .

C hapter 3 d e f in e s th e b a s ic id e a s of n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism .

Fundam ental elem en ts of th e p ro c e ss ( v i s i o n , a c t i o n , and f i t t i n g ) a r e

each d e s c rib e d in tu r n . F i r s t , th e g e n e ra l p r o p e r ti e s o f an elem ent a r e

o u tl in e d . Second, r e g u l a r i t i e s in P r o je c t Network d a ta th a t su g g e st and

co n firm th e s e p r o p e r tie s a r e summarized. A f te r each elem ent of

norm ativ e in c re m e n ta tio n i s d is c u s s e d in t h i s fo rm a t, th e r e i s a b r i e f

lo n g itu d in a l a n a ly s is a c r o s s Network s i t e s .

T his p ro v id e s an i n i t i a l p ic tu r e of no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism .

C h ap ter 4 f l e s h e s - o u t more d e t a i l s , by fo c u sin g upon d i s t i n c t i v e p ro p er­

t i e s o f th e p ro c e s s . C h ap ter 5 th e n lin k s n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism w ith

many e s ta b l is h e d ap p ro ach es to system s p la n n in g and d e s ig n .

In tro d u c in g A C oncept Of N orm ative In c re m e n ta lism

The th r e e c o n s i s t e n t l y ro b u s t Network com m ittees (Columbus,

Jam estown, and Troy) a l l took th e same g e n e ra l p a th of developm ent. In

c o n t r a s t to o th e r Network s i t e s , th e y :

1. F orm ulate a v is i o n ex p ressed as a program m atic theme.

2. Act th ro u g h a d e c e n tr a liz e d s t r u c t u r e to embody t h i s them e.

59
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3. Link t h e i r a c t i o n w ith t h e i r v is io n th ro u g h a f i t t i n g p ro c e s s .

H ere, t h i s p ro c e s s i s c a l le d nor m ativ e increm e n t a l i s m. T h is i s

a s s o c ia te d w ith th e a l t e r n a t i v e s o c i a l system s d e sig n p r in c ip le of

redundancy o f f u n c tio n (Emery and T r i s t , 1973, pp. 7 1 -7 3 ). N orm ative

in c re m e n ta lis m l e t s d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s , li k e la b o r and management, b eg in

t o work c o l l a b o r a t i v e l y , w ith o u t o ffe n d in g o r e lim in a tin g t h e i r

t r a d i t i o n a l a d v e rs a ry r e l a t i o n s h i p s . In o th e r w ords, n o rm ativ e

in c re m e n ta lis m i s a s o c ia l p ro c e s s t h a t refram es e x is tin g r e l a t i o n s

among d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s .

N orm ative in c re m e n ta lism i s a complex s o c i a l p ro c e s s i n w hich

p eo p le: (1 ) e n v is io n a new e c o lo g y o f v a lu e s (re fra m in g e x i s t in g v a lu e s

in s te a d of e lim in a tin g e s ta b lis h e d o n e s), (2 ) ta k e a c tio n to embody

th e s e v a lu e s , and (3 ) f i t a c tio n s and v a lu e s to g e th e r so t h a t each h e lp s

t o make sense of th e o th e r . T h is p ro c e s s i s s c h e m a tic a lly summarized in

f ig u r e 3 .1 on th e fo llo w in g page.

The rem aining segm ents of C h a p te r 3 more p r e c is e ly fo rm u la te t h i s

co n cep t of n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m . To do t h i s , each component of th e

p ro c e s s ( v is io n , a c t i o n , and f i t t i n g ) i s d e s c rib e d i n d e t a i l . A f te r

t h i s i n i t i a l d e s c r ip tio n th e r e i s r e f e r e n c e back to p a tte r n s in Network

d a ta , showing how r o b u s t s i t e s s u g g e st and confirm t h i s phenomenon.

G en eral P r o p e r ti e s Of V is io n

N orm ative in c re m e n ta lism b e g in s w ith a n o rm ativ e v is io n . T his

v i s i o n i s an im agined ty p e of improvement in r e l a t i o n s betw een

c o n te n tio u s b u t in te rd e p e n d e n t f a c t i o n s . T h is v is io n may a r i s e in any

one f a c t io n , b u t f o r norm ative in c re m e n ta lism to proceed t h i s v is i o n

 F ig u re 3.1

N orm ative In c re m e n ta lism

A V isio n o f a New Ecology o f V alues

I | * I F i t t i n g P ro c e ss

A cts)/

ts ll
A ct
[Acts) LCtSl
LCtS
iAct

>
Time
 62

m ust become t e n t a t i v e l y owned by a l l s i d e s . H ere, th e d i s t i n c t i v e

a t t r i b u t e s of t h i s v i s i o n a r e d e s c rib e d as su g g ested by r o b u s t Network

labor-m anagem ent co m m ittees.

V is io n in no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism i s n o t a d e ta ile d o r e x p l i c i t

u to p ia n p la n . I t i s n o t an i n t r i c a t e id e a liz e d d e sig n (A ck o ff, 1970, p .

8 4 ) t h a t e s s e n t i a l l y b e g in s w ith a c le a n s l a t e . R .ather, i t i s ex p ressed

a s a sim ple p h ra se su ch a s " q u a li ty of w orking l i f e " o r " q u a l i t y of

p a t i e n t c a r e ." T h is v i s i o n d en o tes a q u a l i t a t i v e improvement in

r e l a t i o n s between e x i s t i n g f a c t i o n s , n o t a grand r e d e s ig n .

T h is q u a l i t a t i v e improvement does n o t r e q u ir e th e ab o lish m en t of

c u r r e n t a d v e r s a r ia l r e l a t i o n s (su ch a s c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a in in g ) . I t does

n o t su g g e st a b o lish m e n t of th e com peting f a c t i o n s who i n i t i a l l y formu­

l a t e th e v i s io n . Nor does i t o ffe n d t r a d i t i o n a l l y com peting v ie w p o in ts.

I n s te a d , th e v i s i o n seeks to b u ild a new c o l la b o r a t iv e d im en sio n around

e x i s t in g c o m p e titiv e r e l a t i o n s .

T h is amounts to lo g i c a l l y r e - ty p in g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s betw een

fa c tio n s . The v is io n p o in ts tow ards a new c o l la b o r a t iv e c o n te x t t h a t

w i l l c o n ta in and r e s t r a i n p re v io u s ly u n b rid le d c o m p e titio n . In o th e r

w ords, th e v is io n pro p o ses th a t c o m p e titio n no lo n g e r be th e prim ary

m e d ia tin g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een f a c t io n s . E x is tin g f a c t i o n s and

c o m p e titio n a r e n o t e lim in a te d , th e y a r e refram ed ; to be in c lu d e d and

r e g u la te d by th e m ore g e n e ra l and p e rv a s iv e c o lla b o r a tiv e m a tirx

ex p re s s e d as th e p ro g ram a tic them e.

The v i s i o n , o r p ro g ram a tic theme, th e r e f o r e , in v o k e s a new ty p e of

r e l a t i o n ( c o l l a b o r a t i v e , b o th -an d r e l a t i o n s ) a s a c o n te x t between a l ­

re a d y e x i s t i n g f a c t i o n s and v a lu e s . T h is i s n o t sim ply a new r e l a t i o n ,

 63

bu t r a t h e r a new c o n te x t, a new r e l a t i o n s h i p of r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h ere­

f o r e i t can be sa id t h a t v i s i o n in norm ative in c re m en talism form s a new

eco lo g y o f v a lu e s .* T h is n o rm ativ e eco lo g y p u t p re v io u s ly o ld d i s t i n c ­

ti o n s in to a new b e h a v io ra l c o n te x t w here n ic h e s a r e f i r s t and fo rem o st

in te r d e p e n d e n t. This opens th e p o s s i b i l i t y of c o lla b o r a tio n becoming

prim ary m e d iatin g r e la tio n s h ip . F ig u re 3 .2 summarizes th e opening of

t h i s new p o s s i b i l i t y on th e fo llo w in g page.

Normat iv e I n c re m e n ta li s t V isio n

Because th e v i s i o n im p lie s s h i f t i n g th e lo g i c a l type of s o c ia l

r e l a t i o n s , i t i s i n i t i a l l y n o n s e n s ic a l. I t j u s t d o e s n 't make s e n s e .

T h is i s b ecau se th e meaning of i t cannot be known i n advance, i t c a n

o n ly be a p p r e c ia te d in r e f l e c t i o n upon e x p e rie n c e . The r e a l i t y of th e

theme b eg in s w ith i t s p ro c la m a tio n . But i t i s f u r t h e r v a lid a te d by

l a t e r e x p e rie n c e . The v is io n i s announced w ith o u t t o t a l p r io r

u n d e rsta n d in g of what i t means. I t makes lim ite d sen se to peo p le

v i s e e r a l l y , th e y f e e l i t may be r i g h t , but th e re i s l i t t l e a n a l y t i c a l

u n d e rsta n d in g t h a t can be c l e a r ly e x p la in e d . Thus, i n Columbus, many

i n i t i a l l y f e l t th a t th e program theme "Q u a lity o f Working L ife " made no

sen se ( i . e . , " i t ' s b u l l s h i t " ) . When asked w hat "QWL" m eant, one p erso n

sm iled and s a id " w e 'll a l l know i t a f t e r w e've done i t . "

Reasons f o r t h i s la c k o f i n i t i a l a p p r e c ia tio n a r e su g g ested by

p re v io u s work i n pragm atic com m unications. A number o f d i f f e r e n t

* Ozbekhan (1969, p. 146-151) i s th e f i r s t system s th in k e r to h ig h lig h t

e c o lo g ic a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s o c ia l v a lu e s . T u rn er (1979) u s e s
th e term "ecology o f v a lu e s " .
 F ig u re 3 .2

P ro g ram atic Theme L o g ic a lly R ety p in g

S o c ia l R e la io n s Between F a c tio n s

B efore P ro g ram atic Theme A fte r P ro g ram atic Theme:

D iv erg en t V alues R e la te d W ith A New P o s s i b i l i t y F o r
C om petition th e H ig h est How To R e la te D iv erg en t
L o g ic a l Type V alues & F a c tio n s

FACTIONAL FACTIONAL
COMPETITION COLLABORATION
I ! I I
I I i !
E i th e r Us/Or You Both Us-And You
I I I I
I I I I
I I I i
FACTIONAL FACTIONAL
COOPERATION COMPETITION
* ^ ^ *

Both And E ith e r Or

Us You Us You

(Based upon Wilden and W ilson, 1976, p . 281)

 65

c l i n i c a l p r a c t i t i o n e r s rem ark t h a t i t i s e x tre m ely d i f f i c u l t to e x p l i­

c i t l y d is c u s s r e l a t i o n s betw een r e l a t i o n s , and to p u rp o se ly change them

(B ateso n , 1972)(W ilden, 1972, p p . 2 9 -4 0 )(W atzla wick, B eavin, Jack so n ,

1967, pp. 1 9 7 -1 9 9 )(W atzlaw ick, W eakland, F is c h , 1974, p. 7 9 ). T h is

d i f f i c u l t y a r i s e s from th e c o m p le x itie s of d e s c rib in g d i f f e r e n t l o g i c a l

ty p e s , which r e q u ir e many r e c u r s iv e id e a s t h a t re n d e r b efu d d lin g

s ta te m e n ts l i k e " r e l a t i o n s between r e l a t i o n s . "

However, i t i s n o t sim ply a m a tte r of d i f f i c u l t y . F re q u e n tly th e

l o g i c a l type of s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s i s a r b i t r a r y . Any stre a m of e v e n ts can

be coded d i g i t a l l y o r a n a l o g ic a lly . L ik ew ise, c o m p e titio n o r c o lla b o r a ­

t i o n may be p o s ite d as th e prim ary s o c ia l r e l a t i o n . E i th e r may s u f f i c e .

S o c ia l o rd e r o f te n r e q u ir e s t h a t the a r b i t r a r y a p p e a r to be n ece ssary

(R appap o rt, 1975, p . 1 70). T his i s n eeded f o r s t a b i l i t y of s o c ia l

s tru c tu re s . The m u rk in e ss of l o g i c a l l y r e - ty p in g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s may

have th u s been u s e f u l in th e p a s t, when ro c k -h a rd s t a b i l i t y of s o c ia l

r e l a t i o n s was a d a p tiv e . But u n d er tu r b u le n t c o n d itio n s i t can become

e x c e s s iv e , p re v e n tin g s h i f t s to more c o l la b o r a t iv e r e l a t i o n s when th e

moving ground of s o c ie ty demands i t .

The i n i t i a l am b ig u ity of t h i s n o rm ativ e v is io n can be ad v an tag eo u s.

As Quinn (1977) p o in t s o u t, ambiguous g o a ls p ro v id e a wide u m b rella th a t

can in c lu d e many d i f f e r e n t v ie w p o in ts . I t i s s u f f i c i e n t l y g e n e ra l to

b e n e f i t sh ared i n t e r e s t s beyond p a r t i s a n fe u d in g . T h is i s enhanced by

th e wholesome q u a l i t a t i v e change in d ic a te d by th e them e, who can r e a l l y

l a s h out a g a in s t improved q u a l i t y o f working l i f e , o r a p p r e c ia tio n of

e v e ry o n e 's r o le in a whole system ? Because th e y a r e am biguous,

 66

th e r e i s n o th in g s u b s t a n t i a l to a t t a c k ; th e y sound a s good a s Moms'

a p p le p ie .

F u rth erm o re, e a r l y am b ig u ity allo w s c l a r i f i c a t i o n of th e theme non-

h ie ra rc h ic a lly . A lthough th e theme i s i n i t i a l l y s a n c tio n e d by to p

ea er® i t i s not t h e i r e x c lu s iv e p r o p e r ty . Even th e y do n o t y e t f u l l y

a p p r e c ia te i t s i n t r i c a c i e s . W ith no monopoly o f u n d e rsta n d in g th e r e i s

no e s ta b lis h e d " in crowd" h av in g e x c lu s iv e a u t h o r i ty ab o u t th e

p ro g ram a tic theme. T h is allo w s theme developm ent th ro u g h a m utual

c l a r i f i c a t i o n p ro c e s s , i n c o n tr a s t to im p o sitio n by an e l i t e t h a t own a

com plete v is io n of what i s to be. ( o f te n a p ro c e ss p o l i t e l y term ed

im p le m e n ta tio n ).

V is io n i n no rm ativ e in c re m en tal!sm r e l a t e s to b o th th e whole

o r g a n iz a tio n , and to a l l i t s s u b u n its . The p ro g ram a tic theme s p e l l s o u t

a q u a l i t a t i v e improvement th a t i s l i k e l y to apply th ro u g h o u t th e o rg a n i­

z a t io n . I t i d e n t i f i e s a c o n tin u in g " d is - e a s e " in th e o r g a n iz a tio n a s a

w hole th a t i s a ls o found m icro co sm ically i n i t s p a r t s . In a word,

v is io n in n o rm ativ e in c re m en tal!sm i s h o lo g ra p h ic . H olography i s a

s p e c ia l k in d of l a s e r p h otography. When a l a s e r i s shone th ro u g h a

hologrammed p h o to g ra p h ic p la te th e image rep ro d u ced i s th r e e

d im e n sio n a l. W alking p a s t th e p l a t e , one se e s th e same o b je c t from

d i f f e r e n t a n g le s . I f th e p la te i s to r n in h a l f , e i t h e r h a l f w i l l

rep ro d u c e th e whole im age. E s s e n ti a l in fo rm a tio n i s in v a r i a n t between

th e p a r t and th e w hole; e i t h e r g iv e s r i s e to th e whole image though i t

may be th e same th in g from d i f f e r e n t a n g le s . L ikew ise w ith p ro g ram a tic

them es. They in d i c a te a q u a l i t a t i v e change th a t ap p e a rs r e le v a n t f o r

th e e n t i r e o r g a n iz a tio n o r from any p la c e w ith in i t . In p r o je c t

 67

netw ork , a l l r o b u s t com m ittees fo rm u lated a theme o v e r tly a p p ly in g to

la b o r r e l a t i o n s . These themes a s s e r te d c o lla b o r a tio n a s th e prim ary

m e d ia tin g s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p . They th e r e f o r e ended up hav in g more

g e n e ra l im p lic a tio n s f o r r e l a t i o n s o f r e l a t i o n s betw een many d iv e rg e n t

f a c t io n s : labor-m anagem ent, y o u n g -o ld , m a le -fe m a le , b la c k -w h ite ,

d ep artm e n t-d e p a rtm e n t, w h ite c o l la r - b lu e c o l l a r , and p r o f e s s io n a l-

n o n -p r o f e s s io n a l.

The theme i s e i t h e r im ported o r in s p ir e d from o u ts id e th e system .

O ften , th e theme i s sn atch e d from a g e n e ra l co rp u s o f l a t e n t is s u e s in

good cu rren cy (Schon, 1971). These a r e p o lic y d i r e c t i o n s j u s t begin n in g

to ascend in th e n a t io n a l p i c t u r e . They a re f r e q u e n tly b ro k ered by

sm a ll a g e n c ie s , s p e c ia l i n t e r e s t s , o r f u tu r e - o r i e n te d th i n k e r s . T his

r e s e r v o ir o f "new id e a s " p ro v id e s some g r i s t f o r l o c a l fo rm u la tio n of a

p ro g ram a tic theme. F r e ir e (1970) n o te s th e im p o rtan ce o f l o c a l idiom to

" g e n e ra tiv e them es" t h a t m o b iliz e change. K eid el (1979, p . 154) n o te s

t h a t , on th e o th e r hand, p u re ly l o c a l fo rm u la tio n s can be o v er-

re s tric tiv e . The jo b of s k i l l f u l le a d e r s h ip and i n t e r v e n ti o n w i l l o fte n

be to t r a n s l a t e between lo c a l and—co sm o p o lita n them es.

The g e n e ra l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of no rm ativ e v is io n th a t i n i t i a t e s

n o rm ativ e in c re m en talism can now be o f f e r e d :

- The v i s io n i s an im agined type of improvement in one a s p e c t of

r e l a t i o n s betw een com peting b u t in te rd e p e n d e n t f a c t i o n s .

- T h is v is io n i s e x p ressed as a sim p le p ro g ra m a tic them e. This

theme i s n o t d e t a ile d o r e x p l i c i t .

- C u rre n t v a lu e s and f a c t io n s a r e n o t d i r e c t l y c h a lle n g e d . In s te a d

th e p ro g ram a tic theme refram es what a lre a d y e x i s t s .

- T his amounts to l o g i c a l l y r e ty p in g s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s between f a c ­

ti o n s ; th e prim ary ty p e o f r e l a t i o n s betw een r e l a t i o n s w i l l be
com plem entary (b o th -a n d ) r a t h e r th a n c o m p e titiv e ( e i t h e r / o r ) .
 68

I n s te a d o f s u b s t i t u t i n g one new v a lu e re p la c in g a l l o th e r s , th e
theme p o t e n t i a l l y o f f e r s a new norm ative e co lo g y . C o o p eratio n i s
a new c o n te x t, n o t j u s t a s in g le new b e h a v io r.

- Because t h i s v is io n changes th e l o g i c a l ty p e of s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s ,
i t i n i t i a l l y does n o t make se n s e . Upon f i r s t h e a rin g i t sounds
li k e n o n sen se. L a te r e x p e rie n c e may co n firm itT^ b u t i n i t i a l l y i t
may f e e l r i g h t b u t n o t seem c o n c re te o r ta n g ib le . This la c k o f
c l a r i t y seems in h e re n t to any d i r e c t com prehension of d i f f e r e n t
l o g i c a l l e v e l s . The v is io n o n ly im p lie s p e rv a s iv e change very
rem o tely .

- V isio n and theme a r e h o lo g ra p h ic . They in v o lv e q u a l i t a t i v e change

r e le v a n t to th e o r g a n iz a tio n a s a w hole and to any d iv erg en ce
among i t s p a r t s .

- The s p e c i f i c c o n te n t o f th e theme i s sometimes im ported o r in ­

s p ir e d from o u ts id e th e system . O fte n i t i s b ased upon some
ascen d in g id e a i n good c u rre n c y n o t y e t dom inant in c e n te r s of
power. L ocal and co sm o p o litan themes need to be s k i l l f u l l y
m ediated.

The P r o p e r ti e s Of V isio n In Network Cases

T h is image o f n o rm ativ e v is io n i s a c t u a ll y b ased upon s c r u tin y o f

type I I I netw ork c a s e s . On th e fo llo w in g page f ig u r e 3 .3 summarizes how

netw ork s i t e s in d i c a te th e s e a t t r i b u t e s .

T h is p a t te r n c o n t r a s t s v iv id ly w ith o th e r s i t e s . The rem aining

Network com m ittees co n fin e d t h e i r c h a r t e r (e x c e p t New York, w hich i s

an aly zed on p. 9 8 ); th e y d e fin e d th e m selv es in term s o f th e o f f i c i a l

P r o je c t name d e s ig n a te d by W ashington, " P ro d u c tiv ity and Q u a lity of

Working L if e " . In 7 s i t e s l o c a l le a d e r s d id n o t go beyond t h i s . E x tra

im a g in a tio n was n o t employed to b u ild upon W ash in g to n 's P r o je c t t i t l e .

No custom theme was t a i l o r e d to b e t t e r f i t th e l o c a l p ro b lem atiq u e

 69

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 71

between la b o r and management. The only th r e e s i t e s which to o k t h i s

e x t r a m easure o f v is io n were Columbus, Jam estow n, and T ro y .*

P r o p e r tie s Of G en eral A ctio n

N orm ative in c re m e n ta lis m has a component o f a c t io n in a d d itio n to

norm ative v i s io n . A ctio n i s e s s e n t i a l to making se n se of th e new p r i ­

mary m e d iatin g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . I t i s n o t a s e p a r a te component of

im p lem en tatio n t h a t fo llo w s d e t a i l e d g o a l s e t t i n g . R a th e r, c r e a tin g new

ty p es of r e l a t i o n s i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a p p r e c ia tin g them. Complete

u n d e rsta n d in g does n o t proceed a c tio n ; i n s i g h t d ev elo p s w ith enactm ent

(s e e W eick, 1977). A ctio n makes th e program m atic theme more th an j u s t a

s lo g a n ; i t g e ts many people w orking to p u zzle th ro u g h what th e theme

means by doing i t . Depending on th e s iz e of th e o r g a n iz a tio n , t h i s

a c tio n may be u n d e rta k e n by only a h a n d fu l of p e o p le , o r by hundreds.

H ere, th e c h a r a c te r o f t h i s a c t io n i s d e s c r ib e d , as s u g g e ste d by ro b u s t

Network com m ittees.

In no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism , i n i t i a l consensus on a norm ative

v is io n , however u n c e r ta in , i s c a p i t a l i z e d upon to b eg in a new o rg a n iz a ­

tio n . T his new s t r u c t u r e does n o t r e p la c e e s ta b l is h e d o r g a n iz a tio n s .

R a th e r, i t i s a shadow p ro b lem -so lv in g o r g a n iz a tio n t h a t ru n s p a r a l l e l

to th e e x is tin g b u re a u c ra c y . I t e x i s t s to ta k e a c t io n th a t embodies o r

prom otes th e p ro g ra m a tic theme; th e r e f o r e i t ru n s c o l la b o r a t iv e ly .

* The " q u a lity o f w orking l i f e " theme i n Columbus was d i s t i n c t from

W ash in g to n 's c o n c e p t. Columbus l o c a l le a d e r s h ip fo rm u la te d t h i s theme
b e fo re P r o je c t Network was even co n ce iv ed . A lso , Columbus
d e l i b i e r a t e l y ex clu d ed " p r o d u c tiv ity " from t h e i r program theme, even
a f t e r jo in in g th e P r o je c t .
 72

R e s p o n s ib ility in t h i s s t r u c t u r e i s d e c e n tr a liz e d . In itia tio n ,

fo rm u la tio n , and im p lem en tatio n o f change i s d e s ig n a te d to o r ig i n a te

bo ttom -u p . In th e s e s t r u c t u r e s s o - c a lle d " h ig h e r " , o r more c e n t r a l

labor-m anagem ent com m ittees e x i s t to f a c i l i t a t e th e work o f p e rip h e ry

co m m ittees, n o t to u n i l a t e r a l l y command them. O v e ra ll r e g u la tio n comes

th ro u g h m utual in f lu e n c e and r e s t r a i n t in s te a d of u n i l a t e r a l d e c re e .

T h e re fo re , norm ative in c r e m e n ta lis t a c tio n pro ceed s th ro u g h a r a d i c a l l y

d e c e n tr a liz e d s t r u c t u r e . T h is ap p ro x im ates what F rie n d (1977, p . 48)

c a l l s a d e c is io n n etw ork, t h a t o p e r a te s more f l u i d l y th a n a s t r i c t l y

fo rm al o r g a n iz a tio n . D e c e n tr a liz a tio n i s o f te n in marked c o n t r a s t to

th e e x i s t in g homebase o r g a n iz a tio n ( i . e . p u b lic s e c to r b u r e a u c ra c ie s

in h a b ite d by P r o je c t Network f a c t i o n s ) .

T his d e c e n tr a li z a t io n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r ta k in g a c tio n i s

c ru c ia l. I t i s a s though a c t io n i s an e s s e n t i a l p a r t of d ev elo p in g new

m e d ia tin g s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s . Such change cannot sim p ly be o rd e re d ( l i k e

a te c h n ic a l r e p a i r ) . I t m ust be evoked through r e a l a c t i v i t y (s e e

F r e i r e , 1970).

T h is i s n o t j u s t p a r t i c i p a t i o n . P a r t i c i p a t i o n i s u s u a lly p erfu n c­

to r y in v o lv em en t, where one i s ask ed to a d v ise b u t n o t to r e s p o n s ib ly

a c t. Thus, th e p a s s iv e term " in p u t" , f o r s o l i c i t i n g o p in io n s t h a t a r e

f r e q u e n tly e d ite d to j u s t i f y w hatever le a d e r s h ip d e s ir e s in th e f i r s t

p la c e .

The w id esp read a c tio n o f n orm ative in c re m e n ta lism i s c lo s e r t o what

Churchman (1968) i d e n t i f i e s a s c o n t r ib u tio n , d i s t i n c t from p a r t i c i p a ­

tio n . C o n trib u tio n i s r e s p o n s ib le a c tio n by a whole p e rso n (n o t j u s t

 73

w earing a s p e c i a l i s t 's h a t ) , a c tio n t h a t h e lp s b u ild a d e s ir e d f u t u r e .

D e c e n tra liz e d a c tio n u n d er n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism i s l i k e t h i s .

E n a c tin g th e ambiguous theme i s work t h a t nobody i s a com plete e x p e rt

upon. I t a ls o i s work t h a t has re le v a n c e th ro u g h o u t th e o r g a n iz a tio n ,

t h a t i s n o t j u s t th e p ro v in c e o f one u n i t . N orm ative in c r e m e n ta lls t

a c t io n i s th e r e f o r e more th a n j u s t p a r t i c i p a t i o n . I t i s c o n t r i b u ti o n .

A ctio n a r i s i n g in n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism i s a s s e s s e d th e m a tic a lly .

At ro b u s t Network s i t e s , p eo p le in v o lv ed w ith th e change program e sse n ­

t i a l l y view s p e c i f i c e f f o r t s in term s o f t h e i r program them e. T his be­

comes th e p rim ary ground f o r ju d g in g e f f e c tiv e n e s s o f s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t s .

Narrow outcome m easures a r e r a r e l y u t i l i z e d . Sometimes u t i l i t a r i a n

e v a lu a tio n i s r e je c te d o u t r i g h t , w ith in s i s t a n c e t h a t a c t io n be a s s e s se d

o n ly in term s o f i t s c o n tr ib u tio n to o r embodiment o f th e program them e.

T h is i s done a s s e lf - a s s e s s m e n t, by p eo p le who a r e p a r t o f th e program ,

n o t by o u t s i d e r s .

T h is r e li a n c e on th e m a tic s e lf - a s s e s s m e n t i s d e f e n s iv e . I t p re v e n ts

encroachm ent by u n i n i t i a t e d o u t s i d e r s . The theme i s i n i t i a l l y

am biguous, and becomes c l e a r th ro u g h a c tio n and r e f l e c t i o n . O u ts id e rs

a r e t h e r e f o r e l i k e l y n o t to a p p r e c ia te th e them e. Yet th e theme i s th e

e s s e n t i a l q u a l ity i n any a c t i o n . I n s i s t i n g on p ro g ra m a tic s e l f -

a ssessm en t e n s u re s t h a t s p e c i f i c p r o je c ts w i l l n o t be a n aly zed m icro sco ­

p i c a l l y c u t - o f f from th e n o rm ativ e c o n te x t o f w hich th e y a r e e s s e n t i a l l y

a p a r t ( r e c a l l t h a t change i n th e l o g i c a l ty p e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s i s n o t

v i s i b l e th ro u g h d i g i t a l e i t h e r / o r d i s t i n c t i o n s , p . 2 0 ).

T his em phasis i n s i s t s t h a t th e t r e e s n o t be m istak en f o r th e f o r e s t .

T r a d i tio n a l outcome m easurem ent i s u s u a lly a throw back to fragm ented

 74

T a y l o r i s t i c o r g a n iz a tio n . These s o r ts o f m easures le a d to com paring

i s o l a t e d u n i t s ( a s s e r tin g c o m p e titiv e e i t h e r / o r r e l a t i o n s ) . Them atic

assessm en t compels people to lo c a te s in g le a c tio n s w ith in th e la r g e r

program them e. T h is fu n d am en tally a s s e r t s c o l la b o r a t iv e , bo th -an d

r e l a t i o n s between v a rio u s p r o j e c t s . In th e view of program members, no

s in g le e f f o r t i s b e s t . A ll a c tio n s tr y to s t r i k e th e same chord of

q u a l ity ( th e program m atic them e). Above a l l , t h i s reso n an ce must be

re s p e c te d , e l s e one g a in s th e th ro n e but l o s e s th e kingdom.

The a c t u a l p ro g re s s io n of n o rm ativ e in c r e m e n ta lis t a c t io n (w h a t's

o f te n c a lle d im p le m e n ta tio n ) i s planned out ad hoc and backw ards.

L iv in g o ff re s o u rc e s a b d u cted from th e main o r g a n iz a tio n , th e program­

m atic shadow o r g a n iz a tio n cannot swipe enough tim e to m u ste r compre­

h e n siv e a c t i v i t y p la n n in g .* A lso , program m atic themes can i n i t i a l l y be

so ambiguous t h a t n e c e ssa ry f u tu r e a c t s can n o t be fo re s e e n .

T h e re fo re , n o rm ativ e in c r e m e n ta lis t a c tio n i s planned in an ongoing,

in fo rm a l, ad hoc m anner em phasizing problem f o r m u la tio n . I t i s assumed

th a t in v e n tio n of needed a c tio n s w i l l a r i s e from d e c e n tr a liz e d o rg a n iz a ­

t i o n and budding sh a re d a p p r e c ia tio n of th e theme. A ctu al p la n n in g

e v e n ts , such as an o c c a s io n a l c o n fe re n c e , a r e m ostly u sed to lin k th e

theme w ith s p e c if i c a c tio n s ( s e e p. 8 5 ). Sometimes d u rin g th e s e e v e n ts

th e re i s r a t i f i c a t i o n of a c tio n s i n p ro g re s s . But an y th in g li k e a

fo rw a rd -lo o k in g p la n of f u tu r e program a c t i v i t i e s does n o t u s u a lly

e x is t.

* See Emery and T r i s t (1973, pp. 26-29) f o r key id e a s on p a r a s itis m and

concealm ent in o v e rla p p in g s o c ia l sy stem s.
 75

T h is p a t te r n i s s im ila r to what M iles and Snow (1978) found to be

th e p lan n in g p r o c e s s in hig h v a r i e t y , q uick changing " p ro s p e c to r"

o r g a n iz a tio n s . They c h a r a c te r iz e i t (p . 61) a s " u s u a lly b road r a t h e r

th a n in t e n s iv e , o r ie n te d tow ard problem f in d in g , and c o n tin g e n t upon

feedback from e x p e rim e n ta l a c t i o n . " S l i g h t l y m odifying t h e i r a r c h e ty p a l

p r o f i l e (p . 6 2 ), i t can be sa id t h a t norm ative in c re m e n ta lism y ie ld s a

p la n n in g sequence t h a t can be summarized a s :

S iz e u p ----------- > A c t ----------- > P la n (so m etim es).

T his seq u en ce, th a t seems d is o r d e r ly from a t r a d i t i o n a l o p e ra tio n s

p la n n in g o r i e n t a t i o n , i s a ls o acknowledged by Churchman (1979, p. 9 2 ).

B ehavior of ro b u s t netw ork s i t e s in d i c a te s th a t n o rm ativ e increm en­

t a l i s t p lan n in g p r im a r ily a d d r e s s e s two concerns ab o u t f u tu r e a c tio n .

One focus i s c u r r e n t p roblem s. T his in v o lv e s d ia g n o sis and c o r r e c t io n

o f problem s i n c u r r e n t program a c t i v i t i e s t h a t b lo ck peo p le from

e n a c tin g th e theme ( e . g . , "subcom m ittee #3 i s h av in g tr o u b le k eep in g

m eeting tim e f r e e " ) . The second fo c u s i s f u tu r e o p p o rtu n ity . T h is

m ostly in v o lv e s who m ight n e x t be c o n ta c te d to sp re a d a p p r e c ia tio n of

th e program theme ( e . g . , "we m ig h t i n v i t e manager X to our n ex t p lanning

c o n fe re n c e so he can b eg in to le a r n what t h i s program i s a b o u t" ).

P lan n in g f u t u r e a c tio n th u s l a r g e l y in v o lv e s so lv in g c u r r e n t o p e ra tin g

problem s and s e iz in g o p p o r tu n itie s fo r s p re a d in g th e program them e.

The g e n e ra l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a c tio n ta k e n i n norm ative increm en­

ta lis m can now be re n d e re d :

- A ctio n i s ta k en th ro u g h a d e c e n tr a liz e d p ro b lem -so lv in g o rg a n iz a ­

t i o n . T h is i s s e t up vrtien th e r e i s i n i t i a l co n sen su s upon th e
p ro g ra m a tic them e. I t runs p a r a l l e l to th e e x i s t in g b u reau c ra cy
sh a rin g i t s re s o u r c e s .
 76

- R e s p o n s ib ility f o r a c tin g i s d e c e n tr a liz e d . Most i n i t i a t i v e i s to

be e x e rc is e d from th e bottom up. H ig h er le v e ls u s u a lly e x i s t to
f a c i l i t a t e th e d i r e c t work o f s o - c a lle d lo w er l e v e l s .

- A ctio n i s s e lf - a s s e s s e d th e m a tic a lly , in term s o f how w e ll i t p ro ­

motes o r embodies th e program theme. I s o la t e d outcome measurement
i s de-em phasized o r t o t a l l y banned. A ssessm ent i s done by program
members n o t by o u ts id e r s .

- A c tio n i s planned ad h o c . Comprehensive p re -p la n n in g i s not f e a ­

s i b l e , i t would unduly s t r a i n r e s o u r c e s , f a i t h i n a p p r e c ia tio n ,
and p o l i t i c a l good w i l l . Emphasis i s on problem fo rm u la tio n .
A ctu al p la n n in g e v e n ts a r e few , they a re u s u a lly f o r f i t t i n g
a c tio n and them e, sometimes th e y r a t i f y ongoing a c t io n . U su ally
no d e t a i l e d p la n em erges from t h i s p ro c e s s .

The P r o p e r tie s Of A ctio n In Network Cases

T h is p r o f i l e o f n o rm ativ e in c r e m e n ta lis t a c t io n i s su g g ested and

confirm ed by Network c a s e s . S c ru tin y of th e th r e e c o n s is te n tly r o b u s t

Network s i t e s in d ic a te s th e g e n e ra l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o u tl in e above. T his

i s summarized i n F ig u re 3 .4 on th e fo llo w in g p ag e.

In c o n t r a s t , o th e r Network s i t e s p r e s e n t a d i f f e r e n t p ic tu r e summa­

r iz e d i n F ig u re 3 .5 . They a l l developed labor-m anagem ent com mittee

s t r u c t u r e s p a r a l l e l to t h e i r e x i s t in g o r g a n iz a tio n . But every one o f

th e s e was a c e n t r a li z e d com m ittee s t r u c t u r e th a t m inim ized g r a s s r o o ts

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and i n i t i a t i v e . I n s te a d , o rd e rs and a p p ro v al came to p -

down. Sometimes t h i s r a is e d r e b e l l i o n , when p eo p le r e t a l i a t e d f o r t h e i r

la c k o f re s p o n s ib le c o n tr ib u tio n ( i . e . Pima C ounty).

Less r o b u s t Network s i t e s did n o t s e l f - a s s e s s t h e i r a c tio n s th e m a ti­

c a lly . None o f them r e a l l y had a l o c a l l y v a lid theme to stew ard them­

s e lv e s a g a i n s t . A lso , th ey d em o n strated a ten d en cy to c o n c e n tra te on

f o c a l outcom es, l i k e c o s t, o r f in is h e d p ro d u c ts l i k e a v id e o ta p e ( i . e .

New Y ork, Tacoma, C o n n e c tic u t). T h is myopia ex clu d ed m ost b ro ad er

 77

£tgu_rc_ 3 »A
N o r m a t iv e I n c r e m e n t a l l s t A c t io n A s I n d i c a t e d By R o b u st N e tw o r k S i t e s

p e c t o f IP a r a l le l D e c e n t r a liz e d | R e s p o n s ib ility I A c t io n S e l f - A s s e s s e d I Ad Hoc

A c t io n l P r o b l e m - S o lv in g I D e c e n t r a liz e d I T h e m a t ic a l ly I Ba ck w.i r d s P la n n in g
S ltc ^ . j_____ O r g a n iz a t io n _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ L
I -I n t r ic a t e 4 - le v e l ”1 - G r a s s r o o t s c o m m itt e e s ” ! - R e f u s a l t o a s s e s s a n y ”! ' Two p la n n i n g
I c o m m itt e e s t r u c t u r e : I a t w o r k fa c e r e s p o n s i- I s i n g l e ch a n g e p r o j e c t I c o n f e r e n c e s ea ch y ea r
I 1 C it y C o m m ittee I b le f o r i n i t i a t i n g I f o r N etw o rk r e s e a r c h I* U sed t o f i t them e
Colum bus I 1 D e p a r tm e n t I change ( - C o n t r i b u t i o n t o th em e I w i t h a c t i o n s
I C o m m ittee I -H igh er c o m m itt e e s I ju d g e d e s s e n t i a l I* S o m e tim e s u s e d t o
I 2 D i v i s i o n C o m m itte e s! c h a r t e r e d t o f a c i l i ­ j -A ll a c tio n s e l f - | r a t i f y p ast
I 12 W o r k i n g - l e v e l I t a t e t h i s w o rk , n o t I a s s e s s e d by program I a c c o m p lis h m e n t
____________ I_______ C o m m itte e s __________ 1 t o b o s s i t _____ I mem bers __ ___________ I'
{ - I n t r i c a t e c o m m itte e I - L a r g e , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e r -A ll a c t i o n s e l f ­ ( - P l a n n i n g d on e by
I s t r u c t u r e r u n n in g I c e n t r a l c o m m itte e I assessed I c o m m itt e e
I a cro ss sc h o o l I p r o p o s e s i n i t i a t i v e s I- -Judgem ent I n t e r m s o f ( -U s e d t o f i t them e
I f a c ilit ie s ( -T h e s e i n i t i a t i v e s a r e I program them e ( - A l s o u s e d to s c o u t
I -O n e m ain s y s t e m - w id e 1 r e -w o r k e d by f a c i l i t y I ( new o p p o r t u n i t i e s
J a m esto w n I c o m m itt e e a l s o s u b - I groups ea ch s te p o f ( I fo r s p e c if ic a c tio n s
I d i v i d e s I n t o 4 t o p i c a l I t h e way (
I c o m m it t e e s I-M u tu a l d e t e r m in a t i o n I
I -E a c h f a c i l i t y m ee ts I b e tw e e n t h e tw o I
I a s ad h o c p r o b le m
I s o lv in g grou p s I
( - S i n g l e c o m m itt e e i n |-C o m m ltte e a c t s w i t h p R e f u s a l t o a s s e s s any - S p e c i a l p la n n in g tim e
( s m a ll o p e r a tio n I e x t e n s iv e lin k a g e in t o ( s i n g l e change p r o j e c t s e t a s i d e by c o m m itt e e
( - O p e r a t e s a s a n o p en I s m a ll o r g a n i z a t i o n I f o r N etw o rk r e s e a r c h a t l e a s t o n c e /y e a r
T roy I sy ste m . E x t e n s iv e (-M u tu a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n (• C o n t r i b u t io n t o th em e - U s e d t o r e f l e c t up on
I l a t e r a l l i n k a g e s w i t h I b e tw e e n m em bers and I c o n s id e r e d e s s e n t i a l them e
( n o n -m e m b e r s. I n on-m em bers I* O nly s e l f - a s s e s s m e n t - U s e d t o s p o t new a r e a s
I________________ I________________ _______ I u n d e r t a k e n f o r p rogram work_
 F ig u r e 3 .5
A c t i o n O f L e s s R o b u st N etw o rk S i t e s

P r o file
o f A c -I C e n t r a liz e d P a r a l le l R e s p o n s ib ility fo r A c t io n n o t A s s e s s e d No B a ck w a rd s o r
O r g a n iz a t io n Change C e n t r a l i z e d T h e m a t ic a l ly Ad Hoc P la n n in g
R o b u st

- S i n g l e " to p l e v e l " I -T o p l e v e l c o m m i t t e e | - N o them e •O nly o n e c h a n g e

c o m m itt e e im p o s in g I fo r m u la te s & i n i t i a t e s l - F o c u s o n ly on q u a n ti- p r o j e c t p u r su e d
C on nec- | change I c h a n g e o n t o e m p lo y e e s I t a t i v e w o r k /t im e
tlc u t I In t e s t s i t e
j -S u b c o m m itte e c r e a t e d I o u tc o m e s f o r o n e
l a t e r o n ly a f t e r I I e x p e r im e n t
c h a n g e d e f i n e d and I . I
i n i t i a t e d fro m a b o v e
I__________________________ I__
- S i n g l e " to p l e v e l " -T o p l e v e l c o m m itt e e r -No them e - O n ly o n e m a jo r c h a n g e
c o m m itt e e c h a r t e r e d t o recom m end| p r o j e c t p u r su e d
c h a n g e f o r to p -d o w n )
im p le m e n t a t io n v i a |
th e s t a t e o r g a n iz a tio n !
I-T o p -d o w n h i e r a r c h y o f Some I d e a s com e |- N o Them e. O n ly • A le r t f o r o p p o r tu n i­
i c i t y and h o s p ita l | b o tto m -u p I E m erg en cy R e s p o n s e t i e s t o c u t c o s t s and
j c o m m it t e e s |- -But c h a n g e i s I ( s e e p . 9B ) g e n e r a te reven u es
New Y ork I - H o s p i t a l c o m m itt e e s I f o r m u l a t e d , p r o p o s e d , 1 -F o c u s o n l y o n c o s t •No " p la n n in g " o f w h ere
{ a l s o w ork to p -d o w n b u t I an d d e c id e d to p -d o w n I s a v i n g s and r e v e n u e p rogram i s g o i n g —
| s o l i c i t I n d iv id u a l I I a d d it io n s ju s tific a tio n is
s u g g e s tio n s f is c a l c r is is
I-T o p -d o w n h i e r a r c h y r C o u n ty c o m m itt e e u n i ­ I-N o them e •No r a t i f i c a t i o n o f
I -C o u n ty c o m m itte e an d | la t e r a lly d e le g a te s I-C o n fe r e n c e n ea r p a st a c tio n ( t i l
Pim a | s u b c o m m itt e e s j t o s u b c o m m itt e e s I end o f p r o j e c t an recen t co n fer e n c e )
M ost im p le m e n t a t io n I e x c e p tio n •No s t r a t e g i z i n g
to p -d o w n th r o u g h fu tu r e a c t i v i t i e s
co u n ty o r g a n iz a tio n
 79

F ig u r e 3*5 ( c o n t . )
A c t io n O f L e e s R o b u s t N etw o rk S i t e s

P r o file
o f A c- C e n t r a liz e d P a r a l le l R e s p o n s ib ility fo r A c tio n n ot A s s e s s e d No B ackw ards o r
O r g a n iz a t io n Change C e n t r a l i z e d T h e m a t lc n l ly Ad Hoc P la n n i n g
R ob ust
S ite s
- S in g le " to p le v e l" I - C i t y c o m m itt e e im - *No them e -No r a t i f i c a t i o n of
c o m m itte e I n s m a ll I p le m e n t s c h a n g e t o p - ‘F o c u s o n l y upon p a st a c tio n
Tacoma o r g a n iz a tio n I down v i a reco m m en d a - g e t t i n g p r o j e c t s com ­ •No a c t i v i t i e s
-Ad h o c s u b c o m m itt e e s } t lo n s t o d ep a rtm en ts p l e t e d and p a s s e d on s tr a t e g lz ln g
i to c i t y d ep a rtm en ts
| - I s o l a t e d " to p l e v e l " r • S m a ll, s e c r e t i v e •No them e •No s t r a t e g l z l n g or
i c o m m itt e e I n s m a l l I c o m m itt e e r e s p o n s i b l e -F o c u s o n work r a tific a tio n
I o r g a n iz a tio n I f o r change s im p lific a tio n
U rban a I - E n c a p s u l a t e s aw ay fr o m l' •M on thly d e p a r tm e n t
I ( a b o v e ) n o n -m em b e r s. I a l s o t o p -d o V n . L ik e
I Change i s t o p -d o w n . I m il it a r y u n it aw ards
m e e t in g run by v e t e r a n
who I s t o p m a nager
l - I e o l a t e d " to p l e v e l " T• R e s p o n s ib ilit y f o r -N o them e -N o r a t i f i c a t i o n on
I c i t y c o m m itt e e t o p a s s ! i n i t i a t i n g c h a n g e n o t p la n n i n g
I o n r e c o m m e n d a tio n s f o r | d i s p e n s e d t o many - C i t y c o m m itt e e run by
I to p -d o w n c h a n g e by ( p e o p le . Even non-m em bers
W ic h it a I c ity j c o m m itt e e c a n o n ly
I - C i t y c o m m itt e e run I recom m end.
I from a b o v e by " k e y )
I i n d i v i d u a l s " who a r e |
I n o t m em bers _________ I
 80

c o n s id e r a tio n s about th e q u a l i t y of change th a t can o n ly be su rm ised

a g a i n s t a v a r ie ty o f accom plishm ents.

F i n a l l y , th e l e s s ro b u s t Network s i t e s did n o t p lan f u tu r e a c t i v i t y

ad hoc and backw ards. Most of them had few , i f any, group p lan n in g

e v e n ts . U su a lly , th e y c o n c e n tra te d on a lim ite d number of p r o je c ts

s p e c if ie d f o r Network, in s te a d of p lanning to d if f u s e i n i t i a t i o n of

c o l la b o r a t iv e a c t i v i t y .

G en eral P roper t i es Of Thema t i c F i t t i n g

N orm ative v i s i o n i s e t h e r e a l, i t i s a m en tal e v e n t. A c tio n i s

c o n c re te ; i t i s e f f o r t in th e m a n ife s t w o rld . How do th e s e two realm s

come to a f f e c t each o th e r? The r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een i n t e n t i o n and

a c tio n i s alw ays a c r i t i c a l is s u e in human a f f a i r s .

O b se rv a tio n i n d i c a te s t h a t norm ative in c ra n e n ta lis m u s e s s p e c if i c

mechanisms to li n k v is io n and a c t i o n . These a r e c a l l e d f i t t i n g

p ro c e s s e s , o r th e m a tic f i t t i n g . F i t t i n g p r o c e s s e s a r e s p e c if i c

b e h a v io rs t h a t h e lp n o rm ativ e v is io n and a c tio n c l a r i f y each o th e r.

F i t t i n g bo th to g e th e r deepens th e meaning of p ro g ram a tic theme and

s p e c i f i c a c tio n s ; th e y r e c i p r o c a l l y c l a r i f y and deepen each o th e r.

The theme s t a r t s am biguously. Some f e e l i t i s r i g h t b u t no one

r e a l l y sees what i t c o n c r e te ly im p lie s . A ctio n i s ta k e n m o stly on f a i t h

t h a t i t w i l l do "g o o d ." As tim e p a s s e s e x p e rie n c e acc u m u la tes. T h ere

i s a tr a c k re c o rd of program a c t i v i t i e s , p r o j e c t s , and e v e n ts . There i s

a tr a c k team of program p a r t i c i p a n t s w ith some s im i la r e x p e rie n c e . Now,

by r e f l e c t i n g upon a c tio n i n term s of t h e i r p ro g ram atic them e, people

b e g in to a p p r e c ia te th e theme a s som ething more th a n an a b s t r a c t slo g an ;

 81

I t ta k e s on c o n c re te im p lic a tio n s a s s o c ia te d w ith p a s t a c t io n t h a t can

apply to f u tu r e a c t io n . The theme ta k e s on im p lic a tio n s from th e

a c tio n s f i t t e d w ith i t .

Thus, a theme advances from i n i t i a l am biguity to become endowed w ith

m eaning. I t becomes a le g iti m a te p h ra se to e x p re s s what q u a l i t a t i v e l y

changes th ro u g h th e in n o v a tiv e program . I t s t i l l o f te n sounds l i k e

t o t a l g ib b e r is h to o u ts id e r s , to th o s e who have no r e s e r v o i r of a c tio n

w ith w hich to f i t th e theme. But to th o se in s id e th e program , who have

th e e x p e rie n c e of f i t t i n g , i t makes d arn good s e n s e .

I t may be th a t a new l o g i c a l ty p e of c o l la b o r a t iv e s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s

can o n ly be a p p r e c ia te d from th e i n s i d e . I t i s so d i f f i c u l t to t a l k

about r e l a t i o n s betw een r e l a t i o n s th a t t h e i r s ig n if ic a n c e i s b e s t

le a rn e d by e x p e rie n c e , n o t d e s c r ip t io n .

The f i t t i n g p ro c e s s goes beyond c o n c r e tiz in g a theme. I t a ls o

u n fre e z e s and advances th e p ro g ra m a tic theme, d r iv in g i t s c o n tin u a l

tr a n s f o r m a tio n . R e f le c tio n upon s p e c i f i c e x p e rie n c e s n o t only g iv e s

meaning to a them e, i t a ls o h i n t s a t p o s s b ile ch an g es; e la b o r a ti o n s ,

m o d if ic a tio n s , and d e l e tio n s .

Thus, th e o v e r a l l p ro c e s s of f i t t i n g in v o lv e s p o s t hoc c l a r i f i c a t i o n

o f th e program them e, som ething which a t f i r s t i s r a t h e r a r b i t r a r y and

very u n c le a r . I t i s a k in d o f b o o ts tra p p in g o p e r a tio n . T here seems

n o th in g to s t a r t w ith . An a r b i t r a r y , u n c le a r theme i s p o s ite d . A ction

i s h e s i t a t i n g l y ta k e n . R e f le c tio n e n s u e s , f i t t i n g theme and a c tio n

to g e th e r . As t h i s p ro c e s s u n fo ld s th e r e em erges a more c o n c re te sen se

o f th e them e; what i t i s , w hat i t im p lie s , why i t i s good, and w here i t

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i s going. Seem ingly out o f th in a i r , th e ambiguous and th e a r b i t r a r y

become c l e a r and n e c e s s a r y ( a t l e a s t to th e i n i t i a t e d ) .

A v a r ie ty of s p e c i f i c f i t t i n g b e h a v io rs a r e f r e q u e n tly observed a t

c o n s is te n tly R obust Network s i t e s . These a re n o t o f te n observed i n le s s

R obust Network labor-m anagem ent co m m ittees:

1. Use of Theme a s L itu rg y

In many c o n v e rs a tio n s th e p ro g ra m a tic theme i s r e p e a te d ly invoked as

a term of a sse ssm e n t or e x p la n a tio n b e fo re p eo p le a r e s u re o f i t s

meaning:

"That s t y l e o f m eeting le a d e r s h ip i s n o t q u a l ity o f working l i f e . "

"This k in d of p a r t i c i p a t i o n in v o lv e s peo p le a s p a r t of a whole

s y ste m ."

"W ithout improved com m unication th e r e i s l e s s u n d e rs ta n d in g between

em ployees."

These k in d s o f s ta te m e n ts a re f r e q u e n tly made b e fo re peo p le can d ir e c tly

answ er what t h e i r program theme means. The s ta te m e n ts e i t h e r use th e

theme as an unknown s ta n d a rd of q u a l ity ( th e f i r s t two exam ples) o r they

a re ta u to lo g i c a l ( t h e l a s t exam ple). The theme i s r e a l l y a p ie c e o f

nonsense t h a t does n o t make sen se by i t s e l f . I t i s f r e q u e n tly re p e a te d

in re f e r e n c e to c o n c re te a c t i o n s . This i s a p p a re n tly done to make sense

of th e them e, not becau se th e theme a lre a d y makes s e n s e . U su a lly t h i s

l i t u r g y i s modeled by program l e a d e r s , who f i r s t use th e p ro g ram a tic

theme r e p e a te d ly i n t h e i r own s ta te m e n ts . T his r e p e t i t i o n o f theme i s

autom atic a n d p r e d ic ta b l e . In a te c h n ic a l se n se i t c o n ta in s no inform a­

t i o n because i t d o es not e lim in a te o b je c tiv e u n c e r ta in ty ( i . e . , f u r th e r

s p e c ify p ro b ab le e f f e c t iv e n e s s o r p r o b a b il it y o f outcom e). However,

 83

b eing devoid of in fo rm a tio n i s n o t to be devoid o f m eaning, e s p e c ia lly

i f meaning i s th e e f f e c t of a s ta te m e n t upon sp eak er and l i s t e n e r of

t h e i r u n d e rs ta n d in g about th e w orld and r e l a t i o n s to i t (s e e R ap p ap o rt,

1975, p. 1 70). "The meaning of th e in v a r i a n t l i t u r g y which has no

a l t e r n a t i v e and whose u n fo ld in g th e r e f o r e red u ce s no u n c e r ta in ty i s

c e r t a i n t y " (R ap p ap o rt, 1975, p. 170). The r e p e t i t i o n of l i t u r g y in fo rm s

us even i f i t conveys l i t t l e te c h n ic a l o r o b je c tiv e c e r t a i n t y . It

c o n t r i b u te s to a s tr o n g e r sen se of "w hat i s " . The ch o ic e of any

p u n c tu a tio n i s a r b i t r a r y . Use of th e theme a s l i t u r g y a r b i t r a r i l y

in v o k es th e theme a s a now c o l la b o r a t iv e way to re p u n c tu a te e v e n ts .

2. O u tsid e W itness and A ffirm a tio n

T h ird p a r t i e s fr e q u e n tly se rv e to w itn e ss and a f f ir m th e program

them e. They b o th w atch and h e lp th e program a s concerned o u ts id e r s . In

th e co u rse of t h e i r in v o lv em en t, t h i r d p a r t i e s re p e a te d ly invoke th e

program them e. T h is in c lu d e s l i t u r g y b u t g o es beyond i t because th i r d

p a r tie s a re o u ts id e rs . O u ts id e r s can p ro v id e s p e c ia l e x t e r i o r c o n f i r ­

m atio n to a c o l l e c t i v e . F o r t h i r d p a r t i e s t h i s i s e x p ressed i n many

w ays. T hey:

- f r e q u e n tly a s s e r t th e theme when o th e rs f o r g e t i t and r e v e r t to

c o m p e titiv e ( e i t h e r / o r ) b e h a v io rs .

- a ffirm th e theme by c o n tin u in g t h e i r c o n tr ib u tio n as h e lp f u l

o u ts id e r s .

- ta g alo n g and t e s t i f y to th e developm ent th ro u g h tim e of th e

program a s an embodiment of th e theme.

A ll th e s e b e h a v io rs ta k e p la ce in r e f e r e n c e to c o n c re te e v en ts and

a c tio n s t h a t happen d u rin g a t h i r d p a r t y 's f a c i l i t a t i n g work. They

p ro v id e o u ts id e w itn e ss and a f f ir m a tio n t h a t h e lp f i t theme w ith a c t io n .

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Concerned o u ts id e r s b e a r w itn e ss to th e th e m e 's embodiment and h e lp

make sense of i t . T h is adds to S ch o n 's (1977) co n ce p t of s to r y -

b u ild in g , i n which p eo p le m ust make sen se of in n o v a tio n by fram ing i t i n

term s of a s to r y . In P r o je c t Netw ork, o u ts id e w itn e s s and a f f ir m a tio n

by t h i r d p a r t i e s h e lp e d people c o n s tr u c t and a p p r e c ia te t h i s s a g a . T his

was p ro v id ed not only by t h i r d p a r t i e s , b u t a ls o by P r o je c t Network

re s e a r c h i t s e l f .

3. Them a tic S e lf-A s s essm ent

Them atic s e lf - a s s e s s m e n t h as a lre a d y b een d is c u s s e d (p . 7 2 ), b u t not

as a f i t t i n g p ro c e s s . Most program a c tio n s a re s e lf - a s s e s s e d in term s

o f th e program them e. R obust Network s i t e s d e s ir e d no " o b je c tiv e "

e x te r n a l e v a lu a tio n th a t fo cu sed on n arro w outcome m easures. P r a c tic e

o f th e m atic s e lf - a s s e s s m e n t i s a f i t t i n g p r o c e s s . A ssessm ent by program

members th em selv es keeps them o ccu p y in g h ig h - le a r n in g p o s i t i o n s , r a t h e r

th a n s u rre n d e rin g them t o o u ts id e e v a lu a to r s who condense th in g s in to a

f in a l re p o rt. Focus on th e them e, in s te a d of n arro w outcom es, fo rc e s

members in th e s e a sse ssm e n t p o s itio n s to i n t e r p r e t c o n c re te a c t i v i t i e s

in term s of th e g e n e ra l p ro g ram a tic them e. T his c o n tr ib u te s to f i t t i n g

a c t io n and theme to g e th e r .

4. R e c u rsiv e A p p lic a tio n o f Theme to th e Program I t s e l f

The p ro g ram a tic theme i s n o t j u s t a p p lie d to th e home o r g a n iz a tio n

l i k e a m e d ic in a l tr e a tm e n t. The theme i s h o lo g ra p h ic , id e n tif y i n g a

c o n tin u in g " d is - e a s e " t h a t r e l a t e s to th e o r g a n iz a tio n a s a whole o r to

any o f i t s p a r ts . I t a p p lie s to th e change program a s much a s i t does

 85

to th e homebase o r g a n iz a tio n . There i s a ten d en cy a t a l l r o b u s t Network

s i t e s to develop th e laboi-m anagem ent com m ittee program i t s e l f i n ac­

co rd w ith i t s own them e. T h is goes beyond th e m a tic s e lf - a s s e s s m e n t of

com m ittee p r o je c ts . I t a ls o in c lu d e s d e s ig n of com m ittee o r g a n iz a tio n ,

feedback c o n c e rn in g a p p r o p r ia te n e s s of in d iv id u a l b e h a v io r, ch o ice of

i s s u e s f o r agendas, and s e l e c t i o n of r e p r e s e n t a tiv e s and le a d e r s h ip .

T his adds to th e number and v a r i e t y of c o n c re te a c tio n s t h a t a re r e ­

fram ed i n term s of th e theme. I t a ls o p ro v id e s le a d e r s h ip by exam ple.

5. Use of R it u a l E vents

R obust Network labor-m anagem ent com m ittees use r i t u a l ev en ts to h e lp

f i t a c tio n s w ith t h e i r theme. These a r e g a th e rin g s c a l le d p la n n in g

c o n fe re n c e s , r e t r e a t w orkshops, rev iew m e e tin g s, e t c . In th e s e s e s s io n s

a predcm inance of tim e and energy i s in v e s te d i n f i t t i n g th e program

theme w ith a c t i o n s . D uring th e s e g a th e rin g s th e r e a r e th e most fre q u e n t

o c c u rre n c e s of o th e r f i t t i n g b e h a v io rs; t h e r e i s maximum i n t e n s i t y o f

th e m a tic f i t t i n g because th e s e a r e u s u a lly ev en ts r e f l e c t i n g upon p a s t

a c t io n s a s p a r t of th e theme.

I n a d d i tio n , th e ev e n ts th em selv es have c e r t a i n r i t u a l q u a l i t i e s

above and beyond p a r t i c u l a r f i t t i n g b eh a v io rs t h a t occur d uring

s e s s io n s . These m eetin g s a r e s p e c ia l e v e n ts . T h e ir s p e c ia ln e s s i s

in d ic a te d by a number of d e p a r tu r e s from r o u tin e c o n d itio n s such a s

unique work sc h e d u le , u n u su al work tim e , n o v el l o c a tio n ( o f te n a r e t r e a t

s e t t i n g of some k in d ) , abandonm ent of t r a d i t i o n a l work costum es (b o th

o v e r a lls and d re ss s u i t s ) , and e x te n s iv e in fo rm a l s o c ia l i n t e r a c t i o n

( s e r io u s and p l a y f u l ) betw een people who do n o t o f te n have th e o p p o rtu ­

 86

n i t y to s o c i a l i z e to g e th e r . These d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s in d i c a te t h a t such

e v e n ts a r e r e la te d t o , b u t d i f f e r e n t th a n norm al w o rk p lace r e l a t i o n s .

They p a r t i a l l y u n fre e z e t r a d i t i o n a l r o le c o n s t r a i n t s , a llo w in g people to

g a th e r i n r e f e r e n c e to form al w o rk p lace r e a l i t i e s w ith o u t undue im posi­

tio n . Thus, one w i l l f in d th a t everyone i s eq u al in th e s e s e s s io n s ; th e

fo re m a n 's o p in io n c o u n ts a s much a s th e m a y o r's , th e two of them p la y

poker to g e th e r , and th e y even d re s s th e same.

By p ro v id in g t h i s r e l a t i v e l y u n c o n s tra in e d s o c ia l sp ace, th e r i t u a l

ev en t g iv e s f u l l e s t l i f e to c o lla b o r a tio n as a new l o g i c a l ty p e o f medi­

a t in g r e l a t i o n s h i p . During th e ev en t th e c o l la b o r a t iv e shadow o rg a n iz a ­

t i o n fu n c tio n s w ith minimum im p o sitio n from t r a d i t i o n a l c o m p e titiv e

o r g a n iz a tio n r o l e s . The e v e n t becomes a microcosm of th e p o s s ib le f o r

c o lla b o r a tio n a s th e p rim ary m e d iatin g r e l a t i o n s h i p . I t i s a p r o te c te d

s ta g e w here new b e h a v io rs can be re h e a rs e d and tin k e r e d w ith . I t is a

g lim p se o f what th in g s can be l i k e when c o m p e titiv e e i t h e r / o r r e l a t i o n ­

s h ip s a r e l e s s p rim ary .

By p ro v id in g t h i s s p e c ia l o p p o r tu n ity , r i t u a l e v en ts h e lp p eople f i t

t h e i r a c tio n s w ith t h e i r them e. At th e le v e l of c o n te n t r i t u a l ev en ts

o f te n in v o lv e r e f l e c t i o n upon p a s t a c tio n s and c o n te m p la tio n of f u tu r e

a c io n a s p a r t o f d ev elo p in g th e p ro g ram a tic them e. Beyond t h i s , a t th e

l e v e l o f th e m eeting a s a w hole, th e r i t u a l event prom otes f i t t i n g by

p ro v id in g a s p e c ia l s e t t i n g in w hich th e theme comes m ost a l i v e . F e e l­

in g s and e v e n ts d u rin g th e r i t u a l g a th e rin g enhance o n e 's image (s e e

B o u ld in g , 1973) of th e them e.*

* Cerem onial a f f ir m a tio n o f c r i t i c a l themes i s n o ted to o ccu r i n

"o rg a n ic o rg a n iz a tio n " by Burns and S ta l k e r (1961, p . 6 7 ).
 87

6. Dis p la y B eh av io r

A ll th r e e r o b u s t com m ittees a re th e m ost e a g e r of a l l Network com­

m itte e s to s te p o u t and t e l l t h e i r s t o r y . They engaged in th e most

f re q u e n t and z e a lo u s e x h i b i t i o n i s t , o r d is p la y b e h a v io r. T h is u s u a lly

ta k e s th e form of t e l l i n g people in o th e r p la c e s th e s to r y of t h e i r pro­

gram. The Troy com m ittee has ta k e n upon i t s e l f to h elp form a M ichigan

labor-m anagem ent com m ittee N etw ork, and to in fo rm n earb y m u n i c ip a l iti e s

o f t h e i r own e x is te n c e , o f f e r in g in fo rm a tio n and a s s is ta n c e . Columbus

has a ls o reac h ed o u t to t e l l t h e i r s to r y to o th e rs i n Ohio, M ichigan,

and e lse w h e re . Jamestown i s sh a rin g t h e i r s to ry w ith a few o th e r sch o o l

system s.

No doubt th a t t h i s d is p la y b e h a v io r a r i s e s from some w e ll-d e s e rv e d

p r id e . However, th e r e i s a lso a n o th e r fu n c tio n d is c e rn a b le in a l l t h i s

a c tiv ity . The p ro c e s s o f step p in g fo rw ard to i n s t r u c t th e u n i n i t i a t e d

has th e e f f e c t of f u r t h e r i n s t r u c t i n g o n e 's s e l f . Communication th ro u g h

d is p la y h a s an a s p e c t of au to-com m unication to o n e 's s e l f . Thus

te a c h e r s le a r n more th a n s tu d e n ts and p re a c h e rs have more f a i t h th a n th e

f lo c k .

T h is d is p la y b e h a v io r i s u s u a lly a p r e s e n ta tio n by one la b o r and one

management r e p r e s e n t a tiv e from th e com m ittee program . The v e r b a l con­

t e n t of th e p r e s e n ta tio n i s m o stly r e p e a ts of th e program theme a s

litu rg y . D uring th e p r e s e n ta tio n la b o r and managment v o ic e t h e i r own

v ie w s. O ften th ey speak fo r one a n o th e r, v o ic in g co n cern s h e ld by th e

o th e r s id e . In t h i s way they model m utual a p p r e c ia tio n . Thus, w h ile

th e c o n te n t of th e theme may sound a ta d s e n s e le s s to th e a u d ie n c e , th e

 88

form at of p r e s e n ta tio n models th e theme; th e p r e s e n ta tio n a l tr a n s a c tio n

f i t s w ith th e c o l la b o r a t iv e l o g i c a l type of th e theme. T h is p ro v id e s an

in k lin g of th e theme w ith o u t a n a l y t i c a l d e s c r ip t io n (w hich i s d i f f i c u l t

a t b e s t).

An example of t h i s i s a ty p i c a l Columbus p r e s e n ta tio n . " Q u a lity of

Working L if e ," th e p ro g ram 's theme, i s re p e a te d many tim e s w ith o u t

p r e c is e d e f i n i t i o n . A ccom plishm ents of th e program ( a c t io n s ) a re

sum m arized. The fo rm at of p r e s e n ta tio n i s m u t u a l i s t i c , la b o r and

management r e p r e s e n t a tiv e s e x p la in t h e i r own views and each o t h e r 's .

One i s l e f t f e e lin g s a t i s f i e d by th e p r e s e n ta tio n , i n s p i t e of being

unsure as to what th e p ro g ram a tic theme e x a c tly means.

Thus d is p la y b e h a v io r b eg in s to in tro d u c e u n i n i t i a t e d o u ts id e r s to a

pro g ram 's theme. J u s t as im p o r ta n tly , how ever, i s th e auto-com m unica-

t i v e a sp e c t of d is p la y . C onvincing p r e s e n ta tio n to o th e rs h e ig h te n s

o n e 's own c o n v ic tio n . T his h e lp s th e theme make sen se to p r e s e n te r s

from th e program.

T hus, ro b u s t Network s i t e s show s p e c if i c o b s e rv a b le b e h a v io rs used

to f i t t h e i r theme w ith s p e c i f i c a c tio n s :

- Use of theme a s l i t u r g y

- Them atic s e lf - a s s e s s m e n t

- R ecu rsiv e a p p lic a tio n of theme to th e program i t s e l f

- Use of r i t u a l e v e n ts

- D isp la y b e h a v io r

A ll th e s e f i t t i n g b eh a v io rs compel p eo p le to refram e s p e c if i c program

a c tio n s as embodiments of th e program them e. By d o in g th e s e th in g s

 89

people le a r n to in p u te meaning to th e them e, making i t ta n g ib le and

d riv in g i t s f u r t h e r developm ent. As t h i s happens, th e new eco lo g y o f

v alu e im p lie d by th e them e, making c o lla b o r a tio n th e prim ary m e d iatin g

r e l a t i o n s h i p , becomes in c r e a s in g ly c o m p e llin g . Thus, th e f i t t i n g

p ro c e ss c r e a te s w id esp read o p p o rtu n ity fo r having v is io n s and lin k in g

them w ith a c t io n .

R appaport (1975) term s t h i s type of i n t e r a c t i o n r i t u a l communica­

tio n . R itu a l com m unication s p e c i f i e s s o c ia l o rd e r among humans. A ll

s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s and v a lu e s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y a r b i t r a r y j humans a r e so

f l e x i b l e , so e q u i f i n a l , t h a t we can always do th in g s d i f f e r e n t l y .

R itu a l com m unication p ro v id es n e c e s s a ry co n stan cy th ro u g h tim e, making

some of th e s e v a lu e s and r e l a t i o n s more sacred th a n o th e r s . In t h i s

view " r i t u a l " i s n o t j u s t s u p e r s t i t i o u s r e p e t i t i o n o r com pulsive

b e h a v io r. I t i s a way o f fo rg in g sh a re d a p p r e c ia tio n t h a t s p e c if i e s

which s o c ia l v a lu e s and r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ill e n d u re . In d o in g t h i s ,

r i t u a l com m unication " r e p la c e s g e n e tic s in s p e c ify in g s o c i a l o rd e r among

humans . . . ( I t ) e s ta b l is h e d f o r men p a r t i c u l a r meanings from among th e

g r e a t range of m eanings a v a i la b l e to t h e i r g e n e t ic a lly unbound im agina­

ti o n s . . . a s such ( i n i t i a l com m unications) p r o te c t s o c ie ty from what

B ergson (1935) c a l le d 't h e d is s o lv in g power of human i n t e l l i g e n c e 1

(R appap o rt, 1975, p. 1 71).

F i t t i n g b eh a v io rs c lo s e th e gap b etw een v i s i o n and a c t io n . They

b rid g e a g u lf s e p a r a tin g an alm ost u n sp eak ab le new eco lo g y o f v a lu e s

m ediated by b o th -a n d r e l a t i o n s , and th e everyday w orld of c o n c r e te be­

h a v io r . To do t h i s , f i t t i n g b e h a v io rs b u ild a rem ark ab le r e l a t i o n s h i p .

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An u n f a l s i f i a b l e n o rm ativ e p r o p o s itio n f o r im provem ent, th e them e, i s

su p p o rted by s e l f - v a l i d a t i n g e x p e rie n c e in program a c t i v i t i e s , y ie ld in g

u n q u e s tio n a b le c o n v ic tio n t h a t th e theme makes sen se and i s r i g h t . T h is

i n tu r n c e r t i f i e s th e a r b i t r a r y , th e dubious and in d e s c r ib a b le s h i f t i n

l o g i c a l ty p e s invoked by th e theme. T h is r e l a t i o n s h i p i s c i r c u l a r ,

p o sin g a problem o f v a l i d a t i o n f o r p h ilo s o p h e rs b u t n o t f o r th e f a i t h f u l

(s e e R ap p ap o rt, 1975, p . 175) who do n o t make t h e i r p rem ises e x p l i c i t .

The co n cep t o f f i t t i n g b e h a v io rs in d i c a te s s p e c i f i c e v e n ts t h a t h e lp

promote changing th e l o g i c a l ty p e o f p rim ary m e d iatin g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s .

T h is c o n tr ib u te s to V ick ers i n i t i a l co n cep t o f sh ared a p p r e c ia tio n

(1 9 6 8 )(1 9 6 5 ). I t p ro v id e s a more d e t a i l e d p ic tu r e o f how fu n d am e n tally

no v el a p p r e c ia tio n s o f a new l o g i c a l ty p e a r e b u i l t th ro u g h r i t u a l

com m unication a c t i v i t i e s . F u rth erm o re , i t shows t h a t sh a re d a p p re c ia ­

t i o n need n o t s p rin g from d e f i n i t e o r d e t a i l e d v is io n . A r tic u l a ti n g a

c l e a r v is io n and a p p r e c ia tin g change a r e two d i f f e r e n t th in g s .

The P r o p e r tie s Of Them atic F i t t i n g In Network Cases

The p reced in g d is c u s s io n o f th e m a tic f i t t i n g u s in g r i t u a l communica­

ti o n draws upon exam ples c h a r a c te r i z in g th e th r e e r o b u s t Network s i t e s .

O ther P r o je c t s i t e s d is p la y e d no d is c e r n a b le f i t t i n g b e h a v io rs . In

p a r t i c u l a r , th e y :

- Lacked an ambiguous theme demanding f i t t i n g b e h a v io rs

- R a re ly engaged i n th e m a tic s e lf - a s s e s s m e n t ( i f e v e r)

- Did n o t ap p ly th e theme r e c u r s iv e ly , to th e program i t s e l f

- P assed on th e o p p o rtu n ity to h o ld r i t u a l e v e n ts

- S hied away from d is p la y b e h a v io r, som etim es even when in v i te d

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T h is i s a fu n d am en tally d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n th a n th e r e g u l a r i t i e s observed

a c ro s s r o b u s t Network s i t e s .

L o n g itu d in a l A n a ly sis Of Network S ite s

Up to now a s c r i p t i o n of n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism h a s fo cu sed upon

p a t te r n s c h a r a c te r iz in g Network s i t e s f o r most o f t h e i r e x is te n c e . T his

predom inant c o n f ig u r a tio n i s th e p a t te r n of a c t i v i t y a com m ittee in v e s ts

th e most tim e and re s o u rc e s t o m a in ta in .

But d u rin g th e two y e a rs o f P r o je c t Netw ork, and i n some c a se s

b e fo re Network began, com m ittees v a r ie d from t h e i r predom inant p a t t e r n .

The a n a ly s is o f how th e s e p a t te r n s change th ro u g h tim e i s a lo n g itu d in a l

a n a ly sis . By lo o k in g a t e v e n ts t h i s way, i t becomes c l e a r t h a t some

Network s i t e s began d ev elo p in g a t l e a s t p ie c e s o f a more no rm ativ e

in c re m e n ta lis t ap p ro ach :

- Jam estow n's i n i t i a l l y c e n t r a li z e d com m ittee r a d i c a l l y d e c e n tr a l­

iz e d e a r ly i n i t s e x is te n c e . T h is o c c u rre d when i t d ecid ed to
s t a r t com m ittees i n each sch o o l system b u ild in g . By d o ing t h i s ,
Jamestown moved away from top-down i n i t i a t i v e f o r change. The
predom inance o f Jam estow n's en erg y was in v e s te d in t h i s c o n fig u ra ­
ti o n . Open m eetin g s i n s t i t u t e d i n each b u ild in g had growing
a tte n d e n c e . As more p eo p le began w orking to e n a c t th e i n i t i a l
them e, th e r e began a p la n n in g p ro c e ss w hich le d to s p e c i f i c a t i o n
of fo u r p r i o r i t y a re a s w ith in th e theme.

- P im a 's com m ittee began to ad o p t some n o rm ativ e in c r e m e n ta lis t

elem en ts a f t e r two y e a r s . W ith th e a d d itio n of a c ap a b le s t a f f
p e rso n , th e com m ittee program to o k a c t io n on i t s own t r a i n i n g p ro ­
gram, w ith o u t s u b s t a n t i a l r e li a n c e upon e x i s t i n g county d e p a r t­
m ents. A lso , Pima reach ed o u t to c o n ta c t Columbus, to le a r n more
ab o u t in c re a s in g com m ittee e f f e c t iv e n e s s . In resp o n se to t h i s ,
Pima h e ld a p la n n in g co n fe re n c e i n A p r il, 1979. T his had many
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a r i t u a l e v e n t.

- Tacom a's com m ittee began to co n tem p la te a t l e a s t one n o rm ativ e

in c r e m e n ta lis t elem en t. A 1980 p la n n in g co n fe re n c e became a m ajor
o p tio n f o r c o n s id e r a tio n .
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- New Y o rk 's com m ittee began poking aro u n d f o r a theme in th e

m iddle of 1979. T h is dev elo p ed because of fad in g u rgency ab o u t
New Y o rk 's f i s c a l c r i s i s , e s p e c ia lly when a new c o n tr a c t no lo n g e r
lin k e d COLA paym ents to revenue enhancem ents. A program p ic n ic
was h e ld a t th e same tim e , to b egin s o c i a l i z i n g people in t o th e
com m ittee a s an ongoing i n s t i t u t i o n . S im u lta n e o u sly , th e commit­
te e changed i t s name to ’’th e labor-m anagem ent com m ittee". Lack o f
c i t y fo llo w -th ro u g h has convinced th e com m ittee i t m ust c o n s id e r
w orking f o r i t s own d e s ire d changes.

- T r o y 's com m ittee developed in t o a n o rm ativ e in c r e m e n ta lis t e f f o r t

a f t e r one y e a r of e x is te n c e p r i o r to jo in in g P r o je c t Network. The
s h i f t began w ith fo rm u la tio n of a theme c o n ce rn in g b e t t e r communi­
c a t io n in th e w o rk p lace . A lso , t h e r e was enhanced o u tre a c h by
com m ittee members to non-members, fo r c o n tr ib u tio n to i s s u e s .
Troy th e r e f o r e in v e s te d most of i t s tim e in t h i s p a t t e r n .

- Columbus' no rm ativ e in c r e m e n ta lis t com m ittee began th a t way, and

grew even more so in l a t e r y e a rs . By 1979, th e t h i r d p a r ty
f a c i l i t a t o r was asked to observe c o n tr a c t n e g o tia tio n s .

O v e r a ll, th r e e com m ittees developed c l e a r l y n o rm ativ e in c r e m e n ta lis t

s t r a t e g i e s (Columbus, Jam estow n, T ro y ). These w ere th e m ost c o n s is te n t­

l y ro b u st i n P r o je c t N etw ork. Three com m ittees made developm ental

c h o ic e s im p la n tin g p ie c e s of n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism , b u t not y e t th e

e n t i r e p a t t e r n (Pim a, Tacoma, New Y ork). Nor i s i t c l e a r th a t th e s e

com m ittees w i l l e v e r f u l l y embark on a norm ative in c r e m e n ta lis t approach

to labor-m anagem ent c o o p e r a tio n . However, i t i s n o tew o rth y t h a t th e s e

com m ittees took s i g n i f i c a n t upswings by a t l e a s t d ev elo p in g in c o m p lete

p ie c e s of t h i s new s t r a t e g y . At th e s e tim es t h e r e was more hope,

commitment, and a c t i v i t y th a n b e fo re .

Two co m m ittees did n o t ad o p t any no rm ativ e in c r e m e n t a lis t elem en ts

(C o n n e c tic u t and W ic h ita ). These com m ittees w ith e re d on th e v in e . They

m o b iliz e d few er and few er r e s o u r c e s w hile l e s s v ig o ro u s ly p u rsu in g op­

p o r t u n i t i e s f o r change. Two o th e r com m ittees d id n o t c o n tin u e th ro u g h -

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out th e P r o je c t (Nevada and U rb an a). N e ith e r of th e s e s i t e s developed

any n o rm ativ e in c r e m e n ta lis t elem en ts w h ile they e x i s t e d .

On th e w hole, a tre n d ap p e a rs t o emerge when lo o k in g a c r o s s s i t e s

lo n g i tu d in a lly . There seems to be some k in d of a s s o c ia t io n betw een

norm ative in c re m e n ta lism and r o b u s t labor-m anagem ent com m ittee

perform ance. Committees in c o rp o r a tin g a l l elem en ts o f norm ative

in c re m e n ta lism f a r e d th e b e s t . Those com m ittees a d o p tin g p ie c e s o f

norm ative in c re m e n ta lism had b r i e f upswings when th e y made th e se

changes. And com m ittees sh y in g away from any n o rm ativ e in c r e m e n ta lis t

p r o f i l e d i d n 't acco m p lish v e ry much.

T his s u g g e s ts (b u t does n o t f i n a l l y p ro v e) some a s s o c ia tio n between

norm ative in c re m e n ta lism and labor-m anagem ent ro b u s tn e s s . In th r e e

h etero g en o u s s i t u a t i o n s (Columbus, Jam estow n, Troy) th e e n t i r e norm ative

in c r e m e n ta lis t approach ap p ea rs s u b s t a n t i a l l y e f f e c t i v e . T h is i s i n

c o n t r a s t w ith com m ittee perform ance where n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism i s

l e f t unpursued o r in c o m p lete.

A p a t t e r n li k e t h i s can do no more th a n s u g g e st a s s o c ia tio n . I t is

not c l e a r w h eth er r o b u s t com m ittees end up d ev elo p in g norm ative i n c r e ­

m e n ta lis t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , o r , w h eth er norm ative in c r e m e n ta lis t

s t r a t e g i e s a c t u a l l y g iv e r i s e to r o b u s t com m ittees. However, th e

o v e rla p between upsw ings and p r i o r com m ittee changes le a n in g tow ards

norm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism , makes t h i s an i n t r ig u in g p o s s i b i l i t y .

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Summary Of Ch a p te r 3

C h a p te r 3 in tr o d u c e s a concept of no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism . Norma­

t i v e in c re m e n ta lism i s a s tr a t e g y fo r r a d ic a l change between d iv e rg e n t

f a c t io n s . I t h as th r e e m a jo r elem en ts, v is io n , a c t io n , and th em atic

fittin g .

D ata from r o b u s t Network s i t e s b o th su g g e st and confirm t h i s con­

c e p t. R obust s i t e s p u rsu e th e o v e r a l l s tr a t e g y w ith a l l i t s e le m e n ts.

A c tiv e s i t e s ad o p t p ie c e s of no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism . I n a c tiv e s i t e s

show no s ig n s of n o rm ativ e in c r e m e n ta lis t a c t i v i t y . T h is s u g g e s ts (b u t

does not f i n a l l y p rove) t h a t no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism i s a s s o c ia te d w ith

r o b u s t c o l la b o r a tio n betw een th e d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s of la b o r and

management.
 CHAPTER 4

DISTINCTIVE PROPERTIES OF NORMATIVE INCREMENTALISM

C hapter 3 gave i n i t i a l fo rm u la tio n to a co n c e p t of n o rm ativ e

in c re m e n ta lis m . T his was based upon Network c a se d a ta , and re n d e re d i n

term s o f i t s th r e e m ajor components ( v is io n , a c t io n , f i t t i n g ) . Now,

C hapter 4 s te p s back to s c r u t i n i z e th e o v e r a l l c o n c e p t, h ig h lig h tin g

d i s t i n c t i v e p r o p e r tie s and im p lic a tio n s . The s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

e la b o r a te d h e re tr a c e th e :

- R a d ic a l n a tu re of n o rm ativ e in c r e m e n ta lis t change, t h a t p ro ceed s

v ia refram in g in s te a d o f o u t r i g h t r e v o lt

- D eeper im pact o f n orm ative in c re m e n ta lism i n c o n t r a s t to emergency

resp o n se

- More s u b s t a n t i a l e f f o r t of n o rm ativ e in c r e m e n ta lis t a c t i v i t y in

com parison w ith sim p le p r o t e s t

- N orm ative in c r e m e n ta lis t p ro c e s s a s one t h a t d ev elo p s a new

eco lo g y betw een v a lu e s r a t h e r th a n d i r e c t l y changing v a lu e s
th em selv es

- P ro g re s s io n of n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism a s som ething t h a t works

beyond c o g n itiv e l i m i t s v ia sensem aking

- P o s s i b i l i t y of u n in te n tio n a l n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism from

a c t i v i t y m eeting c e r t a i n minimum c r i t i c a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s

- N o n -sy n o p tic n a tu re o f no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism

- A p p lic a b ili ty o f no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism beyond P r o je c t Network

labor-m anagem ent com m ittees

- G en eral im p lic a tio n s o f n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism f o r system s

in t e r v e n ti o n .

These p r o p e r ti e s f u r t h e r s p e c if y th e n a tu re o f n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism ;

i t s c o n t r a s t to more u s u a l modes o f re s p o n s e , i t s u n d e rly in g methods o f

p ro g re s s io n , and i t s im p lic a tio n s beyond P r o je c t N etwork. T h is p ro v id e s

95
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more f e r t i l e ground f o r C h ap ter 5 , where no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m i s

r e l a t e d w ith o th e r approaches to p la n n in g system s change.

R a d ic a l Refram ing In s te a d Of R ev o lt

N orm ative in c re m e n ta lism prom otes r a d i c a l change th ro u g h refram in g

in s te a d o f r e v o l t . Doing t h i s , no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism m a in ta in s con­

tin u ity . I t b u ild s upon e x i s t in g o r g a n iz a tio n s , f a c t i o n s , and v a lu e s .

In s te a d o f e lim in a tin g t r a d i t i o n a l c o n f l i c t s , no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism

refram es them. A new c o n te x t em phasizing c o l la b o r a t io n i s made to s u r ­

round and m ed iate e s ta b lis h e d a d v e r s a r i a l r e l a t i o n s .

T his i s a r a d i c a l p ro c e s s , g e t tin g down to th e e s s e n t i a l r o o t o f

th in g s . N orm ative in c re m e n ta lism changes th e fundam ental l o g i c a l ty p in g

of s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s betw een d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s . T h is refram in g makes

c o lla b o r a tio n a h ig h e r lo g i c a l ty p e t h a t c o n ta in s c o n f l i c t . Such change

i s a t a sim p le , p e r v a s iv e , ro ck -b o tto m l e v e l , b u t w ith o u t demanding

e r a d ic a tio n o f what a lre a d y e x i s t s .

This r a d i c a l a s p e c t of n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism i s th e r e f o r e n o t

re v o lu tio n a r y . I t does n o t c a l l f o r w h o le sa le e lim in a tio n of c u r r e n t

o r g a n iz a tio n s , f a c t i o n s , o r norms. A lso , no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism does

n o t r e q u ir e e x p l i c i t fu ll- b lo w n re d e s ig n of an e n t i r e system . The p ro ­

gram m atic theme c a l l s f o r im proving what ap p e a rs to be o n ly one a s p e c t

o f r e l a t i o n s betw een f a c t io n s ; i t s p e rv a s iv e im p lic a tio n s a r e n o t

i n i t i a l l y a p p r e c ia te d .

T h is makes n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism e s p e c i a ll y p ro m isin g i n a w o rld

where a number of o r g a n iz a tio n s do n o t p o sse ss th e p u r i t y , a l a c r i t y , o r

s la c k needed to ex e c u te com plete system s r e d e s ig n . In t h i s l e s s th a n

 97

p e r f e c t w o rld , com plete system tra n s f o r m a tio n can be n e i th e r im m ediate

n o r l o g i c a l l y ste p w is e ( s e e S e lz n ic k , 1957, p . 1 5 3 )(s e e K e id e l, 1979, p .

4 0 ). I t t h e r e f o r e becomes c r i t i c a l to p u rsu e r a d i c a l change t h a t can

a r i s e from w orking w ith j u s t one e s s e n t i a l a s p e c t of o r g a n iz a tio n . Many

d e t a ile d changes can l a t e r fo llo w t h i s , each b e in g inform ed by th e

i n i t i a l fun d am en tal in n o v a tio n . T h is i s i n c o n t r a s t to w h o le sa le

system s r e d e s ig n , where changing a n y th in g i s im m ediately f a i r game (and

i s o f te n claim ed to be an e s s e n t i a l elem ent of a system s ap p ro ac h ).

To have t h i s p e rv a s iv e e f f e c t program m atic them es must a p p a re n tly be

h o lo g ra p h ic ; th ey m ust ap p ly to th e o r g a n iz a tio n as a w hole, and to a l l

of i t s p a r t s . T h is in c lu d e s re le v a n c e of th e theme to r e l a t i o n s between

many d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s encompassed by complex o r g a n iz a tio n ( i . e . la b o r -

management com m ittee themes a ls o im ply r e ty p in g s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s between

y o u n g -o ld , b la c k -w h ite , p r o f e s s io n a l- n o n p r o f e s s io n a l, i n a d d itio n to

labor-m anagem ent) .

T h is s o r t of sp read in g in f lu e n c e i s n o t a n o v el o ccu ren ce in human

a ffa irs . Some fa m ily t h e r a p i s t s , fo r exam ple, o fte n u s e "m etap h o ric

ta s k s ”. These g e t f a m ilie s to e n a c t change i n an a r e a of b e h a v io r

an a lo g o u s, but n o t i d e n t i c a l to th e domain of t h e i r symptom (M inuchin,

1974, pp. 150-152) (H aley , 1976, pp. 6 5 -6 7 ). P e rv a s iv e e f f e c t from

changing one a s p e c t of r e l a t i o n s h i p s i s th u s n o t an uncommon phenomenon.

By o f f e r in g r a d ic a l change t h a t i s l e s s th a n t o t a l r e v o lu tio n , n o r­

m ative in c re m e n ta lism does n o t tram p le th e s o v e re ig n ty of e s ta b lis h e d

d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s . Such f a c tio n s can n o t be e a s i l y fo rc e d to c o o p e ra te .

Change between them must be e l i c i t e d v o lu n t a r il y ; r a d i c a l change w ill

n o t be en ac ted i f i t d i r e c t l y th r e a te n s t h e i r i n t e r e s t s .
 98

Norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m can make th e p ro sp e c t of r a d ic a l change by

s o v e re ig n g ro u p s o b ta in a b le . Refram ing e x is tin g r e l a t i o n s , th e

program m atic theme does n o t c o n fro n t th in g s h e a d -o n . T his r e s p e c t fo r

e x i s t in g p a r t i e s and t h e i r v a lu e s enhances th e odds o f g a in in g

com pliance where change cannot be commanded.

T h is c o n t r a s t s w ith t r a d i t i o n a l o r g a n iz a tio n a l developm ent programs

which o fte n assume change i s b ein g "managed from th e to p " (B eckhard,

1969, p . 100, em phasis f rc n th e t e x t ) . T h is i s p o s s ib le in a t i g h t l i n e

o r g a n iz a tio n , where a h ie r a r c h y of command can o b ta in p r e s c r ib e d

b e h a v io r. Roszak (1979, pp. 1 -3 0 ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t p e o p le 's ac q u ie sc e n c e

to t h i s s o r t of u n i l a t e r a l command i s f a d in g . I n s te a d , he n o te s a r i s e

i n em phasis upon th e p erso n a s a unique in d iv id u a l, a s someone re fu s in g

to be o rd e re d a ro u n d . I f Roszak i s c o r r e c t , th e number of so v ereig n

p a r t i e s w i l l in c r e a s e , and th e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f o r g a n iz a tio n developm ent

a d m in is te re d top-dow n w i l l d e c lin e . Under th e s e circ u m sta n c e s no rm ativ e

in c re m e n ta lis m can be one a t t r a c t i v e p ro s p e c t f o r managing a d a p tiv e

change.

As such, n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism goes beyond E t z i o n i 's (1968)

d i s t i n c t i o n between system s of p r e s c r ip t iv e and c o n te x tu a tin g c o n t r o l .

He m a in ta in s t h a t th e l a t t e r allo w s freedom of a c tio n w ith in c e r t a i n

ag reed li m i t s (somewhat ak in to management by o b je c tiv e s schem es).

N orm ative in c re m e n ta lism p o in t s to one way t h a t d iv e r g e n t f a c tio n s

e x e rc is e s e l f - r e c o n te x tu a tin g c o n t r o l ; th e y impose a new type of prim ary

m e d iatin g r e l a t i o n s on th e m selv es. T h is exceeds s u p e r io r -

s u b o rd in a te r e l a t i o n s ; under no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m a new c o n te x t fo r

r e l a t i o n s i s c r e a te d r e l f l e x i v e l y by e q u a lly s o v e re ig n p a r t i e s .
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Norma t i v e Increm en ta lis m Runs De e p e r Than Emergency Res ponse

N orm ative in c re m e n ta lism moves peo p le to a tte m p t in n o v a tio n s n o t

u s u a lly u n d erta k en . Robust Network labor-m anagem ent com m ittees a r e a

c a se in p o in t. In each c a s e the com m ittee m o b iliz e d new b e h a v io rs t h a t

would n o t have been a tte m p te d w ith o u t th e com m ittee program. Columbus,

f o r example had g r a s s r o o ts i n i t i a t i v e s changing work h o u rs, pay day,

perform ance a sse ssm e n t, jo b s t r u c t u r e , c i v i l s e r v ic e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , and

jo b assig n m en t. None of th e s e th in g s would have happened w ith o u t th e

j o i n t labor-m anagem ent program.

T h is i s i n c o n t r a s t to o th e r Network s i t e s , uhich tended n o t to

m o b iliz e s u b s t a n t i a l in n o v a tio n . I n s te a d , most ten d ed to s t a l l out and

become e n c a p s u la te d .

The m ajor e x c e p tio n was New York C it y . In t h i s c a s e , th e c i t y 's

f i s c a l c r i s i s sparked i n i t i a t i v e . In p a r t i c u l a r , payment of c o s t of

l i v i n g in c r e a s e s (COLA paym ents) was made dependent upon g e n e ra tin g

e q u iv a le n t revenue in c r e a s e s in th e h o s p ita l. T h is s p e c i f i c , narrow

em ergency re sp o n se was made to be th e m issio n of th e new com m ittee, to

in c r e a s e revenues to w in COLA paym ents.

At f i r s t th e New York com m ittee program b u s tle d w ith i n i t i a t i v e .

T h is was in resp o n se to a d i r e c t l y p e rc e iv a b le t h r e a t to e v e ry o n e 's

w e lfa re ( th e w ith h o ld in g o f COLA p ay m en ts). E v e n tu a lly , a new union

c o n tr a c t was n e g o tia te d when the c i t y 's f i s c a l emergency s u b sid e d . COLA

payments were no lo n g e r t i e d to in c r e a s in g h o s p ita l re v e n u e . They were

a g a in a u to m a tic a lly g u a ra n te e d . T h is knocked th e p in s o u t from u n d er

th e h o s p ita l com m ittee. I t began to s t a l l . I n i t i a t i v e was no lo n g e r

forthcom in g from managers and em ployees. Having been o r ie n te d to one

 100

narrow emergency re s p o n s e , th e com m ittee had d i f f i c u l t y id e n tif y in g new

o p p o r tu n i tie s . The i n i t i a l fo rm u la tio n o f m iss io n had n o t been broad­

ened o r deepened to in c lu d e more th a n th e i n i t i a l emergency c o n d itio n .*

New Y o rk 's com m ittee d e m o n stra te s a c a se of resp o n se to an im m ediate

em ergency. This i s re s p o n s iv e emergency m o b iliz a tio n . I t i s tem p o rary ,

and not p r o a c tiv e . The m is s io n o f c o l la b o r a t io n i s fo rm u la te d in term s

of a s p e c i f i c p e r tu r b a tio n , in s te a d of d e a lin g w ith a c o n tin u in g

d is - e a s e betw een f a c t i o n s . As soon as th e emergency p a s s e s th e r e i s no

deep er theme to d r iv e c o n tin u in g change. Emergency c o o p e ra tio n i s b u i l t

to w eath er a storm . When th e storm p a s s e s th e re a so n f o r c o lla b o r a tio n

no lo n g e r e x i s t s . M o b iliz a tio n s u b s id e s .

The c o n t r a s t betw een New York and r o b u s t Network co m m ittees s u g g e sts

t h a t norm ative in c re m e n ta lism more d eep ly m o b iliz e s c o l la b o r a t iv e

in n o v a tio n between d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s . A g en u in e program m atic theme

alw ays i d e n t i f i e s a q u a l i t a t i v e change s a l i e n t th ro u g h o u t a s o c i a l

ecology w ith in o r betw een o r g a n iz a tio n s . This theme s p e l l s o u t a

s p e c i f i c improvement th a t im p lie s a fundam ental change in th e l o g i c a l

ty p e of s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p . I t in e v ita b l y to u c h es some c o n tin u in g

d is - e a s e t h a t i s a p e rv a s iv e c h a lle n g e .t Even when fo rm u la te d under

c r i s i s c o n d itio n s , a g en u in e theme w i l l ru n t h i s deep. I t w ill not

sim ply be a g a in s t a te m p o rary , narrow em ergency. I t w i l l a f f ir m some

l a r g e r v is io n encom passing th e r o o ts of c r i s i s . F u rth erm o re, i t w i l l be

* By th e end o f p r o je c t netw ork some New York com m ittee p a r t i c i p a n t s

w ere s e a rc h in g to fo rm u la te a new, more com prehensive m is s io n . T his
may e v e n tu a lly become e i t h e r a slo g an o r a program m atic them e.

t For th e o r i g i n a l so u rce o f t h i s id e a o f c o n tin u in g c h a lle n g e see

Ozbekhan on "co n tin u o u s c r i t i c a l problem s" (1969, pp. 8 4 -8 6 ).
 101

employed i n c o n ju n c tio n w ith o p p o r tu n itie s fo r d e c e n tr a liz e d a c tio n and

th e m a tic f i t t i n g . These w i l l h e lp keep i t above th e m ere p ro c la m a tio n

of a n empty slo g an .

In c o n t r a s t , a n emergency re s p o n s e only a tte n d s to some im m ediate

irrita n t. There i s no e f f o r t to re fo rm u la te t h i s in t o a deeper c h a l­

le n g e . Thus, i n New York C ity , th e com m ittee sim ply ad o p ted th e c i t y 's

c r i s i s demand to r a i s e rev en u e s fo r COLA, in s te a d of r e c a s t i n g t h i s in

term s of a more fundam ental and c o n tin u in g c h a lle n g e betw een la b o r and

management.

N orm ative in c re m e n ta lism th e r e f o r e m o b iliz e s c o l la b o r a t iv e innova­

ti o n t h a t goes beyond im m ediate resp o n se to c r i s i s . N orm ative

in c re m e n ta lis m can develop amid a c r i s i s , b u t t h i s i s n o t a n e c e ssa ry

p re c o n d itio n , i t i s n o t c o n tin g e n t upon extrem e d u r e s s . T h e re fo re ,

norm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism i s not co n fin ed to c r i s i s c o n d itio n s . It

alw ays g ra p p le s w ith a p ro b lem atiq u e t h a t in c lu d e s but tra n s c e n d s

m a n ife s t p e r tu r b a tio n s .

Through no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m , c o l la b o r a t iv e in n o v a tio n can be

p r o a c tiv e ly m o b iliz e d . T h is f r e e s a d a p tiv e re sp o n se from p a s s i v i t y ,

from o n ly resp o n d in g to e x t e r n a l p e r tu r b a tio n a f t e r i t o c c u r s .

N orm ative in c re m e n ta lism i s th u s o n ew ay to pursue a c tiv e a d a p ta tio n

(S achs and M editz, 1980) (Emery and T r i s t , 1973, p p . 5-10 & pp. 6 8 -7 9 ).

N orm ative in c re m e n ta lis m can g e n e r a te p ro a c tiv e norm ative m o b iliz a ­

t i o n more v ig o ro u s i n c h a r a c te r th a n r e a c t i v e emergency c o o p e r a tio n .

T h is d i f f e r e n c e i s summarized i n F ig u re 4 .1 on th e fo llo w in g p ag e.
 102

F ig u re 4.1

C o n tra st Between
P r o a c tiv e N orm ative M o b iliz a tio n
And
R e a c tiv e Emergency M o b iliz a tio n

P r o a c tiv e N orm ative M o b iliz a tio n R e a c tiv e Emergency M o b iliz a tio n

- Takes th e i n i t i a t i v e - On th e d e fe n s iv e

- D efin es a m issio n co n cern in g a - D efin es a lim ite d is s u e t h a t i s

fundam ental d is - e a s e and ex p ected to be tem porary
l o g i c a l l y r e - ty p in g c o lla b o r a ­
tio n

- A ffirm s a p o s iti v e v is io n of - Works o n ly to n e g a te an

d e s ire d change. C o lla b o ra tio n i r r i t a n t . C o o p eratio n b u t not
to e n a c t a p o s iti v e v i s io n , n o t c o lla b o r a tio n .
ju s t c o o p e ra tio n .

- Ongoing, s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g . - L im ite d , s e lf - e x t in g u is h in g .
Leads to id e n tif y i n g new op­ Does n o t illu m in a te new oppor­
p o r t u n i t i e s f o r change. t u n i t i e s once c r i s i s i s o v e r.

- D evelopm ental C o a litio n - R e a c tiv e C o a litio n

 103

In M e tc a lf 's r e l a t e d framework (1976, p . 3 3 9 ), em ergencies evoke

o n ly d e fe n s iv e c o a l i t i o n s a g a i n s t a th r e a te n in g c r i s i s . On th e o th e r

hand, n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism can s tim u la te d evelopm ental c o a l i t i o n s

th a t work f o r a b ro a d e r d e s ir e d change. Such c o a l i t i o n s may be lin k e d ,

but n o t c o n fin e d to a s p e c i f i c s e t of e a r l y im pinging c o n d itio n s .

N orm ative In crem en talism I s More S u b s ta n tia l Than Sim ple P r o te s t

As an a f f ir m a tio n of a d e s ir e d f u t u r e , no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism i s

a ls o more th a n j u s t p r o t e s t a g a in s t e x i s t i n g c o n d itio n s . I t does n o t

m erely d ecry im m ediate symptoms. I n s te a d , n orm ative in c re m e n ta lism

b u ild s on d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n . I t aim s to ta c k le th e u n d e rly in g r e l a t i o n s

among peo p le ( th e p rim ary m e d ia tin g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n ) , to change th in g s

tow ards som ething b e t t e r .

Thus, no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism i s more th a n j u s t n e g a tio n of e x i s t ­

ing d i s s a t i s f i e r s . For exam ple, a t ro b u s t Network s i t e s , program m atic

themes w ere f o r a p o s iti v e developm ent (QWL, a p p r e c ia tio n of a whole

system , b e t t e r co m m unications), n o t j u s t a g a in s t su b p ar labor-m anagem ent

re la tio n s .

T his a f f ir m a tio n i s a t once b o th a so u rc e of hope and ren ew al. It

p o in ts th e way tow ards a b e t t e r f u tu r e d e s ir e d by a l l p a r t i e s . A lso , i t

fo rg iv e s a l l s id e s f o r p r i o r d i f f i c u l t i e s w ith o u t denying them. T ogeth­

e r , t h i s h o p e fu l p ro s p e c t and su sp e n sio n o f rem orse h e lp d iv e rg e n t f a c ­

tio n s shed t r a d i t i o n a l l y n e g a tiv e im ages o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p . The way

i s opened f o r c o l la b o r a t io n to develop w ith o u t denying p a s t an im o si­

t i e s o r b ein g c o n fin e d to r e p e a t them w ith o u t m o d eratio n .

 O v e ra ll, i t ap p ea rs n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism o f f e r s one r o u te f o r

g e t tin g p a s t th e schism t h a t o f te n d ev elo p s betw een p r o te s t o r s and th e

ta rg e t of p ro te s t. U su a lly , p r o t e s t o r s ex p ec t r e d r e s s from th e t a r g e t

o f t h e i r o u tra g e . But n orm ative in c re m e n ta lism c r e a te s a more evenly

d i s t r i b u t e d b u rd en . Everyone i s engaged i n w orking to change th in g s .

T h is b eg in s w ith v i s io n o f a fundam ental improvement in r e l a t i o n s

between e x i s t in g f a c t i o n s , a developm ent t h a t a l l s id e s want to p u rsu e.

A ctio n i s ta k e n d e c e n tr a ll y , w ith th e m a tic f i t t i n g to b u ild new

a p p r e c ia tio n .

N orm ative In crem en talism Invokes A New Ecology Of V alue

As a r a d ic a l p ro c e s s th a t s h i f t s l o g i c a l ty p e s of prim ary r e l a t i o n s ,

n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism i s more th a n a change i n v a lu e s . Beyond t h i s ,

i t i s a change in how p eo p le v a lu e t h e i r v a lu e d if f e r e n c e s . Im p lied i s

som ething more th a n th e "sh a re d v a lu e s " p r e s c r ib e d by much o f th e

system s l i t e r a t u r e . N orm ative in c re m e n ta lism a tte m p ts to change th e

o v e r a l l framework o f r e l a t i o n s p o s ite d betw een d i f f e r e n t v a lu e s , from

" e i t h e r / o r " c o m p e titio n to "b o th -an d " r e c i p r o c i t y .

What g e ts sh a re d i s n o t j u s t new s p e c i f i c v a lu e s , b u t a more r o b u s t

ecology o f v a lu e . T his i s change a t a le v e l beyond any p a r t i c u l a r

v a lu e , j u s t l i k e a new c o n te x t o f b e h a v io r i s beyond any p a r t i c u l a r

p ie c e o f b eh a v io r w ith in i t . In t h i s new fram ework, e x i s t in g v a lu e

d if f e r e n c e s a r e p re s e rv e d . But th ey a r e a l s o re -in fo rm e d by t h e i r new

c o n te x t; d isag reem en t can become s u b o rd in a te to r e c i p r i c o l

c o l la b o r a t io n .
 105

The emergence of a new v alu e eco lo g y i s i n consonance w ith

O zbekhan's i n i t i a l en larg em en t of th e ecology co n c e p t (1969, p.

146-151)(1971, pp. 1 3 8 -1 3 9 ). T h is i s a lso in acc o rd w ith H erb st (1 9 7 6 ).

He d i s ti n g u is h e s betw een two ty p e s of lo g ic s u n d e rly in g s o c i a l r e la tio n s

(pp. 6 4 -1 0 6 ). One, i s b e h a v io r lo g i c which can t o l e r a t e s im u lta n e o u s,

m u ltip le v a lu e s . T h is i s analogous to c o o p e ra tiv e "b o th -an d " r e l a t i o n s .

The o th e r i s t o t a l i t a r i a n lo g i c which alw ays must p r e f e r one s t a t e over

and a g a i n s t a n o th e r. T h is i s an alogous to c o m p e titiv e " e i t h e r / o r "

re la tio n s . H erb st n o te s t h a t t o t a l i t a r i a n lo g ic s a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith

m e c h a n istic b u r e a u c ra tic o r g a n iz a tio n , w h ile b e h a v io r lo g ic s a r e found

in more o rg a n ic s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s .

T u rn er (1979) m ost e x p l i c i t l y c u l t i v a t e s th e id e a of an ecology of

v a lu e s . He n o te s th a t i t i s n o t j u s t i s o l a t e d v a lu e s , but how people

r e l a t e d i f f e r e n t v a lu e s w ith each o th e r , t h a t shapes th e a d a p tiv e n e s s of

in s titu tio n s . He proceeds to arg u e t h a t to have a tr u e im p act, s o c ia l

change m ust work a t t h i s le v e l ; a t th e le v e l of how people r e l a t e

d i f f e r e n t v a lu e s ( h e ld by th em selv es and o t h e r s ) , n o t j u s t a t th e le v e l

of s in g le v a lu e s and t h e i r in d iv id u a l c o n te n t.

The co n cep t of n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m s p e c i f i e s one way th a t t h i s

kind of change can be pursued betw een d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s . N orm ative

in c re m e n ta lism does n o t e s t a b l i s h in d iv id u a l v a lu e s o r i n t e r e s t s

d ire c tly . I n s te a d , i t works to change th e c o n te x t of r e l a t i o n s p o s ite d

between e x i s t in g d i s t i n c t i o n s ; a tte m p tin g to make c o l la b o r a t io n th e

prim ary m ed iatin g ty p e of s o c ia l r e l a t i o n betw een f a c tio n s and th e

v a lu e s th e y champion.
 106

The p o in t i s t h a t norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m ta k e s h o ld a t a le v e l of

change t h a t i s i n i t i a l l y d i f f i c u l t to tr a c k . D e te c tin g change in th e

r e l a t i o n s p o s ite d betw een v a lu e s i s a d i f f i c u l t and im p re c ise ta s k .

R e la tiv e ly few p eo p le even co n ceiv e of th e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r t h i s s o r t of

change. Yet i t i s because of t h i s s u b t l e t y , and i t s e v e n tu a l p e rv a s iv e

e f f e c t s , t h a t n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism c a n hope to proceed betw een

d iv e rg e n t f a c tio n s amid h ig h s o c i a l p arad o x .

N orm ative In c re m e n ta lism Works Beyond C o g n itiv e L im its V ia Sensemaking

The d e c la r a tio n of a p ro g ram a tic theme i s alw ays d ra m a tic . But

o f te n th e d eep e r im p lic a tio n s of no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism run beyond th e

com prehension of peo p le u s in g i t . The e x te n t of p e rv a siv e r a d i c a l

change i s n o t seen i n advance.

P a rt of t h i s i s due to c o m p lic a tio n ; l o g i c a l l y r e ty p in g s o c ia l

r e l a t i o n s i s n o t a sim ple to p ic . D is c u s sio n ab o u t " r e l a t i o n s betw een

r e l a t i o n s " , and s im i la r i s s u e s , i s not u s u a lly u n d e rta k e n . But beyond

t h i s , p eo p le a r e r e l u c t a n t to e n v is io n r a d ic a l change a r is i n g from t h e i r

own a c t io n s . I t i s alm ost a s i f th e y a r e more co m fo rta b le producing

r a d i c a l in n o v a tio n w ith o u t n o tic in g i t .

T his i n v i s i b i l i t y runs a g a in s t some t r a d i t i o n a l canons of o rg a n iz a ­

t i o n a l i n t e r v e n ti o n . A rg y ris i s one of th e s tr o n g e s t champions of th e se

norm s. He m a in ta in s (1970) th a t only f u l l y f r e e and in fo rm ed ( i . e .

c o n s c io u s ) c h o ic e sh o u ld d riv e change p ro c e s s e s .

But w ith n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m , la c k of p r i o r knowledge ab o u t

w here change i s heading ap p ea rs to be in e s c a p a b le . W ithout t h i s

am b ig u ity th e r e would be no sen se of d is c o v e ry . F o rm u la tin g a theme,

 107

ta k in g a c t io n , and f i t t i n g a c tio n s w ith th e theme would become an

u n e x c itin g m ech an ical t a s k . T here would be im p lem en tatio n in s te a d of

i n s p ir i n g r e v e l a t i o n . A m biguity, v ag u en e ss, and in c o m p leten ess seem

n e c e ss a ry to m a in ta in th e drama th a t moves norm ative in c re m en talism

a lo n g .

A lso , i t seems p la u s ib le th e r e a r e c o g n itiv e l i m i t s upon norm ative

f o r e s i g h t , j u s t a s th e re a r e c o g n itiv e l i m i t s on r a t i o n a l i t y (March and

Simon, 1958, pp. 1 3 7 -1 7 2 ). F u lly e n v is io n in g r a d i c a l change b e fo re i t

ta k e s p la c e o fte n ap p e a rs beyond th e re a c h of human com prehension. I t 's

to o d i f f i c u l t and th r e a te n in g .

T h is m ight be a b le s s in g . F u ll advance knowledge of r a d ic a l change

m ight a c t u a l l y d e t e r p eo p le from d a rin g to a tte m p t i t . The p r o s p e c t,

when l a i d o u t in d e t a i l , may seem to o d is c o n tin u o u s and overw helm ing.*

T h is may be e s p e c ia lly tr u e amid d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s , where t r a d i t i o n a l

c o n f l i c t o f te n makes any d e p a rtu re from th e s t a t u s quo s u s p ic io u s .

But l i m i t s on no rm ativ e f o r e s i g h t do n o t im ply t h a t p u rp o sefu l

change can n o t o c c u r. In l i e u o f d e ta ile d r e d e s ig n , p a r t i a l s p e c u la tiv e

v o l i t i o n d e s ir in g to c r e a te a d i f f e r e n t f u tu r e can p ro v id e e n tic e m e n t

and perh ap s even hope. M eanwhile, am b ig u ity and in c o m p leten ess can

i n s u l a t e p a r t i e s from p erh ap s th r e a te n in g r a d ic a l im p lic a tio n s of t h e i r

d e s ire d ch an g es.

* A s i m i l a r c h a lle n g e to A rg y ris (1970) and t r a d i t i o n a l 0D i s fo rm u lated

by K eid el (1979, p . 1 3 9 ). He n o te s t h a t in c o n t r a s t to A rg y ris '
m odel, i n Jamestown N.Y. "commitment was g e n e ra te d p r im a r ily th ro u g h
i n t e r v e n ti o n ."
 108

W eick's (1977) co n ce p t of e n a c te d sensem aking s u g g e s ts how no rm ativ e

in c re m e n ta lis m can work beyond l i m i t s upon norm ative f o r e s ig h t.

A ccording to W eick, peo p le d is c o v e r what th e y a r e up to by exam ining

t h e i r a c t s r e t r o s p e c tiv e l y :

" O rg a n iz a tio n s ta l k i n o r d e r to d is c o v e r w hat they a r e sa y in g , and

a c t in o rd e r to d is c o v e r what th e y a r e d o in g " (1977, p. 2 62).

I n t h i s v iew , p eo p le make sen se of t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s p o st h o c, a s they

a r e review ed in r e t r o s p e c t . I n i t i a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n vo iced a t th e o u ts e t

need not be f u l l y com prehended; meaning i s d is c o v e re d a f t e r enactm ent.

T h is fo llo w s P i a g e t 's id e a s re g a rd in g c o n c re te o p e r a t io n a l iz a t io n

(1951) (1963) in c h ild h o o d developm ent. He m a in ta in s t h a t c o n c re te

o p e ra tio n s p receed l i n g u i s t i c s t r u c t u r e , and hence c o g n itiv e

u n d e rs ta n d in g .

B ateso n (1972, p. x v i) e x p re s s e s a s im i la r n o tio n , sa y in g t h a t "an

e x p lo r e r can n ev er know what he i s e x p lo rin g u n t i l i t has b een

e x p lo r e d .” Weick (1977, p. 279) claim s th e o r g a n iz a tio n a l e q u iv a le n t of

t h i s i s t h a t "an o r g a n iz a tio n can n ev er know what i t th in k s o r w ants

u n t i l i t s e e s what i t d o e s ."

T h is argum ent i s a b i t ex trem e, b u t i t can f i t o c c a sio n s when people

a tte m p t r a d i c a l l y new b e h a v io rs . These a r e d i f f e r e n t in type th a n

p re v io u s b e h a v io rs , and th e r e f o r e have l i t t l e p re c e d e n t c o n s tr a in in g

what they should be l i k e . One i s rem inded of th e 1950 exchange between

R o b ert Schuman, th e n F rench F o re ig n M in is te r , and a new spaper r e p o r te r

a s th e y d is c u s s e d Schum an's c a l l to b u ild a c o l la b o r a t iv e community of

i n t e r e s t s among E uropean n a tio n s :

 109

"In o th e r w ords, i t s a le ap in th e dark?"

" T h a t's r i g h t , ' a le a p in th e d a r k '" .

(Monnet, 1978, p. 305)

When change i s t r u l y r a d i c a l , when i t i s an a tte m p t to s h i f t th e type of

prim ary m e d iatin g r e l a t i o n between d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s , i t i s o fte n

unknowable i n advance. Such change m ust o f te n be en acted w ith o u t f u l l

p r io r u n d e rsta n d in g of what i t w i l l be li k e o r where i t i s le a d in g .

E s p e c ia lly r e le v a n t h e re i s what Weick c a l l s th e " c r u c ia l c o l le c t iv e

a c t" of o rg a n iz in g (1977, p. 2 7 5 ); n e g o tia tio n of co n sen su s about what

i s f ig u r e and w hat i s g ro u n d . The ground of a g e s t a l t i s l i t e r a l l y i n

th e background, and th e r e f o r e n o t d is c u s s a b le ( s e e P e r l e s , H e f f e r lin e ,

Goodman, 1951, pp. 2 5 -2 9 ). By d e f i n i t i o n th e fo reg ro u n d re c e iv e s

co n scio u s a t t e n t i o n ; i t s ta n d s o u t.

The program m atic theme in norm ative in c re m e n ta lism makes e x p l i c i t a

key q u a l i t a t i v e a s p e c t of r e l a t i o n s between f a c t i o n s , one th a t im p lie s a

s h i f t in lo g i c a l ty p e s ( i . e . q u a l i t y o f working l i f e ) . Under th e

s p o t l i g h t , t h i s one a s p e c t of r e l a t i o n s moves from background to

fo re g ro u n d , becoming a l e g i t i m a t e d is c u s s a b le co n cern . Thus, n o rm ativ e

in c re m e n ta lis m r e p u n c tu a te s between fo reg ro u n d and background. It

r e t r i e v e s one key q u a l ity by e x p re s s in g i t (how ever c r y p t i c a l l y ) a s a

them e. Subsequent a c tio n and f i t t i n g allo w t h i s to be b e t t e r u n d ersto o d

r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y , a s i t p r o g r e s s iv e ly becomes more e n a c te d . N orm ative

in c re m e n ta lism can th e re b y be s a i d to proceed by v i r t u e of n orm ative

sensem aking. A f te r th e ambiguous theme i s pronounced, a c t io n s a r e

ta k e n . F i t t i n g th ro u g h r i t u a l com m unication th e n allo w s th e s e

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a c tio n s to in fo rm th e theme p o st ho c. T his i s an ongoing p ro c e ss o f

v is io n , a c t i o n , f i t t i n g . I t allo w s peo p le to b e t t e r a p p r e c ia te a new

prim ary m e d ia tin g s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p , a new c o n te x t t h a t was la r g e ly

in c o m p reh en sib le a t th e s t a r t o f t h e i r in n o v a tio n .

N orm ative In crem en talism D evelops Upon Minimal C r i t i c a l S p e c if ic a tio n s

A ll c a s e s o f n orm ative in c re m e n ta lism a r e n o t i n t e n t i o n a l l y

developed as su ch . T h is p a t t e r n o f in n o v a tio n was d is c o v e re d u n d e rly in g

m a n ife s t e v e n ts a t ro b u s t Network s i t e s . The p ro cess can th e r e f o r e

a r i s e by d e f a u l t , w ith o u t e x p l i c i t d e s ir e to u n d erta k e som ething c a lle d

norm ative in c r e m e n ta lis t change.

The n e c e ss a ry c o n d itio n s allo w in g developm ent of n o rm ativ e increm en­

ta lis m ap p ear s im p le . They form th e b a s ic r e c ip e of o r g a n iz a tio n

follow ed by r o b u s t Network s i t e s :

- E x e rc is e le a d e r s h ip . Endow th e c h a lle n g e a t hand w ith meaning by

d e c la r in g a p o s iti v e them e. Don o t f e a r i n i t i a l am b ig u ity .

- Promote r e s p o n s ib le a c t io n . Get many peo p le to i n i t i a t e a c tio n

t h a t makes th e theme s t a r t to happen.

- D o n 't lo o s e s i g h t o f th e them e. I t comes f i r s t . R epeat i t , t a l k

ab o u t i t , look f o r i t in a l l program a c t i v i t i e s . Make p ro c e ss an
im p o rta n t p ro d u ct in i t s own r i g h t .

- D o n 't lo o s e to u ch betw een peo p le em barking on change. Be s u re to

g iv e them p le n ty of o p p o rtu n ity to meet w ith each o th e r . D o n 't
r e s t r i c t group e v e n ts to program le a d e r s .

I t was by s tic k in g to th e se b a s ic p r in c i p le s t h a t r o b u s t Network s i t e s

developed a n o rm ativ e in c r e m e n ta lis t p a t t e r n of change. These a r e th e

minimum c r i t i c a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s (H e rb st, 1974) f o r no rm ativ e

in c re m e n ta lis m . They a r e th e c o n d itio n s n e c e ssa ry f o r th e elem en ts of

v i s io n , a c t i o n , and f i t t i n g .
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Commitment to an e n t e r p r i s e w ith th e s e minimum sp e c s can allo w

norm ative in c re m en talism t o develop. A t r o b u s t Network s i t e s la b o r and

management lo o k in g fo r "som ething d if f e r e n t" were th e ones p ro cla im in g a

program m atic theme. T h is p ro v id e s a vague e x p re s s io n of som ething

b e t t e r between them , som ething lin k e d to a c o n tin u in g d is - e a s e . It

" f e e l s r i g h t " even i f no one knows p r e c is e ly what i t means.

Thus, w ith o u t knowing i t , ro b u s t s i t e s embarked upon what i s h e re

c a l le d a n orm ative in c r e m e n t a lis t p a t te r n . T h is p a t t e r n was "ad hoced” ;

i t was n o t p u rp o se ly developed a s su ch . I t began w ith fo rm u la tio n of a

program m atic theme. T h is am biguously in d ic a te d a b e t t e r r e la tio n s h ip

coming to p r e v a il between la b o r and management, w ith o u t e lim in a tin g

e i t h e r p a r ty . The theme " f e l t r ig h t" ev en though no one knew p r e c is e ly

what i t m eant.

To p re v e n t t h i s from being a n empty slo g a n , commitment was made to

d e c e n tr a liz e a c tio n s t h a t a tte m p t to make th e theme happen. V isio n and

d e c e n tr a liz e d a c tio n can th u s emerge w ith o u t s u b s c r ip tio n to an id e a of

norm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m . In P r o je c t N etw ork, i t a r o s e from a sen se of

w anting som ething b e t t e r , and som ething t h a t would n o t be j u s t a n o th e r

empty slo g a n .

T h is i s f e r t i l e ground f o r th e m atic f i t t i n g . C o n sid er th e m ix tu re

of am b ig u ity and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . There e x i s t s an u n c le a r them e. It

co u ld be j u s t a n o th e r s lo g a n . No one f u lly u n d e rsta n d s i t . But many

a r e made r e s p o n s ib le fo r making i t happen. I t i s u n c le a r and th e r e f o r e

u n r e a l, b u t a t th e same tim e th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of making i t happen

makes i t r e a l b e fo re i t i s a c t u a l l y com prehended. Under th e s e

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c o n d itio n s p eo p le sensem ake; th e y ta k e a c tio n and f i t i t w ith a theme.

I t i s th e o n ly way to go. R itu a l com munication i s employed b eca u se th e

com bination o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and am b ig u ity i n c i t e s p eo p le to c r e a te new

m eaning. They p la y " f i l l i n th e blan k " w ith th e th e m e 's meaning and

t h e i r own a c t i o n s .*

The minimum c r i t i c a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r norm ative in c re m e n ta lism

encompass b o th o r g a n iz a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e and p ro c e s s . The need f o r

w idesp read a c t io n , a llo w in g many people to e n a c t change ( in s te a d o f j u s t

d e c re e in g i t ) , s t i p u l a t e s need f o r a d e c e n tr a liz e d p ro b lem -so lv in g

o rg a n iz a tio n ru n n in g p a r a l l e l to e x i s t in g form al s t r u c t u r e s . T his

a r c h i t e c t u r e alo n e i s n e c e ss a ry b u t n o t s u f f i c i e n t f o r n o rm ativ e

in c re m e n ta lism to d ev elo p . D e c e n tr a liz a tio n by i t s e l f w o n 't do i t .

There must a ls o be j o i n t le a d e r s h ip th a t fo rm u la te s an i n i t i a l

program m atic them e, and t h a t a f f ir m s ste w a rd sh ip a g a in s t i t . This

v is io n a r y le a d e r s h ip has to th e n s u rre n d e r e x c lu s iv e ow nership o f th e

them e, and in v o lv e many p eo p le i n p u z z lin g -th ro u g h i t s meaning and

im p lic a tio n s . The need f o r r i t u a l com m unication then a r i s e s , and

f i t t i n g b eh a v io rs ensue.

Thus, n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism a r i s e s from a s p e c ts o f b o th s tr u c t u r e

and p ro c e s s . I t does n o t m a g ic a lly s p rin g from o n ly c r e a tin g a new

slo g a n o r j u s t a s s ig n in g new r o l e s . Both s id e s o f th e s tr u c t u r e /p r o c e s s

e q u a tio n must be a d d re s s e d .

* An i n t e r e s t i n g p ath o lo g y co u ld a r i s e h e r e , though i t w a s n 't o b serv ed

in t h i s s tu d y . Them atic f i t t i n g co u ld become a runaway p ro c e s s . The
theme co u ld be u sed to sim p ly le g iti m a te a lr e a d y f a m i li a r c o n f l i c t
r e l a t i o n s . O th er m a la d a p tiv e outcomes m ight a l s o a r i s e . A ssu red ly th e
p ro c e ss w i l l n o t be fo o lp ro o f .
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This i s a complex and d e l ic a t e s t a r t - u p . Cases of a c c id e n ta l

developm ent s u g g e s t t h a t norm ative in c re m e n ta lism can e x i s t w ith o u t

in t e r v e n ti o n based upon t h i s c o n ce p t. But i t need n o t alw ays develop by

d e f a u l t. T h ere i s ample o p p o rtu n ity f o r i n t e n t i o n a l c u l t i v a t i o n of

norm ative in c r e m e n ta lis t change. L a te r work in t h i s c h a p te r w i l l tr a c e

s p e c if i c ways to b e t t e r p u rp o s e fu lly f a c i l i t a t e no rm ativ e in c re m en talism

between d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s .

Norm ativ e I n c r em entalism I s_ Non-Synop t i c

Braybrooke and L in d b lan (1973, pp. 4 0 -4 1 ) d e s ig n a te a novel c l a s s i ­

f i c a t i o n of s y n o p tic d e c is io n and p la n n in g p ro c e s s e s . B u ild in g on t h e i r

id e a s , s y n o p tic p r o c e s s e s a r e h e re d e fin e d to be those t h a t proceed by

(1 ) c l a r i f y i n g o v e r a l l g o a ls , (2 ) fo rm u la tin g a l t e r n a t i v e s , and (3 )

choosing o p tio n s t h a t maximize d e s ire d outcomes.

S y n o p tic p ro c e sse s a r e a n a l y t i c a l l y s e q u e n ti a l. They proceed by

doing one th in g a t a tim e, w ith co m p letio n of each s te p allo w in g th e

n e x t to be r a t i o n a l l y ta c k le d . G o als, fo r exam ple, must be fo rm u lated

c l e a r ly a t th e o u ts e t , t o inform l a t e r o p tio n d e f i n i t i o n and ch o ice

r a tio n a lly . L a t e r , th e e n t i r e c y c le may be r e p e a te d , to employ th e

b e n e f i t s of feed b ack .

S y n o p tic p la n n in g and d e c is io n t h e r e f o r e v alu e com prehensive and

rig o ro u s in fo rm a tio n . T h ere i s s t r e s s upon d eveloping c l e a r , e x p l i c i t ,

thorough c lo s u r e a t each s te p alo n g t h e way. F u zzin ess i s n o t to l e r a te d

f o r long; i t only p ro lo n g s u n c e r ta in ty , which i s th e enemy o f

d e c is iv e n e s s .
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S y n o p tic p ro c e sse s th u s a tte m p t to be th o ro u g h , c a r e f u l , e x p l i c i t ,

fo rm a l, s y s te m a tic , and rig o r o u s . The id e a i s to make v a lu e s inform

c h o ic e , and to le a v e no s to n e u n tu rn ed in fo rm u la tin g r e le v a n t o p tio n s .

The p e rv a s iv e a c c e p ta n c e of a s y n o p tic id e a l i s re v e a le d by o u r

resp o n se to th e o p p o s ite of th e s e t r a i t s ; few p r a c t i t i o n e r s a s p ir e to be

c r e d ite d f o r d eveloping s lip s h o d , in f o r m a l, and im p re c ise p ro c e s s e s .

Everyone w ants to be a n a l y t i c a l l y s e q u e n tia l and com prehensive.

B raybrooke and Lindblcm (1973, pp. 4 0 -4 1 ) arg u e th a t th e s y n o p tic id e a l

i s so w idely s h a re d , t h a t most assume i t to be th e o n ly approach to

r a t i o n a l d e c isio n -m a k in g . T h is assu m p tio n i s so p e rv a s iv e t h a t th e term

" s y n o p tic " seems c o n triv e d ; u s u a lly th e r e i s no acknowledgement of any

o th e r p o s s ib le ways to re a s o n a b ly p la n and make d e c is io n s .

The p e rv a s iv e n e s s of th e s y n o p tic id e a l i s i n p a r t c u l t u r a l and

h is to ric a l. The leg acy o f our i n d u s t r i a l e r a s t r e s s e s th e trium ph of

ra tio n a liz a tio n . T his p ro p e ls th e a t t r i b u t e s of th e s y n o p tic id e a l

( i . e . , being th o ro u g h , c a r e f u l , e x p l i c i t , fo rm a l, s y s te m a tic , r ig o r o u s ,

e t c . ) in to e x c lu s iv e ly good c u rre n c y . In a d d itio n , th e p re v a la n c e of

th e sy n o p tic id e a l a r i s e s from p e r s o n a li ty d if f e r e n c e s and s t y l i s t i c

p re f e r e n c e s . Some fo lk s a r e j u s t more c o m fo rta b le making ch o ic e s a f t e r

c l e a r , rig o r o u s , s te p w is e c o n s id e r a tio n . O th e rs, p r e f e r to muddle

th ro u g h le s s p r e c i s e ly . B ecause modern b u r e a u c ra c ie s fa v o r a n a l y t i c a l l y

p r e c is e in fo rm a tio n , th e y u s u a lly a s c r i b e e x p e r tis e to th e champions of

s y n o p tic p ro c e d u re s . The creme of t a l e n t r i s i n g i n many b u r e a u c r a tic

i n s t i t u t i o n s i s th e r e f o r e a p o p u la tio n w ith sy n o p tic i n c l i n a t i o n s .

However, a s c r i t i c s of n o n -s y n o p tic p ro c e sse s n o te (B raybrooke and

 115

Lindbloom, 1 973)(Boguslaw, 1965) many c o rp o ra te and governm ent d e c is io n s

p ra g m a tic a lly muddle th ro u g h th in g s , w ith e x p e rt p la n s o f te n l e f t on th e

s h e lf. The a c t u a l p ro c e s s e s o f d e c is io n sometimes defy th e o r d e r lin e s s

o f espoused p r a c t i c e .

Braybrooke and Lindblom (1973, pp. 3 8 -5 7 ) most f o r c ib l y c h a lle n g e

th e s y n o p tic id e a l a s th e only way to pursue re a s o n a b le d e c is io n s . They

argue t h a t i t i s o f te n u n s u ite d to c o n s t r a i n t s imposed by th e a c t u a l i ­

t i e s of p o lic y making ( i . e . , th e c o s t of in fo rm a tio n and a n a ly s is ,

li m it a ti o n s upon human p ro b lem -so lv in g c a p a c i t i e s , u n ity of f a c t and

v a lu e , e t c . ) . Crombie (1972) and Emery (1977, pp. 29-30 and 3 3 -4 0 ) a ls o

c r i t i c i z e th e u n m itig a te d id e a l of s y n o p tic p o lic y making.

Y et e a r l i e r c h a lle n g e s can be found to th e sy n o p tic id e a l a s th e

e x c lu s iv e mode of re a s o n a b le d e c is io n . P o la n y i (1958, pp. 49-50) fo r

example d i f f e r e n t i a t e s b etw een a n a l y t i c a l l y r ig o r o u s s o lu ti o n to a

problem , and g e n e ra l s t r a t e g i e s to manage c o n c re te r e a l i t i e s . He n o te s

t h a t to r id e a b ic y c le a t any g iv e n an g le of im b alan ce, one need only

tu rn th e f r o n t wheel a d is ta n c e t h a t i s by some measure in v e r s e ly

p r o p o r tio n a l to th e sq u a re of th e b i c y c l e 's sp eed . T h is s p e c i f i e s a

s o lu tio n fo r th e c y c l i s t . But P o lan y i arg u es th a t i t p ro v id es no r e a l

g u id an ce f o r how to a c t u a ll y d e a l w ith th e c o n c re te v a r ia n c e s of r id in g

a b ik e . The im p re c is e methods of co ac h in g and p r a c tic e a r e more l i k e l y

to be e f f e c t i v e .

N orm ative in c re m e n ta lis m i s n o t s y n o p tic . I t is not a n a ly tic a lly

s e q u e n tia l o r com prehensive. In c o n t r a s t to u s u a l s y n o p tic assum ptions

about p la n n in g and d e c is io n m aking, n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m has

d is o r d e r ly c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s l i k e :
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- U nclear i n i t i a l g o a ls . The program m atic theme f e e l s r i g h t , b u t no

one can c l e a r ly say w hat i t means. L ea d ersh ip d o e s n 't know where
i t ' s g o in g .

- Backwards im p lem en tatio n w ith g o als and t a c t i c s a r t i c u l a t e d a f t e r

they a r e e x e c u te d .

- Im p re c ise a ssessm en t and feed b ack t h a t ig n o re s m easurem ents of

e f f i c i e n t accom plishm ent.

T h is i s a f a r cry from p ro c e s s e s w here aims a r e c l e a r ly fo rm u la te d , w ith

o p tio n s c a r e f u l l y g e n e ra te d and a s s e s s e d a g a in s t them. N orm ative

in c re m e n ta lism , f o r b e t t e r o r f o r w orse, i s t h e r e f o r e n o n -s y n o p tic .

B u t, as shown l a t e r (p p . 139-148) n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m i s much

d i f f e r e n t th a n th e a l t e r n a t i v e of d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lism a d v o ca ted by

B raybrooke and Lindblom .

N orm ative In c rementa lis m A p p lie s Beyond P r o je c t Network

The con cep t of n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism was d ev elo p ed by o b se rv in g a

w ide v a r i e t y of s i t e s ta k in g p a r t i n P r o je c t N etw ork. T h is co n cep t a ls o

ap p e a rs to f i t o th e r in s ta n c e s of r o b u s t norm ative change betw een

d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s . H ere, th e elem en ts of n orm ative in c re m e n ta lism a r e

b r i e f l y tr a c e d amid some e v e n ts o u ts id e P r o je c t Network.

T r i s t 's c a se s of in n o v a tin g o r g a n iz a tio n s (1979) p ro v id e one s e t of

exam ples where norm ative in c re m e n ta lism a p p e a rs m a n if e s t. H is a n a ly s is

ov erlo o k s fo u r in s ta n c e s o f v ig o ro u s community r e v i t a l i z a t i o n i n which

no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism a p p e a rs to be a t work:

Jamestown A rea Labor-M anagement Committee

- T h is p r iv a t e s e c to r com m u n ity -lev el Committee a ro s e betw een lo c a l

la b o r and management. They were d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s w ith a h is to r y
of storm y r e l a t i o n s .

- The Committee was sparked i n 1972 by th e c lo sin g of th e l a r g e s t

s in g le p la n t i n town. T his became e s p e c i a ll y alarm in g when no new
e n t e r p r i s e w ould come to Jamestown and occupy th e p la c e .
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- L ocal le a d e r s , e s p e c i a l l y th e m ayor, pushed to c h a r t e r th e Commit­

te e in term s beyond t h i s s in g le e v e n t. I n s te a d of p r o te s t in g th e
p la n t c lo s in g , o r m erely seeking r e s t o r a t i o n of one em ployer in to
th e v acan t p la n t, Jamestown le a d e rs founded a labor-m anagem ent
com m ittee to b u ild la b o r p eace. T h is was a g e n e ra l and ambiguous
theme, w ith few c o n c re te im p lic a tio n s im m ediately a p p a re n t. But
i t was f e l t t h a t on ly th ro u g h some kin d of g r e a t e r c o o p e ra tio n ,
could Jamestown p u rsu e i n d u s t r i a l developm ent in s te a d o f d e c lin e .

- By 1973, th e A rea Comm ittee was b eg in n in g to s t a l l . At t h i s tim e

th e e n try o f new t h i r d p a r ty r e s o u r c e s s tim u la te d r e c o n c e p tu a liz a ­
tio n of th e C om m ittee’s theme to f u r th e r encompass Q u a lity of
Working L if e .

- T h is was an even more e lu s iv e theme, b u t i t im p lied h e lp in g

p la n t - l e v e l i n i t i a t i v e s a t w orkplaces i n th e community. T h is le d
many in d iv id u a ls to work f o r making th e ambiguous theme happen;
th e f a b r i c a t i o n of i n d u s t r i a l p eace was no lo n g e r l e f t s o le ly i n
th e hands of l o c a l le a d e r s . By autumn 1973, a number of p la n t-
le v e l labor-m anagem ent com m ittees had been s t a r t e d t o u n d ertak e
p r o je c ts by which people improved t h e i r own q u a l ity o f working
l i f e . A gain, c o n c re te im p lic a tio n s of what " q u a li ty of w orking
l i f e " meant w ere n o t a p p a re n t b e f o r e a c tio n was ta k e n . These
p r o je c ts were i n i t i a t e d and managed d e c e n tr a ll y , by people in a
p a r t i c u l a r p l a n t . They w ere n e i th e r s t a r t e d n o r run by th e A rea
Comm ittee. However, to f a c i l i t a t e p ro g re s s , th e A rea Committee
p ro v id ed s t a f f c o o r d in a to r s to h elp keep th in g s moving
c o n s tr u c t iv e l y .

- As a c t i o n was ta k e n on a w id esp read and d e c e n tr a liz e d b a s is , some

im p lic a tio n s of th e theme became e v id e n t r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y . Themat­
i c f i t t i n g th ro u g h r i t u a l com m unication was e v id e n t i n c o l l e c t i v e
e v e n ts ( e .g . A rea Com m ittee m e e tin g s, a n annual program co n fer­
en ce, p r e s e n ta tio n s to o u ts id e p a r t i e s , e t c . ) .

The G re a te r P h ila d e lp h ia P a r tn e r s h ip

- The P a r tn e r s h ip i s a lo n g -s ta n d in g group o f le a d e r s from la rg e

P h ila d e lp h ia c o r p o r a tio n s and f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . I n 1978,
t h i s gro u p so u g h t to r e v e rs e emerging tr e n d s t h a t in d ic a te d
s e rio u s economic d e c lin e fo r th e a r e a .

- To c o u n te ra c t t h i s grow ing sen se o f d e c lin e , th e P a r tn e r s h ip

a r t i c u l a t e d a p o s iti v e v i s i o n . T h e ir theme prom otes developm ent
of P h ila d e lp h ia in to an i n t e r n a t i o n a l c i t y . T h is i s a q u a l i t a t i v e
improvement enhancing th e l o t of e x is tin g p a r t i e s in th e c i t y , by
e n ric h in g lin k a g e s betw een P h ila d e lp h ia and th e w o rld . The
p r e c is e im p lic a tio n s o f th e theme w ere n o t c l e a r when i t was
announced.
 118

- T h is theme im p lie d c o l la b o r a t io n betw een m yriad lo c a l groups to

p ro v id e m utual b e n e f i t s . The theme i s h o lo g ra p h ic , in s o f a r a s
d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s w ith in th e c ity m ust r e l a t e m ore c o o p e ra tiv e ly
w ith each o t h e r 's d i v e r s i t y , in o rd e r to more r i c h l y lin k P h ila ­
d e lp h ia w ith g lo b a l d i v e r s i t y . The e l i t e members of th e p a r tn e r ­
s h ip found t h a t th e y needed to broaden th e c i r c l e of p la y e rs
cham pioning t h e them e. They had to reach o u t to la b o r u n io n s and
m in o r ity g ro u p s, f a c tio n s th e y have long been a t odds w ith , to
h elp make th e theme happen.

- A c tio n to make th e theme happen began to ta k e p la c e d e c e n tr a lly i n

th e l a t e 1 9 7 0 's . V arious people began to i d e n t i f y o p p o r tu n itie s
f o r c r e a tin g m issin g i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t would make th e c i t y more
i n t e r n a t i o n a l . These i n i t i a t i v e s were ta k e n in c o n c e rt w ith th e
theme. For exam ple, one r e c e n t p r o je c t i s to c r e a te an in te r n a ­
t i o n a l c e n te r f o r in d e p e n d e n t drug t e s t i n g i n P h ila d e lp h ia .

- Through th e se e f f o r t s , th e P a r t n e r s h i p 's theme and a c tio n s a re

b eg in n in g to inform each o th e r . Sequences of r i t u a l com m unication
a r e sometimes e v id e n t i n u se of th e theme a s l i t u r g y ; r e p e t i t i o n
of th e words " i n t e r n a t i o n a l c ity " a r e used to r e f e r e n c e s e p a r a te
in n o v a tio n s a s p a r t of some la r g e r c o o p e ra tiv e developm ent
p ro c e s s .

Sudbury 2001

- Sudbury 2001 i s a community-wide p la n n in g N etw ork. I t encom passes

many f a c tio n s t r a d i t i o n a l l y d iv e r g e n t w ith each o th e r ( i . e . la b o r /
management, w e a lth y /p o o r , o ld /y o u n g , e t c . ) .

- Sudbury 2001 a ro s e i n re sp o n se to a big la y o f f of th e l a r g e s t

lo c a l em ployer. A few lo c a l le a d e rs saw t h i s a s foreshadow ing a
lo n g -te rm d e c lin e .

- To work a g a in s t t h i s tr e n d , th e y a r t i c u l a t e d a p o s itiv e theme,

s t r e s s i n g th e o p p o rtu n ity to b u ild a community w ith co n tin u e d eco­
nomic and e c o lo g ic v i a b i l i t y . T h is was to be Sudbury 2001. I t
re p re s e n te d a d e p a r tu r e from t r a d i t i o n a l dependence upon m in e ra l
p ro c e s s in g . I n s t e a d , th e theme v ag u ely c o n n o te s deployment of new
" a p p r o p r ia te te c h n o lo g ie s " t o fo rg e a new econom ic b ase. The
p r e c is e n a tu re of t h i s change rem ains to be d isc o v e re d , i t s
im p lic a tio n s a r e so r a d ic a l t h a t they a r e n o t im m ediately o b v io u s.

- To make t h i s theme happen, and to b e t t e r s c o u t- o u t w hat i t a c tu a l­

l y im p lie s , a v a r i e t y of s tu d y and a c tio n p r o je c ts a re b ein g
u n d e rta k e n . These a r e d e c e n tr a liz e d , b ein g i n i t i a t e d coopera­
t i v e l y , in c o n c e r t w ith th e vague Sudbury 2001 them e.
 119

- P e o p le a re b eg in n in g to sensemake about the vague Sudbury 2001

them e. The n o tio n of Sudbury 2001 i s r e p e a te d as l i t u r g y .
A f f in ity i s being shown f o r group e v e n ts w ith r i t u a l - l i k e
q u a l i t i e s , and d is p la y b eh av io r i s b e in g u n d ertak en ( i . e . a
community p la n n in g co n feren ce i n A p r il, 1978 drew 1,000 p e o p le ).

- The fu tu re of th e Sudbury 2001 movement i s n o t w ith o u t d o u b t. In

1979 i t e n c o u n te re d growing d i f f i c u l t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in
p ro cu rin g n e c e s s a ry re s o u rc e s from e s t a b l i s h e d , o f f i c i a l
o r g a n iz a tio n s t h a t i t p a r a l l e l s . This h as a g a in tu rn e d around i n
a v e ry h o p e fu l d i r e c t i o n in 1980.

The C r a ig m ille r F e s t i v a l S o c ie ty

- The S o c ie ty was i n i t i a t e d 16 y e a rs ago i n th e d ep ressed community

of C r a ig m ille r , S c o tla n d . The S o c ie ty was in s p ir e d by se v e re
d e p r iv a tio n in th e a r e a , but i t began a s an a r t s f e s t i v a l (a s an
a f f ir m a ti o n , n o t j u s t a p r o t e s t ) .

- In th e 1 9 7 0 's th e S o c ie ty grew t o encompass s i g n i f i c a n t cmmmunity

developm ent and p la n n in g a c t i v i t i e s . T hese w ere p u rsu ed through
c o l la b o r a t io n betw een m yriad g ro u p s t h a t p re v io u s ly competed w ith
or ig n o red each o th e r .

- At f i r s t , th e theme prom oting t h i s c o l la b o r a t io n c e n te r e d upon

a f f ir m a ti o n of community i d e n t i t y th ro u g h th e a r t s . As th e
S o c ie ty d ev elo p ed in th e 1970's th e re emerged an a d d i t i o n a l theme
of "sh ared o r li a s o n g o v ern m en t." T h is in d ic a te s a q u a l i t a t i v e l y
new r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een p u b lic a u t h o r i t i e s and g r a s s r o o ts communi-
ty o r g a n iz a tio n . The e x a c t n a tu r e of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p and what
i t w i l l produce i s not i n i t i a l l y c l e a r , but rem ains to be d is ­
covered s te p - b y - s te p .

- A v a r ie ty o f s p e c if ic community developm ent p r o j e c t s a re decen­

t r a l l y p u rsu ed by lo c a l groups, but in r e f e r e n c e to th e S o c i e t y 's
them e. The S o c ie ty p ro v id e s f a c i l i t a t i v e aid to h e lp win g ra n ts
and o rg a n iz e a c t i v i t y .

- Many people engage in a c t i v i t i e s th a t q u a l i f y as f i t t i n g beha­

v i o r s . Numerous m e e tin g s and t h e annual p la n n in g c o n fe re n c e o f f e r
am ple o p p o r tu n itie s fo r r i t u a l com munication to ta k e p la c e . The
an n u al f e s t i v a l i t s e l f i s now 10 days lo n g .

- The fu tu re of th e S o c ie ty i s n o t w ith o u t q u e s tio n . Some e s ta b ­

li s h e d a u t h o r i t i e s appear r e lu c ta n t to sh are re s o u r c e s w ith th i s
g r a s s r o o ts e f f o r t . A lso , th e same p e rso n h as le d th e S o c ie ty
s in c e i t s i n c e p t i o n . I t i s n o t c le a r i f a n o th e r p e rso n w i l l be
a b le to fo llo w h e r long s ta n d in g a u th o r ity .
 120

T r i s t 's c a se s of in n o v a tin g o r g a n iz a tio n s th u s f u r th e r i l l u s t r a t e e v en ts

a p p ea rin g to take th e m a n if e s t form of n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism . T h is

i s n o t th e on ly way to view th e s e developm ents, but th e co n cep t seems to

f i t a t f i r s t g la n c e .

F u rth erm o re , th e c a se s of in n o v a tin g o r g a n iz a tio n s s u g g e st th r e e

f u r t h e r e la b o r a tio n s of no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism . F i r s t , th e c a se s of

Sudbury and C r a ig m ille r s u g g e st th a t a key b o ttle n e c k to n o rm ativ e

in c re m e n ta lis m i s w inning re s o u rc e s from th e e s ta b lis h e d o rg a n iz a tio n s

th a t th e c o l la b o r a t iv e p ro b lem -so lv in g o r g a n iz a tio n ru n s n ex t t o . If

re s o u rc e s can n o t be won (by hook o r by e ro d e ) th e n t h i s p a r a l l e l

c o l la b o r a t iv e s t r u c t u r e cannot e x i s t fo r lo n g . Second, th e example of

C r a ig m ille r in d i c a te s th a t, a s w ith any i n s t i t u t i o n , t h e r e i s a p r ic e

fo r c h a ris m a tic le a d e r s h ip . A lo n g -s ta n d in g dom inant le a d e r i s one

tough a c t to fo llc w . C o n seq u en tly , when t h a t le a d e r d e p a r ts th e scene,

c o n tin u a tio n of n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis n can be je o p a rd iz e d . T h ird , th e

exam ples of Jamestown and C r a ig m ille r show t h a t th e r e may sometimes be a

need to develop a d d i tio n a l o r a l t e r n a t i v e them es. Announcement of a

theme need n o t be a f i n a l p ro c la m a tio n . In th e s e ways, exam ples of

in n o v a tin g o r g a n iz a tio n in d i c a te e la b o r a tio n s to th e co n ce p t of

norm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism , a s i t a r i s e s i n P r o je c t Network s i t e s .

The o v e r a l l p a t t e r n of in n o v a tiv e o r g a n iz a tio n ap p ro x im ates what i s

c a lle d th e m a tic f a c i l i t a t i o n , c h a r a c te r iz in g P r o je c t Network (s e e p .5 2 ).

In th e case of in n o v a tiv e o r g a n iz a tio n , le a d e r s form a r e f e r e n c e

o r g a n iz a tio n ( T r i s t , 1976) t h a t inform s d e c e n tr a liz e d a c tio n th e m a ti­

c a l l y , in s te a d o f d i r e c t l y c o n t r o l l i n g t h i n g s . T his i s an alogous to th e
 121

r o l e ta k en by th e N a tio n a l C e n te r i n P r o je c t Network. In b o th c a s e s ,

sm all c o lla b o r a tiv e teams o f le a d e r s , ru n n in g a c ro s s e x i s t i n g f a c t i o n s ,

work to i n s p i r e and f a c i l i t a t e d e c e n tr a l change t h a t makes th e ambiguous

theme happen.

A n o th er example of n orm ative in c re m en talism t h a t o ccu rs in s id e a

s in g le o r g a n iz a tio n ap p ears in th e work of S to elw in d er and C lay to n

(1 9 7 8 ). They d e s c r ib e th e c r e a tio n of r o b u s t p a t i e n t c a r e teams in a

m ajor h o s p ita l:

- P a ti e n t c a re teams a ro s e to im prove w orking r e l a t i o n s between

s p lin t e r e d groups in th e h o s p ita l ( i . e . d i f f e r e n t p r o f e s s io n s ,
p r o f e s s io n a ls v e rsu s n o n - p r o f e s s io n a ls , " o ld " and "new" g u a rd s,
e t c . ) . Growing f r i c t i o n betw een th e s e f a c tio n s made them
in c r e a s in g ly d iv e r g e n t, and t h i s ero d ed h o s p i t a l perform ance w h ile
e x te r n a l p a r t i e s made growing demands.

- P a t i e n t c a r e teams w ere developed u n d e r th e theme of "im proving

th e q u a l i t y of p a t i e n t care and enhancing c o s t c o n ta in m e n t." T h is
was a r t i c u l a t e d by l o c a l le a d e r s h ip . The meaning of th e se term s
was i n i t i a l l y ambiguous and t h e i r p r e c is e im p lic a tio n s were
u n c le a r .

- P a t i e n t c a r e teams w ere c h a rte re d to make t h i s theme happen.

Teams p ro v id e a c o o p e ra tiv e w a rd -le v e l p ro b lem -so lv in g o rg a n iz a ­
t i o n t h a t runs p a r a l l e l to th e e x is tin g h ie ra r c h y ( i n w hich M .D .'s
a r e on t o p ) . Each team took i t s own c o n c re te i n i t i a t i v e s to
improve p a t i e n t c a re and b e t t e r c o n ta in c o s ts .

- The n a tu re of th e theme became c l e a r e r a s t h i s a c tio n was ta k e n ,

a f t e r i t s i n i t i a l p ro c la m a tio n . A v a r i e t y of f i t t i n g b eh a v io rs
u sin g r i t u a l com m unications took p la c e to l e t a c t io n and theme
in fo rm each o th e r .
 122

T h is developm ent of p a t i e n t c a r e teams th e r e f o r e seems to d em o n strate

Elem ents of n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m .* And lik e in n o v a tin g

o r g a n iz a tio n s , p a t i e n t c a re teams a ls o d em o n strated th e c r i t i c a l i t y o f

o b ta in in g re s o u r c e s from e s ta b lis h e d o f f i c i a l o r g a n iz a tio n s , and th e

im portan ce of m a in ta in in g c o n tin u ity i n le a d e r s h ip , ( s e e S to e lw in d e r,

1980).

A nother developm ent i l l u s t r a t i n g norm ative in c re m e n ta lism can be

found i n th e Norwegian I n d u s t r i a l Democracy Program , a s r e p o rte d by

Emery and T h o rsru d (1 9 7 6 ):

- In 1962 n a t io n a l la b o r and management le a d e r s e s ta b lis h e d a J o i n t

Committee on R e se a rc h , to e x p e rim e n ta lly b u ild more c o l la b o r a t iv e
and d em o cratic w o rk face r e l a t i o n s betw een la b o r and management.

- T h ird p a r ty r e s e a r c h e r s fo rm u lated some g e n e ra l p r i n c i p l e s f o r jo b

re d e s ig n (s e e Emery and T h o rsru d , 1976, pp. 1 5 -2 0 ). T h ese were
c o n s tr u c te d u n d e r th e ambiguous, c o l la b o r a t iv e id e a l of
" i n d u s t r i a l dem ocracy", and th e y were not e s p e c i a ll y d e f i n i t e ;
t h e i r tr u e n a tu re and im p lic a tio n s c o u ld o n ly be d isco v ere d a f t e r
en actm en t was a tte m p te d :
". . . i t i s n o t u s u a lly p o s s ib le to deduce from a knowledge of
th e p r in c i p le s how th e y can be f i t t e d in to any c o n c re te p ro d u c tiv e
o r g a n iz a tio n . I t i s n e c e ss a ry to go th ro u g h th e p ro c e ss of tr y in g
to f i t them i n b e fo re one can d ecid e w hether o n e 's own people can
im plem ent th e p r i n c i p l e s . . . . ” (Emery and T horsrud, 1976, p. 21)

- These p r i n c i p l e s , and th e m ore g e n e ra l i d e a l of i n d u s t r i a l

dem ocracy, became c l e a r e r as a c tio n made them more c o n c r e te , and
a s e x p lo ra to ry p r o j e c t s were u n d erta k en in d i f f e r e n t i n d u s t r i e s .

- Them atic f i t t i n g b eh av io rs ap p ea r to be employed i n v a rio u s form s;

r e p e t i t i o n of p r in c i p le s a s l i t u r g y , r i t u a l m eetings and e v e n ts ,
e x h i b iti o n to u n i n i t i a t e d o u ts id e r s , e t c .

* S to e lw in d e r, i n a l e t t e r to the a u th o r rem arked, "At a p e rso n a l l e v e l

I found your framework gave me new i n s ig h t s i n t o Ward Teams which I
had n o t a p p re c ia te d b e fo re . I th in k your d e s c r ip t io n s , and use of
them, a c c u r a te and ' r e a l ' . "
 123

The Norwegian I n d u s t r i a l Democracy Program th e r e f o r e e x h ib its f e a tu r e s

o f n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism . The w hole endeavor resem b les th e p a t te r n

of th e m a tic f a c i l i t a t i o n u n d erta k en i n P r o je c t Netw ork, b u t w ith la b o r

and management as d i r e c t sp o n so rs in s te a d of a F e d e ra l agency.

The r e c e n t e f f o r t s to e s t a b l i s h more c o l la b o r a t iv e r e l a t i o n s between

th e U.S. and S o v ie t R u s s ia m ig h t a lso be seen as a n in s ta n c e of

norm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism :

- The two d iv e rg e n t n a tio n s d e c la re a theme o f d e te n te . The a c tu a l

meaning and im p lic a tio n of t h i s theme i s u n c le a r , u n s p e c if ie d , and
in co m p lete a t th e tim e of i t s announcem ent. I t g e n e r a lly im p lie s
g r e a t e r c o o p e ra tio n betw een the two n a tio n s , which w i l l h o p e fu lly
" s p i l l o ver" in t o t r a d i t i o n a l l y c o m p e titiv e a re a s (w ith o u t
r e q u ir in g e lim in a tio n of a l l c o m p e titio n ).

- T h is theme was encouraged to happen through numerous a c tio n s ,

ta k e n by a v a r i e t y of o r g a n iz a tio n s along many f r o n t s , a l l under
th e b an n er of d e t e n te ( i . e . c u l t u r a l exchanges, a t h l e t i c c o n te s ts ,
b u s in e s s v e n tu re s , d ip lo m a tic c o n c e s s io n s , e t c . ) .

- Some f i t t i n g b e h a v io rs a r e e v id e n t, i n e f f o r t s to make s p e c i f i c
a c t io n and th e theme inform each o th e r . O fte n , t h e theme i s
r e p e a te d a s l i t u r g y . A lso , th e r e i s o c c u rre n c e o f d is p la y
b e h a v io r by o f f i c i a l s of b o th c o u n tr ie s , w h ile u n i n i t i a t e d ( o r
u n b e lie v in g ) o u ts id e r s b e a r w itn e s s .

Thus, a tte m p ts to develop d e t e n t e can be seen to have a t l e a s t a p a r t i a l

n o rm ativ e in c r e m e n ta lis t c h a r a c te r . The example o f d e te n te s u g g e s ts

t h a t no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism does n o t always proceed sm o o th ly , o r w ith

su ccess. The U .S. s e e s R u ssia n m i l i t a r y i n i t i a t i v e in A fg h a n ista n a s

one a c tio n t h a t w o n 't f i t u nder th e theme of d e t e n te , and th e r e i s

b e l i e f in some q u a r te r s t h a t t h i s a c t i n f a c t r e p u d ia te s th e them e.

T h e re fo re , a t t h i s tim e, th e p ro g re s s o f d e te n te i s a t l e a s t te m p o ra rily

suspended.

E p iso d e s of no rm ativ e change betw een d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s , t h a t occur

o u ts id e P r o je c t N etw ork, f i t w ith th e co n ce p t of n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta l-

 124

ism . T his i s summarized on th e fo llo w in g p ag es i n F ig u re 4 .2 . W hile

not com p reh en siv ely f i n a l , t h i s re a so n a b ly s u g g e s ts t h a t th e b a sic

p ro c e s s observed a t d iv e r s e Network s i t e s c a n ap p ly more g e n e r a lly ,

beyond p u b lic s e c to r labor-m anagem ent com m ittees.

F i n a l l y , p e rh a p s th e most o u tsta n d in g re c o rd of n o rm ativ e

in c re m e n ta lism can be found i n th e method and work of Jean M onnet, a key

a r c h i t e c t and b u ild e r of the E uropean Economic Community. H is memoirs

(1978) a re la c e d w ith exam ples of n o rm ativ e in c r e m e n ta lis t in t e r v e n ti o n ,

a s he worked to f o s t e r c o l la b o r a t io n ( a s th e prim ary m ed iatin g

r e l a t i o n ) am id th e d iv e rg e n t n a tio n s o f W estern Europe a f t e r World War

II. Some of th e s p e c i f i c a s p e c ts of norm ative in c re m e n ta lism th a t

appear to ru n th ro u g h h i s approach in c lu d e :

- Keep The I n i t i a l V is io n Vague:

"The f i r s t i n s t r u c t i o n s ( to F re n c h M o d ern iza tio n Commissions) were

v ague. . . . In f a c t , t h e m ost im p o rtan t f e a t u r e of t h i s
d e s c r ip tio n was i t s f l e x i b i l i t y , e n a b lin g p lan s i n any s e c to r to
” be c o n s ta n tly r e a d ju s te d in l i g h t of th e o th e rs " (p . 2 3 9 ).

Monnet n o te s a f t e r the i n i t i a l s e s s io n of th e 1950 Schuman

C o n feren ce, t h a t d e le g a te s had enough s h a re d p ro b lem -so lv in g
e x p e rie n c e to fin d a b r i e f summary docum ent to be " . . . li k e a
s e a r c h lig h t in th e m is t, ( i t ) r e v e a le d a s t r u c t u r a l w hole where
most people had h i t h e r t o seen only vague sh ap es" (p . 3 3 4 ).

" I t i s im p o ssib le to f o re s e e today th e d e c is io n s th a t could be

tak en in a new c o n te x t tom orrow . The e s s e n t i a l th in g i s to h o ld
f a s t to th e few f ix e d p r i n c i p l e s t h a t have guided us s in c e th e
b eg in n in g " (p . 523)

“ Use A c tio n To Sensemake

The d iv e r g e n t f a c tio n s i n the F rench M o d e rn iz a tio n Commissions,

". . . c i v i l s e r v a n ts , p ro d u c e rs , and w orkpeople had n e v e r s a t
down to g e th e r around th e same ta b le . I f they had sometimes
n e g o tia te d , they had done so b i l a t e r a l l y , on o p p o site s id e s of the
ta b le and i n an atm o sp h ere of c o n f r o n ta tio n . T h ere had been a
 125

Fi g u r e A.2
T r a c e s O f N o r m a tiv e I n c r e m e n t a lis m
O u t s i d e P r o j e c t N e tw o r k

1 \K o r m a tiv e I n i t i a l l y A m biguous Theme I D e c e n t r a lis e d A c tio n | T h e m a tic F i t t i n g 1

( O u t X ^ n c r e m e n ta l I m p ly in g S h i f t In L o g i c a l T y p e s l T h rou gh A Shadow O r g a n iz a t io n I v ia 1
(sid e \ n e » e n c B e tw e e n F a c t i o n s I W ith T h e m a t ic F a c i l i t a t i o n 1 R i t u a l C o m m u n ica tio n 1
( E x a m p le s 1 1 1
( - P r o j e c t s i n i t i a t e d by p l a n t s I-T h em e a s l i t u r g y 1
1 J a m esto w n Im p rove P r o d u c t i v i t y 1 t o make t h e them e h a p p en ( - T h e m a t ic s e l f - a s s e s s m e n t i
1 A rea and ( - S t a f f r e s o u r c e s p r o v id e d by ( - D is p l a y B e h a v io r 1
1 LMC Q u a l i t y o f W orking L i f e ( A r e a C o m m ittee I -R it u a l E v e n ts )
1 I -O u t s id e W itn e s s 1
( - V o lu n t a r y I n i t i a t i v e s t o (-T h e m e a s l i t u r g y 1
1 G rea ter P h ila d e lp h ia a s a n 1 c r e a t e m is s in g I n s t i t u t i o n s ( - D i s p l a y B e h a v io r 1
) P h ila d e lp h ia I n t e r n a t io n a l C ity I t h a t h e l p m ake t h e c i t y m ore 1- O u t s i d e W i t n e s s t
I P a r tn e r s h ip 1 in te r n a t io n a l I 1
( -I n f o r m a t io n 6 h e lp a v a i la b l e ( 1
I fro m t h e P a r t n e r s h i p 1 1
( - S p e c if i c lo c a l i n i t i a t i v e s to I-T h e m e a s l i t u r g y 1
I Sudbury A R en ew ed , S e l f - S u s t a i n i n g 1 s tu d y o r c r e a t e p ie c e s o f th e 1- D i s p l a y B e h a v io r (
1 2001 Sud bury f o r 2 0 0 1 I d i f f e r e n t fu tu re I -R it u a l E v e n ts 1
( - I n f o r m a t i o n & l in k a g e t o o u t - ( -O u t s id e W itn e s s 1
( s id e r e so u r c e s a v a ila b le ( !
( th r o u g h t h e 2 0 0 1 g r o u p 1 1
( - S p e c i f i c g r a s s r o o t s c o m m u n ity I-T h em e a s l i t u r g y 1
I C r a lg o ille r A f f i r m a t i o n T h ro u g h t h e A r t s 1 d e v e lo p m e n t n r o j e c t s 1- T h e m a t ic s e l f - a s s e s s m e n t 1
I F e s tiv a l S h a r e d o r L i a i s o n G overn m en t 1- F a d l l t a t i v e r e s o u r c e s a v a i l - ( - D i s p l a y B e h a v io r 1
1 S o c ie ty 1 a b l e fr o m t h e F e s t i v a l S o c i e t y 1- R i t u a l E v e n t s (
I |- O u t s id e W itn e s s 1
( -E a c h te a m I n i t i a t e s i t s own I-T h em e a s l i t u r g y 1
I P a tie n t Im p ro v e Q u a li t y o f P a t l e n t . C a r e j d e s i r e d Im p ro v em en ts ( - T h e m a t ic s e l f - a s s e s s m e n t )
1 C are an d 1- F a c i l i t a t o r s A R e s o u r c e s 1- D i s p l a y B e h a v io r 1
( T eam s E n h a n c e C o a t C o n ta in m e n t | a v a i l a b l e from h o s p i t a l ( - R it u a l E v e n ts 1
1 a u t h o r it ie s ( • O u t s id e W itn e s s (
 126

F ig u r e ' 4 . 2 ( c o n t ' d * )
T r a c e s O f N o r m a tiv e I n c r e m e n t a lis m
O u t s i d e P r o j e c t N etw o rk

^ N o r m a tiv e I n i t i a l l y A m biguous Theme J D e c e n t r a l i z e d A c t io n T h e m a tic F i t t i n g

|O utV . I n c r e m e n t a l I m p ly in g S h i f t In L o g i c a l T y p e s l T h ro u g h A Shadow O r g a n i z a t i o n v ia
Is i d e \ E l e m e n t B e tw e e n F a c t i o n s I W ith T h e m a tic F a c i l i t a t i o n R i t u a l C c m a u n lc a tlo n
I E xam ple I
N o r w e g ia n G e n e r a l j o b d e s i g n p r i n c i p l e s I* ' P r o j e c t s i n i t i a t e d by p l a n t s I -U s e o f p r i n c i p l e s a s
I n d u s t r ia l f o r u p g r a d in g i n d u s t r i a l I t o make t h e them e h a p p en ) lit u r g y
D em ocracy d e m o cr a c y a t t h e w o r k f a c e (■ ' S t a f f r e s o u r c e s p r o v id e d by I - R i t u a l m e e t in g s
P ro ject N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o m m ittee ■ D is p la y b e h a v io r
- I n i t i a t i v e s u n d er ta k e n in I-T hem e a s l i t u r g y
U . S . - U .S . S . R * D e t e n t e b e t w e e n t h e tw o m any s p h e r e s l - D l s p l a y B e h a v io r
D eten te su p erp o w ers* Hope f o r s p i l l ­ -S o m e c e n t r a l a p p r o v a l , b u t ( - O u t s i d e W itn e s s
o v e r in t o c o m p e t itiv e a ren a s* d i s p e r s e d o p e n in g s f o r I
i n i t i a t i v e ( a t l e a s t I n U .S * )
 127

w inning s id e and a lo s in g s i d e , so t h a t th e u n d e rly in g problem had

m erely been p o stp o n ed . The id e a of a p lan belonged to th e realm
of id e o lo g ic a l c o n tro v e rsy o v e r th e S o v ie t F iv e - y e a r P lan ; and I
knew t h a t o n ly a c tio n co u ld d i s s i p a t e m isu n d e rstan d in g s about th e
e n t i r e l y new ty p e of p lan n in g t h a t we had i n mind" (pp. 2 36-237).

- Focus On Lim ite d A spec t s Of A System Th a t Can E v e n tu a lly Take On

Rad i c a l I m p lic a tio ns

"The id e a of a p r io r g lo b a l u n io n , in te n d e d to envelope and remove

a p a r t i c u l a r d i f f i c u l t y , was n o t in my view r e a l i s t i c . On th e
c o n tr a r y , i t seemed to me, we sh o u ld s t a r t w ith th e d i f f i c u l t y
i t s e l f , u sin g i t a s a le v e r to i n i t i a t e a more g e n e ra l s o lu tio n "
(p . 286).

- Take T hings Step-B y-S te p

". . . one m ust d e a l w ith each m ain d i f f i c u l t y a s one comes to i t :

n o th in g i s gained by lo o k in g fo r o v e r-in g e n io u s s o lu tio n s i n an
e f f o r t to ta c k le s e v e r a l problem s a t th e same tim e” ( p . 2 51).

- Work. To Bear Witn e s s To The Them e's P ro g re s s io n When O th ers

F o rg e t I t

"My e s s e n t i a l ta s k was to pursuade them (P la n n in g Commission

p a r t i c i p a n t s ) and rem ind them. . . . O b je c tiv e s a r e a l l too e a s i l y
f o r g o tte n i n th e p ro c e s s of a c tio n i t s e l f " ( p . 2 47).

- Use R it u a l Event s A t R e tr e a t S e ttin g s

" M a te ria l s u rro u n d in g s have an e f f e c t on p e o p le 's a t t i t u d e s . When

p eo p le from o th e r c o u n tr ie s came to see me to fin d out how to
produce a n a t i o n a l p la n , I o fte n s a id to them: 'ab o v e a l l , have a
d in in g room '" (p . 3 3 4 ).

- Invoke The Theme As L itu rg y

". . . what he (b an k er Montagu Norman) f a i l e d to u n d e rsta n d was

th e power of sim ple id e a s ex p ressed p l a i n l y and u n v a ry in g ly , over
and over a g a in . T hat a t l e a s t disarm s s u s p ic io n , which i s th e
m ain so u rce of m isu n d e rsta n d in g " (p . 331).
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- Change The Frame Of B ehavior An d B eh av io rs W ill Change Them selves

Monnet n o te s t h a t the F rench developm ent p la n " . . . i s e s s e n t i a l ­

l y a method of co n v erg e n t a c tio n and a means whereby everyone can
r e l a t e h i s own e f f o r t s to th o se of everyone e l s e . I t i s concerned
a s much w ith o r i e n t a t i o n as w ith c o n tr o l" (p . 2 5 8 ).

Thus, M onnet's r ic h and in tim a te acco u n t of h i s work d is p la y s many

a t t r i b u t e s which can be seen a s no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m , alth o u g h he

does n o t e x p re ss i t in the same ex ac t la n g u ag e. The s c a le and

d u r a b i l i t y of European i n t e r n a ti o n a li s m in d i c a te s t h a t such an approach

c an sometimes work e f f e c t i v e l y . M onnet's work p ro v id e s a v i r t u a l

m a n ife s to of no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m along one p a th o f developm ent t h a t

h a s proven e s p e c ia lly r o b u s t.

Some G en eral I m p lic a tio n s F or System s I n t e r venti o n

The p r o f il e of n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism dev elo p ed h e re can now be

used to o u tlin e a new ty p e of in t e r v e n ti o n s tr a t e g y . The o v e r a l l aim of

t h i s approach i s to refram e d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s w ith a new eco lo g y of

v a lu e t h a t makes c o l la b o r a t io n the prim ary m ed iatin g s o c ia l r e l a t i o n .

T h is i s in s te a d o f d i r e c t l y b a t t l i n g th e e s ta b lis h e d o rd e r o r t o t a l l y

s u rre n d e rin g to i t . The p ro d u ct of n o rm ativ e in c r e m e n ta lis t a c t i v i t y i s

i d e a l l y r a d ic a l change w ith o u t c a ta s tr o p h y o r r e v o l t .

As a d e u te ro le a r n in g p ro c e s s , n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism w i l l pro ceed

w ith a h ig h g ra d ie n t o f f r u s t r a t i o n . I t can n ev er be e a s y . T h is i s

n e c e s s a ry to evoke u n a n tic ip a te d d isc o v e ry o f som ething new, o f

c o lla b o r a tio n a s a new prim ary m ed iatin g r e l a t i o n . A lso , t h i s p ro c e ss

can n o t be t o t a l l y p re p la n n e d . Ample roan must be l e f t f o r e x te n siv e

c l i e n t i n i t i a t i v e and c o n t r i b u ti o n , and f o r s e r e n d ip ito u s le a r n in g and

un ex p ected developm ents.

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Some r e c e n t e n t e r p r i s e s , review ed in t h i s docum ent, s u g g e st t h a t

n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lism can develop u n in t e n ti o n a lly . But th e concept

e x p lic a te d h e re allo w s fo rm u la tio n o f more s o p h is tic a te d g u id e lin e s .

These a r e s u g g e s tio n s f o r o rg a n iz in g th e th r e e elem en ts of n orm ative

in c re m e n ta lism :

1. V is io n

- E f f o r t to b u ild c o l la b o r a t iv e r e l a t i o n s between d iv e rg e n t f a c tio n s

sh o u ld be inform ed by v i s i o n of a d i f f e r e n t f u tu r e .

o T h is p ro sp e c t w i l l not be t o t a l l y c l e a r a t f i r s t . Ambiguity
i s n e c e s s a ry because a change i n l o g i c a l ty p e s i s n o t
co m p lete ly known b e fo re th e re i s an a tte m p t to e n a c t i t .

o T h is v i s i o n sh o u ld n o t be a d e t a i l e d p la n o r re d e s ig n . It
should n o t im ply e lim in a tio n o f any e x i s t i n g p a r t i e s .

o I n s te a d , t h i s v is io n should e x p re ss a q u a l i t a t i v e s h i f t i n
one a s p e c t of r e l a t i o n s betw een f a c tio n s . T h is becomes th e
program m atic them e.

- The program m atic theme sh o u ld be sim ply fo rm u la te d , b u t have deep

and p e rv a s iv e im p lic a tio n s . I t sh o u ld :

o Imply a s h i f t of l o g i c a l ty p e s th a t makes c o l la b o r a t io n th e
prim ary m e d ia tin g r e l a t i o n betw een d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s .

o A ddress a fundam ental c h a lle n g e to p e o p le . T h is m ust be a

c o n tin u in g d is - e a s e o r a lo n g -term o p p o rtu n ity . The theme
sh o u ld n o t be c o n fin e d to a p a s s in g c r i s i s s i t u a t i o n .

o In v o lv e a h o lo g ra p h ic i s s u e , so m eth in g t h a t can s t r i k e a
chord w ith any e lem en t of th e o r g a n iz a tio n a s w e ll as
a p p ly in g to th e w hole.

- The program m atic them e must be su p p o rte d by a l l m ajor le a d e rs of

d iv e rg e n t f a c tio n s , fo rm al and in fo rm a l.

o Some i n i t i a l doubt and u n c e r ta in ty i s u n av o id ab le, i f a

change i n l o g i c a l ty p es i s to be a tte m p te d .

o Good f a i t h and a c tiv e su p p o rt sh o u ld be c o n tr a c te d fo r an

i n i t i a l t r i a l p e r io d of a t l e a s t 1-2 y e a r s . T h is allow s
s u f f i c i e n t tim e fo r sensem aking to re n d e r c l e a r e r a p p re c ia ­
t i o n of th e theme, a s a c tio n i s ta k e n and r i t u a l communica­
tio n ensues.
 130

o I n i t i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n by any f a c t i o n should be v o lu n ta r y .
O ffe r e x p l i c i t allo w an ce fo r u n i l a t e r a l w ith d ra w a l. T h is
h e lp s make th e t r i a l p e r io d a safe in v estm en t.

2. A ctio n

- A ctio n to make th e theme happen sh o u ld be tak en th ro u g h a

c o lla b o r a tiv e o r g a n iz a tio n d i s t i n c t from e x is tin g o rg an s:

o T h is sh o u ld be a p a r a l l e l shadow o r g a n iz a tio n t h a t e x i s t s
a lo n g sid e e x i s t i n g e n t i t i e s .

o R e s p o n s ib ility f o r i n i t i a t i n g and ta k in g a c tio n should be

d e c e n tr a liz e d . The purpose of h ig h e r le v e ls in th e shadow
o r g a n iz a tio n sh o u ld be to f a c i l i t a t e and in fo rm (n o t command)
i n i t i a t i v e by g r a s s r o o ts g ro u p s.

o Work o f th e shadow o r g a n iz a tio n should be c l e a r l y le g itim a te d

and s a n c tio n e d by le a d e rs from d if f e r e n t f a c t i o n s . Unre­
s tr a in e d c o n tr ib u tio n m u st be p r o te c te d . R esources w i l l
th r e a te n to be a key b o ttle n e c k .

o P eo p le charged w ith ta k in g a c tio n d e c e n tr a lly should be given

ex p o su re to the s k i l l s f o r doing s o . For exam ple, a commit­
te e s t r u c t u r e w i l l not work i f people do n o t know how t o work
to g e th e r a s an e f f e c t i v e group.

o S u f f i c i e n t s u p p o rt s e r v ic e s m ust be provided to enable decen­

t r a l i z e d i n i t i a t i v e ( i . e . word p ro c e s s in g , data p ro c e s s in g ,
p r in t in g , t e c h n i c a l a s s is ta n c e , e t c . ) . T h ird p a r ty f a c i l i t a ­
t o r s may have to p ro v id e mundane " s u s ta in in g i n t e r v e n t i o n s ”
t h a t keep l i t t l e th in g s from dropping between th e crack s
( i . e . ty p in g m in u te s).

- The c i r c l e of people p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h i s s tr u c t u r e needs to be

c o n tin u a lly e n la rg e d .

o The new change program r i s k s c r e a tin g an e l i t e of p a r t i c i ­

p a n ts . T h is group can become e n c a p s u la te d from t h e i r
comrades, l i m i t i n g th e ow nership o f change.

o A lso because they a r e li n k p in s betw een two w o rld s ( th e old

w orld of c o m p e titio n and th e new w orld of c o lla b o r a tio n )
program members ru n a h ig h r i s k of b u rn o u t.

o H ig h -in v o lv e m e n t/h ig h -le a rn in g program membership r o le s

sh o u ld be r o t a t e d r e g u la r ly . F resh t a l e n t h e lp s p rev en t
e n c a p s u la tio n & b u rn o u t.
 131

- A ctio n ta k e n th ro u g h th e program sh o u ld be s e lf - a s s e s s e d
th e m a tic a lly .

o M ajor em phasis sh o u ld be upon ju d g in g how w e ll a s p e c if i c

e f f o r t e x e m p lifie s o r c o n tr ib u te s to th e program m atic theme.

o T h is judgement sh o u ld be ren d ered by people c o n tr ib u tin g to

th e change e f f o r t . I t should n o t b e a b d ic a te d t o o u ts id e r s .

o F o cal outcom es, l i k e c o s t p e r u n i t , sh o u ld r e c e iv e seco n d ary

em phasis, i f any.

o A ssessm ent-based le a r n in g sh o u ld be used t o inform th e

o v e r a l l change p ro c e s s . T his can ap p ly t o any f u tu r e p r o je c t
and to many everyday i n t e r a c t i o n s n o t in c lu d e d i n th e change
program.

- A ctio n sh o u ld be planned backw ards. D e ta ile d program s o f a c t i v i t y

fo rm u la te d in advance a re u n lik e ly to p ro v e u s e f u l.

o Time fo r p r e c is e p r o je c t p la n n in g can n o t u s u a lly be o b ta in e d .

F u rth erm o re, th e f i e l d o f o p p o r tu n itie s and c o n s tr a i n ts i s
alw ays s h i f t i n g . Complete, d e t a i l e d p la n s c o n s tr a in
n e c e ssa ry f l e x i b i l i t y . P eople a re r e l u c t a n t to w ast? o r
re p u d ia te a l l t h a t e a r l i e r w ork.

o I n s te a d o f programming f u tu r e a c t i v i t i e s i n d e t a i l , p la n n in g
sh o u ld c o n c e n tr a te on id e n tif y i n g c u r r e n t problem s in w orking
th e change program . Emphasis sh o u ld be on d ev elo p in g a
sh a re d p ic tu r e o f where m ajor b o ttle n e c k s l i e .

o P lan n in g sh o u ld a ls o c o n s id e r where to n e x t expand th e

program ( i . e . who i s r i p e to be n e x t in tro d u c e d to th e theme
and in v o lv e d in th e p rogram ).

o This type o f minimal program p la n n in g c r e a te s th e n e c e ss a ry

c o n d itio n s f o r e f f e c t i v e a c tio n th ro u g h th e d e c e n tr a liz e d
shadow o r g a n iz a tio n .

o Form ally announced p la n s sh o u ld summarize planned e x p a n sio n s,

c o n s o lid a te a l i s t of p r o je c ts now b e g in n in g , and r a t i f y o r
r o u ti n iz e new f e a t u r e s in th e program t h a t have been proven
to work.

3. Them atic F i t t i n g

- Encourage use o f th e theme a s l i t u r g y .

o Invoke th e theme to q u a lif y c o n c r e te a c t io n s . P u t o th e r s i n

s i t u a t i o n s w here they m ust do th e same.
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o T h is prom otes lin k in g an a r b i t r a r y p u n c tu a tio n to a c tu a l

h ap p en in g s, making th e theme more c o n c re te and s e n s ib le . Use
of th e theme a s l i t u r g y in v o k e s th e q u a l i t a t i v e d if f e r e n c e
im p lie d by i t in t o th e everyday r e a l i t y of f a c t i o n a l
re la tio n s .

- Prom ote th e m a tic s e lf - a s s e s s m e n t of program i n i t i a t i v e s .

o A sse ss s p e c if i c a c tio n th e m a tic a lly . Encourage o th e rs to

a ls o do t h i s . S et a s id e f o c a l outcomes whenever p o s s ib le .

o D o n 't encourage o u ts id e o r o b je c tiv e e v a lu a tio n . I n s i s t th a t

program members e x e r c is e ju d g em en tal d i s c r e t i o n to e v a lu a te
program e f f o r t s .

o T his in c r e a s e s th e lik e lih o o d t h a t th e s p e c i a l q u a l i t y of

d e s ir e d change w i l l n o t be l o s t . The u su a l tendency i s to
c o n c e n tr a te upon th e t r e e s , n o t th e f o r e s t .

o A lso , t h i s c r e a te s a d d itio n a l o p p o r tu n itie s to li n k th e

a b s t r a c t theme w ith c o n c re te a c t io n a s l i t u r g y .

- B roker r e c u r s iv e a p p l ic a t io n of th e theme to th e change program

its e lf.

o Encourage peo p le to s c r u ti n iz e how th e c o l la b o r a t iv e shadow

o r g a n iz a tio n s work, to make s u re t h a t i t s o p e r a tio n r e f l e c t s
th e program m atic them e. Model t h i s s c r u tin y fo r o t h e r s .

o T his enco u rag es th e change program to become a microcosm of

th e s h i f t betw een d iv e rg e n t f a c t io n s t h a t i s d e s ir e d o u t in
th e homebase o r g a n iz a tio n .

o A lso , t h i s opens s t i l l more o p p o r tu n itie s f o r lin k in g th e

theme to c o n c re te a c t io n s .

- D evelop th e u se of r i t u a l e v e n ts , o r th e in c lu s io n of r i t u a l
a s p e c ts to program "h a p p en in g s".

. o R itu a l e v e n ts may be c a l l e d p la n n in g w orkshops, rev iew

m e e tin g s, e t c . They have s u b s ta n tiv e agendas t h a t demand
rev ie w and s p e c u la tio n about th e change p ro g ram 's
developm ent.

o In a d d itio n , r i t u a l e v e n ts l i f t many u s u a l c o n s t r a i n t s .
They:
- ta k e p la c e in a s p e c ia l r e t r e a t s e t t i n g
- suspend norm al s t a t u s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n d r e s s ,
a u t h o r i t y , and p la y
- s t i c k to e x o tic sch ed u le s
 /

133

- These d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s from r o u t i n e c o n d itio n s make r i t u a l e v e n ts

something s p e c i a l , but something s p e c i a l t h a t rem ains co nn ected to
everyday r e a l i t i e s .

o In t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d , p r o t e c t e d sp ace c o l l a b o r a t i v e
m e d iatin g r e l a t i o n s h i p s most f u l l y come to l i f e . There i s
i n t e n s i v e r e h e a r s a l of c o l l a b o r a t i v e l y refram ed b e h a v io r.
And t h e r e i s maximum i n t e n s i t y of r i t u a l communication.

o Like o th e r program a c t i v i t i e s , t h e s e ev en ts should be s e l f ­

a s s e s s e d p r i m a r i l y i n terms of th e programmatic theme.

- C u l t i v a t e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r d is p la y b e h a v i o r .

o These a r e o c c a sio n s vhen th e program i s c o l l a b o r a t i v e l y

summarized i n f r o n t of o u t s i d e r s ( v i s i t o r s ,
c o n fe re n c e s , e t c . ) .

o P r e s e n t a t i o n s should be done by program members r e p r e s e n t a ­

t i v e of d i f f e r e n t f a c t i o n s . I f they a r e among th e f a i t h f u l ,
t h e y ' l l i n e v i t a b l y model c o l l a b o r a t i o n as th e primary
m e d i a t i n g - r e l a t i o n s h i p . I t ' s l i k e l y they w i l l a ls o invoke
th e theme as l i t u r g y .

o T h is w i l l enhance the f a i t h of th e p r e s e n t e r s . I t w i l l a ls o
e x p ress th e f l a v o r of th i n g s to th e u n i n i t i a t e d o u t s i d e r .

- Try to a r r a n g e fo r a concerned , l e g i t i m a t e o u t s i d e r to b ear

w itn e s s to th e p rogram 's developm ent of th e theme as a r e a l
in n o v a tio n .

o L ocate a co n ce rn ed , l e g i t i m a t e o u t s i d e r to r e p la y th e s t o r y
of u n fo ld in g e v e n ts i n r e f e r e n c e to th e developing theme.

o T h is p erso n ( o r p e rs o n s ) c a n be a t h i r d p a r t y f a c i l i t a t o r , a
r e s e a r c h e r , o r o th e r i n t e r e s t e d and r e s p e c t e d o u t s i d e r .

o E x t e r n a l c o n f ir m a tio n pro vides s p e c i a l r e a f f i r m a t i o n of th e

pro gram 's a c t i v i t y , p r o g r e s s , and s u b s ta n c e .

These a r e a l l g e n e r a l r u l e s of thumb drawn from th e r e s e a r c h and

th in k in g o u tl in e d h e r e . They can guide i n t e r n a l o r e x t e r n a l peo p le who

seek to c u l t i v a t e norm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m .

The g u id e s above can be improved and r e fo rm u la te d . They should be

c o n s id e r e d a s working hypotheses to be r e f i n e d through f u r t h e r

ap p lic a tio n s.
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One Exemplary A p p lic a tio n

Almost any e f f o r t to hook d iv e r g e n t f a c t i o n s i n t o norm ative change

i s f a i r game f o r t r y i n g o u t (o r a t l e a s t c o n s id e r i n g ) the p o s s i b l e s t e p s

o f norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m . To i l l u s t r a t e t h i s , c o n s id e r th e change

program i n th e 1980 s t e e l i n d u s t r y c o n t r a c t . This s t i p u l a t e s s e t t i n g up

labor-m anagem ent p a r t i c i p a t i o n teams i n each o p e r a t in g u n i t of s e l e c te d

p l a n t s a c r o s s th e i n d u s t r y . The id e a i s to upgrade la b o r r e l a t i o n s by

j o i n t l y im proving p r o d u c t i v i t y and job c o n d i t i o n s . Teams a r e allowed to

d i s c u s s c h a lle n g e s l i k e pro d u ct q u a l i t y , p ro d u c tio n e f f i c i e n c y , s a f e t y

and h e a l t h , employee m o rale, a b s e n te e is m , and r e l a t i o n s w ith

su p e rv iso rs. They a r e empowered t o make d e c i s i o n s t h a t do n o t change

t h e unio n c o n t r a c t o r meddle i n th e g rie v a n c e p ro ced u re.

The concept of n orm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m s u g g e s ts a number of

d e t a i l e d , m ajo r im p l i c a t i o n s t h a t la b o r and management c o u ld u s e f u l l y

c o n s id e r i n b u il d in g t h i s program. Some of t h e s e a r e :

1. V is io n

- New c o n t r a c t language o u t l i n e s m utual co ncern f o r p r o d u c t i v i t y and

jo b c o n d i t i o n s . This i s a proto -th em e t h a t needs f u r t h e r r e f i n e ­
ment, top-down s a n c ti o n , and bottom-up a f f i r m a t i o n .

o A l l l e v e l s o f l e a d e r s h i p , l a b o r and management, s h o u ld con­

vene to s a n c ti o n a sim ple programmatic theme proposed by th e
to p .

o T h is theme sho uld be fo rm u lated to in c lu d e the c h a r a c t e r i s ­

t i c s noted on pp. 129-130.

2. A ctio n

- The c o n t r a c t ' s s t i p u l a t i o n o f u n i t - l e v e l teams i n s i d e p l a n t s

s t a k e s out th e o p p o r tu n ity t o b u il d a v ig o ro u s shadow problem­
s o lv in g o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t p a r a l l e l s e x i s t i n g l a b o r and management
organs.
 135

- Labor and management sho uld c a p i t a l i z e upon t h i s o p p o r tu n i ty .

S p e c i f i c a l l y , th ey should:

o C re a te a m u l t i - l e v e l s t r u c t u r e a t th e n a t i o n a l , company,
p l a n t , u n i t , and p o s s i b l y s u b u n it l e v e l s .

o D e c e n t r a liz e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r i n i t i a t i n g and executin g

change. S p e c i f i c p r o j e c t s should be developed by g r a s s r o o t s
l e v e l teams. H igher l e v e ls should only f a c i l i t a t e t h i s
e f f o r t ( n o t command i t ) .

o P rovide n e c e s s a r y s k i l l s and r e s o u rc e s should be th e f i r s t

p r i o r i t y o f " h ig h e r" l e v e l s .

o A ssess th e m selv es. S p e c i f i c p r o j e c t s should be s e l f - a s s e s s e d

t h e m a t i c a l l y . Down play f o c a l outcomes ( t h e y ' l l take c are of
them selves i f the program i s running w e l l ) .

o Make d i s j o i n t e d p l a n s . D e ta i le d a c t i o n programming sh o u ld
n o t be demanded i n advance by h ig h e r program l e v e l s .
A c t i v i t y pla n n in g s h o u ld proceed backwards, w ith emphasis on
s h a re d problem fo rm u la tio n r a t h e r th a n preprogrammed
sequences of a c t i o n .

3. F ittin g

- Labor and management le a d e r s a t a l l program l e v e l s must encourage

and exem plify r i t u a l communication t h a t l e t s the theme and a c t i o n
in fo rm each o t h e r . S p e c i f i c measures could in c lu d e :

o Use the theme a s l i t u r g y . Leaders a t a l l l e v e l s should

c o n t i n u a l l y r e f e r back to th e theme and apply i t to c o n c r e te
a c t i o n s . The theme should become a l a s t i n g n o r th s t a r
a g a i n s t which the program i s stew arded.

o Apply t h e theme r e c u r s i v e l y , t o the program i t s e l f .

o L e a d e rs h ip sho uld i n v e s t i n r i t u a l e v e n ts . These should

convene people from a c r o s s p r o j e c t l e v e l s . Sometimes th e y
sho uld run a c r o s s o t h e r b o u n d a rie s to o .

o Leaders should encourage program c o n t r i b u t o r s to a d d re s s th e

o u t s i d e w o rld . O p p o r tu n it ie s f o r d is p l a y b e h a v io r should be
c u l t i v a t e d a s p ro c e d u ra l and outcome accom plishm ents d ev elo p .

o S u i t a b l e w i t n e s s e s vdio a r e not program members should be

engaged to re c o u n t events f o r eac h d i f f e r e n t program l o c a t i o n
and l e v e l .
 136

These a r e th e s o r t of f e a t u r e s t h a t the id e a s i n t h i s t h e s i s imply f o r

th e new s t e e l in d u s tr y program. They i l l u s t r a t e the type of d e s ig n t h a t

a norm ative i n c r e m e n t a l i s t framework r e n d e r s f o r one t y p i c a l e f f o r t to

m o b iliz e d iv e r g e n t f a c t i o n s . On th e whole, they s t i p u l a t e t h a t la b o r

and management le a d e r s up a t th e i n d u s t r y l e v e l ta k e an approach of

th e m a tic f a c i l i t a t i o n (s e e p. 25) t o improvement e f f o r t s .

Summary Of C h apter 4

C hap ter 4 has h ig h l i g h t e d some o v e r a l l d i s t i n c t i v e p r o p e r t i e s and

i m p l i c a t i o n s o f norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m . Nine a r e a s were covered by

t h i s overview, showing t h a t n orm ativ e in c re m en talism :

- Develops r a d i c a l refram in g i n s t e a d of r e v o l t

- Runs d eeper th a n emergence re sp o n se

- I s more s u b s t a n t i a l th a n sim ple p r o t e s t

- Evokes a new ecology o f v a lu e

- Works beyond c o g n i tiv e l i m i t s v i a sensemaking

- Develops upon minimum c r i t i c a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s

- Works a s a n o n -s y n o p tic p ro c e s s

- A p p lies to c a s e s o u t s i d e P r o j e c t Network

- C a r r i e s g e n e r a l im p l i c a t i o n s f o r system s i n t e r v e n t i o n between
d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s (w ith one s p e c i f i c example of a p p l i c a t i o n to a
new o p p o r tu n ity )

T his s e t of e l a b o r a t i o n s p u ts f l e s h on t h e s k e le t o n of th e co ncept

o u t l i n e d by C hapter 3. The fo llo w in g c h a p te r w i l l l o c a t e no rm ativ e

in c re m e n ta lis m amid o th e r app ro ac h es to systems planning and d e s ig n .

 CHAPTER 5

NORMATIVE INCREMENTALISM
AND
ESTABLISHED APPROACHES TO SOCIAL PLANNING

P r a c t i t i o n e r s i n s o c i a l system s s c ie n c e have begun t o develop a

d i s t i n c t i v e body o f work. A most s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n o f t h i s i s

a d a p tiv e p la n n in g . This i s pla n n in g t h a t m a in ta in s system e f f e c t i v e n e s s

i n th e f a c e o f changing c irc u m s ta n c e s ( in c l u d in g changing v a l u e s ) .

A daptive p la n n in g can be p a s s i v e , and only change systems b e h a v io r, or

a c t i v e , and a l s o work to change th e en v iro n m en t.*

Many compare a d a p tiv e p la n n in g a g a i n s t t h e l a i s s e z f a i r e s t r a t e g y

o f te n c a l l e d d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m . Emery (1 977 ), f o r example,

m a in ta in s they a r e fu n d am en tally d iv e r g e n t o p tio n s f o r managing systems

change. A ccording t o him, a c t i v e a d a p tiv e p la n n in g has d i s t i n c t i v e

competence; " i t l a y s a s t r e s s on th e c o n s c io u s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of shared

v a lu e s o r sh a re d p e r s p e c t i v e s , p a s t o r p r e s e n t , t h a t i s a b s e n t from

d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m " (1977, p. 123). He proceeds to arg ue t h a t

a c t i v e a d a p tiv e p la n n in g th e re b y seeks fundam ental change r a t h e r than

p u rsu in g m a rg in a l, s u p e r f i c i a l improvements. V arious o t h e r systems

p r a c t i t i o n e r s co n firm t h i s view point (Ozbekhan, 1969)(Ozbekhan, 1971)

(Ozbekhan, 1974)(Ozbekhan, 1 9 7 7 ) ( T r i s t , 1976 )(A ck off, 1969)(V ic k e rs ,

1968).

Both o p ti o n s , a d a p t iv e p la n n in g and d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m , have

* This con cep t of a c t i v e a d a p t i v e p la n n in g i s proposed i n v a r io u s forms

by many a u th o rs (Ozbekhan, 1969)(0zbekhan, 1971)(Ozbekhan, 1973)
(Ozbehkan, 1977 )(A cko ff, 1 9 6 9 ) ( T r i s t , 1976)(Emery, 1977)(Emery and
T r i s t , 1973)(Churchman, 1968)(Sheane, 1979)(Sachs and M editz, 1980).

137
 138

developed i n resp o n se to th e f a i l u r e o f l i n e a r , top-down, a n a l y t i c

m a s te r p la n n in g . T h is was th e p r e v a i l i n g form of planning i n th e

f i f t i e s and s i x t i e s . I t s t r e s s e d c e n t r a l l y d i r e c t e d change based on

t o p - l e v e l p r o j e c t i o n s and d e t a i l e d , f i n a l i z e d b l u e p r i n t s . * Sometimes

t h i s approach worked, bu t o f te n th e r e s u l t s of such p la n n in g were

fre q u e n tly n o t d e s ir a b le . I t was i n respon se to t h i s f a i l u r e of m a s te r

p la n n in g t h a t th e a l t e r n a t i v e co n ce p ts of a d a p tiv e p la n n in g and

d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m w ere developed.

C u r r e n t l y , th e s e new o p tio n s a r e f r e q u e n t l y posed as competing

extrem es of a b in a ry ty p o lo g y : e i t h e r d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m o r

a d a p tiv e p la n n in g . They a r e o f te n f e l t to be d iv e rg e n t s t r a t e g i e s

between which one m ust choose.

T h is c h a p te r a rg u e s t h a t t h a t such b in a r y d u alism need not p r e v a i l .

Normative in c re m e n ta lis m i s shown to have a s p e c t s of b o th app ro aches.

I n d i c a t i v e of th e l o g i c a l r e t y p i n g i t promotes ( a n a l o g i c , b oth-an d

r e l a t i o n s ) , no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m i n c o r p o r a t e s elem ents from b o th

d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m and a d a p tiv e p la n n in g .

F i r s t , no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m i s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h many d i f f e r e n t

approaches to s o c i a l p la n n in g . S i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s w ith a

number of e s t a b l i s h e d c o n c e p ts a r e b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d . Second, t h i s

su rv ey o f d i f f e r e n t approaches i s u sed to s u g g e s t a co n tin g en cy approach

f o r s o c i a l p la n n in g . D i f f e r e n t p la n n in g s t r a t e g i e s a p p ea r to be

a p p r o p r i a t e i n d i f f e r e n t ty p e s of s i t u a t i o n s .

* To exem p lify m a ste r p la n n in g see Dewan (1969) and Keeney and E.afia
(1976)
 139

T h is p u ts n orm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m i n p e r s p e c t i v e . I t can be seen

a s one elem ent of t h i s f i e l d . R a th e r th a n being th e s i n g l e b e s t

ap p ro ach , i t i s one prom ising s t r a t e g y f o r u s e w ith in c e r t a i n

c o n d itio n s.

N orm ative I n c r e m e n ta lism a nd D is j o i n t e d I n c r e m e n ta l is m

The m ajo r contemporary i n c r e m e n t a l i s t approach to change i s

fo rm ulated by Braybrooke and Lindblom (1 96 3)* . They develop a co n ce p t

o f d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m . According to them d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta l­

ism i s the p r e v a i l i n g way convergence i s a c t u a l l y developed to make

s o c ia l p o licy . I t i s v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t than th e i d e a l s of m a s te r

p la n n in g .

D is j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m e s s e n t i a l l y seeks to promote m arg inal

change (Baybrooke and Lindblom, 1963, pp. 8 3 -8 8 ) . I t aims to improve

th e m argins of e x i s t i n g s o c i a l s t a t e s . T his aim i s in c r e m e n ta l. It

f o c u s e s change w ith in th e e x i s t i n g framework, n o t change on th e

framework i t s e l f .

T h is in c re m e n t a l fo cu s g r e a t l y r e s t r i c t s th e v a r i e t y of a l t e r n a t i v e s

c o n s id e re d open to a c t i o n (Braybrooke and Lindblom, 1963, pp. 88 -9 0).

L i m it a ti o n to in c r e m e n t a l p o l i c i e s g iv e s much l e s s v a r i e t y to o n e 's

a c t i o n space i n com parison w i t h tim es when a l l p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e

c o n c e iv a b le . Moreover, p o l i t i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s f u r t h e r c o n s t r i c t t h i s

v a rie ty .

D i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m ta k e s p la ce on a fragmented b a s i s .

* The r o o t s of t h i s concept a r e tr a c e d by Hirschman and Lindblom

(1 969 ).
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A n a ly s is and a c t i o n a r e piecem eal, a t many unconnected l o c a t i o n s . Where

t h e r e i s lin k a g e between a c t o r s i t i s f r e q u e n t l y im p r e c is e . Hence, t h i s

in c re m e n ta lis m i s d i s j o i n t e d . There i s minimal f o r e s i g h t and

in te g ra tio n .

Braybrooke and Lindblom j u s t i f y t h i s d i s o r d e r l y , piecem eal ap proach

on th e grounds t h a t people a c t u a l l y use i t under the u su al c o n d itio n s of

p o lic y form ation (1963, pp. 1 1 3 -1 4 3 ). They arg ue t h a t m yriad f a c t o r s

overwhelm any a tte m p t to employ com prehensive, a n a l y t i c a l l y s e q u e n tia l

methods of p o li c y change. A s im ila r ju s tif ic a tio n i s proposed by

Hirschman and Lindblcm ( 1969). They emphasize th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f

in c o h e r e n t s t r a t e g i e s t h a t keep change i n i t i a t i v e s o u t of s t e p under

c o n d i tio n s o f l i m i t e d in f o r m a tio n and bounded r a t i o n a l i t y .

To summarize, d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m has a m a rg in al fo c u s . It

aims to improve th in g s i n c r e m e n t a l l y . C o n s id e r a tio n i s g iv e n to a

l i m i t e d number of o p tio n s for a c t i o n . The i n c r e m e n t a l i s t a c t i v i t y i s

fragm ented , o r d i s j o i n t e d . T h i s p ro c e s s i s v a r i e t y r e d u c i n g , d r iv e n by

a d e s i r e to o p tim iz e th e e x i s t i n g framework of s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s . It

seeks only t o j u s t i f y many unconnected minor s t e p s t h a t a t b e s t a r e

hoped to c o n t r i b u t e to some l a r g e r u n d efin e d good. I t moves away from

piecem eal i l l s r a t h e r th a n toward some o v e r a l l d e s ir e d s t a t e .

Normative in c re m e n ta lis m o f f e r s a t o t a l y d i f f e r e n t p r o s p e c t. It

aims to e n a c t some fundamental q u a l i t a t i v e change. T h is change,

e x p re s s e d by a programmatic theme, always moves towards l o g i c a l l y

re -ty p in g s o c ia l r e la tio n s . T h is i s a r a d i c a l change, n o t a l a r g e s c a le

change. Braybrooke and Lindblom m iss t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n e n t i r e l y . To

j u s t i f y the u s e f u ln e s s o f d i s j o i n t e d in c re m en talism th e y develop

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c a t e g o r i e s d e n o tin g types of d e c i s i o n making (1963, p. 7 8 ) . They

d e l i n e a t e high v e r s u s low u n d e rsta n d in g of problems and inc re m en tal

v e r s u s la rg e change. T h is y i e l d s a two by two m a tr ix . M issing from

t h e i r c a t e g o r i z a t i o n i s a t h i r d dimension, s i g n i f i c a n c e , o r r a d i c a l

v e rs u s n o n - r a d i c a l change (see f i g u r e s 5.1 and 5 .2 on t h e n e x t p a g e s ).

S i g n i f i c a n c e does n o t eq u a l s i z e . Mea n in g does n o t e q u a l s c a l e .

La rg e changes have no monopoly on meaning. Sm all changes can a l s o have

ra d ic a l sig n ific a n c e. Th e i r lo n g t e r m impact can grow i n s i z e ( s e e

Thompson, 1973).

T h is d i s t i n c t i o n i s c r i t i c a l . Without i t our c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of

p o s s i b l e change l i m i t s u s to o n ly a tte m p t l a r g e change when i n f a c t we

may want w idespread r a d i c a l change. These a r e two d i f f e r e n t th i n g s .

Large change, as Braybrooke and Lindblom p o in t o u t , i s u s u a l l y

u n fe a sib le p o l i tic a lly . Extending t h e i r r e a s o n in g , l a r g e - s c a l e r a d i c a l

change i s probab ly out of th e q u e s t i o n , b a r r in g major c a t a s t r o p h e . But

r a d i c a l change on a modest s c a l e i s a n o t h e r b a l l game. I t i s fe a sib le

between th e c r a c k s w ith in and among e x i s t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s , among

d i f f e r e n t f a c t i o n s i n communities, r e g io n s , m u n i c i p a l i t i e s , and

o rg a n iz a tio n s. Such change i s no t a quick f i x . But through time t h e s e

s e p a r a t e nodes of change can l i n k and grow. T h is was i n d i c a t e d by

Networking b e h a v io r of p r o j e c t Network labor-management com m ittees. The

e v e n t u a l s c a l e of such r a d i c a l change i s d i f f e r e n t th an i t s i n i t i a l

s ig n ific a n c e .*

* Monnet (1978) e x e m p lif i e s t h i s " s e e d and lin k " s t r a t e g y . He sought to

promote a F e d e r a t i o n of E u ropean N atio n s. But r a t h e r th a n d e t a i l i n g a
grand d e s ig n , he wanted t o b e g in c o l l a b o r a t i v e en deavors on a d i s j o i n t e d
b a s i s , whenever o p p o r t u n i t i e s appeared w i t h a l l i n the same o v e r a l l
c o lla b o ra tiv e d irec tio n .
 F ig u re 5.1

Braybrook and Lindbloom

Dimensions o f A n aly sis

tr
z
X5
1 i/i
5
5
Q
i

SMALL LARQE
INCREMENTAL CHANQE
CHANGE
(7
Z
2
i
V)
3a
Si

(Braybrooke & Lindbloom, 1963, p . 78)

 143

F i gure 5.2

L o g ic a l Type o f Change
As
A Dimension D i s t i n c t From S iz e

s 2
cr o

SMALL
INCREMENTAL
CHAM<5e

cr
 144

U nlike i t s d i s j o i n t e d c o u s in , norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m aims to e n a c t

some fundamental q u a l i t a t i v e change. T h is change i s a r a d i c a l s h i f t in

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , tow ards a new c o l l a b o r a t i v e eco lo g y o f v a lu e . Attemp­

ti n g t o b ring t h i s change in t o b e in g , norm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m i s d r iv e n

by a d e s i r e d f u t u r e , r a t h e r th a n j u s t away from c u r r e n t i l l s .

But t h i s d e s i r e d f u t u r e i s n o t a w h o le s a le change. I t does not

i d e a l l y demand changing e v e r y th in g a t o n c e . In ste a d , i t is a

programmatic theme. T h is e x p r e s s e s a d e s ir e d s h i f t i n one a s p e c t of

r e l a t i o n s between f a c t i o n s , a s h i f t with p e r v a s iv e , r a d i c a l

im p lic a tio n s . T h is theme p r o v id e s a m easure of c o h ere n ce and d i r e c t i o n

unevoked by a d i s j o i n t e d s t r a t e g y . C o n s id e ra b le d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i s

allo w ed by a d e c e n t r a l i z e d s t r u c t u r e . But a l l a c t i v i t y i s f i t t e d w ith

The theme; d iv e r s e e f f o r t s a r e made to n o r m a tiv e ly r e s o n a t e .

T h is theme, and th e n a t u r e o r e x t e n t of d e s i r e d change i s not

co m p lete ly known a t th e s t a r t . I t g e ts comprehended as a c t i o n and

f i t t i n g ta k e p la c e . Thus, n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m i s said to be

in c re m e n ta l; i t begins to make sen se a l i t t l e b i t a t a tim e.

In c re m e n ta l advance makes norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m norr-synoptic ( s e e

p. 113-116), l i k e d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m . Braybrooke and Lindblom

(1963, pp. 38-57) c r i t i q u e m is ta k in g t h e s y n o p tic i d e a l w i t h the a c t u a l

r i g o r s of s o c i a l change. But u n lik e t h e i r v e r s io n of a n o n -s y n o p tic

p r o c e s s , n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m need n ot p la c e s e v e re r e s t r i c t i o n on

t h e v a r i e t y of a l t e r n a t i v e s c o n s id e r e d . As a m y s te rio u s h o lo g ra p h ic

change, t h e programmatic theme tends to m o b iliz e f in d in g new

o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r change; t h e very a c t of f i n d i n g new a l t e r n a t i v e s to

pursue i n l i g h t of th e theme h e lp s make sense of i t ( s e e use of th e

 145

theme a s l i t u r g y p. 8 2 ). While p o l i t i c s and p r a c t i c a l i t y w i l l

un do ubtedly impose c o n s t r a i n t s , n orm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m i s n o t as

i n h e r e n t l y l i m i t e d a s d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m .

In c o n t r a s t to d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m , norm ative in c re m en talism

r a r e l y ta k e s p la ce on a grand s c a l e . I n s t e a d , i t i s l i k e l y to occur

below t h e l e v e l of macro e v e n ts . V is io n , a c t i o n , and f i t t i n g can a l l be

c o h e r e n tly pursued on a modest s c a l e , perhaps o f te n not beyond a r e g io n

o r an i n d u s t r y (a lth o u g h t h e i r e v e n tu a l impact can grow b i g g e r ) . I t is

a t t h i s middle l e v e l t h a t ex ten d ed f u n c t i o n a l systems a r e weakest

(T rist, 1976). Beyond t h i s s iz e the s t r a t e g y o f norm ative

in c re m e n ta lis m may prove unw eildy. But given th e d i s t i n c t i o n between

s c a l e and s i g n i f i c a n c e , and th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f subsequent li n k a g e s , t h i s

l i m i t a t i o n need not be a condemning d is a d v a n ta g e .

O v e r a ll , no rm ative in c re m e n ta lis m i s v e ry d i f f e r e n t than d i s j o i n t e d

in c re m e n ta lis m , but t h e r e i s a l s o some convergence between them. U nlike

i t s d i s j o i n t e d r e l a t i v e , n o rm ativ e in c re m en talism aims towards a

p o s i t i v e f u t u r e , a t t e m p t i n g to e n a c t fu n d a m e n ta lly meaningful change.

I t i s sm a ll o r m oderate s c a l e , a t l e a s t i n i t i a l l y . The prog ram atic

theme does n o t d r a s t i c a l l y l i m i t a l t e r n a t i v e s , and i t p ro v id e s norm ative

r e s o n a n c e between v a r i e g r a t e d change a c t i v i t i e s .

The major o v e r la p between th e two i s a common la c k of s y n o p tic

a ttrib u te s. N e i t h e r s t r a t e g y ad v an c es through predom inantly thoro ugh ,

s y s t e m a t i c , s te p w is e , p r e c i s e , s e q u e n t i a l , o r r ig o ro u s p ro c e d u re s . Both

proceed in c r e m e n t a lly , b i t by b i t , a s e x p e rie n c e p ro v id e s g r i s t f o r

re fle c tio n . N e it h e r approach e x p l i c i t l y im p lie s changing t h e whole

system : d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m stu m b les along a t the m argins of th e

 146

s t a t u s quo, norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m fo cu ses upon one fundam ental a s p e c t

o f r e l a t i o n s t h a t has p e r v a s iv e i m p l i c a t i o n s .

Beyond t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o n t e n t s , th e im p l i c a t i o n s of each

in c re m e n ta lis m le a d to d i f f e r e n t am b ition s f o r how to in f l u e n c e s o c i a l

change. Proponents of d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m f i n d i t i s th e

predom inant way s o c i e t y a c t u a l l y s e t s p o l i c y . They t h e r e f o r e conclude

t h a t t h i s i s bedrock r e a l i t y , and t h a t p la n n e rs sh ould adap t to t h i s

situ a tio n .

Lindblom and Cohen (1979, p . 18) m a in ta in t h a t r a d i c a l change, a

change in u n d e rly in g frameworks, only a r i s e s through what they c a l l

" s o c i a l l e a r n i n g " . . According to them, s o c i a l le a r n in g i s e x p erien ce o f

n e g a t i v e l y v a lu e d outcomes on a w idespread and enduring b a s i s , which can

le a d t o major change. Thus, co n tin u e d e x p e rie n c e of r i s i n g f u e l p r i c e s

and g a s s h o r ta g e s a r e more l i k e l y to change p u b lic b eh av io r th a n any

s c i e n t i f i c stu d y of energy s u p p ly and p o l i c y . This i s e s s e n t i a l l y a

r e a c t i v i s t p h ilo so p h y , t h a t only n e a r c a t a s tr o p h e can f o s t e r r a d i c a l

s o c i a l change. I t assumes t h a t en lig h ten m en t a r i s e s from punishm ent.

A s i m i l a r n o te i s sounded by Johnson (1 9 7 8 ). He m a in ta in s t h a t

w idespread "muddling thro u g h " w i l l y i e l d an e c o l o g i c a l s o c i e t y t h a t

employs a p p r o p r i a t e te c h n o lo g y . A l l th e r e a d e r must do i s endure a

lo n g , c o n fu s in g , and sometimes p a i n f u l r i d e .

T h is s o r t of approach i n v i t e s p a s s iv e m a la d a p ta tio n . Emery (1977,

pp. 31-47) c l a s s i f i e s th e s e as s u p e r f i c i a l i t y , s e g m e n ta tio n , and

d isso c ia tio n . The id e a of d i s j o i n t e d i n c r e m e n t a l i s t s i s t h a t w ith o u t

m eddling s o c i a l l e a r n i n g w i l l e v e n t u a l l y o c c u r , i f i t can occur a t a l l .

T h is i s an arguement c u r i o u s l y l i k e tho se of l a i s s e z f a i r e econom ists

 147

promoting an a b s o l u t e l y f r e e m arket. In t h i s view, s o c ie t y w i l l be b e s t

o f f i f people concern th em selv es w ith t r i v i a l i t i e s ( s u p e r f i c i a l i t y ) ;

working on sm a ll problems amenable to a n a l y s i s ( s e g m e n ta tio n ) ; or

w ith d raw al i n t o secluded w orlds where meaning can s t i l l e x i s t

(d isso c ia tio n ). The n o ti o n i s t h a t b ig th i n g s w i l l ta k e care of

th e m selv es through c o l l e c t i v e p a in and d i s j o i n t e d in c re m en talism .

In c o n t r a s t , norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m a s s e r t s a v e ry d i f f e r e n t

p ro sp ect. I t p o s i t s t h a t p eo ple can e n ac t fundamental change

p u r p o s e f u lly , b efo re a n a c t u a l c a t a s t r o p h e ; but t h a t p u r p o s e f u l

a d a p t a t i o n need not be s y n o p tic . These changes can be modest i n s c a l e

and r a d i c a l i n n a t u r e . They w i l l be dram atic but not u to p i a n .

T h is i s more in a c c o rd w i t h th e id e a of a c t i v e a d a p t a ti o n form ulated

by Emery and T r i s t (1 97 3), Emery (1977), Sachs and Meditz (1980), and

Ozbekhan (196 9)(19 71 )(1 97 3). Normative in crem en talism r a i s e s the

p r o s p e c t of r a d i c a l change d e v elo p in g p u r p o s e f u lly ; between d i v e r g e n t

f a c t i o n s to c r e a t e a d e s i r e d f u t u r e . T h is i s n o t l i m i t e d only to

r e a c t i v e e f f o r t a f t e r c a t a s t r o p h i c change. I n s t e a d , r a d i c a l change i s

c o n c e iv a b le p r o a c t i v e l y , i n resp o n se to lo n g e r time spans and more

a b s t r a c t v a lu e s .

D e s p ite t h e i r n o n -s y n o p tic s i m i l a r i t y , no rm ative in c re m en talism and

d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m c a s t d i f f e r e n t i m p lic a tio n s f o r a d a p tiv e

a c tio n . They a r e not j u s t a l t e r n a t i v e a b s t r a c t c o n c e p ts , but d iv e rg e n t

in ju n c tio n s. Each invokes d i f f e r e n t b eh av io r f o r managing amid s o c i e t a l

tu r b u l e n c e . Those ad h e rin g t o d i s j o i n t e d in c re m en talism w i l l tend t o

ta k e m alad ap tiv e app ro ach es. People s e e in g the p o s s i b i l i t y of norm ative

 148

in c re m e n ta lis m w i l l be more d isp o sed towards a c t i v e a d a p t a t i o n t h a t i s

nonrsyn o p t i c .

N orm ative I n c r em entalism A n d Adapti v e Pl a n n in g

The n e x t s e c t i o n of t h i s c h a p te r e x p lo re s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between

n o rm ativ e in c re m en talism and v a r io u s approaches to a d a p tiv e p la n n in g .

F i r s t , n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m i s lik e n e d to two complementary t h e o r i e s

a t the h e a r t of the a c t i v e a d a p t a t i o n approach: th e model of d i r e c t i v e

c o r r e l a t i o n (Sommerhoff, 1950) and th e model of p u rp o s e f u l systems

(A ckoff and Emery, 1972). These a r e b o th invoked to d i s t i n g u i s h and

j u s t i f y a c t i v e a d a p tiv e p la n n in g from d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m o r

m a s te r p la n n in g . A f t e r t h i s , no rm ative in c re m en talism i s compared w ith

a v a r i e t y of s p e c i f i c a c t i v e a d a p tiv e p la n n in g ap p ro ac h es.

N orm ative In c re m e n ta lis m and D i r e c t i v e C o r r e l a t i o n

Sommerhoff's (1950) concept o f d i r e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n i s f r e q u e n t ly

evoked to q u a l i f y and j u s t i f y a d a p t iv e p lanning (Emery and T r i s t , 1973)

(Emery, 1977). The concept of d i r e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n l e g i t i m a t e s

p la n n in g t h a t chooses ends ( f o c a l c o n d i tio n s ) and changes system o r

environm ent ( c o e n e t i c v a r i a b l e s ) .

P ro g ram atic themes r e p r e s e n t d e s i r e d f u t u r e improvement. Normative

in c re m e n ta lis m i s t h e r e f o r e d riv e n by a d e s i r e d f u t u r e , though t h i s

d e s i r e i s expressed a s a sim ple theme. T h is s i m p l i c i t y can be

m i s l e a d i n g , i n s o f a r a s the d e s ir e d change im plied i s e s s e n t i a l l y

ra d ic a l.

As a d e s i r e d f u t u r e change th e p rogram atic theme can be c a l l e d a

d e s i r e d f u t u r e c o n d i tio n . T h is means i t can be a f o c a l c o n d i t i o n in

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Sommerhoff's s en se of t h e word (1950, pp. 5 9 - 6 0 ). The eq u iv alen c e of

p ro g ram a tic theme w i t h fo c a l c o n d i tio n s u g g e s ts t h a t norm ative

in c re m e n ta lis m i s an i n s t a n c e of t h e more g e n e r a l phenomenon c a l l e d

d i r e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n (Sommerhoff, 1950, 1969). T his im p lie s t h a t

norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m can a r i s e from p a s s iv e o r a c t i v e b e h a v io r (s e e

Emery and T r i s t , 1973, pp. 7 - 8 ) . Normative in c re m en talism t h e r e f o r e

need n o t be prompted by an im pinging s tim u lu s , i t can a l s o be i n i t i a t e d

a s an a c t i v e g o a l-p u r s u in g end eav or. As such i t can be a type of

a d a p tiv e p la n n in g .

Normative Increm ent a li s m and The Pur p o s e f u l Systems_Model

Ackoff and Em ery's (1972) p u rp o s e fu l system s model f u r t h e r advances

Sommerhoff's l e g i t i m a t i o n of te le o lo g y and a c t i v e b e h a v io r. I t i s a ls o

used t o q u a l i f y and j u s t i f y a c t i v e a d a p t iv e p la n n in g (Emery and T r i s t ,

1973) (Emery, 1977).

Normative in c re m e n ta lis m a ls o i s in consonance w ith th e Ackoff and

Emery p u rp o s e fu l system s model (1 9 7 2 ). V is io n and th e programmatic

theme a r e an alogous to an o b j e c t i v e , "a p r e f e r r e d outcome t h a t cannot be

o b ta in e d w i t h i n a s p e c i f i e d time p e r io d b u t can be o b ta in ed over a

lo n g e r time p e rio d " (Ackoff and Emery, 1972, p. 2 4 0 ). This shapes and

c o n s t r a i n s s p e c i f i c change p r o j e c t s . The s p e c i f i c aims of th e s e a c t io n s

approxim ate g o a l s , "a p r e f e r r e d outcome t h a t can be o b ta in e d w ith in a

s p e c i f i e d p e r i o d of tim e" (A ckoff and Emery, 1972, p. 240). B ridging

th e s e d i f f e r e n t time s p a n s , no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m can t h e r e f o r e be a

form of p u r p o s e f u l b e h a v io r.
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In a d d i t i o n , norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m can accommodate i d e a l s e e k in g .

When th e programmatic theme e x p re s s e s a q u a l i t y t h a t can be e n d le s s ly

improved, such as q u a l i t y of working l i f e , i t approaches embracing an

i d e a l , "an o b j e c t i v e t h a t cannot b e o b tain ed i n any time p erio d b u t can

be approached w ith o u t l i m i t " (Ackoff and Emery, 1972, p. 2 4 1 ). T h is

i n d i c a t e s t h a t normative in c re m e n ta lis m can be a v e h i c l e f o r

i d e a l - s e e k i n g b e h a v io r , and h e n c e , a c t i v e a d a p tiv e p la n n in g .

Normative in c re m e n ta lis m f i t s as an i n s t a n c e of p u rp o s e fu l b e h a v i o r .

But i t a ls o d i f f e r s from t h e p u r p o s e f u l system s model. Although i t i s

i n consonance w ith th e d e f i n i t i o n s of t h e model, t h e concept of

no rm ative in c re m e n ta lis m h a s a d i f f e r e n t t e x t u r e and f e e l . Ackoff and

Em ery's (1972 ) e x p o s i t i o n of the p u rp o s e fu l systems model i s c o n c is e ,

o r d e r l y , r i g o r o u s , and com prehensive. I n a word, i t i s s y n o p tic . This

can le a d to th e assum ption t h a t p u r p o s e f u l b e h a v io r must be e q u a lly

o r d e r l y ; t h a t a d a p tiv e planning can emerge o n ly i f people engage i n

c o r r e s p o n d in g ly o r d e r l y , c o n c is e , e x p l i c i t , r i g o r o u s and comprehensive

p r o c e d u re s .

Normative in c re m e n ta lis m h i n t s t h a t t h i s need n o t be th e c a s e . It

r e v e a l s t h a t an a p p a r e n tly r a g - t a g p ro cess can a lso give r i s e to

p u r p o s e f u l change ( i t ' s j u s t t h a t the purpose becomes known as a c t i o n

and f i t t i n g ta k e s p l a c e ) . This i n d i c a t e s t h a t p u rp o s e fu l b e h a v io r can

be n o n - s y n o p tic . C oncise, r i g o r o u s d e s c r i p t i o n of p u r p o s e f u l b e h a v io r

does n o t imply t h a t th e same degree of o r d e r l i n e s s i s a c t u a l l y r e q u i r e d

t o behave p u r p o s e f u lly .

Normative in c re m e n ta lis m has now been shown to c o rre s p o n d w ith two

m ajor models used to d i s t i n g u i s h and j u s t i f y a c t i v e a d a p tiv e p la n n in g .

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This i n d i c a t e s t h a t n orm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m can p ro vide a v e h ic le f o r

a c t i v e a d a p tiv e p la n n in g . However, t h e n o n - s y n o p tic , in c re m e n ta l

c h a r a c t e r of norm ative in c re m en talism makes i t much l e s s o r d e r l y and

comprehensive th a n th e p r e v a i l i n g image of p u rp o s e fu l systems (Ackoff

and Emery, 1972). I t i s t h e r e f o r e l i k e l y t h a t norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m

w i l l have b o th s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s w ith e s t a b l i s h e d approaches

to systems p la n n in g . Convergence and d i s j u n c t i o n w ith s p e c i f i c methods

a r e now review ed.

Normative In c re m e n ta lis m And Normative P lan n in g

Ozbekhan i s one of th e f i r s t to a d v o ca te a c t i v e a d a p t a t i o n through

norm ative systems change. He d ev elops th e concept of a g e n e r a l

p a r t i c i p a t i v e plan n in g methodology which i s u l t i m a t e l y gu id ed by

norm ative p la n n in g (1 9 6 9 )(1 9 7 1 )(1 9 7 3 )(1 9 7 7 ).

S p e c i f i c a l l y , Ozbekhan o u t l i n e s a method of p lan n in g i n which

norm ative d e s i r e f o r a q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t f u t u r e ( n o t j u s t a l i n e a r

e x t r a p o l a t i o n of e x i s t i n g t r e n d s ) i s h a rn e s s e d to d r iv e s t r a t e g i c and

t a c t i c a l p la n n in g . Ozbekhan i s c o n tin u in g t o develop and r e f i n e t h i s

ap p ro ac h . I t s o v e r a l l p r o f i l e a t the c u r r e n t time i s e x e m p lifie d by th e

method employed by him f o r , p l a n n i n g th e f u t u r e of P a r i s (1977). This

can be d iv id e d i n t o fo u r m ajor p hases:

I. The R eference P r o j e c t i o n (1977, pp. 528-533)

The p ro b lem atiq u e f a c i n g a system i s d e f in e d , and an image i s

d e p ic te d of th e l o g i c a l f u t u r e t h a t w i l l u n f o ld i f no th in g
e s s e n t i a l l y chang es. Three major s t e p s a r e un dertaken h e r e :
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P ercep tion _ of The C u r re n t S i t u a t i o n

• The n e s t e d system b e in g p lanned f o r i s mapped. T h is

in v o l v e s d e f in i n g t h e b o u n d a rie s and components
( s t r u c t u r a l and f u n c t i o n a l ) of th e core system b ein g
planned f o r , and i t s surrou nd in g t r a n s a c t i o n a l and
c o n t e x t u a l environm ent.

Major i n t e r a c t i o n between elem ents i n system and

environm ent a r e th e n c a r e f u l l y a n a ly z e d . S p e c ia l
a t t e n t i o n i s given to developments t h a t embody s e r i o u s
d is s o n a n c e s . These a r e summerized i n th e form of a
Base D issonance M a trix , which demands s c r u t i n y of
p o l i t i c a l , econom ic, and s o c i o - c u l t u r a l developments
f o r each system l e v e l (s y ste m i n t e r n a l environm ent,
system t r a n s a c t i o n a l environm ent, system c o n te x tu a l
e n v iro n m en t).

• T h is r e f o r m u l a te s i n i t i a l d i s q u i e t i n t o a more
a r t i c u l a t e map of th e complex p ro b lem atiq u e fa c in g a
system .

P r o j e c t i ons of Base D issonances

The snapshot provided by base disso nance a n a l y s i s i s

extended forw ard in t o time, by p r o j e c t i n g i t ahead i n t o
th e lo n g - te rm ( i . e . 30 y e a r s ) .

• T h is a n a l y s i s i s guided by a P r o j e c t i v e Dissonance
M a trix , which a g a in makes e x p l i c i t th e r i g o r of
s c r u t i n i z i n g p o l i t i c a l , econom ic, and s o c i o - c u l t u r a l
im p a c ts a c ro s s a l l system l e v e l s .

A nalyzing th e c ro s s - im p a c t e f f e c t s of th e s e tre n d s
r e v e a l s a number of new i n t e n s e d is s o n a n c e s , ones t h a t
w i l l grow i f no new p o l i c i e s a r e u n d e rta k e n .

Images of L o g ic a l F u tu r e s

These i n t e n s e , p r o j e c t e d d is s o n a n c e s a r e s y n th e s iz e d
i n t o a s c e n a r i o ( o r s c e n a r i o s ) of ev en ts t h a t w i l l take
p l a c e w i t h no new i n t e r v e n t i o n s . T h is i s a p o r t r a i t of
t h e l o g i c a l f u t u r e , th e f u t u r e t h a t w i l l e x i s t i f human
purpose i s no t e x e r t e d .

• T h is l o g i c a l f u t u r e i s e n t i r e l y u n r e a l , because people
w i l l n o t remain i n e r t . However, t h i s image i s a l s o
w holly d i s a s t r o u s , which can serv e to m o tiv a te peop le f o r
a lo n g -te rm good. I t a n t i c i p a t e s c a t a s tr o p h e to m o b iliz e
in itia tiv e . F u rtherm ore, i t e n l a r g e s th e o r i g i n a l
p i c t u r e of th e c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n , r e v e a l i n g a
p ro b le m a tiq u e , w ith a l a t e n t s t r u c t u r e t h a t i s sy stem ic;
one t h a t w i l l r e q u i r e c o r r e s p o n d in g ly system ic change.
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II. The Normat i ve P la n (1977, pp. 533-535)

The only way t o manage the problem atique i s through c r e a t i n g a

d i f f e r e n t f u t u r e . T h is r e q u i r e s design of f u t u r e system s t a t e s
t h a t people d e s i r e .

• T h is m ust be u n d e rta k e n a t two l e v e l s of te le o lo g y :

i d e a l ends (which can n ev er be f u l l y ach ie v e d ) and
p u rp o s e fu l o b j e c t i v e s , vdiich a r e d eriv e d from i d e a l s
and which a re f u l l y a t t a i n a b l e o n ly beyond th e plan n in g
h o riz o n .

• T h is p ro v id e s a p u r p o s e f u l, norm ative c o n te x t t h a t
inform s subsequent s t r a t e g i c and t a c t i c a l p la n n in g
(b o th of which p la n developments t h a t can be achieved
d u rin g t h e p la n n in g h o r i z o n ) .

I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f valu ed ends allow s i l l u m i n a t i o n of a

"p o lic y gap". T h is i s the d i f f e r e n c e between th e
d e s ir e d f u t u r e and th e l o g i c a l f u t u r e .

• This p o l i c y gap i s u s e d to i n s p i r e and inform c o n sc io u s

design of a l t e r n a t i v e f u t u r e s . These a r e d i f f e r e n t
norm ative s c e n a rio s f o r how th e e n t i r e n e s te d system
could be changed i f people d e s ir e d i t . T h is allow s
e x p l i c i t im a g in a tiv e r e h e a r s a l of d i f f e r e n t f u t u r e s .

F i n a l l y , a com posite f u t u r e s c e n a rio i s c o n s t r u c t e d ,

from which the s e l e c t e d f u t u r e of th e whole nested
system i s e x p l i c i t l y chosen.

E l u c i d a t i o n of t h i s v alu e base can proceed v ia an

a p p r o p r i a t e m ethod. One approach i s to employ
c o n s t r u c t i o n of an i d e a l i z e d s c e n a r io ( s e e l a t e r
d e s c r i p t i o n of A c k o f f 's p lanning approach on p. 158). In
th e P a r i s P r o j e c t , i t proved more e f f i c i e n t to u se
in te r v ie w s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of survey d a t a ( s e e
Ozbekhan, 1977, p. 5 3 3 ).

III. The S t r a t e g i c P l an (1977, pp. 535-543)

In l i g h t of th e d e s i r e d f u t u r e , s p e c i f i c means needed to
pursue o b j e c t i v e s a r e i d e n t i f i e d ( i . e . g o a ls , p o l i c i e s ,
and program s).

• This i s done fo r a l l r e l e v a n t s e c t o r s of th e n e s te d
system being p lanned f o r . Sometimes s p e c i f i c
dim ensions a r e l e f t alon e to a llo w them o p p o r tu n ity
to m atu re w i t h i n th e frame of o t h e r outcomes ( i . e .
the s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s of P a r i s i n l i g h t of new
emergent economic and p o l i t i c a l f u n c t i o n s ) ( s e e
Ozbekhan, 1977, p. 543)
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• T h is employs more t r a d i t i o n a l to o l s of p la n n in g (but

renewed and informed by th e c o n te x t of O zbekhan's
in n o v a tiv e methods f o r r e f e r e n c e p r o j e c t i o n and
norm ative p la n n in g ) .

IV. T a c t i c a l P la n n in g

S p e c i f i c measures can now be fo rm u lated to implement each

stra te g y .

• T h is in v o lv e s r e s o u r c e a l l o c a t i o n , r e o r g a n i z a t i o n ,
and d esig n of new i n s t i t u t i o n s ; s p e c i f i c s te p s to
make s t r a t e g i e s happen.

I t a lso in v o lv e s c o n t r o l , i n which feedback of

t a c t i c a l performance i s used to b e t t e r implement
stra te g y .

This p la n n in g method, developed by Ozbekhan, i s n o t a o n e-sh o t a f f a i r .

R a th e r , a f t e r t a c t i c a l p la n n in g ta k e s p la c e , th e e n t i r e c y c le s t a r t s

a g a in , w ith Phase I employed to update th e r e f e r e n c e p r o j e c t t h a t a r i s e s

from changing c o n d itio n s . Next, Phase I I r e f o r m u l a t e s p e o p l e 's d e s ir e d

ends (which c o n t i n u a l l y ch a n g e ). This le a d s to need fo r new s t r a t e g i c

and t a c t i c a l p la n n in g . R e p e t i t i o n around th e loop c r e a t e s a c o n tin u o u s

pla n n in g p r o c e s s , i n which th e o v e r a l l p ro c e s s i s more im p o rtan t than

any p a r t i c u l a r t r a n s i t i o n a l p ro d u c t.

O zbekhan's development of th e norm ative p la n n in g p ro cess i s a major

b re a k th ro u g h . I t s p e c i f i e s a g e n e r a l method f o r people to r ig o r o u s ly

plan t h e i r f u t u r e i n a way t h a t s t r e s s e s a c t i v e a d a p t a t i o n and no rm ativ e

change.

The method of no rm ativ e p la n n in g i s s y n o p tic . I t a tte m p ts to engage

p eople in an o r d e r l y , s te p w is e , r ig o r o u s method f o r e x p l i c i t l y r e d e s ig n ­

ing t h e i r e n t i r e system . A c t i v i t y proceeds through d i s t i n c t p h ases (a

c y c le t h a t i s r e p e a te d a g a in and a g a in to keep i t u p d a te d ); i t i s
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a n a l y t i c a l l y s e q u e n t i a l i n s o f a r a s one completed s ta g e inform s th e n e x t .

T h is i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F ig u r e 5 . 3 on t h e fo llo w in g page.

T his does not mean t h a t normative p la n n in g i s r i g i d o r i n f l e x i b l e .

Q u ite t h e c o n tra ry i s the case. S p e c i f i c p i e c e s of ' i t may be a l t e r e d to

match t h e s i t u a t i o n a t h and ; f o r example th e a l t e r n a t i v e use o f

i n t e r v ie w s and survey s d u rin g t h e P a r i s P r o j e c t , and th e allow ance f o r

emergent new s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s i n P a r i s , i n s t e a d of an i n i t i a l d e t a i l e d

d e s ig n .

But on b a la n c e , the p ro c e s s o f norm ative p la n n in g has a more

o r d e r l y , r ig o r o u s , and e x p l i c i t c h a r a c t e r th a n a p r o c e s s l i k e no rm ative

in c re m e n ta lis m . For example, norm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m avoids e x p l i c i t

f o c u s on re d e s ig n in g the whole system , even though i t seeks to

e v e n t u a l l y have an impact on an e n t i r e n e s te d system and th e

pro b lem atiq u e fa c in g i t . Normative p la n n in g , on th e o t h e r hand,

e x p l i c i t l y a d d r e s s e s a whole n e s te d system and i t s e x p l i c i t r e d e s ig n

from t h e s t a r t of Phase I . Another im p o r ta n t c o n t r a s t i s in th e a r e a of

o rd erlin ess. Normative p la n n in g proceeds th ro u g h o r d e r l y s t e p s .

Com pletion of each phase le a d s t o , and inform s the n e x t. Under

n o rm ativ e in c re m en talism t h e r e i s no o r d e r l y sequence of e v e n ts . Many

key elem ents t h a t a r e p a r t of n o rm ativ e p lanning may o ccu r amid

n o rm ativ e in c re m en talism ( i . e . a p p r e c i a t i o n o f a l o g i c a l f u t u r e ,

w eighing of a l t e r n a t i v e norm ativ e s c e n a r io s e t c . ) ; bu t a t b e s t they ta k e

p la c e in f o r m a l l y , t a c i t l y , and n o t in a s ta n d a r d , a n a l y t i c a l l y

s e q u e n t i a l o r d e r ( i . e . t h e r e i s no s e r i e s of phases to c y c le back

throug h i n an o r d e r l y f a s h i o n ) . Thus t h e advancement of norm ativ e

in c re m e n ta lis m may in c o r p o r a t e p ie c e s o f norm ative p la n n in g , b u t they

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F ig u re 5 .3

S tep s of th e Normative P la n n in g P ro cess

(Ozbekhan, 1977, p. 54)

 157

a r e in c o m p le te , u n c le a r and d i s o r d e r l y . The o v e r a l l process i n which

they o c c u r , and hence t h e i r c h a r a c t e r , i s d i f f e r e n t . Normative planning

i s s y n o p tic (b u t n o t i n f l e x i b l e ) . Normative in c re m e n ta lis m i s non­

s y n o p tic (b u t not n e c e s s a r i l y u n re a s o n a b le ) . Both approach es t r y to

evoke a c t i v e a d a t a t i o n through no rm ative change, but th e y do so i n

d i f f e r e n t f a s h io n s .

Beyond h e a d in g i n th e same g e n e ra l d i r e c t i o n , t h e r e i s a more

e s s e n t i a l a f f i n i t y betw een norm ative p lanning and normative

in c re m e n ta lis m ; they have common r o o t s . Ozbekhan, i n developing

norm ative p la n n in g , was one of th e f i r s t to r a i s e id e a s t h a t a r e a ls o

e s s e n t i a l to th e co ncept of n orm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m .

F o r example, Ozbekhan was one contemporary p la n n e r to propose t h a t

f u ndamen t a l change b etween v a l u e s i s e s s e n t i a l f o r a d a p t a ti o n amid

tu r b u l e n c e , and t h a t t h i s g o es beyond th e more u s u a l n o tio n of changing

i n d i v i d u a l v a lu e s (1969, pp. 9 3 -9 9 ) . He m a in ta in s t h a t :

". . . any change t h a t i s not a fundam ental change i n v a l u e s merely

extends th e p r e s e n t r a t h e r th a n c r e a tin g t h e f u t u r e . . . . Only
change i n t he o v e r a l l c o n fi g u r a t i o n of v a lu e s changes th e p r e s e n t
s i t u a t i o n (1969, p. 93).

T h is i s a c l e a r p r e c u r s o r to th e id e a of norm ative eco lo g y developed

h e re ; t h a t i t i s e s s e n t i a l to deal w i t h th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s p o s ite d

between v a l u e s , t h e i r " o v e r a l l c o n f i g u r a t i o n " , n o t j u s t v a lu e s

th e m selv es.

S p e c i f i c a l l y , Ozbekhan proposes need f o r a fu n d am e n tally new norm,

one s t r e s s i n g b a la n c e between "m utual d e te r m in a tio n , co m p lem e n tarity ,

and c o m p e titiv e n e s s " (1969, p. 1 4 6 ). He fo rm u lates t h i s as a norm of

" e c o l o g i c a l b alan ce" (1969, p. 146). T h is a p p l i e s to a l l complex

system s w ith e co sy stem ic c o m p le x ity , n o t j u s t t o p e o p l e 's r e l a t i o n s w ith

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the n a t u r a l environm ent. I t does not fa v o r any s i n g l e e x i s t i n g norm,

but in s te a d a d d r e s s e s b a la n c in g t h e r e l a t i o n s between a l l of them.

A ccording to Ozbekhan, th e norm of e c o l o g i c a l b a la n c e :

". . . does n o t d is p la c e or e l im i n a te t r a d i t i o n a l o n es, but i t does

in tr o d u c e a new c o n f i g u r a t i o n in to the norm ative scheme and th e re b y
r e d e f i n e s them and changes t h e i r v a lu e c o n te n t (1969, p. 14 7 ).

T h is th ou gh t b re a k s ground f o r t h e id e a of re fra m in g , t h a t working to

change th e r e l a t i o n a l c o n te x t of d iv e r g e n tly f a c t i o n a t e d v alu es i s a

v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e to c h a lle n g in g s p e c i f i c v a lu e s head-on. Ozbekhan i s

among th e f i r s t to s t r e s s t h i s s o r t of c o n t e x tu a l approach, p a r t i c u l a r l y

i n th e realm of w i l f u l s o c i e t a l change.

Thus, th e concep t of no rm ative in c re m e n ta lis m i s based upon some o f

th e same id e a s t h a t Ozbekahan developed to b u i l d t h e approach of

no rm ative p la n n in g . This s h a r e d fo u n d a tio n i s Ozbekhan's e c o l o g i c a l

v i s i o n , s t i p u l a t i n g t h e need f o r change i n th e o v e r a l l c o n f i g u r a t i o n of

v alu es.

Normative p lann in g and normative in c re m en talism t h e r e f o r e s h a re the

same g e n e ra l d i r e c t i o n (tow ards a c t i v e a d a p t a ti o n ) and c e r t a i n key id e a s

ab out th e need f o r changing th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een v a lu e s in s te a d of

j u s t v a lu e s th e m s e lv e s . Because of t h e s e g e n e r a l u n d e rly in g

c o m p a r a b i l i t i e s , t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e i r sy n o p tic and non rsy n o p tic

approaches i s perhaps complementary; e a c h may be seen as a d i f f e r e n t

s p e c i f i c way to pursue th e same g e n e r a l th in g ( a c t i v e a d a p t a ti o n t h a t

changes c o n f i g u r a t i o n s of v a l u e s ) . But Ozbekhan's pro cess i s more

o r d e r l y , r i g o r o u s , and e x p l i c i t .
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Normative Increm entalism And I d e a l i z a t i o n

Ackoff proposes i d e a l i z a t i o n , o r i d e a l i z e d p la n n in g , a s a means of

overcoming se lf-im p o s e d c o n s t r a i n t s i n o r d e r to produce a w i l l e d f u t u r e

(1970)(1978)(A ckoff e t . a l . , 1976). The b a s ic id e a i s to in v o lv e many

people i n r e in v e n tin g th e system b ein g planned f o r (s e e A ckoff, 1970, p.

59). This p rece d es s t r a t e g i c and o p e r a t i o n a l p la n n in g .

T his p ro c e s s aims to produce two p r o d u c ts . One i s an i d e a l i z e d

d e s ig n . This i s an e x p l i c i t , d e t a i l e d r e - d e s ig n o f a system. It sta rts

from s c r a t c h and proceeds under only two c o n s t r a i n t s , t h a t (1 ) th e

d e s ig n may n o t in v o lv e any techno lo gy now known to be f e a s i b l e , and (2)

th e system designed must be o p e r a t i o n a l l y v i a b l e (A ckoff, e t . a l . , 1976,

pp. 6 - 7 ) . T h is i d e a l i z e d d e sig n w i l l q u ic k ly become outmoded, a s b o th

p e o p l e 's d e s i r e s and th e w ider environm ent change. Updated i t e r a t i o n s

a r e to be made as p a r t i c i p a n t s w ish ; t h i s i s p a r t o f ongoing p la n n in g .

I d e a l i z a t i o n ' s o t h e r major p ro d u c t i s an i d e a l - s e e k i n g system o f peop le

who have been through th e p r o c e s s . They w i l l c o n tin u e to p a r t i c i p a -

t i v e l y r e f i n e and r e d e f i n e t h e i r system through th e i d e a l i z a t i o n

p la n n in g p r o c e s s .

I d e a l i z a t i o n aims to make p la n n in g p r o a c t i v e , t o c r e a t e a f u t u r e

i n s t e a d o f p r e d i c t i n g some l i n e a r e x t r a p o l a t i o n o f th e p r e s e n t .

P roponents of i d e a l i z a t i o n c la im i t i n c r e a s e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n because no

e s o t e r i c s k i l l s a r e r e q u ir e d to d e f in e norm ative change. I t i s also

claim ed t h a t suspending t h e s t a t u s quo removes c o n s t r a i n t s , and indu ces

more c r e a t i v i t y by w idening p a r t i c i p a n t s ' c o n c e p tio n of f e a s i b l e

o p ti o n s . I t i s a l s o argued t h a t w id espread p a r t i c i p a t i o n te n d s to
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g e n e ra te consensus and encourage a p p r e c i a t i o n of a l a r g e r good t h a t runs

above narrow s e c t o r i a l i n t e r e s t s (See A ckoff, e t . a l . , 1976, pp. 8 -1 1 ).

P roceeding i n th e same a c t i v e a d a p tiv e d i r e c t i o n , i d e a l i z a t i o n and

no rm ative in c re m en talism embark upon d i f f e r e n t r o u t e s . They take

a l t e r n a t e ways to g e t where t h e y 'r e going . S p e c ific a lly , id e a liz e d

d e s ig n i s s y n o p tic , norm ativ e in c re m en talism i s n o n -s y n o p tic .

I d e a l i z a t i o n i s a com prehensive, o r d e r l y , s e q u e n t i a l , r ig o r o u s

p la n n in g p r o c e s s . In i d e a l i z a t i o n :

- The e n t i r e system i s re d e s ig n e d from s c r a t c h , w ith a f a i r amount

o f d e t a i l . This d e s ir e d outcome i s d e f in e d i t e r a t i v e l y , so t h a t
i t becomes more and more c l e a r .

- Im plem entation p la n n in g fo llo w s t h i s c l a r i f i c a t i o n . S p e c i f i c

s te p s a r e fo rm u la te d t h a t w i l l move people towards ap proxim atin g
th e i d e a l system .

- There i s c a r e f u l m onito ring and feedback o f each s t e p , t o spot

d e v i a tio n s e a r l y . Each s t e p can be re fo rm u la te d i f n e c e s s a r y .

- E v e n tu a lly , th e whole p lan i s updated as th e p ro cess beg ins

a n o th e r c y c le ( s e e A ckoff, 1974, pp. 2 8 -3 1 ).

I d e a l i z a t i o n a d d re s s e s th e whole system , r e d e s ig n s i t from s c r a t c h , and

p roceeds to take c a r e f u l s t e p s towards t h i s d e s i r e d f u t u r e . T his i s a

s y n o p tic p r o c e s s ; i t i s a n a l y t i c a l l y s e q u e n t i a l , e x p l i c i t , and r i g o r o u s .

In c o n t r a s t , n orm ative in c re m en talism i s much l e s s o r d e r ly and

p recise. In norm ative in c re m e n ta lism :

- I n i t i a l v i s i o n rem ains u n c l e a r . T his d e s ir e d change a d d re s s e s

only one a s p e c t of th e e x i s t i n g system . There i s no w h o le s a le
r e d e s ig n . C u rren t f a c t i o n s and u n i t s a r e p r o te c te d and confirm ed .
R a d ical change i s im plied only i n d i r e c t l y .

- A ctio n i s ta k e n b e fo re t h i s v i s i o n i s c l e a r . In f a c t , a c t i o n
becomes an i n t e g r a l avenue to d is c o v e r in g what th e d e s i r e d change
a c t u a l l y means and a c t u a l l y im p lie s .

- P lan n in g and assessm en t of a c t i o n i s in fo rm al and n o n - s y s te m a tic .

Normative in c re m e n ta lis m a d d r e s s e s one a s p e c t of th e e x i s t i n g system

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u n c l e a r l y , i t does n o t d i r e c t l y c h a lle n g e the s t a t u s quo, i t a c t s b e fo re

peo p le know what t h e y ' r e d oing, and i t manages a c t i o n w ith l i t t l e r i g o r .

Compared to i d e a l i z a t i o n , t h i s i s a n o n - s y n o p tic p ro c e s s ; i t i s

a n a l y t i c a l l y n o n - s e q u e n t i a l , u n c l e a r , and d i s o r d e r l y .

Thus, w h ile i d e a l i z a t i o n and norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m both t r y to

evoke a c t i v e a d a p t a t i o n , th e y go about i t very d i f f e r e n t l y . Each h as a

d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r w h ile th e y work in t h e same d i r e c t i o n . This

s u g g e s ts t h a t i d e a l i z a t i o n and normative in c re m en talism a r e d i f f e r e n t

ways of a t te m p tin g t h e same g e n e r a l t h i n g (a p o i n t c l a r i f i e d l a t e r i n

th i s ch ap ter).

Normative In c re m e n ta lis m And C y b ern etic Systems P lan n in g

Beer (1969) o u t l i n e s a c y b e r n e tic approach t o systems p la n n in g .

T h is approach, l i k e n orm ative systems planning and i d e a l i z e d systems

d e s ig n , i s :

- A n aly tically s e q u e n tia l: each s t e p fo llo w s com pletion of p revio us

l e v e l s of c o n s i d e r a t i o n . With c a r e f u l feedback on im plem entation.

- N orm ative: th e c o n t r o l l i n g l e v e l of d i s c r e t i o n i s e x e r c is e d a t
th e norm ative l e v e l o f a d e s ir e d f u t u r e .

- I t e r a t i v e : no p la n i s co n sid e re d f i n a l , i n s t e a d th e c y c le of
p la n n in g begins a g a in as p a s t p lans r e q u i r e u p d atin g .

This i s an o r d e r l y , c l e a r s y n o p tic p la n n in g p ro c e s s . A lso, i t i s

e x p l i c i t l y sy stem ic, a d d r e s s in g t h e whole system r i g h t from t h e s t a r t .

Normative in c re m e n ta lis m r e l a t e s w ith c y b e r n e tic systems p la n n in g

much a s i t does w ith n orm ative planning and i d e a l i z e d d e s ig n . Normative

in c re m e n ta lis m i s l e s s s y n o p tic , and l e s s e x p l i c i t l y s y s te m ic , w hile i t

a l s o p u rsu es a c t i v e a d a p t a t i o n v i a norm ative change.

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N ormative I ncreme n t a l ism And Se a r ch C onferencing

A n other r e c e n t l y ad vo ca ted method of a d a p tiv e planning i s search

c o n f e r e n c in g (M. Emery, 1976)(Emery & Emery, 1976)(F. E. Emery, 1977)

(W illiam s, 1979). A s e a rc h c o n f e re n c e i s a planning ev e n t in v o lv in g

numerous system s t a k e h o l d e r s . I t u s u a l l y l a s t s two d ay s. D uring t h i s

tim e people search f o r " th e im p l i c a t i o n s of sensed changes i n t h e i r

sh a re d env ironm ents" (Emery, 1977, p. 1 3 1 ).

The focus of search c o n fe re n c e d e l i b e r a t i o n s proceeds from th e

o u ts id e i n ; from c o n s i d e r a t i o n of en v iro n m e n ta l change down through th e

t a s k environm ent to th e f o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n being planned f o r . Whenever

p o s s i b le t h i s i s done under s o c i a l i s l a n d c o n d i t i o n s , away from th e

demands of everyday s o c i a l r e a l i t y . The s t a f f f u n c tio n s u n o b tr u s iv e ly ,

f a c i l i t a t i n g th e pro cess w h ile keeping ow nership c l e a r l y i n th e hands of

th e p a r t i c i p a n t s .

As w ith o th e r a d a p tiv e p la n n in g ap p ro ac h es, t h e r e i s a l a r g e degree

o f consonance between norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m and s e a r c h i n g . Both

approaches a tte m p t to move people i n t o w i l l i n g a q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t

fu tu re . And b o th in v o lv e a r a t h e r d i s o r d e r l y , n o n -s y n o p tic p r o c e s s .

Beyond t h i s , norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m im p lie s t h a t s e a r c h i n g i t s e l f

i s no t enough. I t i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t to g e n e r a te r a d i c a l change between

e x istin g fa c tio n s. A l a r g e r p ro c e s s i s need e d , one in c lu d in g v i s i o n ,

a c t i o n , and th e m a tic f i t t i n g . S earching e x p l i c i t l y c a l l s f o r th e f i r s t

of t h e s e , and perhaps some of th e seco n d , but n o t f o r a l l t h r e e

to g e th e r.

Emery and Emery (1976, pp. 173-175) i n d i c a t e a s i m i l a r judgment.

They b e g in to r e d e f i n e s earch c o n fe re n c in g a s p a r t of a l a r g e r p ro c e s s
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of s o c i a l change in v o lv in g what th e y c a l l m a trix o r g a n i z a t i o n , o r organ­

i z a t i o n running between o r g a n i z a t i o n s . In t h i s view , s e a r c h c o n fe re n ­

c in g s e r v e s t o pro vide o c c a s i o n a l s t r a t e g i c d i r e c t i o n to a m a trix of

o r g a n i z a t i o n s by fo cu sing on t h e i r shared environm ent. T h is i s c l o s e to

th e concept of n orm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m ( b u t minus some of i t s o th e r

e s s e n t i a l i d e a s such as norm ative sensem aking). A s e r i e s of search

c o n fe re n c e s w ith c o l l a b o r a t i v e a c t i o n between them th rough a m a trix of

o r g a n i z a t i o n s b e g in s to approxim ate norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m . In t h i s

l a r g e r p ro cess o f v i s i o n and a c t i o n , th e s e a r c h c o n fe re n c e begins to

resem ble the f i t t i n g b e h a v io r c a l l e d a r i t u a l ev en t ( s e e p. 8 4 ).

Thus, s e a r c h in g i t s e l f i s i n harmony w ith norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m

bu t i s perhaps not as com p lete. When embedded i n a l a r g e r p ro c e s s of a

m a tr ix o r g a n i z a t i o n , s e a r c h in g beg ins to approxim ate something s i m i l a r

t o norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m , a lth o u g h i t do es s t i c k to a more h ig h ly

p r e d e f in e d sequence of a c t i v i t i e s . What norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m and

s e a r c h in g c l e a r l y s h a re from t h e s t a r t i s a s s e r t i o n t h a t p u r p o s e fu l,

a c t i v e a d a p t a t i o n need n o t be c o n f in e d to c l e a r l y o r d e r e d s y n o p tic

processes.

No rm a tiv e In c re m e n ta lis m And A r t i c u l a t e d In c re m e n ta lis m

To guide th e p ro cess of a d a p tiv e p la n n in g , de Melo (1977) develops a

co n ce p t of a r t i c u l a t e d in c re m e n ta lis m . Under t h i s s t r a t e g y , system s

change o c c u rs s t e p - b y - s t e p , w ith each a c t i o n e v a lu a te d i n term s of

development c r i t e r i a . These c r i t e r i a a r e plann ing g u i d e l i n e s d e riv e d

from th e v a lu e s of s ta k e h o l d e r s t h a t a r t i c u l a t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a

d esired f u tu r e . E x p l i c i t c r i t e r i a allow e v a l u a t i o n of each in c re m e n ta l

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s te p w ith o u t s p e c if y in g an e n t i r e im plem entation d e s ig n . This s t r a t e g y

i s pursued by a m u l t i - o r g a n i z a t i o n , s i m i l a r to a m a tr ix o f o r g a n iz a ti o n s

a s d e fin e d by Emery and T r i s t (1973).

A r t i c u l a t e d in c re m en talism and norm ative increm entalism s h a r e some

key converg ences. Both propose a s t e p - b y - s t e p change p ro cess w ith

em ergent p r o p e r t i e s . And both a s s e r t the fundamental im portance of

d e c e n t r a l i z e d i n i t i a t i v e and a c t i o n .

Normative in c re m en talism a l s o extends i n t o some t e r r i t o r i e s

untouched by th e concept of a r t i c u l a t e d in c re m e n ta lis m . Normative

in c re m e n ta lis m s p o t l i g h t s th e c h a lle n g e of s h i f t i n g t h e l o g i c a l type of

m e d ia tin g r e l a t i o n s h i p between d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s . Because of c o g n i tiv e

o r p o l i t i c a l l i m i t s , t h i s s o r t of change can not be c l e a r l y d e t a i l e d in

advance. R a th e r, u n d e rs ta n d in g develops a f t e r enactm ent.

T h is means t h a t norm ative i n c r e m e n t a l i s t s cannot u t i l i z e what de

Melo c a l l s p la n n in g g u i d e l i n e s . There i s r a r e l y s u f f i c i e n t c l a r i t y to

c o n s t r u c t such y a r d s t i c k s . T h is i s because minimum c r i t i c a l s p e c i f i c a ­

t i o n of a r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t f u t u r e i s o f t e n supremely m inimal; i t i s

l a r g e l y t a c i t and hence n o t a r t i c u l a t e d ( s e e p. 64).

T h e r e f o re , i n s t e a d o f i n t e r i m p la n n in g g u i d e l i n e s , norm ative

in c re m e n ta lis m employs f i t t i n g b e h a v io r s . T h is opens an e n t i r e a r e a

co ncern in g r i t u a l communication and n orm ativ e sensemaking t h a t i s n o t

r e v e a le d by th e concept of a r t i c u l a t e d in c re m e n ta lism .

The two c o n ce p ts o v e r la p , bu t a l s o have t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e f o c i .

A r t i c u l a t e d in c re m e n ta lis m i s probably most u s e f u l where m u l t i p l e

o r g a n i z a t i o n s work upon a predo m in antly t e c h n i c a l accom plishm ent; i n

t h i s s o r t of p u r s u i t i t i s p o s s i b le to d e f in e in te r im p la n n in g
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g u id e lin e s. On th e o th e r h an d , norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m i s perhaps

b e t t e r s u i t e d where m u l t i p l e f a c t i o n s s t r i v e to change t h e i r o v e r a l l

c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f v a lu e s ; i n t h i s e n t e r p r i s e no rm ative sensemaking

s u p e rc e d e s p ro g r e s s iv e s p e c i f i c a t i o n of t e c h n i c a l d e t a i l s .

Normative In c re m e n ta lis m And Log i c a l I n cr e m e n t a l i s m

Quinn (1978) (1980) develops a con cep t of l o g i c a l in c re m e n ta lis m to

e x p l a i n m a jo r s t r a t e g i c change i n l a rg e c o r p o r a t io n s . He m a in ta i n s t h a t

i n most l a r g e f i r m s , s t r a t e g i c change i s no t produced s y n o p t i c a l l y by an

e x p l i c i t , a n a l y t i c a l l y s e q u e n t i a l p la n n in g p r o c e s s .

I n s t e a d , one key e x e c u tiv e in c r e m e n t a lly manages d i f f e r e n t sub­

system s, l a r g e l y on t h e i r own m e r i t s and w i t h d i f f e r e n t s e t s of people.

But the l o g i c a l l y in c re m e n ta l e x e c u tiv e t a c k l e s t h e s e d i s p a r a t e

subsystem s w ith some o v e r a l l p a t t e r n i n h i s o r h e r own mind. There i s

no d e t a i l e d p r e p la n n in g , and o f te n th e e x e c u t i v e 's v i s i o n i s i n i t i a l l y

u n c l e a r , i t m ight g r a d u a l ly become a p p a r e n t to even h im s e lf . If i t s

v i a b l e t h i s s t r a t e g y w i l l be e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d , bu t h i s p u b li c

commitment to i t comes a s l a t e as p o s s i b le to p r e s e rv e room f o r

maneuver.

U nlike d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m , l o g i c a l in c re m en talism somewhat

resem bles an a c t i v e a d a p tiv e p o s tu r e ; i t i s p u r s u i t of a d e s ir e d f u t u r e ,

n o t j u s t muddling th ro u g h ( s e e Quinn, 1978, p. 1 9 ). Like norm ative

in c re m e n ta lis m , t h i s a c t i v e b e h a v io r i s n o n - s y n o p tic ; b o th make s en se

b i t - b y - b i t as i n i t i a l a c t i o n i s ta k e n .

But t h e two co n c e p ts a r e n ot p r e c i s e l y a l i k e . L o g ic a l in c re m e n ta l­

ism i s more m a n ip u la tiv e , i t s l i k e a poker game w i t h b u s i n e s s id e a s

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where th e aim i s to b e t high and l a y down your card s a s l a t e as

p o ssib le . There i s l i t t l e emphasis on dev elop in g a m u tu ally d e f in e d

framework, where a t l e a s t everyone i s e q u a lly u n c le a r about th e n a t u r e

o f change.

T h is gamesman-like emphasis i s a p p r o p r ia te f o r Q u in n's focus upon

l a r g e commercial e n t e r p r i s e s . Here, t h e r e i s a p r i o r i t y i s i d e n t i f y i n g

i n d i v i d u a l e x e c u tiv e s with a v i s i o n th e y a r e supposed to champion. But

when d iv e r g e n t f a c t i o n s c la im t o be e q u a lly s o v e re ig n , i t becomes more

d i f f i c u l t t o propose s o l i t a r y champions f o r in n o v a t i o n . In ste a d , th ere

must be c u l t i v a t i o n of a t r u l y shared framework ( i . e . a w id e ly espoused

th e m e). Normative in c re m e n ta lis m seems most p e r t i n e n t to s i t u a t i o n s

where change must occur between s o v e re ig n f a c t i o n s who must grow t o

e q u a lly s h a r e a v i s i o n (sometimes t h i s w i l l a r i s e i n a commercial

en te rp rise ).

Norm a tiv e In c re m e n ta lis m And Theme S e t I n t e r v e n t i o n

K e id e l (1979) fo rm u la te s a con cep t of theme s e t i n t e r v e n t i o n based

upon h i s e x p e r ie n c e w i t h th e Jamestown A rea Labor-tlanagement Committee.*

T h is i s advocated as an i n t e r v e n t i o n s t r a t e g y a p p r o p r ia te f o r community

red ev e lo p m en t. The e s s e n c e of t h i s s t r a t e g y i s to r e f e r e n c e changes in

s p e c i f i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s to an a r r a y of community-wide themes (K e id e l,

1979, p. 148). These themes d e f i n e s p e c i f i c c a t e g o r i e s of a c t i o n t h a t

an in n o v a tin g o r g a n iz a ti o n i n the community can choose to t a k e , such as

g a i n - s h a r i n g , la y o u t r e d e s ig n , work r e s t r u c t u r i n g , perform ance

* T h is i s one of T r i s t ' s (1979) i n i t i a l examples of in n o v a tin g

o rg a n iz a tio n s.
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development, a d m i n i s t r a t i v e re v ie w , and job b id d in g . A ccording to

K e id e l, community red ev elopm en t proceeds by develo ping s p e c i f i c

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l programs t h a t embody th e s e s o r t s of themes.

T h is con ce p t of i n t e r v e n t i o n s h a re s many s i m i l a r i t i e s w ith norm ative

in c re m e n ta lis m . F i r s t , both ad d ress th e c h a lle n g e of f o s t e r i n g change

between s o v ereig n f a c t i o n s ( s e e K e id e l, 1979, p. 139). Secondly, b o th

co n ce p ts p o s i t t h a t change must be i n c r e m e n t a l l y conceived and produced,

t h a t fundamental system s change does not a r i s e from t o t a l re d e s ig n o r

through complete r e v o l u t i o n ( s e e K eid el, pp. 38-43 and pp. 141-142).

T h ir d , b o th c o n c e p ts i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s in c re m e n ta lis m im p l i e s t h a t

norm ative change i s n o t com pletely h a s h e d -o u t b e fo re a c t i o n , t h a t

e n a c tin g change o f t e n c l a r i f i e s u n d e rs ta n d in g and a p p r e c i a t i o n (s e e

K eid el, p. 139 ). F i n a l l y , both seek to make th e g e n e ra l more c o n c r e te

and th e c o n c r e te more g e n e r a l ( s e e K e id e l, 1979, p. 119).

These r e s o n a n t c o n c e p ts in fo rm each o t h e r . Normative in c re m e n ta lis m

p o i n t s to a l a r g e r p r o c e s s th a n i n d i c a te d by K e id e l. I t p r o f i l e s an

o v e r a l l process o f development between f a c t i o n s t h a t in v o l v e s v i s i o n ,

a c t i o n , and th e m atic f i t t i n g . Theme s e t i n t e r v e n t i o n s p e c i f i c a l l y

focuses on what i s c a l l e d th e a c t i o n component of norm ative incremen­

ta lism . I t shows the need f o r norm ative i n c r e m e n t a l i s t i n t e r v e n t i o n to

c u l t i v a t e sh a re d c a t e g o r i e s of a c t i o n t h a t can embody a programmatic

theme.* Normative in c re m e n ta lis m i n d i c a t e s a l a r g e r p r o c e s s of which

theme s e t i n t e r v e n t i o n can be seen as a a p a r t . This in v o l v e s v i s i o n ,

* The s u g g e s tio n of j o i n t s u p e rv is o ry t r a i n i n g t o Tacoma’ s l a b o r -

management committee by t h e i r P r o j e c t Network S i t e C o o rd in a to r
(p. 234) can be seen as an i n s t a n c e of theme s e t i n t e r v e n t i o n .
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what K eid el c a l l s "community o b j e c t i v e s " (1979, pp. 118-120),

a c t i o n , and th e m a tic f i t t i n g . Thematic f i t t i n g beh av io rs might be

e s p e c i a l l y in f o r m a tiv e to theme s e t i n t e r v e n t i o n , s i n c e th ey provid e a

glim pse of s p e c i f i c a c t i o n s t h a t h elp r e f e r e n c e p a r t i c u l a r a c t i o n s in

term s of a more g e n e ra l change.

In t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e theme s e t i n t e r v e n t i o n observed by K eidel

(1979) can be seen as p a r t of a l a r g e r n o rm ativ e i n c r e m e n t a l i s t p ro c e s s .

I n Jamestown th e ambiguous norm ative v i s i o n was e v e n t u a ll y e x p re sse d as

a programmatic theme between la b o r and management to "Improve P r o d u c tiv ­

i t y and Q u a lity o f Working L i f e . " A c tio n was ta k en d e c e n t r a l l y , by

v o lu n ta r y p la n t i n i t i a t i v e s a s s i s t e d by labor-management committee

c o o r d in a to r s who used a theme s e t approach to m a in ta i n change a t a

community l e v e l . Them atic f i t t i n g o c c u rre d most i n t e n s e l y d u rin g a r e a

com mittee m e e tin g s, du ring i n t e r a c t i o n s w ith c o o r d i n a t o r s , and during

r i t u a l ev en ts such a s th e a n n u a l Jamestown c o n fe r e n c e ( s e e p. 11 6).

Normative Increment a l i s m And The B a r e f o o t S o c i a l S c i e n t i s t

To f o s t e r w id esp read a d a p tiv e planning M. Emery (1977) ad v o ca te

p u r s u i t of t h e " b a r e f o o t s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t " model. T h is i s a l s o s p e l l e d

out i n Emery (1977, pp. 125-131). According t o t h i s v iew , s o c i a l change

sh ould be d r iv e n by bottom -up i n i t i a t i v e . I d e a l s g u id in g s o c i a l p o lic y ,

p o li c y d e c i s i o n , and p o l i c y im p le m e n ta tio n sh o u ld a l l a r i s e from

d e c e n t r a l i z e d , bottom -up o r g a n i z a t i o n . S o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s s h o u ld f o s t e r

t h i s p ro c e s s , r a t h e r th a n becoming e x p e r t s vdio command n o n p ro fe s s io n a ls

to change a c c o rd in g t o "th e f a c t s . "

T h is " b a r e f o o t" v ie w p o in t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a n t i - e l i t i s t . I t im plores

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t h a t no s e l e c t e l i t e , n e i t h e r e x p e r ts n o r p o lic y m akers, i n i t i a t e p o lic y

change. To do so m erely r e p e a t s th e p a s t b u r e a u c r a t i c e r r o r of top-down

command. I t i s a Maoist p o s i t i o n c a l l i n g f o r r a d i c a l s u r r e n d e r of power

from t h e c e n t e r to the p e r ip h e r y .

The id e a lis m of t h i s view i s ro m antic b u t m is le a d in g . The immediate

com plete s u r r e n d e r of power by people seeing th e m selv es empowered over

o th e r s i s u n l i k e l y . A number of s e l f i s h m otives p re c lu d e s t h i s from

h appening. Beyond t h i s , i t may be im p o s s ib le . Perrow (1970) arg u es

t h a t o r g a n iz a ti o n i n e v i t a b l y te n d s tow ards b u r e a u c r a t i c p a t t e r n s as

t a s k s become r o u t i n i z e d and more p r e d i c t a b l e . S e lz n ic k (1957) arg u es

th a t e l i t e s are in d isp e n sib le fo r o rg a n iz a tio n . He claim s they a r e

e s s e n t i a l f o r d e f in in g meaning t h a t l a t e r i n f u s e s th e o r g a n i z a t i o n as a

whole.

Normative in c re m e n ta lis m i n d i c a t e s a p a th out of b in a ry c h o ic e

between e i t h e r th e b a r e f o o t approach o r e l i t i s t im p o s i tio n . Normative

in c re m e n ta lis m shows t h a t l e a d e r s h i p e l i t e s a r e i n i t i a l l y u s e f u l . They

f i r s t a r t i c u l a t e an i n i t i a l l y ambiguous v i s i o n and b ro k e r i t . However,

l e a d e r s must th e n s u r r e n d e r t h e i r v i s i o n to l e t i t s meaning develop

th ro u g h d e c e n t r a l i z e d a c t i o n and w idespread th e m a tic f i t t i n g . There i s

no monopoly o f e x p e r t i s e on a new l o g i c a l ty p e . I t is in itia lly

in c o m p re h e n s ib le . T h e re fo re e l i t e s c a n n o t m a in ta in ownership and

c o n t r o l of th e norm ative i n c r e m e n t a l i s t p r o c e s s . O therw ise the theme

can n o t make s e n s e , and i t rem ains an i n e f f e c t i v e s lo g a n . This i s a new

r o l e f o r e l i t e s b u t not a com plete d e n i a l of t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s .

Normative in c re m e n ta lis m t h e r e f o r e tempers th e extremism of th e

b a r e f o o t v ie w p o in t. E l i t e s have a r o l e , one t h a t i s l i m i t e d but s t i l l

 170

e sse n tia l. They begin a t r a n s i t i o n a l p ro c e s s le a d i n g to a new primary

m ediating s o c i a l r e l a t i o n . T h is w i l l no doubt e v e n tu a lly change th e

f a c e of l e a d e r s h i p i t s e l f . *

N_ormative_ I n c r e men t a l i sm And Organ i z a t i onal L e a r ning

A r g y r is and Schon (1974)(1978) promote enhanced o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

a d a p t iv e n e s s v ia o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g . In t h e i r view (1978, p p .

28-29) o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e a r n in g occurs when members of the e n t e r p r i s e

c o r r e c t p r i v a t e and sh a re d assu m ptions ( c a l l e d t h e o r i e s - i n - u s e ) t h a t

prove d y s f u n c t i o n a l . T h is l e a r n i n g nay b e e i t h e r m inor c o r r e c t i o n s

w ith i n e x i s t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l norms ( s i n g l e - l o o p l e a r n i n g ) , or t h e y may

s h i f t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l norms them selv es (d o u b le -lo o p l e a r n i n g ) . Double­

lo o p l e a r n i n g i s c o n s id e re d t o be an i n s t a n c e o f d e u t e r o - le a r n i n g (see

p. 14).

The focus of t h e i r work i s an i n t e r s e c t i o n o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l and

o rg a n iz a tio n a l le v e ls . The m a jo r t a r g e t of a n a l y s i s and i n t e r v e n t i o n i s

p r i v a t e and s h a re d assu m p tio n s about how t o s o lv e problems, what A r g y r is

and Schon c a l l t h e o r i e s - i n - u s e . T h is l e a d s them to work w ith g ro u p s of

i n d i v i d u a l s , a t t e m p t i n g to make them see t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l a n d s h a re d

assu m p tio n s ( in c lu d in g assum ptions about changing a ssu m p tio n s).

Emphasis i s upon i n t e n s i v e sm all group l e a r n i n g , u s in g a n a l y s i s of

reco rd ed i n t e r a c t i o n and feed b a ck . This i s an o r d e r l y , r ig o ro u s method.

Normative in c re m e n ta lis m s u g g e s ts an a l t e r n a t i v e r o u te f o r evoking

* Mao h im se lf adv o ca ted something c lo se to t h i s idea of them atic

b r o k e r in g by le a d e r s i n h i s concept of " th e mass l i n e " ( s e e
S tr a v r i a n o s , 1976, pp . 125-130). For a more W e s te rn view see Emery
and T r i s t (1973, pp. 203-210) on the n e e d f o r s u r r e n d e r of u n i l a t e r a l
power i n p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y .
d eu te ro -lea rn in g . In c o n t r a s t to o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g , n o rm ativ e

in c re m en talism t a c k l e s d e u t e r o - le a r n i n g on a l a r g e r s c a l e , and in

r e f e r e n c e to c o n c r e te s o c i a l problems w ith a d im in is h e d p ro p o rtio n o f

in tro sp e ctiv e a n a ly sis . R e s u ltin g change, which makes c o l l a b o r a t i o n the

prim ary m e d ia tin g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n , a p p e a rs g e n e r a lly s i m i l a r to th e

a d a p tiv e th e o r y - i n - u s e A r g y ris and Schon c a l l Model O - I I (1978, pp.

141-147).

But n o rm ativ e in c re m en talism p u rs u e s t h i s s o r t of change among

peo p le by working i n d i r e c t l y , with focus on c o n c re te i s s u e s r e f l e c t i n g

l a r g e r s o c i e t a l c h a lle n g e s ( i . e . Q u a li ty o f Working L i f e and

P ro d u c tiv ity ). This i s i n s t e a d of proceeding th ro u g h i n t r o s p e c t i v e

a n a l y s i s o f a s m a ll group p ro c e s s (which occurs i n normative

increm entalism o n ly when a group a s s e s s e s i t s e l f t h e m a t i c a l l y ) . A lso,

norm ative in c re m en talism p u rs u e s t h i s change n o n - s y n o p tic a lly ( i . e .

t h e r e i s no e l a b o r a te model i n i t i a l l y p r e s e n te d , comparable w ith A rg y ris

and S chon's Model O - I I ) .

O v e r a ll, norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l le a r n in g may be

headed i n the same d i r e c t i o n . Each, however, p r e s c r i b e s very d i f f e r e n t

s t y l e s of work t o use f o r evoking more c o l l a b o r a t i v e p ro b le m -so lv in g

re la tio n s.

Normative In c re m e n ta lism And T r a n s a c tiv e P la n n in g

Friedmann (1973) f o r m u l a te s a co u rse f o r t r a n s a c t i v e p la n n in g t h a t

c a n allow a c t i v e a d a p t a ti o n . He a rg u e s t h a t c o l l e c t i v e phenomena (which

a r e li k e m esses, or c o n tin u o u s c r i t i c a l p roblem s) are i n c r e a s i n g l y

t u r b u l e n t , and running f u r t h e r beyond c o n t r o l of s o l i t a r y i n s t i t u t i o n s .

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To r e s t o r e adequate s o c i e t a l g u id a n c e , t h e s e r e g u l a t i v e o rg an s must be

supplem ented w i t h a new s t r u c t u r e .

S p e c i f i c a l l y , Friedmann adv o ca tes c r e a t i o n of a c e l l u l a r s t r u c t u r e ,

t h i s would p ro v id e a Network o f permanent sm all a s s e m b lie s to manage

complex c h a l le n g e s . I d e a l l y , t h i s would come to in v o lv e one p a r t i c i p a n t

f o r every two f a m i l i e s . But much s m a lle r Networks c o u ld a lso be u s e f u l .

The work of th e s e groups would proceed through t r a n s a c t i v e p la n n in g , in

which c o n tin u in g i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s c r e a t e a brid ge f o r

s p e c i a l i s t s and c i t i z e n s to m u tu ally in fo rm each o th e r .

Normative in c re m e n ta lis m o v e r la p s w ith much of t r a n s a c t i v e pla n n in g .

Both c o n ce p ts promote th e id e a of d e c e n t r a l i z e d , n o n -sy n o p tic a c t i o n .

A lso, b o th id e a s a l lu d e to some kind of c o l l a b o r a t i v e o rd e r t h a t b rin g s

people to c o l l a b o r a t e more deeply and p e r v a s iv e ly than b e f o r e .

Beyond t h i s , no rm ative in c re m en talism o f f e r s some u s e f u l c o n t ri b u ­

t i o n s to t r a n s a c t i v e p la n n in g . F i r s t , i t s p e c i f i e s where c e l l u l a r

s t r u c t u r e s might f i r s t be c u l t i v a t e d —a t th e i n t e r f a c e s between

d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s i n th e same extended system . Second, norm ative

in c re m e n ta lis m t r a c e s a more s p e c i f i c , c o n c r e te p ro c e s s by which th e s e

p a r t i e s can be engaged. The grounded elem ents o f v i s i o n , a c t i o n , and

f i t t i n g a r e a l l i n harmony w ith F re id m a n n 's g e n e r a l s t y l e of t r a n s a c t i v e

> , p la n n in g (1973, pp. 171-193); but th e y more p r e c i s e l y guide i n t e r v e n t i o n

by proposing more c o n c r e te ways to p ro c e e d .

Normative in c re m e n ta lis m t h e r e f o r e d o v e t a i l s with t r a n s a c t i v e

p la n n in g . I t a l s o s p e l l s ou t a more d e t a i l e d s c e n a r i o f o r how one m ight

proceed to a tte m p t t h i s kind of planning between d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s .

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No rm a tiv e In c re m e n ta lis m And I n t e r - C o r p o r a t e P u b lic P la n n in g

I n the s i x t i e s and s e v e n t i e s , t h e T av isto ck I n s t i t u t e of O peration s

R esearch (IOR) developed a co n ce p t of i n t e r - c o r p o r a t e p la n n in g (F rie n d

and J e s s o p , 1969) ( F r i e n d , Power, and Y ew lett, 19 7 4 )(F rien d and Noad,

1977 ) . T h is approach s t r e s s e s th e s a l i e n c e of in c r e m e n ta l p o licy

p la n n in g t h a t p re s e rv e s f l e x i b i l i t y a s long as p o s s i b l e . In th is

p e r s p e c t i v e , p o li c y d e c isio n s a r i s e from d e c i s i o n Networks t h a t c u t

a c r o s s e s t a b l i s h e d o r g a n iz a ti o n s , which t o g e t h e r form a p o lic y system.

The k e y o p p o r tu n ity for promoting r e a s o n a b le p o lic y i s development of

e ffe c tiv e r e c t i c u l a r i s t s . R e c t i c u l a r i s t s a r e people who m ediate between

d i f f e r e n t e le m e n ts in a p o lic y f i e l d ; they h e lp c o n t a in d iv e rg e n t

o r i e n t a t i o n s w hile secu ring mutual agreement on a c t i o n ( s e e F r ie n d ,

Power, and Y e w le tt, 1974, p. 3 7 5 ).

T h i s concept o f i n t e r - c o r p o r a t e p u b lic p lanning h a s many

s i m i l a r i t i e s to n o rm a tiv e in c re m e n ta lis m . Both o u t l i n e a n o n -sy n o p tic

p r o c e s s in which p a r t i e s a t d i v e r g e n t ends of th e same extended s o c i a l

system pu rsue c o l l a b o r a t i v e change v ia d e c e n tr a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . The IOR

con ce p t u n d e r s c o r e s the im po rtan ce of keeping o p tio n s a s open as

p o s s i b l e , a n d the p r i o r i t y of r e c t i c u l a r i s t r o l e s . R ecent e l a b o r a ti o n s

have even touched upon t h e need f o r something a k i n to changing l o g i c a l

types of r e l a t i o n s between f a c t i o n s , with tho ugh t about smoothing

c u l t u r a l g r a d i e n t s between f a c t i o n a l bo u n d arie s ( s e e F r ie n d and Noad,

1977, p. 2 0 ) .

F o r i t s p art, n orm ative in c re m e n ta lis m i l l u m i n a t e s d e t a i l s about

norm ative sensem aking. This s u g g e s t s many e l a b o r a t i o n s upon the IOR

 174

n o tio n of " i n t e r a c t i v e l e a r n i n g " a c r o s s c o r p o r a t e b o u n d a rie s ( s e e

F r ie n d , Power, and Y ew lett, 1974, pp. 354-356).

The two c o n ce p ts f i t to g e th e r c l o s e l y , o v e rla p p in g and inform ing

each o t h e r on many f r o n t s . I n c o n t r a s t to d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m ,

n e i t h e r promotes a b d i c a t i o n of purpose o r o v e r a l l d i r e c t i o n . In ste a d ,

b o th propose n o n -s y n o p tic mechanisms f o r a c t i v e a d a p t a t i o n t h a t can

proceed i n c r e m e n t a lly b u t w ith norm ative c o h e re n c e .

N ormative In c re m e n ta lis m And I n t e r e s t Bas ed P lan n in g

C h e v a l ie r (1968) a r t i c u l a t e s th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n t e r e s t based

p la n n in g ( a l s o s ee C h e v a lie r and Burns, 1978). I n t e r e s t based plan ning

i s one way to ta c k l e metaproblems ( s i m i l a r to m esses, co n tin u o u s

c r i t i c a l problem s, or c o l l e c t i v e phenomena). I t s t r e s s e s acknowledging

d i v e r g e n t s ta k e s i n an i s s u e , and assem bling a c a s t of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

c h a r a c t e r s , drawn from a c r o s s th e s e i n t e r e s t s , t o plan t h e management of

th is situ a tio n . T h is c a n g iv e r i s e to an in c re m e n ta l p r o c e s s of

accommodation and r e c o n c i l i a t i o n .

I n t e r e s t based p lan n in g runs c l o s e to norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m and

i n t e r - c o r p o r a t e p la n n in g . These c o n ce p ts a l l s t r e s s d evelo pin g new

r e l a t i o n s betw een e x i s t i n g r e l a t i o n s , by t a c k l i n g c o n c r e te i s s u e s

th ro u g h a d e c e n t r a l i z e d shadow o r g a n i z a t i o n .

Normative i n c r e m e n t a l ! s t o b s e r v a tio n s about norm ative sensemaking

o f f e r i n t e r e s t b ased p la n n in g , l i k e i n t e r - c o r p o r a t e p la n n in g , a yet

r i c h e r p e r s p e c t i v e on th e m utual le a r n in g p r o c e s s . T h is can apply b o th

to th e c a s t of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r s , and between th e c a s t and t h e i r

comrades back home.

 175

The two co n c e p ts converge g r e a t l y . A lso , both advocate n o n -s y n o p tic

p r o c e s s e s f o r a c t i v e a d a p t a t i o n , i n s t e a d of a l a i s s e z f a i r e r e a c t i o n i s t

p o stu re.

Normative in c re m e n ta lis m h a s now been compared w i t h a v a r i e t y of

major approaches to systems p la n n in g :

- D i s j o i n t e d In c re m e n ta lism
- D i r e c t i v e C o r r e l a t i o n & P u rp o s e f u l Systems Models
- Normative P lan n in g
- I d e a l i z e d Systems Design
- C y b e rn e tic Systems P lan ning
- Search C on ferencing
- A r t i c u l a t e d In crem en talism
- L o g ic a l In crem en talsim
- Theme S et I n t e r v e n t i o n
- B a re fo o t S o c ia l S cie n ce
- O r g a n iz a tio n a l L earn in g
- T r a n s a c tiv e P lanning
- I n t e r - C o r p o r a t e P la n n in g
- I n t e r e s t Based P lanning

In r e l a t i o n to each of th e s e a p p ro a c h e s, no rm ative in c re m e n ta lis m h as

s p e c i f i c s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s . O v e r a l l , two m ajor c o n t r a s t s

s ta n d o u t.

F i r s t , u n li k e d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m , no rm ativ e in c re m en talism i s

p u r p o s e f u l. But a t th e same time i t i s n o n - s y n o p tic . The e n t i r e

p r o c e s s i s d i s o r d e r l y and does not e x p l i c i t l y s e t out to change a whole

system . T his i s u n li k e more e s t a b l i s h e d systems p la n n in g ap proaches,

which tend to be o r d e r l y , a n a l y t i c a l l y s e q u e n t i a l , and c l e a r ( i . e .

no rm ativ e p la n n in g , i d e a l i z a t i o n , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g , e t c . ) . A few

more n a s c i e n t app ro ac h es covered i n t h i s survey a l s o mix d i s o r d e r l i n e s s

w ith p u r p o s e f u l a c t i v i t y ( i . e . i n t e r - c o r p o r a t e p la n n in g , i n t e r e s t based

p la n n in g , i n t e r a c t i v e p la n n in g , theme s e t i n t e r v e n t i o n , e t c . ) .
 176

Second, norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m o f f e r s a unique s e t o f id e a s t h a t

might c o n t r i b u t e to any systems p la n n in g approaches. These re v o lv e

around th e e l u c i d a t i o n of n o rm a tiv e sensemaking, by which n o n -s y n o p tic

but p u rp o sefu l b e h a v io r can ensue. The concept of norm ativ e incremen­

t a l i s m t r a c e s a c u r io u s b o o ts tr a p p in g p r o c e s s , i n which d iv e rg e n t

f a c t i o n s come, a c c i d e n t a l l y on p u rp o se, to i n h a b i t a r a d i c a l l y new

ecology o f v a lu e . S p e c i f i c elem en ts i n t h i s p ro c e s s a r e d e t a i l e d i n th e

concept o f norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m , w ith c o rre s p o n d in g ly c o n c r e te

i m p lic a tio n s p ro posin g one way to i n t e r v e n e .

Normative In crem en talism As One Approach In a Contingency Framework

Now i t i s p o s s i b l e to s t e p back and view how norm ative increm en­

t a l i s m f i t s as j u s t one method among th e m u ltitu d e o f d i f f e r e n t p la n n in g

ap p ro ac h es. To e s t a b l i s h t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h r e e t a s k s a r e un d ertak en

here. F i r s t , t h e myriad ap proaches to p la n n in g a r e p a rs e d i n t o f o u r

general c a te g o rie s . Then, two b a s i c f a c t o r s a r e fo rm u la te d ; t o g e th e r

v a ria n c e i n t h e s e f a c t o r s imposes g e n e r a l boundary c o n d i t i o n s t h a t

c o n s t r a i n th e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s of any p a r t i c u l a r p la n n in g method.

F i n a l l y , t h e f o u r c a t e g o r i e s of methods i n i t i a l l y d e f in e d a r e mapped

onto the space d e f in e d by t h e s e boundary c o n d i tio n s . This s u g g e s ts

domains o f s u i t a b i l i t y f o r each m ajor approach t o p la n n in g , and im p lie s

a s e t of a p p r o p r i a t e c o n d i t i o n s f o r norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m .

The l i t e r a t u r e th u s f a r s u g g e s ts t h r e e major ty p e s of p la n n in g

methods ( s e e T r i s t , 1976, p p. 225-231):

1. M aster P la n n in g

M aster p la n n in g i s a m e c h a n is tic approach to p la n n in g . I t i s

s t r i n g e n t , l i n e a r , q u a n t i f i e d , and a n a l y t i c a l — a h y p e r - s y n o p tic
 177

approach. R ig id p r o j e c t i o n s and grand d esig n s s p e c ify in g lock­

s t e p t a c t i c a l im plem en tatio n p r e v a i l i n t h e s e methods. Ackoff
(1970, pp. 9-15) summarizes t h i s as an o p tim iz in g approach.

2. I n c r emen t a l N on-Planning

One m a jo r resp o n se to th e f a i l u r e of m a s t e r p lanning i s

c o n t e n tio n t h a t p la n n in g i s a r t i f i c i a l , and t h a t s o c i a l change
b e s t a r i s e s ad ho c. A most r e f i n e d concept of t h i s approach i s
d i s j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m (Braybrooke and Lindblom, 1963).
D is j o i n t e d in c re m e n ta lis m p ro p o s e s m a rg in al improvement in a
p ie cem e al f a s h io n . Because i t proceeds w ith no coherence ( s e e
Braybrooke and L in d b la n , 1963) i t i s not r e a l l y p la n n in g , i f
pla n n in g means making a d e s i r e d f u t u r e happen. Ackoff (1970,
pp. 7 -9 ) c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h i s approach as s a t i s f i c i n g .

3. Normative Systems Re d e s ig n

T h is i s a s e t of plann in g app ro ac h es t h a t began to emerge i n the

middle s i x t i e s . I t responds to th e f a i l u r e of m aster p la n n in g ,
but u n lik e in c re m e n ta l no n-plan nin g goes beyond d i s j o i n t e d
ad h o cracy . Normative systems r e d e s i g n methods propose to evoke
a c t i v e a d a p t a t i o n . E a r ly champions of t h i s approach in c lu d e
Ozbekhan (19 69 ), Ackoff (1 9 7 0 ), and Emery and T r i s t (19 73).
U nlike th e two app ro ac h es above, t h i s s o r t of planning s t a r t s
w ith norm ative i s s u e s , i n s t e a d of ta k in g e x i s t i n g v a lu e s fo r
g ra n te d ( s e e Ozbekhan, 1969, pp. 69-81 and pp. 121-136). T h is
no rm ative focus i s a p p l ie d to a "whole system ", which i s
red e sig n e d to more c l e a r l y s erv e th e s e v a l u e s . Change informed
by t h i s r e d e s ig n i s th e n managed v ia subsequent s t r a t e g i c and
t a c t i c a l p la n n in g . New c y c l e s of t h i s p lanning ensue a s change
makes p a s t p la n s o b s o l e t e . These approaches te n d to be o r d e r l y ,
a n a l y t i c a l l y s e q u e n t i a l , and hence s y n o p tic . Ackoff, summarizes
t h i s approach as a d a p t i v i z i n g (1970, pp. 1 5 -2 0 ). The m ajor
s i n g l e body o f g e n e r a l t h e o r e t i c a l and m eth odo logical th in k in g
in t h i s a re a h as been p io n e e re d by Ozbekhan (1969)(1 971 )(197 3)
(1977).

These a r e th e major approaches t o plan n in g c h a r a c t e r i z e d i n th e

p re v a ilin g li t e r a t u r e . But some of th e methods reviewed e a r l i e r i n th e

c h a p te r su g g e s t an a d d i t i o n a l c a te g o r y of p la n n in g a c t i v i t y . Approaches

l i k e i n t e r - c o r p o r a t e p la n n in g , t r a n s a c t i v e p la n n in g , l o g i c a l

in c re m e n ta lis m , theme s e t i n t e r v e n t i o n , in n o v a tin g o r g a n i z a t i o n , and

i n t e r e s t based p la n n in g a l l fo llo w t h e le ad of norm ative systems

r e d e s i g n ; l i k e norm ative systems r e d e s i g n , th e y a l s o p r e s c r ib e a c t i v e

 178

a d a p t a t i o n w ith an i n i t i a l norm ative em phasis. But u n lik e norm ativ e

system s r e d e s ig n , th e y develop methods t h a t proceed n o n - s y n o p tic a lly .

They a r e d i s o r d e r l y , a n a l y t i c a l l y n o n - s e q u e n t i a l , and le s s e x p l i c i t l y

focused on changing a whole system. H ere, t h e s e s o r t s of methods a r e

c la s s ifie d as:

4. Non-Synoptic Systems Change

This i s an emerging corpus of work t h a t b u il d s a v a r i a t i o n upon

the le a d of norm ative systems r e d e s i g n . I t a ls o s t r e s s e s a c t i v e
a d a p ta tio n and norm ative fo cu s, but i t proceeds i n a non­
s y n o p tic way. Compared t o normative systems r e d e s ig n methods,
th e se approaches d i s p l a y le s s c l a r i t y , le ss o r d e r , le s s e x p l i c i t
focus on changing a whole system, and l i t t l e a n a l y t i c a l l y
s e q u e n t i a l p r o g r e s s io n of pla n n in g a c t i v i t i e s . They work t o
evoke a c t i v e a d a p ta tio n , but w ith o u t w h o le s a le systems r e d e s ig n .
I n s t e a d , th e y aim to f o s t e r in c r e m e n t a l change with p e r v a s iv e ,
system-wide i m p l ic a tio n s .

The r o o t s of n o n -s y n o p tic systems change methods c l e a r l y l i e in e a r l i e r

work e s t a b l i s h i n g a p p ro a c h e s of norm ativ e systems r e d e s i g n . The

in n o v a tiv e emphasis of t h i n k e r s l i k e Ozbekhan (1969) and Ackoff (1 9 7 0 ) ,

s t r e s s i n g a c t i v e a d a p t a t i o n and norm ative fo cu s i s k e p t i n t a c t . In

c o n t r a s t , b o th m a ste r plan ning and in c re m e n ta l n o n -p lan n in g avoid

no rm ative i s s u e s , vfriile a t b e s t they p ro m u lg ate a r e a c t i v e o r p r e a c tiv e

p la n n in g p o s tu r e ( s e e A ckoff, 1974, pp. 2 2 - 2 6 ) . Only norm ative system s

r e d e s i g n and n o n -sy n o p tic systems change methods s h a r e an i n t e r a c t i v e

p o s tu r e (A ckoff, 1974, pp. 26-31) aimed a t i n f l u e n c i n g a system.

The d i s t i n c t i o n between normative systems r e d e s ig n and n on-sy nop tic

systems change approaches i s t h e i r d i f f e r e n t emphasis on o r d e r ly ,

a n a l y t i c a l l y s e q u e n t i a l p r o c e d u re s , and upon e x p l i c i t p u r s u i t of whole

systems change. These a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n F ig u re 5.4 on th e fo llo w in g

page.

Normat i v e System Redesign & Non-Synoptic System_Change:
Di f f e r e n t Emph a s i s On O r d e r ly & A n a ly t i c a l l y Seque n t i a l P ro c e s s e s
Normative System Redesi g n __
Complete each s t e p of th e planning
p ro cess a s much a s p o s s ib le b e f o r e
the n e x t. Each phase f u l l y done
re a s o n a b ly inform s the n e x t :
C l a r i f y norms f i r s t , and
use to e x p l i c i t l y re d e s ig n
the whole system . T h is
must be done in l i g h t of
e x p l i c i t y a n a ly z in g p o s ­
s i b l e consequences of a l ­
te rn a tiv e scen ario s.
* C a r e f u lly p la n a c t i o n i n
l i g h t of newly c l a r i f i e d
norms and t h e d e s ir e d
systems r e d e s i g n . T h is
sho u ld le ad to p r o g r e s s ­
ive im plem entation t h a t
b u il d s an a p p ro x im a tio n of
the d e s ir e d r e d e s ig n .
I d e a l l y a s s e s s a c t i o n w ith
pro g ress o f im p lem entation
s t e p s c a r e f u l l y . C o rre c t
a c t i o n as needed. C a r e f u l
review keeps th in g s on
trac k .
Cycle back through th e
p r o c e s s a g a i n whenever i t s
needed. R e g u la r , p e r io d i c
r e p e t i t i o n through i t makes
su re th in g s are u p d a te d and
fresh .
The o u tp u t of t h i s p ro c e s s c a n
be s u c c e s s i v e l y approxim ated con­
s t r u c t i o n of a d i f f e r e n t system
and s u c c e s s iv e u p d a te s i s what
p e o p le d e s i r e .
179
Non-S y n o p tic System Change
A com plete cycle o r i n d i v i d u a l
s t e p s are n o t d is c e r n a b le i n t h i s
a c tiv ity . Z ig-zag among d i f f e r e n t
planning b e h a v io r s non­
seq u en tial ly :
Leave norm ative c l a r i f i c a ­
t i o n u n f in i s h e d . Proceed to
a c t b e f o r e aims a r e c l e a r .
Do not e x p l i c i t l y r e d e s ig n
th e whole system . Focus on
is o la te d asp ects.
Q u ickly b a r t e r a c t i o n ad
hoc, a s o p p o r t u n i t i e s a r i s e .
D o n 't make a c t i o n ap pear to be
p a r t of some o v e r a l l grand de­
t a i l e d scheme. J u s t make s u re
i t somehow f i t s under t h e un­
c l e a r p u rp o se , and t h a t i t ' s
h e a d in g in t h e r i g h t d i r e c t i o n .
• I d e a l l y m onitor & feedback
L i t t l e a n a l y t i c r i g o r . Down­
p lay c a r e f u l m o n ito rin g . Allow
"un derg ro un ds” to i n v i s i b l y de­
velop where n e e d e d . Emphasize
moving on to the n ex t oppor­
t u n i t y more th a n c a r e f u l l y
t r a c k i n g w h a t's going on
alre ad y .
No d i s c r e t e b e g in n in g o r
end.
The o utput of t h i s p ro c e s s c a n be
changing a s p e c t s of a system with
r a d i c a l im p li c a t i o n s , and p o s s i b l e
lin k ag e of th e se in n o v a tio n s l a t e r .
 180

T h is c o n t r a s t does n o t imply t h a t no rm ativ e systems r e d e s i g n methods

a r e th em selv es r i g i d and m e ch an ic al. They make no claim t o be

a b s o l u t e l y com prehensive, l i k e m aster p la n n in g t h a t r e l i e s upon f i x e d

p r o j e c t i o n s and unchangeable schemes ( i . e . t h e e a r l y S o v i e t G osplan).

I n s t e a d , norm ative systems r e d e s i g n methods s t r e s s e s t a b l i s h i n g

c o n tin u o u s a d a p tiv e p lan ning, p lan n in g t h a t p e r i o d i c a l l y r e p e a t s the

s te p s of t h e p r o c e s s , and t h a t does not t r e a t e x i s t i n g p la n s as f i n a l ,

unchangeable p ro d u c ts .

But c o n t r a s t e d w ith n o n - s y n o p tic a l t e r n a t i v e s t h i s ap pears to be a

much more c o n scio u s and d e l i b e r a t e mode of systems change w ith e x p l i c i t

focus upon r a d i c a l change of a whole system th ro ugh an o r d e r l y , s te p w is e

p la n n in g p r o c e s s ( a l b e i t one t h a t demands c o n tin u o u s upd ating throu gh

each of i t s s t e p s ) . On the o th e r hand, n o n - s y n o p tic systems change a l s o

p u rs u e s a c t i v e a d a p t a t i o n v i a norm ative change through a co n tin u o u s

e f f o r t , bu t i t i s a d i s o r d e r l y process t h a t avoids e x p l i c i t focus upon

whole systems change.

P r a c t i t i o n e r s developing methods of n o n - s y n o p tic systems change a l l

came out of the norm ative systems r e d e s ig n t r a d i t i o n ; they were s tu d e n t s

and c o l le a g u e s of p io n e e rs i n norm ative systems r e d e s ig n (and sometimes

they were among i t s o r i g i n a t o r s ) . T h is e x p l a in s th e c o n t i n u i t y o f

emphasis between th e two, s t r e s s i n g a c t i v e a d a p t a ti o n th rough norm ative

system s change.

The impetus to develop n o n - s n y o p tic approaches a r i s e s from

c o n s t r a i n t s en co untered i n th e f i e l d . Most p r a c t i t i o n e r s d ev elo p in g

n o n -s y n o p tic approaches for systems change worked w ith s e v e r e ly

fragmented groups in h a b i t i n g t h e same extended f u n c t i o n a l s o c i a l system

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( i . e . d iv e rg e n t community g ro u p s, l a b o r and management, e t c . ) This

r e q u ir e d p r a c t i c i o n e r s to av o id e x p l i c i t l y emphasizing immediate whole

systems change; such tr a n s f o r m a tio n i s too t h r e a t e n i n g f o r a l r e a d y

em b attled and c a u t io u s f a c t i o n s . F urth erm o re, because they

p red o m in ate ly work a c r o s s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b o u n d a r ie s , t h e r e was l i t t l e

o p p o r tu n i ty f o r o r d e r l y , s e q u e n t i a l change i n a whole system . In ste a d ,

change had to be developed a c r o s s a r a g - t a g f r o n t of mixed o p p o r tu n i ty

and c o n s t r a i n t . Under th e s e s o r t s o f c o n d i t i o n s , a c t i v e a d a p t a t i o n and

norm ative change must be pursued th rou gh an in c r e m e n ta l, i n d i r e c t ,

d i s o r d e r l y , n o n -s y n o p tic s t r a t e g y .

This does n o t mean t h a t no rm ative system s re d e s ig n methods a r e

devoid o f f e a t u r e s t h a t h e lp engage c o n f l i c t i n g p a r t i e s . O zbekhan's

g e n e r a l norm ative p la n n in g methodology (1969) (1971) (1973) (1 9 7 7 ), f o r

example, in c o r p o r a t e s a number of th i n g s t h a t can h elp suspend e x i s t i n g

c o n f l i c t between p a r t i e s p la n n in g t o g e t h e r :

- I n i t i a l r e f e r e n c e p r o j e c t i o n u s u a l l y d em o n strates t h a t c o n tin u in g
to do more o f th e same w i l l be c a t a s t r o p h i c f o r everyone.

- Subsequent d e s ig n of a no rm ative p la n b eg in s w ith lo n g -te rm ends

and o b j e c t i v e s . This prim ary r e f e r e n c e t o sh ared lo n g -ru n
d e s i r e s p r o v id e s an u m b rella u nder which some c o n f l i c t s can
become r a t i o n a l i z e d , and hence m i tig a te d .

These same s o r t s o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e a l s o found i n o t h e r no rm ativ e

system r e d e s ig n methods, such as i d e a l i z a t i o n ( s e e A ckoff, e t . a l , 1976,

pp. 8 -1 1 ).

But t h e s e s o r t s of f e a t u r e s evoke c o n t r i b u t i o n to p la n n in g on ly when

p a r t i e s can i n i t i a l l y be pursuaded t o submit to a s t r u c t u r e d p ro c e s s

t h a t e x p l i c i t l y a d d r e s s e s w h o le s a le system s change. And, as noted

above, th e p ro s p e c t of t h i s change throu gh an e x p l i c i t p r o c e s s sometimes

 182

runs beyond th e c o n fid e n c e and good w i l l of d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s . Under

such c irc u m s ta n c e s, some complementary a l t e r n a t i v e to norm ative systems

r e d e s ig n methods can be u s e f u l .

T h is s u g g e s ts t h a t one m a jo r c o n s t r a i n t on th e s u i t a b i l i t y o f any

p a r t i c u l a r pla n n in g method i s th e fra g m e n ta tio n and s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l

d i s t a n c e between in d e p e n d e n t p a r t i e s who need to p la n . One way to

c h a r a c t e r i z e t h i s i s i n term s of the i n t e n s i t y of s o c i a l paradox.

S o c ia l paradox (P ava, 1978) a r i s e s i n extended f u n c t i o n a l s o c i a l systems

(s e e p. 6) I t i s p e r v a s iv e , unending dilemma between groups w ith

incom patable o r i e n t a t i o n who s t i l l depend upon each o t h e r ' s a c t i v i t i e s

( i . e . r e g u l a t o r and r e g u l a t e d ) . When s o c i a l paradox i s a t low i n t e n s i t y

co nsensus i s l e s s p r o b le m a tic . There i s l e s s u n t e n a b i l i t y between

d i f f e r e n t elem ents of an ex ten d ed s o c i a l system; a c t i v i t y running a c r o s s

th e s e elem ents i s n o t s u s p i c io u s ly a t t a c k e d by narrow view s. In

c o n t r a s t , when s o c i a l paradox i s h ig h l y i n t e n s e , consensus i s extrem ely

p ro b le m a tic ; membership i n an extended system i s obscured because

m a n if e s t d i f f e r e n c e s obscure u n d e r ly in g i n t e r d e p e n d e n c ie s .

The i n t e n s i t y o f s o c i a l paradox te n d s to i n c r e a s e i n t h i s e r a of

t u r b u l e n t change. Sim ultaneous f ra g m e n ta tio n and in te rd e p e n d e n c e

s t r a i n s th e f a b r i c of t r a d i t i o n a l c o o p e r a tio n . Consensus needed to

manage pro b lem atiq u es (Ozbekhan, 1969) i s more d i f f i c u l t th a n ev er,

w h ile th e emergence of such messy problems compounds d i v i s i v e n e s s .

The employment of any p a r t i c u l a r p la n n in g method must s u i t th e

i n t e n s i t y o f s o c i a l paradox amid th e in t e r d e p e n d e n t p a r t i e s who need to

p la n . S yn op tic approaches t h a t r e q u i r e s y s te m a tic o r c h e s t r a t i o n of

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change to e x p l i c i t l y resh ap e a whole system seem b e s t s u i t e d to

c o n d i tio n s of low paradox; i t i s under th e s e c o n d itio n s t h a t the

numerous p a r t i e s in v o lv e d a r e l i k e l y to c o o p e ra te on b e h a l f of t h e i r

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n th e same extended system . On th e o th e r hand,

n o n -s y n o p tic methods u s i n g piecem eal advancement seem more f i t t i n g to

c o n d i tio n s of high s o c i a l paradox; when u n d e rly in g in te r d e p e n d e n c ie s a r e

obscured a t th e same time t h a t p a r t i e s become more fragm ented, e x p l i c i t

re d e s ig n of an e n t i r e system i s to o t h r e a te n i n g and i n t r i c a t e .

The i n t e n s i t y of s o c i a l paradox i s t h e r e f o r e one g e n e ra l boundary

c o n d i t i o n t h a t c o n s t r a i n s the type of p lanning method to be employed.

C o n s id e r, fo r example, th e approach most p ru d en t w ith th e same type of

system u n d er d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s of paradox:

- A s c h o o l system w i t h ad eq u a te re s o u r c e s , and o v e r a l l harmony

among a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , t e a c h e r s , s t u d e n t s and th e community i s i n
a s la c k s t a t e of low paradox. Under th e se c o n d itio n s , a l l
r e l e v a n t groups a r e probably w i l l i n g to meet w ith each o t h e r , to
improve t h e i r system a s a w hole. F urtherm ore, u n d er th e se
c irc u m s ta n c e s th e p ro s p e c t of in n o v a tin g t h e i r e n t i r e system i s
a m b itio u s b u t does not a p p e a r c a t a s t r o p h i c ; no group i s l i k e l y to
s e e w h o lesale change as a t h r e a t to t h e i r own c o n tin u e d
existen ce.

- A s c h o o l system w i t h s h rin k in g r e s o u r c e s , d e s p e r a t e
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , a m i l i t a n t and d iv id e d t e a c h e r ' s un io n, o th e r
v i g i l e n t b a rg a in in g u n i t s , r a c i a l l y d iv id e d s t u d e n t s , and a
d iv id e d community i s in a s t a t e of i n t e n s e s o c i a l parado x. In
t h i s c irc u m s ta n c e i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t such d i v e r g e n t f a c t i o n s
w i l l ag re e t o meet t o g e t h e r f o r th e sake of r e d e s ig n i n g t h e i r
whole sc h o o l sy stem . They may even be r e l u c t a n t to acknowledge
t h a t t h e views of any o th e r group hold m e r i t. F u rth erm o re , th e y
w i l l be s u s p i c io u s and m i s t r u s t f u l of w h o lesale r e d e s ig n ; each
f a c t i o n w i l l ex p ec t th e o th e r s to u su rp th e p r o c e s s , and use i t
to n u l l i f y o r e l im i n a te them.

In th e f i r s t s o r t of s c h o o l system, w ith low s o c i a l paradox, th e

employment of s y n o p tic p la n n in g methods seems most a p p r o p r i a t e . The

c a s t of c h a r a c t e r s a r e more l i k e l y t o pursue e x p l i c i t , whole system

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change. I n f a c t , i f paradox runs too low, s y n o p tic p lan n in g may p rov ide

th e am b itiou s c h a l le n g e n ece ssary to keep a system from growing s t a l e .

In the second type of sch o o l system, with h ig h s o c i a l p arado x, i t seems

more p ru d e n t to pursue change n o n -sy n o p tic a l l y ; to avoid r a i s i n g f e a r s

o r s u s p i c io n evoked by w holesale change, to e s t a b l i s h an ambiguous theme

app ly in g t o j u s t one a s p e c t of th e s t a t u s quo, t o s e iz e w hatever

o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r a c t i o n happen to a r i s e , and to avoid being c o n fin e d to

a s y s te m a tic , s te p w is e p ro c e ss.

Thus, depending on the i n t e n s i t y of s o c i a l parado x, i t i s f i t t i n g to

use d i f f e r e n t plan ning methods. S y nop tic methods app ear most f i t t i n g

f o r s i t u a t i o n s w ith low i n t e n s i t y p arado x. N on-synoptic approaches seem

most s u i t a b l e f o r c o n d i tio n s w ith high i n t e n s i t y paradox. V a ria tio n in

th e i n t e n s i t y of s o c i a l paradox t h e r e f o r e p ro v id es one s e t o f g e n e ra l

boundary c o n d i t i o n s t h a t c a n inform s e l e c t i o n of a p p r o p r ia te planning

methods.

A second g e n e ra l boundary c o n d i t i o n i s suggested by th e planning

l i t e r a t u r e : th e ta s k u n c e r t a i n t y c o n f r o n ti n g p la n n in g . In r e c e n t y e a r s

t h e r e has b e e n in c r e a s in g a t t e n t i o n to th e changing n a t u r e of problems

t h a t face p la n n in g . More and more, t h e r e i s r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t

i n c r e a s i n g l y p ro b le m a tic i s s u e s a r e u n s ta b l e and messy. These a re w h a t

p la n n e rs c a l l p ro b lem atiq u es (Ozbekhan, 1969), messes (A ckoff, 1974),

metaproblems ( C h e v a l ie r , 1968), c o l l e c t i v e phenomena (Friedm ann, 1973),

and p u z z le s (Emery, 1977). This i s i n c o n t r a s t to th e s o r t of c l e a r ,

s t a b l e problems t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l l y p r e v a i l e d .

Any c o l l e c t i v e e n d e a v o r, i n c l u d i n g p la n n in g , must be org an iz ed t o

match th e l e v e l of t a s k com p lexity fa c in g i t ( G a i l b r a i t h , 1977).

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T his s u g g e s ts t h a t th e l e v e l of t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y forms a n o th e r g e n e ra l

boundary c o n d i t i o n t h a t can inform t h e s e l e c t i o n of planning methods.

When t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y i s low, p la n n in g f a c e s r e l a t i v e l y c l e a r and

s t a t i c c h a l le n g e s . Under th e s e c o n d i tio n s everyone p r e t t y much a g re e s

as to what th e problem i s , and what s a t i s f a c t o r y c o n d itio n s c o n s t i t u t e a

so lu tio n . F urth erm ore, t h e problems them selves do not change much

thro ugh tim e , and th e y a r e r e l a t i v e l y s e p a r a t e . With low t a s k

u n c e r t a i n t y planning can take problems a s g iv e n . Problem f o r m u l a tio n i s

n o t i t s e l f p ro b le m a tic . R e a c tiv e methods can be u s e f u l l y employed, w ith

em phasis upon p r o j e c t i o n s and s t a b l e grand d e s ig n s . I f t a s k u n c e r t a in t y

r u n s v ery low, even no p la n n in g may s u f f i c e .

On th e o t h e r hand, p la n n in g f a c e s an u n c e r t a i n t a s k when people

c o n f r o n t u n s ta b l e and im p re c is e problem s. Under th e s e circ u m stan c es th e

n a t u r e of c h a l le n g e s i s n ot a t a l l c l e a r , and t h e i r c h a r a c t e r r a p id l y

chang es. T his s o r t of t a s k demands a c t i v e a d a p t a t i o n (Sachs and M editz,

1979) (Emery and T r i s t , 1973) (Ackoff and Emery, 1972) (Ozbekhan, 1971).

Problems can no lo n g e r be ta k en f o r g r a n te d . I n s t e a d plann ing must

b e g in a t a norm ative l e v e l , w ith c o n c e r te d e f f o r t to develop shared

problem f o r m u la tio n . A p r o a c tiv e p o s t u r e w ith i n t e r a c t i v e methods must

be employed, and p la n n in g must c o n t i n u a l l y u p d ate and adapt c o n c lu sio n s

made in th e p a s t . This i s emphasized by th e proponents of systems

p la n n in g (Ozbekhan, 1969) (Ozbekhan, 1971) (Ackoff, 1970) (Ackoff, 1974)

(Emery and T r i s t , 1973) ( T r i s t , 1976) (Schon, 1971) ( V ic k e rs , 1968)

(B eer, 1969).
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The l e v e l of t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y i s t h e r e f o r e a n o th e r g e n e r a l boundary

c o n d i t i o n t h a t can inform t h e type of planning approach to be employed.

T his argument h a s been w idely tr a c e d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e . R e a c tiv e

p la n n in g i s a d eq u a te f o r low t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y . A c tiv e a d a p t a t i o n and a

norm ative focus must be in c o r p o r a t e d when c o n fro n te d by h ig h t a s k

u n c e r t a i n t y ( t h i s i s th e e s s e n c e of th e dualism posed by Emery t h a t i s

r e f e r e n c e d on th e f i r s t page of t h i s c h a p t e r ) .

Two g e n e ra l boundary c o n d i t i o n s t h a t c o n s t r a i n th e s e l e c t i o n of

plan n in g methods have now been i n t r o d u c e d . One, i s th e i n t e n s i t y of

s o c i a l paradox among t h e in t e r d e p e n d e n t p a r t i e s who need to p la n . The

o t h e r , i s th e t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y f a c i n g t h e s e p e o p le .

Now, t h e fo u r c a t e g o r i e s of plann in g app ro ac h es (M aster P la n n in g ,

In c re m e n ta l N on-Planning, Normative Systems R ed esig n , Non-Synoptic

Systems Change) can be mapped i n terms of th e s e boundary c o n d i t i o n s .

D i f f e r e n t com bination s o f v a r i a t i o n i n t h e s e c o n d i tio n s s u g g e s t domains

of s u i t a b i l i t y f o r each m a jo r plan ning approach:

- M aster pla n n in g ap p ea rs m ost u s e f u l u n d e r c o n d itio n s of s o c i a l

paradox and low t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y .

• A n a ly tic o n e -s h o t p ro ced u res w ith no feedback s u i t low

ta sk u n c e rta in ty .

• The r e s u l t i n g grand p l a n i s l i k e l y to ap peal to p a r t i e s i n

s la c k s o c i a l p arad ox.

T h e re f o re , m a ste r p la n n in g i s t y p i c a l l y s u c c e s s f u l w ith s t a b l e ,
c o h e re n t subsystem s ( i . e . i n d u s t r i a l p ro d u c ti o n s y ste m s ).

- In c r e m e n ta l n o n -p lann ing a p p e a rs m ost u s e f u l u n d e r c o n d i tio n s of

s o c i a l paradox and low ta s k u n c e r t a i n t y .

In c re m e n ta l advancement w ith emphasis on m arg inal change

i s most l i k e l y n o t to o ffend o r t h r e a t e n d iv e r g e n t
f a c t i o n s amid i n t e n s e paradox.
 lb 7

Lack o f c o h ere n ce o r i n t e g r a t i o n does not r a i s e s e r io u s

problems w ith t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y low.

T h e r e f o r e , in c re m e n ta l n o n -p la n n in g has t r a d i t i o n a l l y worked i n
t r a d i t i o n a l forums r e g u la te d by " i n v i s i b l e hand" checks and
b a la n c e s ( i . e . p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s e s , f r e e m a rk e ts , e t c . ) .

- Normative systems r e d e s ig n a p p e a rs most u s e f u l under c o n d i tio n s

of low s o c i a l paradox w i t h high t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y .

• Normative emphasis w ith a p r o a c tiv e approach i s needed to

manage amid hig h t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y .

• O rd e rly process w ith e x p l i c i t focus on a whole system

r o b u s t l y engages p a r t i e s i n s la c k s o c i a l p aradox .

T h e re fo re , no rm ative systems r e d e s ig n has u s u a lly developed and

endured i n co h e re n t s o c i a l f i e l d s and unfragm ented s i n g l e
o r g a n i z a t i o n s , o r among l o w - c o n f l i c t c o a l i t i o n s t h a t b e g in to
e n c o u n te r more t u r b u l e n t e n v iro n m en ta l change ( i . e . commercial
e n t e r p r i s e s w ith growing c o m p e titio n o r changing te c h n o lo g y ,
government a g e n c ie s , e t c . ) .

- N on-Synoptic Systems Change a p p e a r s most s u i t a b l e under

c o n d i tio n s of h ig h s o c i a l paradox and h ig h t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y .

A c tiv e a d a p tiv e p o s tu r e w i t h emphasis on norm ative change

i s needed to manage amid high t a s k co m p le x ity .

• In c re m e n ta l advancement, w ith a t t e n t i o n t o p a r t i a l a s p e c t s
of systems i s m ost l i k e l y to engage d iv e r g e n t f a c t i o n s
amid i n t e n s e s o c i a l paradox, w h ile keeping a l i v e th e
p o s s i b i l i t y o f p e rv a s iv e r a d i c a l change (th ro u g h modest
s c a le i n n o v a tio n w ith su b se q u en t l i n k a g e ) .

T h e r e f o r e , n o n - s y n o p tic systems change has u s u a l l y been developed

by n o rm ativ e systems p la n n e r s working a c r o s s d is p e r s e d p a r t i e s
t h a t a r e h i g h l y d iv id e d ( i . e . r e g u l a t o r s and r e g u l a t e d ,
f a c i o n a te d and d ep ressed ccmmunity g roups, l a b o r and management,
f a c t i o n a t e d p r o f e s s io n s l i k e MD.'s and non-MD's, e t c . ) .

Thus, t h e fo u r c l u s t e r s of planning methods app ear to each f i t w ith

d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s of s i t u a t i o n s . These c l a s s e s a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d by

i n t e n s i t y o f s o c i a l paradox and l e v e l of t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y . The

p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t any p a r t i c u l a r type of approach i s a p p r o p r ia te seems

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r e l a t e d to v a r i a t i o n i n th e s e boundary c o n d i t i o n s . This i s summarized

on th e follow ing pages i n F ig u r e s 5 . 5 , 5 .6 , and 5 .7 .

System p la n n e r s dem o nstrate t h a t th e p r e v a i l i n g n a t u r e of problems

i s ch an g in g . Emergence of s o c i e t a l tu r b u l e n c e (Emery and T r i s t , 1973)

le a d s to i n c r e a s i n g e n c o u n te r with u n s ta b l e and messy problem s, r a i s i n g

th e l e v e l of planning t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y . T h is im p lie s t h a t the ty p e s of

p la n n in g people a r e t y p i c a l l y engaged i n s h o u ld s h i f t to th e r i g h t of

th e m a tr ix i n F ig u r e 5 . 5 , tow ards more a c t i v e a d a p tiv e and normative

processes. M aster plan ning o f te n needs to be su p p la n te d by norm ative

system s r e d e s ig n , and in c re m e n ta l norr-planning w i l l i n c r e a s i n g l y need

to be augmented by n o n - s y n o p tic systems change.

T h is e v o l u t i o n of r e q u i s i t e p lann in g p r o c e s s e s does n o t e l im i n a te

t r a d i t i o n a l l y predominante p r o c e s s e s . Normative systems r e d e s ig n does

no t co m pletely e l i m i n a t e m a s t e r p la n n in g . F or example, a number of

te c h n iq u e s used i n m a ster p la n n in g prov id e u s e f u l c o n t r i b u t i o n s i n

norm ative systems r e d e s ig n p r o c e s s e s . But th e s e t o o l s m ust be employed

a f t e r th e no rm ative l e v e l of d esig n h a s been t a c k le d ; th e y become a

s p e c i a l case w i t h i n th e r i c h e r framework of norm ative systems r e d e s ig n

p la n n in g .

The same i s t r u e f o r n o n -s y n o p tic p r o c e s s e s . N on-synoptic systems

change does not c a l l f o r t o t a l r e j e c t i o n of a l l i n c r e m e n t a l i s t

n o n -p lan n in g p r o c e s s e s . I n s t e a d , c e r t a i n a s p e c t s of non -p lann ing have

a r o l e to play i n th e r i c h e r framework of n o n - s y n o p tic systems change.

For example, a d v e r s a r i a l b a rg a in in g between d iv e r g e n t f a c t i o n s w ith a

s h o r t term focus w i l l s t i l l e x i s t w ith in a n o n -s y n o p tic systems change

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m anage am id h ig h t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y . I
* R e s u ltin g ground p la n l i k e l y t o a p p e a l O r d e r ly p r o c e s s w i t h e x p l i c i t I
t o p a r t ie s In s la c k s o c i a l paradox* f o c u s on a w h o le s y s te m r o b u s t l y I
e n g a g e s p a r t i e s and s e l e c t s o c i a l I
paradox* I
* T y p ic a lly s u c c e s s f u l w ith s t a b le c o ­ T y p i c a l l y d e v e lo p e d and u s e d I
h e r e n t s u b sy ste m s ( I . e . I n d s u t r la l p ro ­ In s i n g l e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , and c o - I
d u c tio n s y s te m s ). h e r e n t s o c i a l f i e l d s t h a t b e g in to i
e n c o u n t e r t u r b u l e n c e ( i . e . com m er- I
c i a l e n t e r p r is e , governm ent |
a g e n c i e s , e t c . ____________________________|
I n c r e m e n t a l N o n -P la n n in g N o n - S y n o p t ic S y s t e m s Ch a n g e "f
* P ie c e m e a l a d v a n c e m en t w it h e m p h a s is A c t iv e a d a p t i v e p o s t u r e w i t h I
u p o n m a r g in a l ch a n g e I s m o st l i k e l y n o t e ih p h a s ls upon n o r m a t iv e c h a n g e i s I
t o o ffe n d o r th r e a te n d iv e r g e n t f a c t io n s n e e d e d t o m anage h ig h t a s k c o m - |
a m id i n t e n s e paradox* c o m p le x ity . |
a la c k o f c o h e r en ce o r I n te g r a tio n d oes I n c r e m e n t a l a d v a n c e m e n t, w i t h
I
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or th r e a te n d iv e r g e n t f a c t io n s I
am id i n t e n s e s o c i a l p a r a d o x , )
w h il e k e e p i n g a l i v e t h e p o s s l b l - I
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f o r u m s g o v e r n e d by a n Mi n v l s i b l e hand" p e r sed p a r t ie s t h a t a r e h ig h ly !
( I . e . p o l i t i c s , m a rk ets)* d i v i d e d ( I . e . r e g u l a t o r s and r e - I
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________________________ v A c t iv e u
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 190

Fi g u r e 5 . 6
E x a m p les o f D i f f e r e n t P la n n in g M e th o d s
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C o n tin g e n c y Fram ework

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I - F o r e c a stin g - C y b e r n e t ic S y s t e m s P l a n n i n g 1
I - O p e r a t io n s R e s e a r c h A lg r o th e m s - O r g a n i z a t i o n a l L e a r n in g 1
I - Com puter S i m u la t io n u s e d a s s o c i a l
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 191
F ig u re 5 .7
Approximate S c a tte rg ra m L o ca tin g D i f f e r e n t P lan n in g Approaches
In A Contingency Framework

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I R esearch S tra te g ic i n th e |
Low I n t e r ­ I A1grothems P lan n in g C y b e rn e tic |
dependence I o Computer Firm j
and I s im u la tio n - o Normative |
Low D iv er­ I o D elphi P lan n in g |
gence I and o O r g a n iz a tio n a l I
I Massaged L earn in g |
1 Convergence
I In crem en tal N on-Planning N on-Synoptic Systems |
1 o A d ju d ic a tio n Change I
1 o R a t io n a l I
I o Voting In crem en talism |
1 o A rtic u la te d |
1 o B arg ain in g In c re m e n ta lism |
1 o In tera ctiv e!
1 Community |
1 Development|
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dependence 1 encing w ith a I
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gence 1 S o c ia l o Theme s e t |
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T ec h n ical (so cio tech n ic al
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tin g r e la tio n tin g r e la tio n
 192

Movement towards a c t i v e a d a p t a t i o n and norm ative focus w i l l not

a n n i h i l a t e e s t a b l i s h e d p ro c e s s e s and s k i l l s from p rev io u s planning

tra d itio n s. But planning a c t i v i t y w i l l no lo n g e r be confined to them.

I n s t e a d , i t w i l l i n c r e a s i n g l y need to be d riv e n by a p r o a c tiv e

o r i e n t a t i o n and a norm ative emphasis. These w i l l be e s t a b l i s h e d by

s p e c i f i c new te c h n iq u e s ( i . e . i d e a l i z a t i o n , r e f e r e n c e p r o j e c t i o n ,

th e m a tic f a c i l i t a t i o n ) , and they w i l l a ls o in f u s e new meaning and

purpose i n t o more t r a d i t i o n a l e le m e n ts . T his tr a n s f o r m a tio n i s

an alogous to p a ra d ig m a tic change i n p hy sics tr a c e d by Kuhn (11962):

"Though an o u t - o f - d a t e theo ry c a n always be viewed as a s p e c ia l

case of i t s u p - t o - d a t e s u c c e s s o r , i t must be tra n s fo rm e d f o r t h e
purpose. And th e tr a n s f o r m a t i o n i s one t h a t can be u n d erta k en only
with th e advantages of h i n d s i g h t , th e e x p l i c i t guidance of t h e more
r e c e n t th e o ry ." (pp. 102-103).

In a word, movement tow ards g r e a t e r p rev alan ce of a c t i v e a d a p tiv e ,

norm ative planning can refram e more t r a d i t i o n a l methods i n a r i c h e r

c o n te x t t h a t i s more a p p r o p r i a t e to high t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y t h a t a r i s e s

from s o c i e t a l tu r b u l e n c e .

As m entioned p r e v io u s l y , th e s h i f t from p a s s iv e resp on se to a c t i v e

a d a p t a t i o n and norm ative fo cu s has b een w id ely d is c u s s e d i n the

lite ra tu re . On th e o th e r h and , th e emergence of n o n - s y n o p tic systems

change app roaches has gone r e l a t i v e l y un noted. A r e a s o n f o r t h i s can

o n ly be su rm is e d . I t seems t h a t t h e dimension of o r d e r l i n e s s (more

s y n o p tic compared to l e s s s y n o p tic ) i s f r e q u e n t ly n e g l e c t e d . Braybrook

and Lindbloom (1963, p. 40) i n d i c a t e t h a t our c u l t u r e v a lu e s

o r d e r l i n e s s so d eep ly , t h a t i t i s u s u a ll y th e only c o n c e iv a b le
 193

p o ssib ility . Our im a g in a tio n s a re l i m i t e d to s u p p o sin g , and t h e r e f o r e

f i n d i n g , m ostly s y n o p tic p ro c e s s e s fo r re a s o n a b le o r g a n i z a t i o n .* The

p o s s i b i l i t y o f v a r i a t i o n and choice between more and l e s s s y n o p tic

p r o c e s s e s u s u a ll y j u s t g e t s o v erlo o k e d .

T h is makes n o rm ativ e a c t i v e a d a p tiv e p ro cesses between d iv e r g e n t

fa ctio n s la rg e ly in v is ib le . When people attem p t to promote norm ative

a c t i v e a d a p tiv e p la n n in g between d iv e r g e n t f a c t i o n s , i t c e a se s to lo o k

l i k e what we norm ally th in k o f as p la n n in g . The boundary c o n d i t i o n of

i n t e n s e s o c i a l parad ox fo rc e s t h i s e f f o r t to become d i s j o i n t e d ,

d i s o r d e r l y , and a n a l y t i c a l l y n o n - s e q u e n t i a l . But th e predom inate image

of p la n n in g p o r tr a y s an o r d e r l y , s te p w is e p ro cess; n o t t h e

h e l t e r - s k e l t e r of theme s e t i n t e r v e n t i o n or n orm ative in c re m e n ta lis m .

Thus, th e development of a n e g l e c t e d ty p e . New methods a r e d e s c rib e d

p r i m a r i l y i n terms of how th e y p re s e rv e the s h i f t to a c t i v e a d a p t a t i o n

and norm ative fo c u s , but few of us have a language f o r co n c e iv in g o r

d e s c r ib i n g t h e l e g i t i m a t e employment of seemingly d i s o r d e r l y p r o c e s s e s .

T his a n a l y s i s of p la n n in g methods and boundary c o n d i t i o n s l o c a t e s

norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m i n a l a r g e r s e t t i n g . I t s u g g e s ts t h a t the

approach of norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m i s one o f many pla n n in g methods

being developed a s n o n -s y n o p tic a p p ro ac h es to systems change. T h is

type of approach i s b e s t s u i t e d to c irc u m s ta n c e s where p la n n in g must

work amid h ig h s o c i a l parado x and h ig h t a s k c o m p le x ity ; a c l a s s of

* One i s reminded of K a p la n 's law o f the in s tr u m e n t (1964, p. 28):

"Give a sm all boy a hammer, and he w i l l f i n d t h a t e v e r y t h in g he
e n c o u n te rs needs pounding."
 194

of s i t u a t i o n no t always ap p ro ach ab le by methods p io n e e re d i n norm ative

systems d e s ig n .

n o rm ative in c re m e n ta lis m and o th e r n o n - s y n o p tic systems change

appro ach es do not ex clude o r r e p u d i a t e o th e r s o r t s of p la n n in g methods.

In c re m e n ta l n o n -p la n n in g i s s t i l l u s e f u l i n s i t u a t i o n s of i n t e n s e

s o c i a l paradox and low t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y . However, t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y

w i l l r i s e g e n e r a lly w ith th e o v e r a l l s h i f t to a t u r b u l e n t environm ent.

T h is w i l l c r e a t e a need to c o rre s p o n d in g ly s h i f t towards n o n -s y n o p tic

systems change methods, t h a t w i l l in c o r p o r a t e f e a t u r e s of in c re m e n ta l

n o n -plan nin g but no t be co n fin e d to them.

L ik ew ise, m aster p la n n in g w i l l c o n tin u e to be e f f e c t i v e i n

s i t u a t i o n s w ith low s o c i a l p aradox and low t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y . T h is,

however, i s a l s o a v a n is h in g b re e d of problem s i t u a t i o n . There i s a

growing need to e s t a b l i s h methods of no rm ativ e systems r e d e s ig n . These

may i n c lu d e c e r t a i n elem ents o f m aster p la n n in g , b u t w ith in a r i c h e r

m e th o d o lo g ic a l c o n te x t t h a t g i v e s them new meaning and d i r e c t i o n .

F i n a l l y , n o n -s y n o p tic approaches to change do not n u l l i f y advances

made i n norm ative systems d e s i g n . I n s t e a d , th e y compliment them by

o u t l i n i n g a l t e r n a t i v e ways to proceed i n th e same d i r e c t i o n when

o r d e r l y s t e p s and e x p l i c i t focus on th e whole system prove u n b eara b le

fo r c l i e n t s . T h is may be a l e s s am b itiou s endeavor th a n o u t r i g h t

systems d e s ig n , b u t when high paradox and h ig h t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y

p r e v a i l , i t may be t h e most t h a t can be t o l e r a t e d . And i n s p i t e of

t h e i r c o n t r a s t , b o th systems app ro ac h es aim t o evoke a c t i v e a d a p t a ti o n

throu gh n orm ativ e change.

 195

The d e l i n a t i o n of a c o n tin g e n c y approach to planning r a i s e s t h e

i n t e r e s t i n g p o s s i b i l i t y o f phased a p p l i c a t i o n s , i n which d i f f e r e n t

methods come t o predom inate a t d i f f e r e n t tim e s . A n o n -s y n o p tic systems

approach, f o r example, m ight work w e ll to g a in a f o o th o ld f o r a c t i v e

a d a p t a t i o n among d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s . L a t e r , as sh a re d e x p erien ce

d e r-e s c a la te s s o c i a l paradox between them, t h e use of more e x p l i c i t

no rm ative systems d e s ig n methods might prove b e s t . L ik ew ise, th e

p o s s i b i l i t y o f employing n o n -s y n o p tic approaches a f t e r i n i t i a l

no rm ative systems r e d e s i g n might a l s o prove u s e f u l .

Of c o u r s e , t h e s e a r e n ot a i r t i g h t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s . The con tinu ous

n a t u r e of s c a l e s d e f in i n g r e l a t i v e l e v e l s of boundary c o n d itio n s

i n d i c a t e s t h e r e i s p le n ty o f room f o r mixed approaches, f o r plan ning

endeavors t h a t a re n o t p u r e ly one type o r th e o th e r. For example, a

p r a c t i t i o n e r of norm ative systems r e d e s ig n may become involved w i t h a

c l i e n t system with i n t e n s i f i e d s o c i a l paradox. While th e elem ents of

th e i n t e r v e n t i o n may be c a l l e d by t h e i r u su al names (and hence g iv e n

t h e apperance of o r d e r l y , s te p w is e p ro c e d u re ) , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t

sometimes they w i l l a c t u a l l y become n o n - s y n o p tic a lly o rg a n iz e d ( o r

d eo rg an ized ) i f the p ro cess i s to be e f f e c t i v e . J u s t th e same, t h e r e

may w e ll be o c c a sio n s when a n o n -s y n o p tic p la n n e r a c t u a l l y f in d s h i s or

h e r s e l f p u rs u in g a more o r d e r l y pro cess of change.

A ls o , i t should be noted t h a t th e d e f i n i t i o n s of planning

c a t e g o r i e s and boundary c o n d i t i o n s h ere i s n o t f i n a l . O ther

c o n c e p tio n s a r e p o s s i b l e . But however a r b i t r a r y , t h e id e a s form ulated

h e r e can be u s e f u l . They h e l p l o c a t e norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m i n a

 196

l a r g e r c o n te x t of a l t e r n a t i v e ap p ro ac h es, and s u g g e s t where such an

approach m ight m ost u s e f u l l y be employed (and where i t i s not

ad v isab le).

F i n a l l y , i t must be reco gnized t h a t n o t a l l v a r i a t i o n i n planning

a p p r o p r ia te n e s s depends upon ta s k u n c e r t a i n t y and i n t e n s i t y of s o c i a l

paradox. A nother m ajor f a c t o r i s th e s t y l i s t i c p r e f e r e n c e of th e

people in v o lv e d , i n c l u d i n g p r a c t i t i o n e r s ( i . e . p la n n e r s ) who i n t e r v e n e .

O fte n , c e r t a i n people p r e f e r p a r t i c u l a r ty pes of method r e g a r d l e s s of

th e c irc u m s ta n c e s .

However, many p la n n e rs n o te a fundamental s h i f t i n the f a b r i c of

s o c i e t y ( s e e p. 2 ) . T h is im p lie s t h a t whatever t h e i r s t y l i s t i c

p r e f e r e n c e , e f f e c t i v e p la n n e r s w i l l i n c r e a s i n g l y need to l e a r n system ic

methods t h a t emphasize a c t i v e a d a p t a ti o n v ia norm ative change. For i t

i s p r im a r ily t h i s s o r t of e n t e r p r i s e sy n o p tic o r not t h a t can help

i n s t i t u t i o n s work e f f e c t i v e l y amid s o c i e t a l tu rb u le n c e and growing

c o n tin u o u s c r i t i c a l problem s (Ozbekhan, 1969) (Ozbekhan, 1971)

(Ozbekhan, 1973) (Ozbekhan, 1976).

Sunmmary o f Cha p t e r 5

C hapter 5 has a t te m p te d to more u s e f u l l y r e l a t e th e concept of

norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m t o o th e r appro aches to p la n n in g . F irst,

norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m was s ta c k e d a lo n g sid e v a r io u s i n d i v i d u a l

plan ning methods. Next, t h e s e methods were grouped i n t o fou r c l u s t e r s ,

and two g e n e ra l boundary c o n d i t i o n s c o n s t r a i n i n g t h e i r a p p r o p r ia te n e s s

w ere fo rm u la te d . T h is allow ed a n a l y s i s of th e se types under d i f f e r e n t

co n d itio n s.
 197

This r e n d e r s a c o n tin g en cy framework f o r systems p la n n in g . From

t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , d i f f e r e n t methods of planning complement each o t h e r ,

because th e y o f f e r a l t e r n a t i v e ap p ro ac h es. These a l t e r n a t i v e s s u i t

d i f f e r e n t c o n d i tio n s of v a r i a n c e i n th e l e v e l of t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y and

the i n t e n s i t y of s o c i a l paradox.

In t h i s v iew , norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m i s one of many emerging

approaches to n o n - s y n o p tic systems change. T h is s o r t of p la n n in g seems

b e s t s u ite d to in t e n s e s o c i a l parado x and h ig h ta s k u n c e r t a i n t y .

O ther p la n n in g approaches have t h e i r own s p e c i a l domains of

competence. In c re m e n ta l no n-p lanning i s s u i t e d to low t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y

and hig h s o c i a l p arad ox . M aster p la n n in g i s f i t f o r low t a s k

u n c e r t a i n t y and low s o c i a l p a ra d o x . F i n a l l y , norm ativ e systems

r e d e s ig n i s b e s t fo r h ig h t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y amid low s o c i a l paradox .

The emergence of a body o f n o n -s y n o p tic systems change methods has

been obscured by our c u l t u r a l b l i n d s p o t f o r d i s o r d e r l y but r e a s o n a b le

processes. These n o n -s y n o p tic approaches to systems change s h a re a

norm ative emphasis and a c t i v e a d a p tiv e p o s tu r e w ith more w idely

reco g n ized norm ative system r e d e s ig n approaches. The r e l a t i v e m e r i t s

of e i t h e r ( a s i d e from s t y l i s t i c p r e f e r e n c e ) depend upon th e i n t e n s i t y

of s o c i a l p arad o x amid th e people who need to be engaged i n a p lanning

p ro c e s s . Both systems approaches a d d re s s th e i n c r e a s i n g t a s k

u n c e r t a i n t y t h a t i s becoming more p r e v a l e n t i n an e r a of s o c i e t a l

tu r b u l e n c e .
 CHAPTER 6

SUMMARY
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
AND
CONCLUDING REMARKS

A concept of norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m has now been fo rm u lated and

li n k e d w ith a l t e r n a t i v e plan nin g ap pro ach es. This f i n a l c h a p te r b r i e f l y

summarizes th e major p o i n t s developed i n p re v io u s c h a p t e r s . This le a d s

to ra is in g issu e s for fu tu re research . F i n a l l y , th e growing need f o r

systems p la n n in g , s y n o p tic and n o n - s y n o p tic , i s reem phasized.

Summary Of Major P o in ts

T h is work began by e s t a b l i s h i n g a frame of r e f e r e n c e f o r l a t e r

a n a l y s i s and th e o ry b u i l d i n g . This approach was ro o te d in p e r c e p tio n of

a changing s o c i a l environm ent, t h e th e o ry o f l o g i c a l ty p e s , and th e id e a

of p la n n in g as a c t i v i t y t h a t c r e a t e s a w i l l e d f u t u r e . The fo llo w in g

p r o p o s i t i o n s a r i s e from t h i s framework:

- A h i s t o r i c a l s h i f t i n th e f a b r i c of s o c i e t a l e v e n ts makes
w idespread norm ative p la n n in g a h o p e fu l a l t e r n a t i v e t h a t d eserv es
fu rth e r p u rsu it.

- The same h i s t o r i c a l tre n d i n t e n s i f i e s s o c i a l p arad ox , making

p a r t i c i p a n t s in extended f u n c t i o n a l system s become d iv e r g e n t
f a c t i o n s . D iv erg en t f a c t i o n s a r e u n l i k e l y p a r t i c i p a n t s i n
widespread no rm ative p la n n in g ; o f t e n th e y r e s i s t acknowledging th e
i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s needed to i n s p i r e such e f f o r t .

- A key i s s u e becomes: can a b a s ic p r o c e s s be i d e n t i f i e d t h a t hooks

d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s i n t o no rm ative change? The th e o ry o f l o g i c a l
ty p e s i s one form of systems th in k in g s u i t a b l e to c o n c e p tu a liz in g
some b a s ic f e a t u r e s of such a p r o c e s s .

- In t h i s view , th e prim ary m e d ia tin g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s of i n d u s t r i a l

s o c i e t y i s seen to be c o m p e titio n r a t h e r than c o o p e r a tio n .

198
 199

- This im p lie s t h a t th e l o g i c a l type of primary m ediating s o c i a l

r e l a t i o n s h i p between d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s must be s h i f t e d to
c o o p e r a tio n from c o m p e titio n . These a r e b a s ic c o n te x ts f o r
b e h a v io r , n o t j u s t s p e c i f i c chunks of i t .

- To do t h i s e x i s t i n g groups, v a l u e s , and b e h a v io r s must n o t be

d i r e c t l y t h r e a t e n e d . I n s t e a d , th e y should be g iv e n a new c o n t e x t,
and hence refram ed .

- This change i s an i n s t a n c e of d e u t e r o - l e a r n i n g . I t w i l l t h e r e f o r e
tend to be f r u s t r a t i n g , w ith s e r e n d i p i t o u s p ro g r e s s . R a re ly w i l l
i t be e a s y , smooth, o r r a t i o n a l l y s e q u e n t i a l . Such change can
e a s i l y be overlooked by s t r i c t l y a n a l y t i c o b s e r v a tio n .

- The p r o s p e c t of s h i f t i n g t h e primary m ed iatin g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p

does no t imply f o o l i s h l y t r y i n g to c a p tu r e p r im iti v e n a i v e t e .
I n s t e a d , t h e s h i f t i n l o g i c a l ty p e s can be lin k e d to c r e a t i n g a
d e s i r e d f u t u r e , to a c t i v e a d a p tiv e p la n n in g . T h is makes
c o o p e r a tio n p u r p o s e f u l, i n t o c o l l a b o r a t i o n .

This frame of r e f e r e n c e p ro v id es a n o v e l way of viewing no rm ative change

betw een d iv e r g e n t f a c t i o n s .

C hapter 2 summarizes e m p ir ic a l o b j e c t s t o which t h i s view point i s

th e n a p p l i e d . These a r e P r o j e c t Network labor-m anagem ent com mittees.

Labor-management committees a r e p a r a l l e l c o l l a b o r a t i v e p ro b lem -so lv in g

o rgan s b u i l t by t h e d i v e r g e n t f a c t i o n s of l a b o r and management. They

t a c k l e i s s u e s im p o rta n t to both p a r t i e s t h a t f a l l o u ts id e t r a d i t i o n a l

labor-m anagem ent forums. I d e a l l y , t h e s e com mittees have a " s p i l l o v e r”

e f f e c t t h a t le a d s to g r e a t e r m utual t r u s t and u n d e rs ta n d in g d u rin g more

a d v e r s a r i a l p ro c e e d in g s . P r o j e c t Network fo llow ed a unique s t r a t e g y o f

th e m a tic f a c i l i t a t i o n t h a t k e p t F e d e r a l a u t h o r i t i e s from commanding o r

dominating lo c a l i n n o v a tio n . T h is was n e c e ss a ry to g a in c o o p e r a tio n

from l o c a l la b o r and management p e o p le . The data from P r o j e c t Network

( b r i e f l y review ed c a s e - b y - c a s e i n Appendix I ) r e v e a le d t h r e e

c o n s i s t e n t l y r o b u s t Network s i t e s . This p a t t e r n e x i s t e d i n s p i t e of
 200

many d i f f e r e n c e s between th e i n d i v i d u a l s i t e s . T h e ir c o n s i s t e n t l y

r o b u s t perform ance i n s p i t e of h e te r o g e n e it y s u g g e s ts some deep er

process a t work.

C h ap ter 3 o u t l i n e s t h i s p ro c e s s by r e f e r r i n g back to case d a t a i n

l i g h t of th e framework from C hapter 1. What em erges, i s a co n ce p t of

norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m . T h is i s a p ro c e s s of a c t i v e ad a p tiv e change

w ith a no rm ative emphasis t h a t o c c u r s between d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s .

S c r u t i n i z i n g Network c a s e s , n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m was found to have

t h r e e major elem ents:

1. V is io n

- V is io n i s an imagined type of improvement i n one a s p e c t of

r e l a t i o n s b etw een d iv e r g e n t f a c t i o n s .

- T h is v i s i o n i s ex p re s s e d a s a sim ple programmatic theme. It

i s n e ith e r d e ta ile d or e x p l i c i t .

- The v i s i o n does n o t d i r e c t l y c h a lle n g e e x i s t i n g v a lu e s or

f a c t i o n s . I n s t e a d , t h e programmatic theme refram es what
alread y e x i s t s .

- T his amounts to l o g i c a l l y r e t y p i n g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s ; t h e
prim ary type of m e d ia tin g r e l a t i o n s betw een f a c t i o n s i s
re fram ed to be complementary r a t h e r th a n c o m p e titiv e .
C o l l a b o r a t i o n becomes invoked a s a new d e s i r e d c o n te x t, n ot
j u s t a s i n g l e new b e h a v io r.

- Because t h i s v i s i o n changes th e l o g i c a l type of s o c i a l

r e l a t i o n s , i t i n i t i a l l y does n o t make se n s e . F u rtherm ore, i t
o n ly rem o tely im p lie s p e r v a s iv e change.

- V is io n and theme a r e h o lo g r a p h i c . They a l lu d e t o q u a l i t a t i v e

change r e l e v a n t to th e o r g a n i z a t i o n a s a whole and to
v i r t u a l l y any of i t s d iv e rg e n t p a r t s .

- The s p e c i f i c c o n te n t of th e theme i s mixed, bo th im ported and

in d ig e n o u s . O f te n i t foreshadows some id e a ascending i n t o
good c u rre n c y t h a t i s n o t y e t dominant i n c e n t e r s of power.
Local and co sm o p o lita n themes w i l l need to be s k i l l f u l l y
m ediated.
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2. A c tio n

- A c tio n i s an e s s e n t i a l elem ent of norm ative in c re m en talism .

A l l o c a tio n of r e s o u r c e s to make th e theme happen (even though
p eople d o n 't t r u l y know what i t i s ) i s a c r i t i c a l g e s t u r e . I t
makes th e theme r e a l , s u b s t a n t i a l , i n s t e a d of immediately
becoming j u s t a n o th e r s lo g a n .

- A c tio n i s tak en through a d e c e n t r a l i z e d p ro b lem -so lv in g

o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h is i s s e t up when t h e r e i s i n i t i a l consensus
upon the vague theme. I t runs p a r a l l e l to th e e x i s t i n g
o rg an iz atio n .

- R e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a c t i n g i s d e c e n t r a l i z e d . Most i n i t i a t i v e
i s e x e r c is e d from th e bottom-up. H igh er l e v e l s u s u a ll y e x i s t
to f a c i l i t a t e more d i r e c t work by s o - c a l l e d lower l e v e l s .

- A c tio n i s s e l f - a s s e s s e d t h e m a t i c a l l y , i n term s of how w e ll

peop le f e e l i t promotes o r embodies th e theme. I s o l a t e d
outcome measurement i s deemphasized o r t o t a l l y banned.
A ssessment i s done by program members.

- A c tio n i s planned ad h o c . Comprehensive im plem entation

p la n n in g i s not done. Emphasis i s on s h a r e d problem
f o r m u l a tio n , n o t on plann in g a c t i o n .

3. Fi t t i n g B eh av io rs

- People a t r o b u s t Network s i t e s were found to p a rta k e i n

un u su al b e h a v io rs t h a t made t h e i r theme and t h e i r a c t io n s
in fo rm each o t h e r . These a r e f i t t i n g b e h a v i o r s . S p e c i f i c
observed mechanisms in c lu d e :

o Use of theme as l i t u r g y
o Them atic s e l f - a s s e s s m e n t
o R ecu rsiv e a p p l i c a t i o n of th e theme to th e program i t s e l f
o Use of r i t u a l ev en ts
o D isplay b e h a v io r

In g e n e r a l , t h e s e c o n s t i t u t e sequences of r i t u a l b eh av io r t h a t
r e p u n c t u a te the s o c i a l o rd e r between d iv e rg e n t f a c t i o n s i n
l i n e w ith th e c o l l a b o r a t i o n invoked by th e theme.

- Use of f i t t i n g b e h a v io rs makes theme and a c t i o n inform each

o t h e r . T h i s makes th e theme more c o n c r e t e , and a l s o f u r t h e r
c h a l le n g e s i t .

Looking a t Network s i t e s l o n g i t u d i n a l l y , i t appeared t h e r e might be some

r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een norm ative in c re m e n ta l b e h a v io r and labor-management

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committee r o b u s tn e s s . Committees a d o p tin g p ie c e s of t h i s o v e r a l l

p a t t e r n e x p e rie n c e d upswings s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e i r in n o v a tio n . Committees

im p la n tin g th e e n t i r e p a t t e r n were c o n s i s t e n t l y r o b u s t. Committees

w ith o u t any n o rm ativ e i n c r e m e n t a l i s t elem ents were th e l e a s t a c t i v e .

C hapter 4 proceeds to e l a b o r a t e some d i s t i n c t i v e p r o p e r t i e s of

norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m . S p e c ific a lly , i t i s illu s tra te d th a t

norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m :

- Promotes r a d i c a l r e f ra m in g i n s t e a d of o u t r i g h t r e v o l t .

- Makes deeper impact than emergency re s p o n s e .

- I n v o lv e s more s u b s t a n t i a l e f f o r t than sim ple p r o t e s t .

- Evokes a new eco log y o f v a l u e , n o t j u s t a new s e t o f v a lu e s .

- Works beyond c o g n i tiv e l i m i t s v ia sensemaking t h a t u t i l i z e s r i t u a l

communication d uring th e m a tic f i t t i n g .

- Develops i n some c a s e s from minimum c r i t i c a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s .

- Works as a n o n -s y n o p tic p r o c e s s t h a t i s d i s o r d e r l y , n o t e x p l i c i t l y
focused on t h e whole sy stem , and a n a l y t i c a l l y n o n - s e q u e n t i a l .

- A p p lies beyond P r o j e c t Network c ases to f i t o th e r ep iso d es of

r o b u s t in n o v a tio n among d iv e r g e n t f a c t i o n s .

- O u tli n e s a d i s t i n c t i v e s e t of i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r systems
i n t e r v e n t i o n t h a t can in fo rm i n t e r v e n t i o n s w ith s p e c i f i c
p r o p o s a ls .

These e l a b o r a t i o n s f l e s h - o u t th e concept of n o rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m s e t

f o r t h i n C h ap ter 3 .

C hapter 5 proceeds to l o c a t e a u s e f u l n ic h e fo r norm ative

in c re m e n ta lis m amid many o t h e r methods of systems p la n n in g . F irst,

norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m i s s ta c k e d a lo n g s id e v a r io u s i n d i v i d u a l

p la n n in g methods. Next, t h e s e methods a r e grouped i n t o fo u r c l u s t e r s :

m a ste r p la n n in g , in c re m e n ta l n o n - p la n n in g , no rm ativ e systems r e d e s ig n ,

 203

and n o n -sy n o p tic system change. N on-sy no ptic system change methods

b u i l d upon th e a c t i v e a d a p tiv e p o s tu re and norm ative emphasis p io n e e re d

by n orm ativ e systems r e d e s ig n p r a c t i t i o n e r s . Emergence of n o n -s y n o p tic

system change methods o fte n goes u n n o ticed because of ou r c u l t u r a l b l i n d

sp o t f o r d i s o r d e r l y b u t r e a s o n a b le p r o c e s s e s .

Each c a te g o r y of p la n n in g approach seems to have i t s own d i s t i n c t i v e

domain of com petence. M a s te r planning i s s u i t a b l e fo r low t a s k

u n c e r t a i n t y and low s o c i a l p aradox . D i s jo in t e d n o n -p la n n in g i s b e s t

used amid h ig h s o c i a l parad ox and low t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y . Normative

systems r e d e s ig n ap p ea rs b e s t f i t f o r high ta s k u n c e r t a i n t y and low

s o c i a l p a ra d o x . N o n rsy n o p tic system change methods a r e b e s t s u ite d f o r

hig h t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y and h ig h s o c i a l paradox.

From t h i s v ie w p o in t, d i f f e r e n t plann in g approaches a r e s u i t a b l e

depending upon th e c irc u m s ta n c e s a t h and. This i s a c o n tin g e n c y view

t h a t allow s d i f f e r e n t methods to be seen a s e s s e n t i a l l y complementary.

However, co ncurrence among a number of t h i n k e r s i n d i c a t e s t h a t low t a s k

u n c e r t a i n t y i s growing r a r e r . The p r e v a la n c e of n e a t, i s o l a t e d problems

i s g iv in g way to a d is tu r b a n c e t h a t predom inantly a r i s e s from

p ro b le m a tiq u e s , o r m esses. T h is r e q u i r e s p la n n e r s to i n c r e a s i n g l y

employ approaches t h a t evoke a c t i v e a d a p t a ti o n v i a norm ative change.

Need f o r approaches to norm ative system r e d e s ig n and n o n -s y n o p tic system

change w i l l grow in t h e y e a rs to come.

O v e r a ll , t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s to help meet the c h a lle n g e o f f e r e d by

th is th e sis are:
 204

- A concept of no rm ativ e in c re m e n ta lis m . This i n c o r p o r a te s some

in tr ig u in g id e a s:

o E l a b o r a ti n g th e id e a of d iv e r g e n t f a c t i o n s , d r iv e n by s o c i a l
paradox, a s a key b o tt l e n e c k to p a r t i c i p a t i v e norm ative
systems change.

o Employing th e co n c e p ts of l o g i c a l ty p in g to e l u c i d a t e the
c h a lle n g e of working a t th e l e v e l o f norm ative ec o lo g y . T his
in v o lv e s re fra m in g e x i s t i n g r e l a t i o n s to invoke change in th e
prim ary m e d ia tin g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n . I t im p lie s a d e u te r o -
l e a r n i n g p ro c e s s t h a t i s l i k e l y t o be u n tid y and f r u s t r a t i n g .
There w i l l be a need to n o rm a tiv e ly sensemake.

o T racin g a p r o c e s s o f change i n which f a c t i o n s develop a new

ecology o f v a lu e f o r them selves i n a most roundabout manner.
T his i s a b o o ts tr a p p in g o p e r a t io n i n which f a c t i o n s b e g in to
e n a c t change b e f o r e th e y know what t h e y ' r e going a f t e r .

o S p e c ify in g o b s e rv a b le f i t t i n g b e h a v io r s . These a r e remark­

a b l e sequences o f r i t u a l communication, i n which peop le use
c o n c r e te a c t i o n s and u n c le a r themes to inform each o t h e r and
th e re b y c r e a t e meaning. T his ta k e s p la c e a t th e l e v e l of
n o rm ative e co lo g y , n o t j u s t i n d i v i d u a l v a l u e s .

o R e l i g i t i m a t i n g a r o l e f o r e l i t e l e a d e r s h i p w ith o u t r a t i o n ­
a l i z i n g t h e i r e x c e s s iv e d o m in atio n . Under normative
in c re m e n ta lis m e l i t e s a r e i n i t i a l l y needed, t o b ro k e r l o c a l
and cosm opo litan elem ents i n t o a p o s i t i v e theme. But th e n ,
e l i t e s must l e t go o r th e p ro cess w i l l f l o p .

o D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n between th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f change, w hether

o r n o t i t i s a s h i f t i n l o g i c a l ty p e , and l a r g e s c a le change.
T his r a i s e s th e p r o s p e c t o f modest s c a l e r a d i c a l change w ith
sub sequent lin k a g e between in n o v a tiv e no des.

o R e a f f ir m a tio n t h a t th e r o l e of le a d e r s h i p i s t o i n s p i r e
people i n a r o b u s t d i r e c t i o n , r a t h e r th a n b o ssin g peo ple
aro u n d .

- A co nting en cy view o f plan nin g t h a t p u ts norm ative in c re m en talism

i n i t s p la c e by s u g g e s tin g d i f f e r e n t c irc u m s ta n c e s under which
v a r io u s p la n n in g ap proaches a r e l i k e l y t o work.

- A c l a r i f i c a t i o n and l e g i t i m a t i o n of n o n -s y n o p tic approaches to

system s change. These p r e s e r v e t h e o r i e n t a t i o n of a c t i v e
a d a p t a t i o n and norm ative emphasis o r i g i n a t e d by p io n e e rs i n
n o rm ativ e system s r e d e s ig n . But th e s e approach es p u rsu e t h i s
change i n a d i s o r d e r l y f a s h i o n , w ith o u t a n a l y t i c a l l y s e q u e n t i a l
p r o c e s s e s , o r an e x p l i c i t whole system s em phasis. N on-synoptic
 205

ap pro aches to systems change do not e q u a te a systems o r i e n t a t i o n

w ith s y s te m a tic p ro c e d u re . As such, they have t h e i r own
a p p r o p r i a t e n ic h e bounded by h ig h t a s k u n c e r t a i n t y and in t e n s e
s o c i a l parad ox . T his does not en croach on th e d i s t i n c t i v e
competence of norm ative systems r e d e s ig n methods.

These c o n s t i t u t e some of th e d i s t i n c t i v e id e a s o f f e r e d by t h i s t h e s i s to

r e n d e r one f r e s h p e r s p e c t iv e on o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r pu rsuing a c t i v e

a d a p t a t i o n and norm ative change.

F u r th e r R esearch I s s u e s

The concept of norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m opens up a h o s t of

c h a l le n g i n g q u e s ti o n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . Some of t h e more

i n t e r e s t i n g i s s u e s coming to mind a r e :

- I s th e p r o f i l e of norm ative in c re m en talism o f f e r e d h e r e adequate?

Can o th e r e s s e n t i a l elem ents be d is c e r n e d ? Can th e elem ents
d is c o v e r e d h e r e be f u r t h e r r e f in e d ?

- Do o t h e r c a s e s a c t u a l l y r e f l e c t a norm ative i n c r e m e n t a l i s t
p r o c e s s ? Does c l o s e r exam inatio n of i n t e r v e n t i o n w ith o th e r
d i v e r g e n t f a c t i o n s r e v e a l the same b a s ic p r o c e s s a t work?

- I s c o l l a b o r a t i o n i n h e r e n t to norm ative increm entalism ? Are t h e r e

any c a s e s where a programmatic theme does n o t imply one a s p e c t o f
a q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t f u tu re ?

- A re t h e r e s t i l l o th e r ty p e s of f i t t i n g beh av io rs? Might f u r t h e r

r e f e r e n c e to a n th ro p o lo g y , l i n g u i s t i c s , p sy cho lo gy, o r
s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c s help s p o t th e se ? *

- How do le a d e r s i n norm ative i n c r e m e n t a l i s t change avoid burnout?

How can th ey m a in ta in them selves i n two w orlds a t once?

- Can th e c a t e g o r i e s of p la n n in g a c t i v i t y fo rm u la te d h e re be
r e p la c e d by a more in f o r m a tiv e framework?

- What a r e th e g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e "p ro gram atic

themes" from s ta te m e n ts t h a t f a i l to engage people?

* I t seems l i k e l y t h a t more c o n c r e te f i t t i n g b e h a v io rs can be

i d e n t i f i e d based upon r e f e r e n c e to h y p n o tic r e l a t i o n s h i p s (H aley,
1967) and n e u r o - l i n g u i s t i c programming (B an d ler & G rin d e r, 1975).
 206

- Can the d i s t i n c t i v e competence of d i f f e r e n t planning approaches

under v a r i a t i o n s i n ta s k u n c e r t a i n t y and s o c i a l paradox be f u r t h e r
tested?

I t i s hoped t h e s e u n c e r t a i n t i e s pro vide u s e f u l q u e s tio n s about system

change, q u e s ti o n s t h a t s t i m u l a t e more th o u g h tf u l and in v e n tiv e p r a c t i c e

i n a d d i t i o n to b e t t e r th e o ry o r e m p ir ic a l t e s t i n g .

Conc lu d in g Thou g h ts On The Growin g Need

For Dive r s e Methods 0 f Systems Change

T h is document began by n o tin g a fundamental change i n th e way

s o c i e t a l ev en ts u n f o ld . More and more we f i n d t h a t t h e r e i s b o th

i n c r e a s i n g in te rd e p e n d e n c y betw een f a r - f l u n g elem ents of s o c i e t y , and a

g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e i n th e r a t e of change (s e e pp. 2 - 9 ) .

The advent of t h i s s h i f t n e c e s s i t a t e s d ev elo p in g methods of system

change t h a t p u rsu e a c t i v e a d p t a t i o n th ro u g h norm ative tr a n s f o r m a tio n .

I t i s only by grap.pling w i t h complex in te r d e p e n d e n c ie s and t e l e o l o g i c a l

dilemmas t h a t "messes" now f a c i n g us can begin to be managed. To

c o n tin u e p ursuing i s o l a t e d t e c h n i c a l f i x e s w i l l no lo n g e r s u f f i c e .

I t i s e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e s e tim es t h a t t h e r e i s emergence of d iv e rg e n t

fa c tio n s. These a r e in t e r d e p e n d e n t g ro u p s occupying d i f f e r e n t n ic h e s i n

a sh a re d ex ten d ed s o c i a l system . Under c o n d i tio n s of tu r b u l e n c e , b o th

th e d i s p a r i t y betw een t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n s and t h e i r in te rd e p e n d e n c e

grows. But o f t e n , o nly i n c r e a s i n g l y fragmented o r i e n t a t i o n s a r e

a p p a r e n t. The u n d e rly in g r e c i p r o c i t y betw een grou ps becomes o b scu red ,

as th r e a d s of in te rd e p e n d e n c e become too complex f o r immediate

 207

u n d e rs ta n d in g . The r i s i n g u n t e n a b i l i t y of t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s an in s t a n c e

o f e s c a l a t i n g s o c i a l p arado x.

This r e p r e s e n t s a s p e c i a l s e t of c o n d i tio n s under which n o n -s y n o p tic

system s change methods m ight prov ide a s u b s t a n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n . For

when both ta s k u n c e r t a i n t y and s o c i a l paradox run h ig h , e x p l i c i t

system -w ide r e d e s ig n i s o f t e n beyond th e t o l e r a n c e of in v o lv ed p a r t i e s .

I t i s to t h i s c h a lle n g e t h a t norm ative in c re m e n ta lis m , and t h i s e n t i r e

t h e s i s , seek s to make a c o n t r i b u t i o n . The id e a s h e re do not r e p u d ia te

e x i s t i n g advances i n norm ative systems d e s ig n . I n s t e a d , th e y c o n t r i b u t e

a new s e t of p o t e n t i a l a l t e r n a t i v e s to evoke a c t i v e a d a p t a t i o n through

norm ative change.

U lti m a t e ly , th e s u g g e s tio n i s t h a t s o c i a l a r c h i t e c t u r e ( P e r lm u tte r ,

1965) need not be p r e c i s e l y th e same a s th e a r c h i t e c t u r e of b u i l d i n g s .

B u ild in g s a r e designed f i r s t , and b u i l t l a t e r , i d e a l l y w ith no major

change i n t h e i r i n i t i a l b l u e p r i n t ( a t l e a s t u n t i l th e n e x t re m o d e lin g ).

T h is i s an a n a l y t i c a l l y s e q u e n t i a l p r o c e s s .

But th e method of c o n s t r u c t i n g i n e r t m a t e r i a l s does not always work

i n c o n s tr u c t in g new s o c i a l r e a l i t i e s (B erg er and Luckman, 1966)

( G a r f in k le , 1967). New s o c i a l o r d e r s must sometimes be c r e a te d more ad

hoc, w ith o u t e x te n s i v e p r e - s p e c i f i c a t i o n . Like a m ountain c lim b e r,

t h e r e may perhaps be a sen se of d i r e c t i o n (going up . . . ) but l i t t l e

knowledge of th e p r e c i s e r o u te o r n a t u r e of th e d e s t i n a t i o n .

When an o v e r a l l d e s ig n cannot be a r t i c u l a t e d , we a r e s tu c k w ith th e

c h a lle n g e to d a re proceeding w ith o u t being a b l e to know e x a c t l y where we

a r e heading or how we a r e g e t t i n g t h e r e . At th e s e tim e s , th e f u t u r e

w i l l be l e s s d eterm in ed by p r i o r a n a l y t i c knowledge th a n by our courage

 208

to e n a c t new e c o l o g ie s of r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t can o n ly v ag uely be seen to

le a d i n a promising d i r e c t i o n .

With r e c o g n i t i o n of n o n - s y n o p tic system change methods, s o c i a l

systems s c ie n c e s c a n b e t t e r p r e p a r e f o r t h i s rough c o n tin g e n c y . T h is

complements p io n e e r in g work a l r e a d y done i n n o rm ativ e system s d e s ig n .

I t a d d r e s s e s a s p e c ia l s e t of c o n d i t i o n s t h a t we m ust l e a r n to develop

w ith s t i l l g r e a t e r a b i l i t y . The c o n tin u e d r e le v a n c e of system th i n k in g

i s enhanced by o u r development of complementary methods f o r n o n -s y n o p tic

change.
 A P P E N D IX .I

T his appendix c o n ta in s summaries of each P r o j e c t Network l a b o r -

management c o m m itte e 's developm ent. The p r o f i l e s here summarize c a s e

stu d y r e s e a r c h p u b lish e d i n th e f i n a l P r o j e c t Network R ep o rt (MBSC,

1980). The r e a d e r i s encouraged to u se t h i s appendix a s a r e s o u r c e to

g a in a f e e l f o r the e m p ir ic a l o b j e c t s of s tu d y , and to v e r i f y o r

d is c o u n t g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s claim ed i n t h i s t h e s i s . In a cc o rd w ith t h e

d i s t i n c t i o n made in C h a p te r 2 (pp. 57 - 58), t h e case d e s c r i p t i o n s of

c o n s i s t e n t l y r o b u s t network s i t e s (Columbus, Jamestown, Troy) a re

grouped t o g e t h e r .

Si t e ____ Page_____

S t a t e of C o n n e c t i c u t ....................................................................................... 211

New York C ity ....................................................................................................... 217

S t a t e of N e v a d a .................................................................................................. 222

Pima County, A r i z o n a ..................................................................... ................. 227

Tacoma, Washington ........................................................................................... 232

Urbana, I l l i n o i s ............................................................................................... 236

W ichita, Kansas ................................................................................................. 242

Columbus, Ohio .................................................................................................... 245

Jamestown, New York ......................................................................................... 253

Troy, M i c h i g a n .................................................................................................... 261

T h is p r o v id e s a more d e t a i l e d p o r t r a i t of a l l te n c a s e s t h a t a r e

r e f e r r e d to in th e t e x t . Synopsis i s re n d e re d i n terms of ( 1 ) committee

c o n te x t, ( 2 ) h i s t o r y o f com m ittee program, and ( 3 ) outcomes produced by

209
 210

committee program. This summary i s l a r g e l y based upon more d e t a i l e d

h i s t o r i e s in th e f i n a l Network R esearch R ep o rt (MBSC, 1980). A ll

d e s c r i p t i o n s h e r e a r e in d e p e n d e n tly v e r i f i e d by P r o j e c t s i t e

c o o r d i n a t o r s b e s i d e s the a u th o r.
 211

STATE 0F_ CONNECTICUT

C ontext

The S t a t e of C o n n e c tic u t employs approx im ately 39,000 p e o p le .

C o l l e c t i v e b a r g a in in g f o r s t a t e employees was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1976, te n

y e a r s a f t e r s i m i l a r r i g h t s were extended to m u n icip al w o rk ers. The

r i g h t to s t r i k e i s l e g a l l y p r o h i b i t e d . U n io n iz a tio n of p u b li c s e c t o r

employees i s no t tr a u m a tic i n s o f a r as C o n n e c tic u t has a long h i s t o r y of

u n i o n i z a t i o n i n th e p r i v a t e s e c t o r . C o l l e c t i v e b a r g a in in g w ith s t a t e

employees was even l e s s u p s e t t i n g g iv e n th e t e n y e a r h i s t o r y o f p u b lic

s e c t o r m u n icip al b a r g a i n in g .

I n 1976, 28,000 s t a t e employees were r e p r e s e n te d by th e C o n n e c tic u t

S t a t e Employees A s s o c i a t i o n (CSEA). The rem a in d er were members of

s e v e r a l s m a ll u n io n s in c lu d in g th e C o n n e c tic u t Employees Independent

Union (CEIU). C l e r i c a l and m aintenance u n i t s were th e l a r g e s t i n th e

CSEA, r e p r e s e n t i n g 7,500 and 7,000 members r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The f i r s t c o l l e c t i v e b a rg a in in g c o n t r a c t s were approved e f f e c t i v e

J u l y 1977. The m a s t e r c o n t r a c t in cluded a c la u s e e s t a b l i s h i n g a la b o r -

management committee w ith a mandate of enhancin g harmonious l a b o r -

management r e l a t i o n s , prom oting w orker s a f e t y , and improving employee

p ro d u c tiv ity . T h is c o in c id e d with t h e b eginning of p r o j e c t n etw ork , and

th e se a rc h f o r p o t e n t i a l s i t e s .

The s t a t e had r e c e n t l y r e o r g a n i z e d under a new governor i n 1977.

The head of one new " s u p e r o f f i c e " , t h e D epartm ent of A d m in i s t r a ti v e

S e r v ic e s , was t o p lay a major r o l e i n th e C o n n e c tic u t labor-management

 211

STATE OF CONNECTICUT

Context

The S t a t e o f C o n n ecticu t employs ap p ro x im ately 39,000 p e o p le .

C o ll e c t i v e b a r g a in in g f o r s t a t e employees was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1976, te n

y e a rs a f t e r s i m i l a r r i g h t s were extended t o m u n ic ip a l w o rk ers. The

r i g h t to s t r i k e i s l e g a l l y p r o h i b i t e d . U n io n iz a tio n o f p u b li c s e c t o r

employees i s n o t tra u m a tic i n s o f a r as C o n n e c tic u t has a lo n g h i s t o r y o f

u n i o n i z a t i o n i n th e p r i v a t e s e c t o r . C o l l e c t i v e b a r g a in in g w ith s t a t e

employees was even l e s s u p s e t t i n g given t h e t e n y e a r h i s t o r y of p u b lic

s e c t o r m u n icip al b a r g a in in g .

I n 1976, 28,000 s t a t e employees were r e p r e s e n t e d by th e C on n ecticu t

S t a t e Employees A s s o c ia tio n (CSEA). The rem ainder were members o f

s e v e r a l sm all unions i n c lu d in g th e C o n n ecticu t Employees Independent

Union (CEIU). C l e r i c a l and maintenance u n i t s were th e l a r g e s t i n the

CSEA, r e p r e s e n t i n g 7,500 and 7,000 members r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The f i r s t c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n in g c o n t r a c t s were approved e f f e c t i v e

J u l y 1977. The m a ste r c o n t r a c t in c lu d e d a c l a u s e e s t a b l i s h i n g a l a b o r -

management committee w ith a mandate of enhan cing harmonious l a b o r -

management r e l a t i o n s , prom oting w orker s a f e t y , and improving employee

p ro d u c tiv ity . T his c o n in c id e d w ith th e b e g in n in g of p r o j e c t network,

and th e s e a r c h f o r p o t e n t i a l s i t e s .

The s t a t e had r e c e n t l y r e o r g a n iz e d u n d er a new governor i n 1977.

The head o f one new "su p e r o f f i c e ” , th e D epartm ent of A d m in is tr a tiv e

S e rv ic e s was to play a major r o l e i n th e C o n n ecticu t labor-management

 212

c o m m itte e 's b e g in n in g . He was an e x e c u tiv e from th e p r i v a t e s e c t o r w ith

no p r i o r p u b lic s e c t o r e x p e r ie n c e .

H i s t o ry Of The Committee P r ogram

The C o n n e c tic u t labor-management committee s t a r t e d i n September

1977. I t in c lu d e d th e D i r e c t o r of P e rso n n e l and Labor R e l a ti o n s , th e

Manager of Labor R e l a t i o n s , th e P r e s i d e n t , E x ec u tiv e D i r e c t o r , and

E x ec u tiv e V ice P r e s i d e n t of CSEA, and a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of CEUI. The

CEUI r e p r e s e n t a t i v e withdrew a f t e r a few m e e tin g s . The new Commissioner

o f A d m in i s t r a ti v e S e r v ic e s jo i n e d i n O ctober 1977.

By November th e group decided to narrow i t s mandate to a p i l o t

p r o j e c t i n p r o d u c t i v i t y improvement. I t s focus c o l la p s e d to conducting

o n ly one s e t of c e n t r a l l y c o n t r o l l e d e x p e rim e n ts. The committee decided

t o choose fou r e x p erim en tal d em o n stra tio n s i t e s and an e x t e r n a l

c o n s u l t a n t to execute th e p r o j e c t s . I t s only power was to recommend

change based upon e x p erim en tal in n o v a tio n .

The f i r s t s i t e s e l e c t e d was th e Hamden Motor V ehicle Department

(MVD) o f f i c e . I t employed ap p ro x im ately 50 p e o p le r e s p o n s ib le f o r

d r i v e r ' s l i c e n s e p ro c e s s in g . As an o f f i c e w ith h ig h v i s i b i l i t y to th e

p u b l i c , Hamden was f e l t to be a v i s i b l e d e m o n stra tio n s i t e w ith e a s i l y

m easurable p r o d u c t i v i t y .

The only c r i t e r i a f o r s e l e c t i n g a c o n s u l t a n t was a c c e p t a b i l i t y to

la b o r and management. Two i n d i v i d u a l s were in te rv ie w e d : a u n iv e rsity -

based p r o f e s s o r fa v o rin g p a r t i c i p a t i v e management and a commercial

c o n s u l t i n g f i r m s p e c i a l i z i n g i n p r i v a t e s e c t o r p r o d u c t i v i t y improvement

p la n s based on f i n a n c i a l i n c e n t i v e s . CSEA p r e f e r r e d th e u n i v e r s i t y
 213

pro fesso r. The Commissioner o f A d m in i s t r a ti v e S e r v ic e s s t r o n g l y fav o red

th e p r i v a t e s e c t o r c o n s u l t a n t , who r e f l e c t e d th e "bottom l i n e " v a lu e s

p r e v a i l i n g i n h i s own job e x p e r ie n c e . S ince funds f o r committee

a c t i v i t y were to cane out of th e C om m issioner's bu d g et and s i n c e he was

determ ined to go ahead r e g a r d l e s s of la b o r s u p p o r t, th e CSEA c a p i t u ­

la te d . Not w ishing to j e o p a r d iz e th e b eg in n in g s of c o o p e r a tio n , th e

CSEA ag reed to s e l e c t i o n of th e p r i v a t e c o n s u l t a n t , hoping th e y could

l a t e r in f l u e n c e d e s ig n of th e p r o j e c t to a d d re s s o t h e r employee

concerns. T h is was n o t to be th e c a s e .

The firm began w i t h a f e a s i b i l i t y stu dy o f th e Hamden MVD o f f i c e .

Based on in t e r v ie w s w ith a l l employees and managers i n Hamden, and

ro o te d i n t h e i r own h a b i t s of problem f o r m u l a tio n , t h e c o n s u l t a n t s

con cluded t h a t money was th e s i n g l e most im p o rtan t f a c t o r m o tiv a tin g

employee perform ance. They a l s o concluded t h a t average t a s k tim es and

volume of s e r v i c e s should be m onitored on a r e g u l a r b a s i s to devlop a

b a s e l i n e f o r g a in s h a r in g i n c e n t i v e s . Approval was secured to proceed

w ith d ev elo p in g th e f i n a n c i a l m o tiv a tio n system.

At t h i s time th e Commissioner of A d m in i s t r a ti v e S e r v ic e s and h i s

a s s i s t a n t l e f t the S t a t e S e r v ic e due to m a tte rs n o t r e l a t e d to committee

a c tiv itie s. The new a p p o i n t e e s c o n tin u e d to su p p o rt th e Hamden p r o j e c t ,

but t h e absence of i t s i n i t i a l "owner" slowed i t down. The e a r l i e r

d e c i s i o n to a c t i v a t e t h r e e a d d i t i o n a l d e m o n stra tio n s i t e s was postponed,

pending r e s u l t s of th e Hamden exp erim en t.

In June 1978 th e c o n s u l t a n t su bm itted a d e t a i l e d p l a n . Employees a t

Hamden unanimously a g ree d to t r y i t o u t, w ith c e r t a i n a s s u r a n c e s . At

t h i s time a Hamden Branch labor-m anagem ent committee was f i n a l l y

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e s t a b l i s h e d , to h e lp implement t h e g a in s h a r i n g p la n . T h is was a f t e r

c o n s id e r a b le a n x ie ty a t serv in g a s th e s t a t e ' s g u in e a p ig , which a ro s e

back when Hamden was f i r s t d e s ig n a te d a d e m o n stratio n s i t e . T h is

e v e n tu a l s t r u c t u r e i s summarized i n F ig u r e A -l on the fo llo w in g page.

At t h i s time t h e r e was again tu r n o v e r on the s t a t e com m ittee. The

new Commissioner f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s e r v i c e s re s ig n e d from t h e S t a t e ,

ag a in f o r reaso n s u n r e l a t e d to committee a c t i v i t i e s . H is rep lacem ent

t r a n s f e r e d d ay -to -d a y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the premium pay p lan to a

s p e c i a l i s t i n s i d e th e P erson nel and Labor R e l a ti o n s D epartm ent. S in ce

t h i s time the S t a t e labor-management has n o t met. Members re c e iv e

r e g u l a r r e p o r t s on th e Hamden program, and have sch ed u le d to convene to

review t h e p l a n 's s t a t u s a f t e r th e f i r s t s ix months of o p e r a t i o n .

Outcomes

The premium pay plan i s s t i l l being e x p e r im e n ta lly implemented i n

Hamden. C o m plications a r i s i n g from d e c lin in g u se of au to s due to f u e l

s h o r t a g e s , and new r e t i r e m e n t l e g i s l a t i o n t h r e a t e n the p la n s v i a b i l i t y .

The Hamden committee has taken s e v e r a l s m a ll s t e p s to h e lp b o o s t

p r o d u c t i v i t y measured in terms of t a s k time and s e r v i c e volume:

- I n s t a l l a t i o n of new "rem ovable-proof" pens on t a b l e s i n th e p u b lic

area.

- Development of s im p lif ie d o p e r a tin g p ro c e d u r e s manual w i t h a copy

s e n t to each employee.

- I n i t i a t i o n of feedback from MVD c e n t r a l o f f i c e on th e Hamden

o ffic e tra n sa c tio n e rro r r a te .

- I n i t i a t i o n of t e c h n ic a l a s s i s t a n c e from MVE c e n t r a l o f f i c e to
improve e f f i c i e n c y of Hamden s to r e k e e p in g .
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Figure A-l

S t a t e of C o n n e c tic u t
Labor-Management Committee S t r u c t u r e

S t a t e Committee

- 4 members -

B e lated
Hamden
MVD
O f f ic e
 216

- Improvement i n p h y s ic a l environm ent of the o f f i c e such as sink

r e p a i r , c o l o r coded s i g n s , new o f f i c e p a i n t , and l o c k e r e t t e s .

A key f a c t o r i n s e c u rin g t h e s e changes has b een th e Hamden o f f i c e ' s

s p e c i a l s t a t u s as a d em o n stratio n s i t e . There has been no development

o f a l a s t i n g , w idespread i n f r a s t r u c t u r e to s u p p o rt improvement

i n i t i a t i v e s on a b ro a d e r b a s i s .

No dram atic improvements i n g e n e r a l l a b o r r e l a t i o n s beyond s p e c i f i c

p r o j e c t accom plishm ents were d e te c te d by network r e s e a r c h .

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NEW YORK CITY HEALTH AND_HOSPITAL_ COLORATION

C o n te x t

In J u l y 1976 New York C ity i n s t i t u t e d j o i n t labor^management

c o o p e ra tio n to save revenues i n resp o n se to th e c i t y governm ent's f i s c a l

c risis. As p a r t of t h i s o v e r a l l e f f o r t , t h e H e a lth and H o s p ita l

C o rp o ra tio n , i n c o n j u n c tio n w ith AFSCME D i s t r i c t Council 37, i n i t i a t e d a

labor-management committee p r o d u c t i v i t y program.

The H e a lth and H o s p i ta l C o rp o ra tio n i s one of th e C i t y ' s l a r g e s t

mayoral a g e n c ie s , employing ap p ro x im ately 35,000 p eo p le i n 16 major

p u b lic h o s p i t a l s , and h av in g an annu al budget of one b i l l i o n d o l l a r s .

The C o r p o r a tio n h a n d le s 30% of i n p a t i e n t s and 50% of o u t p a t i e n t s i n the

C i t y ' s h e a l t h c a re d e l i v e r y s e c t o r .

The C o rp o ra tio n p r o d u c t i v i t y i n i t i a t i v e , l i k e many c i t y emergency

e f f o r t s , aims to se c u re c o s t of l i v i n g ad ju stm en t (COLA) payments by

d em o n stratin g in c r e a s e d c o s t - e f f e c t i v e n e s s . T h is was a c ity -w id e

s t i p u l a t i o n , t h a t a l l COLA payments o n ly be given f o r commensurate

g e n e r a t i o n o r saving of rev en u e s.

The H o s p i ta l C o rp o ra tio n program e s t a b l i s h e d a c e n t r a l p r o d u c ti v it y

com mittee in v o lv in g l a b o r and management. J o i n t com mittees were

e s t a b l i s h e d i n fo u r h o s p i t a l s : Bronx M u n icip al, B e lle v u e , Harlem, and

Kings County. In two y e a r s th e s e committees were e s t a b l i s h e d i n a l l 16

C o rp o ra tio n H o s p i t a l s .

The c e n t r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y com m ittee e s t a b l i s h e s p o lic y g u i d e l i n e s ,

s e t t l e s program d i s p u t e s , c o o r d in a te s e f f o r t a c r o s s h o s p i t a l com m ittees,

review s s p e c i f i c p r o p o s a ls from h o s p i t a l com mittees, d is s e m in a te s d a t a ,

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and p ro v id e s t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e to h o s p i t a l com m ittees. H o sp ital

l e v e l com mittees, one of which became a p r o j e c t network com m ittee, were

p r i m a r i l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r proposing changes to i n c r e a s e t h e i r f a c i l i t y ' s

re v e n u e s. T h is would c o n t r i b u t e to COLA payments i n th e c i t y and t h a t

p a rtic u la r h o sp ita l.

Unions a r e a long e s t a b l i s h e d f o r c e i n th e New York C ity p u b lic

se c to r. P u b lic s e c t o r b a r g a in in g i s d e fin e d and s a n c tio n e d by s t a t e

law. The m a jo r u n io n i n th e H e a lth and H o s p ita l C o rp o ra tio n , AFSCME

D i s t r i c t C ouncil 37, i s th e l a r g e s t m u n ic ip a l union i n th e co un try with

100,000 members.

Hi s t o r y Of The Commit t e e P r ogram

The Bronx M unicipal H o s p i t a l p r o d u c t i v i t y i n i t i a t e began i n

September 1976, j u s t a s P r o j e c t Network s t a r t e d . T h is h o s p i t a l

committee s te p p e d forw ard to j o i n t th e P r o j e c t as i t got s t a r t e d .

The committee i n i t i a l l y c o n s i s t e d of 24 members, 12 l a b o r members

and 12 management members, w ith la b o r and management c o - c h a i r p e r s o n s .

The o b j e c t i v e of t h i s s i n g l e committee was to in c r e a s e revenue,

e f f e c t c o s t s a v in g s , o r i n c r e a s e s e r v i c e l e v e l s a t no e x t r a c o s t . T his

would allow c o n t r i b u t i o n to a c i t y wide COLA fu n d , y ie ld in g H o s p ita l

employees t h e i r own c o s t of l i v i n g i n c r e a s e . The t a r g e t c o n t r i b u t i o n to

th e COLA fund was $1.6 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s . T h is had to be dem onstrated to

th e c e n t r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y com m ittee. T his e n t i r e e f f o r t was a resp o n se

t o the f i s c a l emergency fa c in g t h e c i t y .

The H o s p i t a l p r o d u c t i v i t y committee im mediately t a c k l e d two revenue

producing p r o j e c t s . F i r s t , i n acco rd w i t h a c ity -w id e d i r e c t i v e , t h e

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committee developed a program to i n c r e a s e th e p e rc e n ta g e of b i l l i n g s

claim ed by th e h o s p i t a l . S te p s were ta k en to in s u r e t h a t a g r e a t e r

p erc e n ta g e of p a t i e n t s b i l l e d a c t u a l l y p a i d . T h is in c r e a s e d revenues an

e s tim a te d $600,000 p e r y e a r . Second, t h e committee moved to se c u re an

i n c r e a s e of i n - p a t i e n t days beyond p r o je c te d l e v e l s . T his acc ru ed

a d d i t i o n a l revenue w i t h no a d d i t i o n a l p e r s o n n e l, b rin g in g app ro x im ate ly

$3.2 m i l l i o n a d d i t i o n a l money i n t o th e h o s p i t a l .

Beyond th e s e i n i t i a l programs th e Bronx M unicipal H o s p ita l Committee

proceeded to implement two a d d i t i o n a l emergency programs. One in c r e a s e d

h o s p i t a l pharmacy b u s i n e s s by ta k in g advantage of employee p r e s c r i p t i o n

programs. T h is g e n e r a te s an a d d i t i o n a l $60,000 p e r year in revenues

w ith no need f o r a d d i t i o n a l p e r s o n n e l . Second, t h e committee reo r­

ganized m e d ical supply t o wards w ith a system of s u p p ly c a r t s , a t a

p r o je c te d savin g of $100,000 p e r y e a r .

I n May 1978, a new c o l l e c t i v e agreement was sig ned between th e C ity

and m unicipal u n io n s . Terms of th e c o n t r a c t no lo n g e r ti e d COLA

payments dem o n strated p r o d u c t i v i t y i n c r e a s e d . The im mediately

p e r c e p t i b l e a s p e c t of th e C i t y ' s f i s c a l c r i s i s was s u b s id in g .

The Bronx H o s p ita l committee respo nd ed two ways. F i r s t , i t secu red

c e n t r a l c o r p o r a t i o n committee app rov al t h a t any p r o d u c t i v i t y g a in s from

f u t u r e h o s p i t a l committee p r o j e c t s would be s p l i t e q u a l ly . The

c o r p o r a t i o n would g e t h a l f , and t h e h o s p i t a l would g e t h a l f , w ith the

h o s p i t a l committee d e c id in g how t h e i r s h a r e w i l l be s p e n t . T h is

g a i n s - s h a r i n g concept was q u ic k ly adopted by th e o th e r m u n icip al

h o sp ita ls.
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The Bronx c o m m itte e 's second resp o n se was to expand i t s con cerns to

b eg in I n c lu d in g b ro a d e r I s s u e s beyond narrow, m e asu ra b le, p r o d u c t i v i t y

c o n c e rn s. The committee re-named i t s e l f a labor-management committee

i n s t e a d of a p r o d u c t i v i t y committee. This s i g n i f i e d th e b eg inn in g o f a

s e a rc h f o r a new m issio n beyond resp o n se t o a s p e c i f i c emergency. Among

p r o j e c t s u n d ertak en un d er t h i s b ro a d e r range of p o s s i b i l i t i e s were:

- R e n ta l o f Unused H o s p i ta l Space

- Job F l e x i b i l i t y f o r Narrow P o s i t i o n s and Roles

- New Laundry-Linen Arrangements

- A H o s p i ta l N e w s le tte r

- E s t a b l i s h i n g a Banking C en ter on H o s p i ta l Grounds

- New S ug gestion Program t o In vo lv e O thers and Help P ro v id e

Follow-up

- T r a in in g Programs

- R e lo c a tio n of EEG Lab

- Development of an Employee Lounge

- B e t t e r P u b lic T r a n s p o r ta tio n t o and from H o s p i ta l

These were s u b s t a n t i a l l y seen a s s e p a r a t e change p r o j e c t s . Each i s

o v erseen by s e p a r a t e subcommittee gro ups formed by members of th e

h o s p i t a l com mittee. T h is c o m p le x if ie s th e i n i t i a l l y sim ple s i n g l e

committee s t r u c t u r e on an ad hoc b a s i s . Many p r o j e c t s a r e n o t y e t

com pleted, but have o n ly been i n i t i a t e d .

As o f September 1979, no g a in s h a r i n g monies had been r e c e iv e d by the

Bronx H o s p i ta l Committee i n 5 0/5 0 s p l i t w ith th e C e n t r a l Committee.

T his r a i s e d s e r i o u s q u e s tio n s about committment a t h ig h e r l e v e l s o f th e

H o s p i ta l C o rp o ratio n t o labor-management c o o p e r a tio n . I t also c rea ted a

 /

221

d i s i n c e n t i v e to c o n tin u e w ith s e p a r a t e change p r o j e c t s . The h o s p i t a l

committee began to s ta k e a claim a s a l o c a l program of l o c a l value

r e g a r d l e s s of c o r p o r a t io n b e h a v io r . T h is was a s s e r t e d by a p i c n i c

s o c i a l e v e n t i n Summer, 1974.

Ou tp u t s

The preceeding d e s c r i p t i o n o u t l i n e s many s p e c i f i c changes g e n e r a te d

by th e Bronx committee program (pp. 2 1 9 -2 2 0 ). These a r e p r im a r ily

s e p a r a t e changes. I n i t i a l l y they were i n resp o n se to the c i t y ' s f i s c a l

c r i s i s and t h r e a t s to COLA payments. A f te r th e c r i s i s they fo cused upon

more immediate concerns, some of which exceed p u r e ly q u a n t i f i e d

improvements. T h is l a t e r emphasis has not been c l a r i f i e d i n term s of

some ongoing theme. Some s ta te m e n ts have been made about pursuing

improved q u a l i t y of working l i f e , but t h e r e h as been no c o n tin u in g

e f f o r t to b u i l d t h i s in to an o v e r a l l co ncept t h a t i n t e g r a t e s s e p a r a t e

ch ang es.

L e f t a f t e r the emergency w ith o u t something t o r e a c t a g a i n s t , t h e

Bronx Committee began to a tte m p t d e f i n i n g something p o s i t i v e to work

tow ards. One c a n d id a te i s the sometimes mentioned id e a of w o r k lif e

q u a lity . F u ll d e f i n i t i o n of t h i s p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n may e v e n t u a l l y be

develop ed . I f so, i t w i l l serv e to p ro v id e a w id e r q u a l i t a t i v e

framework t h a t c o n t a in s c u r r e n t l y s e p a r a t e a c t i v i t i e s and d i s t i n g u i s h e s

p o te n tia l o p p o rtu n itie s.

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STATE OF NEVADA

C ontext

Nevada s t i l l o p e r a te s under th e o r i g i n a l 1864 C o n s t i t u t i o n . The

s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e i s b ic a m e r a l . The e x e c u tiv e branch i s composed of six

e l e c t e d o f f i c i a l s , i n c l u d i n g th e Governor. The Governor a p p o in ts heads

o f f u n c ti o n a l u n i t s , b o ard s, and c c m ris s io n s of s ta te w id e a g e n c ie s . At

a l l l e v e l s th e S t a t e Government amounts to over 100 a g e n c ie s . A ll

a p p o i n te e s a r e r e s p o n s i b l e i n v ary in g d egrees to th e Governor, but each

h a s l e g i s l a t i v e l y mandated d u t i e s . T his fragm ents s t a t e government, by

making o p e r a t io n s i n h e r e n t l y in d e p e n d e n t of the G o v e rn o r's o f f i c e . T his

i n t e n s i f i e s s t a f f - l i n e fra g m e n ta tio n common to many p u b l i c s e c t o r

o rg an iz atio n s. I t a l s o a f f e c t s th e S t a t e ' s p erso n n el system and l a b o r

re la tio n s.

The S t a t e employees app ro x im ate ly 9,000 p e o p le , a b o u t h a l f of whom

belo ng to th e S t a t e of Nevada Employees A s s o c i a t i o n (SNEA). Unions have

n e v e r played a m a jo r r o l e i n the S t a t e ' s p u b lic o r p r i v a t e s e c t o r s ,

except f o r th o se li n k e d to t h e s t a t e ' s e n t e r ta i n m e n t and gaming

in d u stry . Nevada law p ro v id e s f o r c o l l e c t i v e b a rg a in in g i n l o c a l

government, but n o t w ith s t a t e employees. The S t a t e and SNEA have f o r

some y e a r s m a in ta in e d an in fo rm al " m e e t-a n d -c o n fe r” p ro c e s s , b u t by law

any f i n a l d e c i s i o n on monetary i s s u e s belongs to t h e l e g i s l a t u r e .

T h e r e f o re , i n th e p a s t, a good deal of " b a r g a in in g " between S t a t e and

SNEA has occured on th e l e g i s l a t u r e f l o o r .

In r e c e n t y e a r s a r e c u r r i n g is s u e i n each l e g i s l a t i v e s e s s i o n h a s

been c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a in in g . B arg ain in g l e g i s l a t i o n was n arro w ly

d e f e a te d i n the 1977 s e s s i o n . A f t e r t h i s , t h e S t a t e and SNEA determined

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to meet a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s to enhance t h e i r common u n d e rs ta n d in g . The

i n c l i n a t i o n to b egin t h i s was v o ic e d j u s t a s P r o j e c t Network began.

H i s t o ry of th e Committee P r o g ram

A Prime Task F o rce (PTF) was e s t a b l i s h e d u n d e r the a u s p ic e s of th e

G o verno r’s o f f i c e i n December 1977. This was i n resp o n se to th e c a l l

f o r p r o j e c t network s i t e s , b u ild in g upon i n t e n t to develop g r e a t e r

common u n d e rs ta n d in g between la b o r and management.

The PTF was a j o i n t labor-management com m ittee. I t was composed of

f o u r members and one a l t e r n a t e from bo th t h e S t a t e and t h e SNEA. SNEA

members in c lu d ed t h r e e a s s o c i a t i o n le a d e r s ( P r e s i d e n t , V i c e - P r e s id e n t,

E x e c u tiv e D ir e c t o r ) and two r a n k - a n d - f i l e members. The S t a t e was

r e p r e s e n t e d by th e D i r e c t o r of P e rs o n n e l, Labor R e l a t i o n s O f f i c e r , one

Department Head, and a p e rs o n n e l o f f i c e r an d t r a i n i n g o f f i c e r from a n

o p e r a t in g u n i t . A pproxim ately s ix months i n t o t h e i r work th e PTF

r e c e i v e d l i m i t e d t h i r d p a r ty f a c i l i t a t i o n from a Commissioner of th e

F e d e r a l M ediatio n and C o n c i l i a t i o n S e r v ic e . The committee i s empowered

t o recommend change, n o t to implement i t .

In e a r l y m eetings th e PTF t r a n s l a t e d p o t e n t i a l a r e a s fo r la b o r-

management com m ittee work i d e n t i f i e d by Washington a u t h o r i t i e s in t o

s e p a r a t e a r e a s they d e s i r e d to c o n c e n tr a te upon. E v e n tu a lly two

p a r a l l e l change p r o j e c t s were form ulated :

1. Employee Development and Ap p r a i s a l

This p r o j e c t would in v o lv e dev elo p in g mechanisms t o f u r t h e r

employee growth and p r o d u c t i v i t y improvement e f f o r t s i n the
S t a t e government th ro u g h labor-management c o o p e r a tio n .
 224

2. Improved M e rit System

T h is p r o j e c t would enhance e x i s t i n g i n c e n t i v e s , b o th monetary

and non-m onetary, awarded fo r improving job perform ance.

These were two c o n c re te a r e a s in t o which th e PTF co n fin e d i t ' s e f f o r t to

im p la n t labor-management c o o p e r a tio n . The PTF d iv id e d i t s e l f i n t o two

sub-co m m ittees to c o n s id e r and develop th e s e two a r e a s . The PTF a s a

whole met monthly, w h ile th e su b-com m ittees met more f r e q u e n t l y .

Developing th e s e two a r e a s le d to a re s u rg e n c e of a d v e r s a r i a l r e l a ­

t i o n s between la b o r and management. Most c o n f l i c t c e n te r e d around th e

second p r o j e c t . The S t a t e emphasized th e im p ortan ce of d ev elo p in g

monetary performance i n c e n t i v e s . SNEA a s s e r t e d t h a t monetary i s s u e s

were th e p ro p e r realm of n e g o t i a t i o n s , and t h a t committee focus only

upon monetary i n c e n t i v e s un dercu t t h e m e e t-a n d -c o n fe r process and th e

SNEA i t s e l f . They proposed g r e a t e r emphasis upon non-monetary in c e n ­

tiv e s. A lso , th e S t a t e and th e SNEA endorsed m e rit i n c e n t i v e s . They

d id so from d i f f e r e n t a n g le s . SNEA wanted a v a r i a b l e monetary in c r e a s e

p lan to supplem ent th e e x i s t i n g m e rit system , which was au tom atic and

t h e r e f o r e fu n c tio n e d a s a lo n g e v ity system . Meanwhile, t h e S t a t e wanted

to t o t a l l y r e p l a c e t h e c u r r e n t system w ith th e PTF's proposed p la n .

The m e r i t system p r o j e c t was t h e r e f o r e e v e n t u a ll y abandoned i n th e

summer of 1978. Only th e f i r s t subcommittee r e p o r te d o u t, com pleting a

p r o p o s a l f o r a new employee e v a l u a t i o n r e p o r t form.

At t h i s p o in t i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s nipp ed th e

PTF. S ta te w id e campaigns f o r g overnor began, and t h e r e was r e a l

u n c e r t a i n t y about a new governor s u p p o r tin g th e com m ittee. The same

h e l d f o r a r e c e n t t e n t a t i v e agreement to c o l l e c t i v e l y b a r g a i n under
 225

e x e c u tiv e a u t h o r i t y . T h is le d th e SNEA to d i r e c t i t s major e f f o r t s

towards the upcoming e l e c t i o n s , and both p a r t i e s began to c o n c e n tr a te on

t h e i r programs f o r th e upcoming l e g i s l a t i v e s e s s i o n . The PTF did n o t

meet fo rm ally a f t e r August 1978. R e s u r r e c t i o n appears u n l i k e l y .

The one a r e a where agreement had been re a c h e d , employee e v a l u a t i o n ,

was a n u lle d by i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s . The PTF n u r tu r e d consensus

among a few SNEA and t h e P e rs o n n e l D iv is io n people about a proposed new

e v a l u a t i o n p ro c e s s . T h is, however, did no t in c lu d e th e m yriad f u n c t i o n ­

a l u n i t s com p rising th e S t a t e Government. Agency heads took e x c e p tio n

t o the p ro p o s a l, c laim in g i t would g e n e r a te g r ie v a n c e s , and p r o t e s t i n g

la c k of c o n s u l t a t i o n . Eecause t h e s e u n i t s a r e sem i-in d ep en d e n t of th e

G o v e rn o r's o f f i c e , th e y c o u ld and did r e f u s e to experim ent. T h is

fragm ented t r i a d (SNEA, G ovenor's S t a f f , & Agency Managements) was

no th in g new. I t had o c c a s s i o n a l l y p rev ented in n o v a tio n b e f o r e .

The PTF was undermined by two more g e n e r a l c o n d i tio n s i n th e S t a t e .

F i r s t , Nevada l a b o r law gave SNEA no l e g a l s t a t u s a s an employee

re p re se n ta tiv e . S t i l l , th e SNEA a t te m p te d to a s s e r t i t s e l f a s

b a r g a in in g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . The S t a t e did not a c c e p t t h i s d e f i n i t i o n of

th e ir ro le . T h is d is c re p e n c y i s a primary f a c t o r i n th e PTF's i n a b i l i t y

t o m a in ta i n c o o p e r a tio n . T h is was compounded by th e absen ce of c l e a r

d e l i n i a t i o n of b a r g a in a b le i s s u e s v ersu s o th e r i s s u e s , i n h e r e n t to a

S t a t e w i t h no l a b o r law i s i n e f f e c t to draw t h e l i n e .

Second, th e d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n of S t a t e o p e r a t io n , out from under

c o n t r o l of th e G overnor, fragm ented th e power f i l e d th e PTF o p e ra te d

w it h i n . Arrangements s t r u c k w ith P e rs o n n e l i n th e PTF c o u ld n o t be

depended upon to be acc ep ted by l i n e managers.

 226

O utputs

The Nevada committee d id not p ro v id e many s p e c i f i c o r g e n e r a l

o u tp u t s . No change was implemented th ro u g h work o f th e PTF. The only

p ro p o s a l forw arded by PTF was r e j e c t e d . Labor and management i n th e

S t a t e d id c o n tin u e t o o c c a s s i o n a l l y c o o p e r a te . A f te r th e e l e c t i o n o f a

new Governor, f o r example, l a b o r and management j o i n t l y o f f e r e d t h e i r

n e g o t i a t e d pay and b e n e f i t agreement to th e l e g i s l a t u r e . However, no

one a t t r i b u t e d t h i s c o n t i n u a t i o n of p e r i o d i c c o o p e r a tio n to th e PTF.

 227

P_IMA_CpUNTY

C ontext

Pima County, A rizon a, i s an a r e a of 9,200 s q u a r e m ile s , m ostly o f

d e se rt. I t encompasses th e C it y of Tuscon, and has a s w i f t l y growing

p o p u la tio n c u r r e n t l y a t 472 , 2 00 i n th e Tuscon M e tr o p o l ita n a re a , w ith

511,500 i n th e e n t i r e County. The County has 4,300 employees. A rizona

does no t mandate p u b lic s e c t o r b a rg a in in g and does not pro vide f o r

arrang em ents conducive t o u n io n s. Pima County and i t s b a rg a in in g u n i t s

n e g o t i a t e a n on-binding agreem ent t h a t i s u s u a ll y t r e a t e d l i k e a

c o n t r a c t by a l l p a r t i e s . This i s a q u a s i- l e g a l a rran g em en t. There a ls o

e x i s t s a g r ie v a n c e p ro c e s s . A r iz o n a 's r e l a t i v e lack o f form al le g a l

p r o t e c t i o n f o r p u b li c s e c t o r unions keeps them v e ry con cerned fo r t h e i r

own s u r v i v a l .

Both la b o r and management lack i n t e r n a l c o h esio n . County management

i s o v e rs e e n by a weak County A d m i n i s t r a t o r 's O f f i c e . T h is sm all o f f i c e

o v e r s e e s many county o p e r a t i o n s , o f t e n w ith e n t i r e departm ents run by

e l e c t e d o f f i c i a l s who need not answer to the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e .

Above th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e i s a five-member e l e c t e d coun ty b o ard .

They a l s o do not c o n t r o l e l e c te d departm ent heads. The board i s h e a v ily

in v o lv e d i n a d m in is te r in g co u n ty o p e r a tio n s on a d a y - to - d a y b a s i s . The

f i v e board members f r e q u e n t l y do not c o o p e ra te , and they tend to work i n

fa v o r o f d iv e rg e n t s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t s . Management from th e top i s

t h e r e f o r e i n c o n s i s t e n t , and sometimes heavy-handed i n a p o l i t i c a l way.

Meanwhile, la b o r a l s o la c k s i n t e r n a l c o h e s io n . There a r e t h r e e

employee group s: The F r a t e r n a l Order of P o l i c e (Lodge #20), AFSCME

 228

(L ocal 4 4 9 ), and th e A rizona P u b lic Employees Association (APEA) Pima

County c h a p t e r . The FOP did not play a m ajo r ro le in Pima's committee.

T ogether th e s e groups o n ly r e p r e s e n t 30% of th e county's emloyees. Many

u n a f f i l i a t e d employees a r e e q u a lly s u s p ic io u s of both labor and

management.

H is to r y of th e Committee P r ogram

The Pima County labor-management committee began meeting on November

8, 1977. I t was s t a r t e d i n respo nse to an i n v i t a t i o n to join Project

Network. The i n i t i a l design c a l l e d f o r a c e n t r a l steering committee and

f i v e subcom m ittees. The s t e e r i n g committee involves county labor and

management l e a d e r s . Subcommittee chairmen were also eventually

in c lu d e d . The subcomm ittees each g a t h e r re p r e s e n ta tio n frcm a cluster

of co u n ty o p e r a t i o n s . They a r e t h e r e f o r e c a l l e d c lu ste r committees.

T h is s t r u c t u r e i s summarized on the follow ing page in Figure A-2.

In t h i s s t r u c t u r e th e s t e e r i n g committee c e n t r a l l y directs the

program. I t s e l e c t s and f o r m u la te s is s u e s f o r subcommittees, reserving

f i n a l d i s c r e t i o n fo r i t s e l f . Most changes a r e then recommended to

a c t u a l county d e p a rtm e n ts and o p e r a t io n s .

The o v e r a l l aim of th e program was to improve worklife quality and

p ro d u c tiv ity . T h is was a slo g an , e s s e n t i a l l y repeating the mandate of

th e N a tio n a l C en ter a d m in is te r i n g P r o j e c t Network. There was no in itia l

a tte m p t to f u r t h e r d e f in e or r e f i n e t h i s m is s io n . I t was assumed that

r e p e a t i n g th e s lo g a n would be s u f f i c i e n t to gather change proposals

throug h an i n i t i a l employee survey.

In l a t e F e b ru a ry , 1978, work began on t h i s employee survey.

Subcommittees forwarded t h e i r c a n d id a te s f o r survey items. In March

 229

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 230

th e s t e e r i n g committee i n i t i a t e d c o n t a c t w ith a f a c u l t y member a t th e

U n iv e r s it y o f A riz o n a b u s in e s s s c h o o l. On A p ril 4 t h i t was d ecid ed to

o b ta in h i s s e r v i c e s f r e e of ch arg e , by a llo w in g him to in c lu d e h i s own

r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n s on th e su rv ey. The f i v e subcommittee chairmen met

w ith th e p r o f e s s o r to combine subcommittee item s w ith h i s q u e s t i o n s . He

convinced them t o use h i s p r e f a b r i c a t e d s u rv e y s .

But d e f e r r a l to e x p e r t opinion annoyed subcommittee chairm en, and

angered subcomm ittee members. Employee gro up s o b je c te d t h a t many o f h i s

item s were o v e rly p e rs o n a l o r b l a t e n t l y a n t i - u n i o n . The s t e e r i n g

com m ittee disengaged t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e , and w ent back to a

t e c h n i c a l l y crude e f f o r t u s in g u n e d ite d subcommittee ite m s . By the tim e

th e survey was ta b u l a t e d i n Autumn 1978, p eop le w ere ag g rav a ted w ith the

whole e x p e rie n c e and i n c l i n e d n ot t o work th e d a t a .

In s p i t e of t h i s d i f f i c u l t s t a r t up th e committee proceeded a t a

tim e when t h e r e were many d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t co u ld have d e s tro y e d i t . In

1977 a t 6.8% c o s t of l i v i n g i n c r e a s e was u n i l a t e r a l l y postponed by t h e

County Board of S u p e r v i s o r s . T h is v i o l a t e d the n o n -b in d in g agreement

and prompted o u tc ry and p u b l i c d e m o n stra tio n . A lso , a n n i v e r s a r y

i n c r e a s e s fo r employees were u n i l a t e r a l l y e l i m i n a t e d , and only

m e r i t o r i o u s i n c r e a s e s under ambiguous c o n d i tio n s were allow ed to no more

th a n 25% of employees. In n e i t h e r case d id la b o r o r management allow

th e s e to d i s r u p t o r t e r m in a t e the committee.

In 1979, th e c o u n t y 's committee program was awarded IPA fu n d in g t o

b e g in s u p e rv is o ry t r a i n i n g . T h is in c lu d ed funds to h i r e one s t a f f

p e rs o n , to be based i n th e P e rs o n n e l D epartm ent. This new s t a f f person

performed e x c e p t i o n a l l y , and beyond th e c a l l of d u ty . She provided

 231

g e n e r a l p ro cess c o n s u l t a t i o n and fo llo w -th ro u g h i n a d d i tio n to

developing t h e t r a i n i n g program w i t h the U n iv e r s it y o f A rizo n a. She

a lso a t t e n d e d th e an n u al Columbus workshop r e t r e a t , and r e t u r n e d to

propose and o rg a n iz e a s i m i l a r e v e n t in Pima, which i s now a r e g u la r

e v e n t. L im ite d f i n a n c i a l su p p o rt fo r h e r p o s i t i o n a f t e r th e IPA g ra n t

e x p ire d was secured l a r g e l y b ecau se of t h i s e x c e p tio n a l perform ance.

O utputs

The Pima County committee produced t h r e e major o u tp u ts i n i t s f i r s t

two y e a r s . F i r s t , was an employee survey . Although not pow erfully

in fo rm a tiv e i t dem onstrated a committment to see th i n g s th ro u g h .

Second, was th e r e s u r r e c t i o n of th e long-dorm ant employee n e w s l e t t e r .

This was r e i n i t i a t e d a f t e r r e q u e s t by th e com m ittee. T h ir d , was a

t r a i n i n g program. Although i n i t i a l l y aimed a t s u p e r v is o r s many o t h e r

employees p a r t i c i p a t e d , a t o t a l of 500 people i n th e f i r s t t h r e e months.

Beyond s p e c i f i c accom plishm ents the committee programs were c r e d i t e d

w ith having more g e n e ra l e f f e c t s . The program encouraged g r e a t e r mutual

u n d e rs ta n d in g between la b o r and management, and between p r e v io u s ly r i v a l

la b o r groups. I t was f e l t t h a t t h i s had i n c r e a s e d p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r

the committee began tak in g a c t i o n on i t s own w i t h s t a f f and money, and

began o c c a s i o n a l l y m eeting i n r e t r e a t s e t t i n g s .
 232

CITY_ OF, TACOMA.

Context

The C ity o f Tacoma i s l o c a t e d on P uget Sound and h a s 157,000

c itiz e n s. I t employs 2,800 p e o p le . S ince th e e a r l y 1970's th e S t a t e of

Washington has had p u b li c s e c t o r l a b o r l e g i s l a t i o n e s t a b l i s h i n g employee

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n and c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n in g . The S eattle-T aco m a a r e a has

t r a d i t i o n a l l y b een a s i t e of u nio n a c t i v i t y i n th e p r i v a t e s e c t o r . Good

la b o r r e l a t i o n s from t h i s realm have c a r r i e d over i n t o more r e c e n t l y

e s ta b lis h e d p u b lic s e c to r r e la tio n s .

With a h e r i t a g e of unions and f a v o r a b l e laws many p u b li c s e c t o r

b a rg a in in g u n i t s have been e s t a b l i s h e d . The C ity o f Tacoma d e a ls w ith

13 d i f f e r e n t u n io n s . To s im p l if y t h i n g s , common employee b e n e f i t s a r e

n e g o t ia te d on b e h a lf of a l l u n io n s by a J o i n t A rea Labor Committee

(JALC). S p e c i f i c i s s u e s d i f f e r i n g between u n io n s , such as s a l a r y , a r e

n e g o t ia te d s e p a r a t e l y by th e in d i v i d u a l b a rg a in in g u n i t s co n ce rn ed .

The C i t y of Tacoma has two in d epend ent o p e r a t in g u n i t s , U t i l i t i e s

and G eneral Government. These a r e l e g a l l y and f u n c t i o n a l l y s e p a r a t e .

L ike many j u r i s d i c t i o n s i n W ashington, th e C i t y of Tacoma i s

i n s u l a t e d from t h e shock o f p r o p o s i t i o n 13 forms of ta x p a y e r b ack lash .

The S t a t e a lre a d y has a law l i m i t i n g government e x p e n d itu r e s and

ta x a tio n . T h e r e f o re , many i n the p u b lic s e c t o r f e e l they a r e " a lr e a d y

l i v i n g w ith p r o p o s i t i o n 1 3 ” and making do w ith i t . In a d d i tio n to th e

p e a c e f u l labor-m anagem ent h e r i t a g e , t h i s makes Tacoma a n o n - th r e a te n in g

p la c e to be i n p u b l i c s e c t o r la b o r o r management.
 233

H is to r y Of The Committee Program

In resp o n se to s o l i c i t a t i o n from P r o j e c t Network, C ity l a b o r and

management d ecid ed to form a s i n g l e ongoing labor-management com m ittee.

T h is was c a l l e d th e s t e e r i n g c a n m itte e , t o d i s t i n g u i s h i t from t h e

e x i s t i n g JALC. The com m ittee was to meet tw ice e a c h month. I t had 13

members and one permanent s t a f f p e rs o n based i n th e Department of

P e r s o n n e l. To s i m p l i f y la b o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , b a rg a in in g group

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n was pooled v ia th e JALC. T h is c o n s o li d a te d e f f e c t i v e

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n fo r a l l unions and allo w ed fo r a manageable number of

com mittee members.

The C ity Manager and D i r e c t o r of P u b lic U t i l i t i e s were o f f i c i a l

members ex o f f i c i o . T h is gave the committee top l e v e l s a n c t i o n w ith o u t

making i t an appendage of to p l e a d e r s , a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t was not

d e sire d . But t h i s a l s o k e p t th e committee from d i r e c t to p s id e

p a r t i c i a p a t i o n and s a n c t i o n .

The s t e e r i n g committee in ten d ed to pursue one p r o j e c t a t a tim e.

D e t a i l e d work r e q u i r i n g more f r e q u e n t m eetings would be done by s p e c i a l

subcom m ittees, composed of some s t e e r i n g c a n m itte e members and some

people o u ts id e th e committee i n v i t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e . These temporary

groups d isb an d a f t e r t h e i r recommendations a r e g iv e n to the s te e r i n g

com mittee ( t h i s may be a f t e r s e v e r a l i t e r a t i o n s ) .

L abor and management saw t h e s t e e r i n g committee a s a n o th e r t o o l i n

t h e k i t o f la b o r r e l a t i o n s . Need f o r th e com mittee was not u r g e n t,

g iv e n Tacoma's r e l a t i v e l y c o m fo r ta b le la b o r and ta x s i t u a t i o n .

T h e r e f o re an i n i t i a l l y low p r o f i l e was m a in ta in e d . P u b lic announcement

 234

of th e committee and h ig h e r r i s k p r o j e c t s would o n ly be u n d erta k en a f t e r

i n i t i a l , s a f e , d em onstrated s u c c e s s e s .

T h is le d to choosing employee o r i e n t a t i o n fo r a f i r s t i s s u e . T h is

was s e e n to be a safe o p p o r tu n ity f o r improvement. A s p e c ia l

o r i e n t a t i o n subcommittee commenced i n O ctober, 1977. They com pleted

t h e i r work behind sc h e d u le on June 14, 1978. T h e ir recommendations were

p assed on to th e P e rs o n n e l Department f o r im p lem en tatio n, which did n o t

b e g in u n t i l May, 1979.

A s i x month l u l l s e t i n , d u rin g which the s t e e r i n g committee did n o t

meet. Because th e committee was j u s t a n o th e r t o o l , and n ot d r a m a t i c a l l y

n e c e s s a r y , la b o r and management were not alarm ed a t i t s h i b e r n a t i o n . No

i n s p i r i n g i d e a s f o r o t h e r change p r o j e c t s were around. Some

c o n s i d e r a t i o n was given to employee e v a l u a t i o n , but i n c o n t r a s t to

Columbus t h i s was f e l t to be e x c e s s iv e ly a d v e r s a r i a l .

In November 1978 th e Tacoma P r o j e c t Network S i t e C o o rd in a to r s e n t

th e C ity P e rso n n e l D i r e c t o r an IPA r e p o r t d e s c r ib i n g a novel j o i n t l a b o r

r e l a t i o n s t r a i n i n g program between ste w a rd s and s u p e r v i s o r s . The

D i r e c t o r li k e d th e id e a and propo sed i t a s the next s t e e r i n g committee

p ro je c t. The id e a was e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y r e c e i v e d . I t s t r u c k a chord.

F i r s t , i t d e a l t w ith l a b o r and management l e a d e r s c o o p e r a tiv e l y

im proving shop f l o o r la b o r r e l a t i o n s . T h is in v o lv e d e x p o rtin g good

to p s i d e tin derstan din g downward to th e w o rk face. Second, t h e is s u e a l s o

prov ided a d ip lo m a tic way to approach th e i s s u e of poor s u p e r v is o r y

re la tio n sh ip s.
 235

A new s p e c i a l subcomm ittee was q u ic k ly formed. There was so much

i n t e r e s t i n th e is s u e t h a t f o r a w h ile i t appeared one problem would be

hav in g too many s t e e r i n g committee members s i t on th e subcom m ittee. The

subcomm ittee began to meet r e g u l a r l y each week, and th e s t e e r i n g

committee resumed tw ice a month m eetings to m onitor and d i r e c t t h e i r

work. A program i s expected to begin on sch ed ule i n e a r l y 1980.

O utputs

The Tacoma labor-management s t e e r i n g committee produced two s p e c i f i c

o u tp u t s d u rin g P r o j e c t Network. F i r s t , th e y produced a recommended

o r i e n t a t i o n program t h a t was p assed to th e P e rs o n n e l Department f o r

im p lem en tatio n i n C ity o p e r a t i n g dep artm ents. Second, th e y began

prod ucing a j o i n t s u p e r v i s o r y l e v e l t r a i n i n g program. T h is w i l l be

implemented w i t h the help of th e P erso n n el Department, bu t i t s e x e c u tio n

w i l l a l s o in v o lv e c o n t r i b u t i o n by s t e e r i n g committee members ( i . e .

making p r e s e n t a t i o n s ) . Thus, t h e committee has moved to more of an

actio n o r ie n ta tio n .

More g e n e r a l l y , t h e s t e e r i n g committee has found t h a t t h e r e i s

something good going on, e s p e c i a l l y s in c e t a c k l i n g th e j o i n t t r a i n i n g

p r o j e c t , something more th a n j u s t a n o th e r t o o l i n th e box. T h is has

s p i l l e d over i n t o th e b a r g a in in g r e l a t i o n - a b i t . The e x a c t n a t u r e of

t h i s l a r g e r o p p o r tu n ity i s u n d e fin e d , and n ot even an ambiguous name h as

been a t t a c h e d to i t .
 236

THE_ CITY_ OF URBAKA,_ ILLINOIS

Context

Urbana i s a sm all c i t y of ap p ro x im ate ly 35,000 y e a r-ro u n d r e s i d e n t s .

I t c o n t a in s h a l f th e campus of t h e U n iv e r s it y of I l l i n o i s (40,000

s t u d e n t s ) , which i t s h a r e s w ith the a d j a c e n t c i t y o f Champaign. The

h ig h p ro p o rtio n of s t a t e jobs i n the a r e a m a in tain s a s te a d y r a t e o f

employment. The la r g e number of s tu d e n t s t i g h t e n s th e housing market,

making Urbana one of t h e most ex pensiv e places to l i v e i n America.

U n io n iz a tio n was i n s t i t u t e d i n Urbana C ity government in th e m iddle

1 9 7 0 's . Everyone on th e scene was new to the c o l l e c t i v e b a rg a in in g

re la tio n sh ip .

To g u ide t h e i r new involvem ent in la b o r r e l a t i o n s , the c i t y procured

th e s e r v i c e s of a la r g e Chicago-based l a b o r law fir m . They c l o s e l y

a s s i s t e d t h e c i t y i n a d v e r s a r i a l p ro cee d in g s. This f i r m im parted t h e i r

own t r a d i t i o n a l emphasis upon " p r e s e r v in g management r i g h t s " t o C ity

a d m in istra to rs.

H is to r y Of l*he Committee Program

The Urbana labor-management committee program developed i n the

P u b lic Works department out of con sen su s reached in a December 1976

labor-management workshop. T h is workshop was conducted by t h e

U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s I n s t i t u t e of Labor and I n d u s t r i a l R e l a ti o n s

(IL IR ). A t t h i s time i t was agreed t h a t a c o o p e ra tiv e p rob lem -solv in g

forum between la b o r and management, p a r a l l e l to th e a d v e r s a r i a l

p r o c e s s e s was d e s i r a b l e .
 237

The J o i n t Labor-Management S te e r i n g Committee h eld i t s f i r s t m eeting

on December 15, 197b. I t encompassed the P u b lic Works D epartm ent w i t h a

t o t a l of 36 employees, i n v o l v i n g th e departm ent h ead s and the t h e union

l o c a l (AFSCME 1331) o f f i c i a l s . The com mittee saw i t s e l f p r im a r ily a s a

forum for c l e a r i n g l i t t l e th i n g s b e s t managed c o o p e r a t i v e l y between

l a b o r and management. U nlike Troy, t h e r e w as no c o n tin u in g e f f o r t to

embody a g e n e r a l theme. Also i n c o n t r a s t t o Troy, s t e e r i n g committee

s e s s i o n s w ere c l o s e d , w ith o u t e x te n s iv e c o n s u l t a t i o n and checking i n th e

r e s t of the o r g a n i z a t i o n .

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e committee organized a c o n tin u in g s e r i e s of monthly

m eetings fo r the e n t i r e departm en t. These were ru n by t h e Department

D i r e c t o r , and u s u a l l y in v o lv e d :

- I n tr o d u c t o r y rem arks by l a b o r and management w ith d i s c u s s i o n of

s u g g e s tio n b ox ite m s and r e p o r t s on f o llo w - u p .

- R eco g n itio n of an employee of t h e month.

- Open f l o o r f o r d i s c u s s i o n ( q u e s tio n fro m employee, answer by

d ire c to r).

- T o p ic a l t r a i n i n g p r e s e n t a t i o n .

- Paycheck d i s t r i b u t i o n ( a n in c e n tiv e f o r a t t e n d i n g ) .

The m eeting s were p a r t i c i p a t i v e but p r i m a r i l y run by the D i r e c t o r . To

o v e r s e e p r e p a r a t i o n of m e e tin g s , e s p e c i a l l y t o p i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n s , t h e

s t e e r i n g committee app oin ted a s p e c i a l c o o r d in a tin g committee. Because

they always checked in advance w ith th e s t e e r i n g com m ittee, th e y were

e v e n tu a lly merged i n w ith them.

T h ir d p a r t y f a c i l i t a t i o n was provided by the U n iv e r s it y of I l l i n o i s

ILIR. U su a lly one of two f a c u l t y members would a t t e n d departm ent and

s t e e r i n g committee m e e tin g s, h e lp in g t o keep c o l l a b o r a t i o n moving and

 238

s e r v in g as a t e c h n i c a l r e s o u r c e when n eeded . These s e r v i c e s were

v o lu n t e e r e d , and no payment was o f f e r e d by th e C ity o r un ion . Although

t h e r e was a t te n d a n c e t h e r e was no in fo rm a l c o n t a c t w ith t h i r d p a r t i e s

between s e s s i o n s .

In September 1977, Urbana jo in e d P r o j e c t Network. The s t e e r i n g

committee d e c la re d development of t r a i n i n g programs as i t s change

p r o j e c t fo r netw ork r e s e a r c h to s p e c i f i c a l l y t r a c k . They formed a

s p e c i a l network subcommittee to fo rm u la te a d e t a i l e d t r a i n i n g p r o p o s a l .

F a c i l i t a t i o n and t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e were to be donated by advanced

g r a d u a te s t u d e n t s from t h e ILIR.

Management s e c r e t l y wanted t r a i n i n g as a non-monetary perk to

appease employees, a s w e l l as to promote g r e a t e r w orker e f f e c t i v e n e s s .

Labor s e c r e t l y wanted t r a i n i n g as a way of le v e r a g in g b ro a d e r c l a s s i f i ­

c a t i o n of j o b s , and h i g h e r pay, i n a d d i t i o n to g r e a t e r work s a t i s f a c t i o n

and e f f e c t i v e n e s s . The e x i s t e n c e of t h e s e s e c r e t com petetive agendas

i n d i c a t e d th e im m aturity of new p a r t i e s to la b o r r e l a t i o n s .

An a l l e g e d work stop page o c c u rre d on January 13 and 14, 1978. Two

employees were te rm in a te d , t h e un io n l o c a l p r e s i d e n t and v ic e p r e s i d e n t ,

and f o u r more were suspended. By m utual c o n s e n t most g riev a n ce s t a g e s

w ere skipped to allow im m ediate binding a r b i t r a t i o n . The Urbana la b o r -

management committee program was te rm in a te d a t th e time of t h i s

o u tb re a k .

The a r b i t r a t o r re n d e re d a d e c is io n on March 20, 1978. He found t h a t

t h e r e was a c o n c e rte d work stoppage i n v i o l a t i o n of th e Urbana

c o n t r a c t ' s no s t r i k e c l a u s e , and t h a t a l l p a r t i e s were new to c o l l e c t i v e

b a r g a i n in g , being u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d and immature i n l a b o r m a t t e r s .

 239

T h e re fo re th e a r b i t r a t o r made an ex c e p tio n and r u le d t h a t bo th

te rm in a te d employees be r e i n s t a t e d w ith o u t back pay. Both p a r t i e s

h a i l e d t h i s as a v i c t o r y .

The a r b i t r a t o r noted t h a t a s h i f t i n working ho urs u n i l a t e r a l l y

implemented by th e C ity on December 29 c o n t r i b u t e d to employee

re s e n tm e n t causing th e work s to p p ag e. T h is o ccu rred a f t e r a December 15

s ig n in g of a new c o n t r a c t , and employees f e l t t h i s u n i l a t e r a l change t o

be a form of c o n t r a c t sh arp sh o o tin g which co u ld be met by a c t i o n of th e

same kind re g a r d in g o v e rtim e . I r o n i c a l l y , th e s h i f t was due to be

co n s id e re d i n the t h i r d s t e p o f the g r ie v a n c e p ro c e s s th e a f te r n o o n of

J an u ary 13, th e same day as t h e work s to p p a g e .

The C ity a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f e l t i t had t e c h n i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r th e

change i n term s of ru sh -h o u r t r a f f i c p a t t e r n s . In a d d i t i o n , one top

manager, a former m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r , l i k e d c l e a r c u t o f f i c i a l change.

Combined w ith emphasis upon management r i g h t s , u n i l a t e r a l change i n

hours seemed a p p r o p r i a t e .

The a c t u a l d e c i s i o n was made i n l a t e November but th e la b o r -

management committee was never used to r a i s e the issu e o r ad v ise the

union. A f te r one y e a r , th e s t e e r i n g com mittee was s t i l l no t a c c e p te d to

be p a r t of some l a r g e r , e s s e n t i a l c o l l a b o r a t i v e p ro c e s s . A f t e r the

i n c i d e n t both s i d e s r e g r e t t e d t h a t b e t t e r communication was no t

a tte m p te d b e f o r e th e change i n hours.

The t h i r d p a r ty f a c i l i t a t o r s were s u r p r i s e d by the e p is o d e . T h e ir

o f f e r to f u n c t i o n as communication f a c i l i t a t o r s ( n o t m e d ia to r s ) was

e v e n t u a l l y a c c e p te d by la b o r , but f e l t to be a v i o l a t i o n of c o n t r a c t by

management.
 240

I n te n s e b i t t e r n e s s fo llo w ed th e i n c i d e n t , even a f t e r th e

a r b it r a to r 's ru lin g . C o n v e rs a tio n between Urbana management and lo c a l

union o f f i c i a l s became im p o s s ib l e . There was even one p h y s ic a l a s s a u l t .

Both the un ion l o c a l p r e s i d e n t and stew ard ste p p e d down to make room f o r

le a d e r s h ip t h a t might be a b le to communicate. S h o r tly t h e r e a f t e r th e

P u b lic Works D i r e c t o r l e f t , a s d id th e C ity A d m in i s t r a ti v e O f f i c e r who

was most c l o s e l y lin k e d w ith th e C i t y ' s pro-management la b o r law f ir m .

T h is c l e a r e d th e s ta g e f o r h e a lin g to take p la c e . By A p r il 1978 th e

new Department D i r e c t o r had implemented fundam ental job r e s t r u c t u r i n g

in v o lv in g f u n c t i o n a l work cre w s . Labor and managment r e l a t i o n s

g r a d u a lly improved. Even th e two people in v o lv e d i n th e p h y s ic a l

a l t e r c a t i o n made up.

I n 1979 th e Urbana P u b lic Works Department chose to begin a n o th e r

labor-management com m ittee. T h is f i r s t met on September 14, 1979. The

f i r s t i s s u e s d is c u s s e d were c o n c r e t e , pragm atic co n c e rn s, w ith hope t h a t

i f th in g s go w e l l more s e n s i t i v e to p ic s can be covered. T h is r e ­

e s ta b lis h m e n t was t o t a l l y on th e i n i t i a t i v e of Urbana la b o r and

management. No o u ts id e p a r t i e s promoted t h i s developm ent. The

U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s I n s t i t u t e may l a t e r be ask ed to f a c i l i t a t e .

Outcomes

The Urbana labor-m anagem ent committee did not produce any c o n c r e te

or g e n e r a l outcomes. The demise of th e committee appears r e l a t e d to

p e r s o n a l i t y c o n f l i c t and im c a tu re la b o r r e l a t i o n s , n o t to th e committee

itse lf. The r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a committee i n d i c a t e s t h a t damage need

 241

no t be permanent to th e co ncept of a com mittee, even i f i t i s f a t a l t o a

p a r ti c u la r in c a rn a tio n .
 242

CITY OF_WICHITAj_ KANSAS

V Jichita i s a c i t y o f a lm o st 300,000 i n the s o u t h - c e n t r a l p l a i n s of

K ansas. I t i s i n th e h e a r t of a h e a v i ly a g r i c u l t u r a l r e g io n . In

c o n t r a s t to th e su rroun ding a r e a W ic h ita h a s a s u b s t a n t i a l a i r c r a f t

i n d u s t r y , which i s th e l a r g e s t employer i n the a r e a .

Cont e x t

As a p r im a r ily a g r i c u l t u r a l s t a t e , Kansas d o es n o t have

t r a d i t i o n a l l y w idespread la b o r o r g a n i z a t i o n . Farmwork provides

employment not s u b je c t to the N a tio n a l Labor R e l a t i o n s A ct. As an

i s l a n d of i n d u s tr y i n a s ea of a g r i c u l t u r e , W ichita d e p a r ts from t h i s

n o n - la b o r emphasis, e s p e c i a l l y i n th e a i r c r a f t i n d u s t r y . Labor

r e l a t i o n s h e re have n o t been p a r t i c u l a r l y t u r b u l e n t .

The S t a t e law p r o v id e s f o r the p r o t e c t i o n and r e g u l a t i o n of p u b lic

employee o r g a n i z a t i o n and c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a in in g . Management r i g h t s a r e

a l s o s tr o n g ly p r o t e c t e d . R e f l e c ti n g th e n a t i o n a l tr e n d , p u b li c employee

o r g a n i z a t i o n i s i n c r e a s i n g i n K ansas' p u b li c s e c t o r .

H is to r y Of The Committee Program

I n May, 1974 th e S e r v ic e s Employees Union (SEU), Local 513 AFL-CIO,

was c e r t i f i e d as th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e f o r 1,000 of th e C i t y ' s 3,000

employees. I n i t i a l n e g o t i a t i o n s produced an agreem ent, b u t w ith

lin g e rin g a n im o sitie s. I n th e second n e g o t i a t i o n s i n 1976 an impasse

was d e c l a r e d . Curing th e m e d ia tio n of t h i s deadlock th e l o c a l

Commissioner of th e F e d e r a l M ed iatio n and C o n c i l i a t i o n S e r v ic e (FMCS)

s u g g ested e s t a b l i s h i n g a labor-management committee to b u i l d b e t t e r

re la tio n s.
 243

Labor and management ag ree d to give i t a t r y . A fte r d i s c u s s i o n w ith

t h e C ity Manager and C ity A tto r n e y , an d the SEU b u s in e s s a g e n t, an

a s s i s t a n t c i t y a t t o r n e y an d the SEU b u s in e s s agent were d e s ig n a te d "key

p e r s o n s " to o v e rs e e the com m ittee. As such, they were to fo rm u la te

committee agendas, s e le c tin g - i s s u e s t h a t were c l e a r l y not b a r g a in in g

to p ics. These two people were ov er th e committee, n o t of i t . They each

a p p o in te d t h r e e members from t h e i r own c o n s titu e n c y to a c t u a l l y s e rv e as

com m ittee members.

The committee was giv en a u t h o r i t y l i m i t e d to a d v i s i n g th e C ity

Manager. He was viewed by b o th l a b o r and management as f a i r and as a

proponent of changing th e C ity o r g a n i z a t i o n when n e c e s s a r y .

The lo c a l FMCS Commissioner acted a s a t h i r d p a r t y f a c i l i t a t o r . He

l a t e r began t o withdraw a s the committee no lo n g e r seemed d e l i c a t e .

T h is involvem ent only i n s t a r t - u p i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of FMCS i n t e r v e n t i o n

i n g e n e r a l.

The committee recommended a number of changes to the C ity Manager.

T here was i n c r e a s i n g f r u s t r a t i o n t h a t committee recommendations became

l o s t o r d i l u t e d as they were passed to o th e r s fo r im p lem en tatio n . Thus,

t h e committee produced a number of recom mendations, but l i t t l e i n th e

way of a c t u a l change. T h e re was also some f r u s t r a t i o n about working on

agendas form ulated by o u t s i d e "key p eop le" above t h e com mittee.

Almost from t h e s t a r t , th e W i c h ita committee began a c t i v e l y

prom oting th e labor-management com m ittee concept to o th e r government

o p eratio n s. In February 1978, t h e FMCS Commissioner sponsored a j o i n t

workshop where th e W ich ita committee i n t e r e s t e d th e School System i n

e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e i r own com m ittee.

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Ojat comes

The W ic h ita labor-managemewnt com mittee produced a number of

s p e c i f i c recommendations for im proving th in g s i n th e a r e a s o f :

- D e l i n i a t i o n of f i r s t l i n e su p e rv is o ry r o l e s

- C l a r i f i c a t i o n of C ity p o l i c i e s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s t r u c t u r e to
employees

- P r o d u c t i v i t y improvement in c e n t i v e s

V i r t u a l l y no changes were a c t u a l l y implemented because t h i n g s got

dropped a f t e r being approved by th e C ity Manager.

More g e n e r a l l y , th e W ich ita labor-management committee produced

b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g between th e li m it e d number (6) of people a c t u a l l y

p a r t i c i p a t i n g on th e com m ittee. There was l i t t l e d i r e c t c o n t r i b u t i o n to

change i n g e n e ra l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n th e C ity o r g a n i z a t i o n a t l a r g e .
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CITY OF COLUMBUS, OHIO

C ontext

The C ity o f Columbus h a s a p o p u la tio n of 580,000. The c i t y employs

6,254 p e o p le . Ohio la b o r law allow s q u a s i - l e g a l b a r g a in in g i n th e

p u b li c s e c t o r , b a r g a in in g i s n e i t h e r p r o h i b i t e d nor mandated by th e law.

There i s a weak and u n c o n s tr a i n in g a n t i - s t r i k e law for th e p u b li c s e c t o r

t h a t h a s n ev er been evoked i n r e c e n t tim es (even during work s to p p a g e s ) .

The lo n g s ta n d i n g t r a d i t i o n of u n io n i z a ti o n i n O h io 's p r i v a t e s e c t o r

p r o v id e s a s u b s t a n t i a l t r a d i t i o n f o r p u b lic s e c t o r l a b o r r e l a t i o n s .

Because of t h e i r p re v a le n c e i n th e p r i v a t e s e c t o r , p u b li c s e c t o r unions

a r e not t o t a l l y f e a r e d . P eo p le g e n e r a l l y co n ce iv e t h a t l i f e goes on

a f t e r u n i o n i z a t i o n , i n c o n t r a s t t o p e rc e p tio n i n many s u n b e lt a r e a s

where t h e r e i s no h e r i t a g e of u n i o n i z a t i o n .

Columbus m a in ta in s q u a s i - l e g a l b a r g a in in g . The c i t y n e g o t i a t e s an

agreem ent w ith AFSCME l o c a l 1632. T h is i s t r e a t e d e x a c tly a s i f i t were

a l e g a l l y binding c o n t r a c t . C it y la b o r r e l a t i o n s i n t h e 1970' s were

r e l a t i v e l y calm , b u t w ith much room f o r improvement. In O ctober 1976,

t h e r e was a b r i e f s t r i k e . Beyond t h i s dram atic event t h e r e was

w idespread p e r c e p t i o n t h a t l a b o r r e l a t i o n s c o u ld be upgraded. P r e v a i l i n g

su b sta n d a rd r e l a t i o n s were a p p a re n t i n e x c e ss iv e r a t e s o f g rie v a n c e s ,

d i s c i p l i n a r y a c t i o n s , and le a v e s w ith o u t pay. The c i t y ' s

labor-managemewnt committee program was aimed a t d e a lin g w ith t h i s

c o n tin u in g o p p o r tu n ity f o r improvement.

 246

Near Columbus i s a s m a lle r m u n i c i p a l i t y o f S p r i n g f i e l d , Ohio. This

c i t y had i n i t i a t e d a labor-management q u a l i t y o f working l i f e program i n

1973. This program was developed w ith f a c i l i t a t i o n from th e Ohio S t a t e

U n iv e r s it y C enter f o r Human Resource R esearch. The model o f t h i s

e x i s t i n g program se rv e d as a pow erful i n s p i r a t i o n f o r th e development o f

a Columbus program. The AFSCME D i s t r i c t D i r e c t o r , having d i r e c t in v o lv e ­

ment w ith th e p o s i t i v e e x p e r ie n c e of S p r i n g f i e l d ' s program, i n i t i a l l y

su g g ested t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a s i m i l a r program i n Columbus. V i s i t s to

S p r i n g f i e l d by Columbus l a b o r and management l e a d e r s d em o n strated t h a t

s i g n i f i c a n t improvement was p o s s i b l e th ro ugh labor-management

c o o p e ra tio n .

L ike S p r i n g f i e l d , th e Columbus program came t o in v o lv e th e Human

Resource R esearch C en ter a s a f a c i l i t a t i v e t h i r d p a r t y . However, th e

Columbus program was n o t sim ply a carbon copy o f th e S p r i n g f i e l d

endeavor. I t was analogous i n ty p e b ut n o t i d e n t i c a l i n n a t u r e .

H is to r y Of The Committee Program

The C ity o f Columbus and AFSCME l o c a l 1632 i n i t i a t e d a c o o p e r a tiv e

labor-management committee program on J u l y 26, 1976. T h is began w ith

th e s ig n in g of a two y e a r Q u a lity o f Working L i f e Agreement, by th e

c i t y , th e u n io n , and th e t h i r d p a r t y . The agreem ent s t i p u l a t e d t h a t

l a b o r and management would s u s t a i n an e f f o r t t o improve th e q u a l i t y o f

working l i f e . I t f u r t h e r s p e c i f i e d monetary s u p p o r t from la b o r and

management, top l e v e l involvem ent and s a n c t i o n , w i l l i n g n e s s to

experim ent w ith w o r k lif e in n o v a t i o n s , p r o v i s i o n f o r ongoing d a ta

c o l l e c t i o n and r e s e a r c h and a program com mittee s t r u c t u r e . This

 247

document was abided by i n s p i r i t , n o t l e g a l i s t i c a l l y . A l t e r a t i o n s were

made i n response to changing c o n d itio n s by mutual consensus.

The theme of th e program was q u a l i t y of working l i f e (QWL).

Remarkably t h i s i s n ev er e x p l i c i t l y d e fin e d i n th e i n i t i a l agreem ent.

No d e t a i l e d s ta te m e n ts by management or la b o r le a d e r s d e s c r ib e the

q u a i l t y o f working l i f e co ncept. The t h i r d p a r ty f a c i l i t a t o r s

r e p e a t e d l y mentioned t h a t th e theme had t h r e e a s p e c ts r e l a t i n g to

lo n g - s ta n d in g problem s i n Columbus l a b o r r e l a t i o n s :

- QWL i s a p r o c e s s of c o o p e r a tiv e communication w i t h i n and between

la b o r and management. I t a p p l i e s to s u p e r v is o r - s te w a r d r e l a t i o n s
and to stew ard-w orker exchange.

- T h is communicative p ro c e s s i s in te n d e d to r e s u l t i n a more
s a t i s f y i n g job environm ent f o r c i t y p e r s o n n e l.

- These improvements in t h e work environment a r e assumed to

e v e n t u a ll y y i e l d improved perfo rm ance.

Soon, many people were r e p e a t i n g t h e s e g e n e ra l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . But a

d e t a i l e d comprehension of th e theme was n o t e v id e n t a t the prog ram 's

b e g in n in g .

The agreem ent s t i p u l a t e d a un iq u e ly d e c e n t r a l i z e d s t r u c t u r e of

c o o p e r a tiv e labor-management com m ittees. T h ere would be a c i t y

com mittee to o v ersee th e program. A P u b lic S e r v ic e Department Committee

stew ard s th in g s i n th e f i r s t c i t y Department s e l e c t e d to h o st th e

program. D i v i s i o n com mittees o v e rs e e the QWL p ro c e s s i n s p e c i f i c

d i v i s i o n s ( i . e . , Sewers and D rain ag e , Water T rea tm e n t, e t c . ) . F in a lly

g r a s s r o o t s w o r k in g - le v e l committees o v e rs e e the QWL p ro c e s s i n s p e c i f i c

w orkplace f a c i l i t i e s , w ith one committee a t each d i v i s i o n i n s t a l l a t i o n .

C u r r e n tl y th e whole th in g d i r e c t l y in v o l v e s o ver 100 p e o p le .

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In t h i s s t r u c t u r e g r a s s r o o ts working le v e l com m ittees a re p rim a rily

r e s p o n s ib le f o r i n i t i a t i n g change. O th er com m ittee le v e ls e x i s t to

s u p p o rt an d f a c i l i t a t e working le v e l e n d e a v o rs. In s te a d of u n i l a t e r a l

command, c o o r d in a tio n betw een le v e ls i s ach iev ed th ro u g h co n sen su s and

m utual c o n s t r a i n t . T his s t r u c t u r e i s summarized on th e fo llo w in g page

i n f ig u r e A-3.

Working le v e l com m ittees meet tw ice each month, a l l o th e r c o m itte e s

m eet once p er month. T h ere i s some o v erla p p in g membership betw een

com m ittee le v e ls to keep in fo rm a tio n c i r c u l a t i n g .

The QWL program f i r s t was i n i t i a t e d in th e Sewers and D rainage

D iv is io n , where la b o r r e l a t i o n s were p e rc e p ta b ly bad. In June 1978, th e

program was expanded to th e W ater T reatm en t D iv is io n , which had a b e t t e r

re c o rd o f la b o r r e l a t i o n s . O th er C ity D iv is io n s and D epartm ents w ill be

added in th e f u tu r e .

In a d d itio n to r e g u la r labor-m anagem ent com m ittee m e etin g s, th e QWL

program h o ld s r e g u la r program -w ide g a th e r in g s . T here i s an annual

p lan n in g r e t r e a t workshop i n Jan u ary to rev iew p ro g re ss and c o n s id e r

f u tu r e developm ents. In 1978 Columbus i n i t i a t e d a m id -y e a r one day

m in i-c o n fe re n c e , to e c o n o m ica lly g a th e r th e program to g e th e r w ith o u t th e

l o g i s t i c s of a r e t r e a t s e t t i n g . B oth fo rm ats w i l l c o n tin u e to be u sed .

The Ohio S ta t e C e n te r f a c i l i t a t e d a number of p ro c e s s e s , such as

c o n f l i c t management, p ro b le m -s o lv in g , and e x p e rim e n ta tio n p ro c e sse s,

 249

F ig u re A-3

Columbus QWL Program S tr u c tu r e

G ra ssro o ts Working L evel LMCs G ra s s ro o ts Working L evel LMCs

O O oo

Sewers and D rainage W ater T reatm ent

D iv is io n D iv is io n
Committee Committee

P u b lic S e rv ic e A nother
D epartm ent Departm ent
Committee In The F u tu re ?

C ity |
Committee I
 250

a d m in is tr a tiv e p ro c e s s e s ,* workshop and assessm en t p ro c e s s e s . The

i n t e n s i t y o f involvem ent re q u ire d to p lay th e s e m u ltip le r o l e s was

s u p p o rte d by c i t y and union funds and by a g ra n t by NIMH.

The program h a s d ev elo p ed p a s t b u ild in g t r u s t to u n d e rta k in g

s u b s t a n t i a l change p r o je c ts on a d e c e n tr a liz e d b a s is . D uring t h i s tim e

i s s u e s have su rfa c e d w ith in la b o r and management as w e ll a s betw een

them . The com m unicational p ro c e ss c a l le d QWL h as become b e t t e r under­

sto o d a s a q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t way o f co n d u ctin g w o rk face r e l a t i o n s ,

i n which c o lla b o r a tio n i s p rim a ry . T h is development h as n o t been smooth

and evenly p aced . R a th e r, i t h as b een uneven and ja g g ed , w ith l u l l s and

unexpected b u r s ts .

The Columbus program h a s begun s i g n i f i c a n t o u tre a c h a c t i v i t i e s .

They se e k out o p p o r tu n itie s to p re s e n t th e s to r y of t h e i r program , and

to s h a re th e hope they have w ith o th e rs a t s p e c ia l c o n fe re n c e s and i n

o th e r j u r i s d i c t i o n s .

O utcomes

A number of s p e c if i c change p r o je c ts have been i n i t i a t e d th ro u g h the

Columbus QWL Program . These would n o t have been u n d erta k en w ith o u t th e

program :

- F le x -tim e

- New T a rd in e s s P o lic y

* The f a c i l i t a t i o n of a d m in is tr a tiv e p ro cess i s unglam orous, but

co m p letely n e c e ss a ry to k eep i n i t i a t i v e s from f a l l i n g betw een th e
c ra c k s common in p u b lic s e c to r o r g a n iz a tio n . T h is m aintenance o f
a d m in is tr a tiv e p ro c e s s e s t h a t k eep s th in g s moving i s c a l le d a
" s u s t a in e r r o le " f o r t h i r d p a r t i e s (MBSC, 1980).
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- Improved S a fe ty Program s

- C l a r i f i c a t i o n of C iv i l S e rv ic e P ro ced u res

- Developm ent of a g e n e r a l p ro c e s s f o r each c i t y o p e r a tio n to d esig n

i t s own s p e c i f i c perform ance a p p r a i s a l system

- O vertim e E q u a liz a tio n

- O r ie n ta tio n Program Development

- New Employee N e w s le tte rs a t S p e c if ic F a c i l i t i e s

- Change of D uty A ssignm ents

- Emergency V a c a tio n P o lic y Changes

- F a c i l i t i e s R ed esig n

Most of th e s e changes a r e ex p erim en ts made by working le v e l com m ittees

on t h e i r own i n i t i a t i v e . Each change i s s c r u ti n iz e d to be s u re th a t th e

p ro c e s s of change i t s e l f r e f l e c t s th e QWL o r i e n t a t i o n .

Columbus i n i t i a l l y r e f u s e d to p ic k one of th e s e changes f o r s c ru tin y

by P r o je c t Network r e s e a r c h . They r e s i s t e d a n aly zin g any QWL program

change p rim a rily in term s of i s o l a t e d outcome m easu res. They i n s i s t e d

t h a t a l l program a c t i v i t i e s m ust be viewed i n term s of th e more g e n e ra l

program them e, and c o n tr ib u tio n to i t .

Beyond s p e c i f i c change p r o je c ts th e C olubus program h a s had b ro ad er

im pact on th e o v e r a l l to n e o f labor-m anagem ent r e l a t i o n s . T h is was

d e s ire d from th e s t a r t of th e program . I n d ic a tio n s of t h i s a r e

m u l tip l e , in c lu d in g :

- A s h i f t in ty p i c a l com m ittee m eetin g s where th e r e i s l e s s

p re v a le n c e of te n s io n and c o n f l i c t based upon ongoing s u s p ic io n .
L ate in th e program one o u ts id e o b se rv e r commented th a t com m ittee
m eetin g s appeared u n e x c itin g . T h is i s v ery d i f f e r e n t from e a r ly
e x p lo siv e o r an x io u s com m ittee m eetin g s.
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- Fewer and more s u b s t a n t i a l g rie v a n c e s now a r e f i l e d . In some work

s i t e s w ith t r a d i t i o n a l l y h ig h g rie v a n c e r a t e s t h i s h as dropped to
as l i t t l e as one p e r month o r l e s s . Those is s u e s p u t b e fo re th e
g rie v a n c e p ro ced u re a r e now more s u b s t a n t i a l th a n many e a r l i e r
" n itp ic k " i s s u e s .

- E n t h u s i a s tic s u p p o rt f o r program e x p a n sio n . Development o f th e

QWL program in t o o th e r c i t y o p e r a tio n s i s v ig o ro u s ly approved.
T his a f f ir m a tio n comes from some who w ere th e p ro g ram 's b ig g e s t
i n i t i a l d e tra c to rs .

- C ap acity to m a in ta in h e a lth y c o m p e titiv e r e l a t i o n s . The Columbus

program h as n o t t o t a l l y e lim in a te d a d v e r s a r i a l la b o r r e l a t i o n s .
But i t h as p u t them in a l a r g e r c o o p e ra tiv e c o n te x t t h a t makes
s p e c if i c c o n f r o n ta tio n s l e s s b i t t e r . In 1979 th e r e was a b r i e f
s t r i k e o v er a new c o n t r a c t. Both s id e s reg ard ed t h i s a s
u n f o r tu n a te , b u t found i t to be a r e l a t i v e l y good and u s e f u l
s t r i k e . The QWL program was n o t in t e r r u p te d b e fo re o r a f t e r th e
work sto p p a g e .

These a r e g e n e r a l e f f e c t s , beyond s p e c i f i c change p r o j e c t s t h a t th e

Columbus p rogram h a s p ro d u c e d .

Summary

The Columbus QWL Program i s a h ig h ly in n o v a tiv e c o o p e ra tiv e la b o r -

management com m ittee program . I t was founded in a c o n te x t o f s tr e s s e d

la b o r r e l a t i o n s by le a d e r s in s p ir e d by a n earb y com m unity's program .

The program u s e s a netw ork o f labor-m anagem ent com m ittees to p u rsu e

w o rk life in n o v a tio n . R e s p o n s ib ility f o r i n i t i a t i n g and p u rsu in g change

i s r a d i c a l l y d e c e n tr a liz e d . S p e c ia l workshops a r e used to f o s t e r and

c o o rd in a te program a c t i v i t i e s . The program has re c e iv e d e x te n s iv e

f a c i l i t a t i o n s in c e i t s in c e p tio n . Many s p e c i f i c and g e n e ra l outcomes

can be tr a c e d to th e p ro g ram 's e f f o r t s , and i t s im pact i s w id en in g .

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JAMESTOWN, NEW YORK PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM

Cont e x t

The 1 9 6 0 's saw th e em ergence of in c r e a s in g ly m i l i t a n t te a c h e r s '

unions th ro u g h o u t th e n a t io n . R is in g a s p i r a t i o n s of Jamestown te a c h e r s

r e f le c te d t h i s l a r g e r tr e n d . In 1967 New York g ra n te d te a c h e rs th e

r i g h t to c o l l e c t i v e l y b a rg a in . P r io r to t h i s , Jamestown te a c h e r s had

f e l t d isa d v a n ta g e d when n e g o tia tin g w ith th e sch o o l b o ard , and

f r u s t r a t i o n had s t e a d i l y grown.

In 1967 th e Jamestown T e a c h e rs ' A s s o c ia tio n , draw ing on e x p e rt

n a tio n a l a d v ic e , e n te r e d t h e i r f i r s t round of c o l l e c t i v e b a rg a in in g w ell

p re p a re d . The S chool Board was cau g h t o f f g u a rd , and th e te a c h e rs

o b ta in e d s u b s t a n t i a l in c r e a s e s . I n 1969 th e te a c h e r s e n te re d b a rg a in in g

c o n fid e n t and p re p a re d . The Board was b e t t e r p re p a re d , h a rd l i n e s were

drawn, and n e g o tia tio n s c o lla p s e d . A s t r i k e seemed i n e v i t a b l e . At th e

l a s t m inute th e Board r e le n te d and a g a in th e te a c h e rs scored rem arkable

g a in s .

The 1972 n e g o tia tio n s s t a r t e d w ith a c o n fid e n t T e a c h e rs'

A s s o c ia tio n , and a Board d eterm ined n o t to be o u tn erv ed o r p u b lic ly

h u m ilia te d a g a in . T h is r e s u lt e d i n a b i t t e r d is p u te le a d in g to an

elev en -d ay s t r i k e . The u n io n , th e sch o o l sy stem , and th e community were

d eep ly d iv id e d . The s t r i k e ended in a s e ttle m e n t t h a t made th e whole

th in g seem too ex p en siv e in term s of p e rs o n a l and community c o s t s .

T h is e x p e rie n c e led to a stro n g c o n v ic tio n t h a t b e t t e r ways m ust be

found to p u rsu e la b o r r e l a t i o n s . In 1975, 1977, and 1979 th e te a c h e r s

and th e Board r e p r e s e n t a tiv e s q u ie tly worked out an agreem ent w ith o u t

 254

law yers o r t h i r d p a rty a s s i s t a n t s . In each case an a c c e p ta b le agreem ent

was re a c h e d .

S t i l l , th e memory of th e 1972 s t r i k e p o w erfu lly in f lu e n c e d te a c h e r s

and a d m in is tr a tio n . T h ere rem ained a c o n v ic tio n to fo rg e s t i l l b e t t e r

ways to conduct la b o r r e l a t i o n s , to improve them in a p o s itiv e d ir e c tio n

r a t h e r th a n sim ply av o id in g n e g a tiv e o u tb re a k s. T h is d e s i r e was a

c e n t r a l m o tiv a tio n in th e developm ent of th e sch o o l s y s te m 's la b o r -

management com m ittee.

C o o p erativ e labor-m anagem ent com m ittees a r e n o t som ething new in

Jam estow n. S in c e 1972 th e town h as had an area-w id e p r iv a t e s e c to r

labor-m anagem ent com m ittee (JALMC). T h is was e s ta b lis h e d to h e lp mend

one of th e w o rs t la b o r r e l a t i o n s re c o rd s i n th e c o u n try , one th a t was

sap p in g th e to w n 's e f f e c tiv e n e s s i n a t t r a c t i n g and co n d u ctin g b u s in e s s .

The com m ittee had a d ram a tic e f f e c t on th e to w n 's economic s t a t e . The

JALMC's e x is te n c e in d i c a te s t h a t labor-m anagem ent c o o p e ra tio n can be

more th a n an empty s lo g a n . Im p o rtin g th e labor-m anagem ent com m ittee

co n ce p t was th e r e f o r e a n a t u r a l o p p o rtu n ity fo r a sch o o l system i n th e

sane community lo o k in g to b u ild q u a l i t a t i v e l y b e t t e r la b o r r e l a t i o n s .

The m aintenance o f good la b o r r e l a t i o n s was being made in c r e a s in g ly

d i f f i c u l t in th e Jamestown sch o o l system by d e c lin in g e n ro llm e n ts . T h is

r e f l e c t s a n a t i o n a l tr e n d . In th e 1978-79 sch o o l y ear th e s tu d e n t popu­

l a t i o n dropped by 400 s tu d e n ts . F u r th e r d e c lin e s a r e p r o je c te d . One

elem en tary sch o o l i s i n danger of c l o s i n g . A t t r i t i o n could no lo n g e r

cope w ith th e problem , and th e management of re tre n c h m e n t i s su re to

make la b o r r e l a t i o n s more d i f f i c u l t . The changing environm ent th r e a te n s

to make p re v io u s arran g em en ts from a f t e r th e 1972 s t r i k e i n s u f f i c i e n t .

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T here was a sen se t h a t o th e r m easures to improve labor-m anagem ent

r e l a t i o n s would soon be r e q u ir e d .

Hi s t o ry Of The Com m ittee Program

The P e rso n n e l D ir e c to r of th e S c h o o l's C e n tra l A d m in is tra tio n was a

key b ro k e r of th e labor-m anagem ent com m ittee co n cep t in th e sch o o l

system . She m a in tain ed c o n tin u in g c o n ta c t w ith th e c o o r d in a to r s

s t a f f i n g th e JALMC and had g ained u n io n r e s p e c t. T h e re fo re she was

f a m i li a r w ith th e com m ittee c o n c e p t, and had th e t r u s t of union le a d e rs

n e c e ss a ry to propose i t .

The JALMC Board of D ir e c to r s was i n i t i a l l y opposed to allo w in g t h e i r

c o o rd in a to r s to become in v o lv ed i n th e p u b lic s e c to r . They f e l t th a t

f i n a n c i a l s u p p o rt of l o c a l b u s in e s s sh o u ld n o t be given away to ta x -

su p p o rted o r g a n iz a tio n s . When P r o je c t Network funds w ere made a v a ila b le

th e Board changed p o s i t i o n s . The P e rso n n e l D ir e c to r q u ic k ly s e t up an

e x p lo ra to ry m eeting betw een n o n -te a c h in g u n io n s and c o o r d in a to r s . The

n o n -te a c h in g unions arg u e d t h a t a l l employee groups sh o u ld be

re p re s e n te d and th e com m ittee was en v isio n e d to in v o lv e a s l i c e of th e

e n t i r e Jamestown School System .

The Jamestown com m ittee began w ith a theme o f: "employees seeing

th em selv es as p a r ts of a whole sch o o l system , w ith everyone a p p r e c ia tin g

each o t h e r 's r o l e . ” T h is made th e g e n e ra l aim of th e program complemen­

t a r i t y a c ro s s r o l e s , som ething th a t i s c o n tin u a lly a c h allen g e in sys­

tems in v o lv in g p r o f e s s io n a ls of d i f f e r e n t s o r t s and n o n - p r o f e s s io n a ls .

The p re c is e n a tu re of t h i s theme was n o t a r t i c u l a t e d in g r e a te r d e t a i l ,

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a lth o u g h most people f e l t i t r e p r e s e n te d a d e s ir a b le d ir e c tio n fo r

d ram a tic improvement.

'Jhe Jamestown School System labor-m anagem ent com m ittee has a complex

s t r u c t u r e in v o lv in g a c e n t r a l com m ittee and tem porary com m ittees and

team s. The h e a r t of th e program i s a la rg e com m ittee w ith 28 members.

Management i s re p re s e n te d by th e S u p e rin te n d e n t of S chools and th e

D ir e c to r of P e rs o n n e l. The School Board i s n o t fo rm a lly r e p r e s e n te d b u t

some members o c c a s io n a lly a tte n d com m ittee m e e tin g s . Labor i s

re p re s e n te d by l o c a l o f f ic e r s o r members of th e sy ste m 's employee

o r g a n iz a tio n s :

New York E d u catio n A s s o c ia tio n (NYEA)

C iv il S e rv ic e Em ployees' A s s o c ia tio n (CSEA)

I n te r n a tio n a l B ro th erh o o d o f E l e c t r i c a l W orkers, Local 1124 (IBEW)

AFSCME, D i s t r i c t C ouncil 36, L ocal 1336

Jamestown P r i n c i p a l s ' A s s o c ia tio n

Jamestown S u p e rv is o rs ' A s s o c ia tio n

Jamestown T e a c h e rs ' A id e s ' A s s o c ia tio n

I n a d d itio n to co vering a l l th e s e r e le v a n t g ro u p s, r e p r e s e n t a tio n i s

d i s t r i b u t e d from a c ro s s a l l sc h o o l system f a c i l i t i e s : 8 elem en tary

s c h o o ls , 3 ju n io r h ig h s c h o o ls , 1 s e n io r high sc h o o l, 1 w arehouse, and 1

c e n t r a l a d m in is tr a tio n b u ild in g . T his com m ittee m eets m onthly d u rin g

th e sch o o l y e a r , re a c h in g d e c is io n through co n sen su s. From i t s

in c e p tio n th ro u g h 1979 th e JALMC c o o r d in a to r p ro v id e d p ro cess

f a c i l i t a t i o n and o c c a s io n a l te c h n ic a l a s s i s t a n c e ( e . g . , su rv ey d e s ig n ) .

The com m ittee f i r s t co n d u cted a su rv ey to id e n tif y p o s s ib le

im provem ents i n th e sch o o l system p e r ta in in g to jo b s a t i s f a c t i o n . T h is

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was con d u cted as a su rv ey feed b ack p ro cess r e s u l t i n g in l o c a l a c tio n a t

s p e c ific f a c i l i t i e s . A f te r th e survey was ta k en 9 of 14 s c h o o l system

f a c i l i t i e s met to diag n o se t h e i r su rv ey r e s u l t s . T h is le d to

fo rm u la tio n of s p e c if i c changes a t th e i n i t i a t i v e of people a t each

fa c ility . T h is c r e a te d a s e t of ad hoc p ro b le m -so lv in g f a c i l i t y

commmittees w ith open m em bership.

The second m ajor a c t i v i t y was an employee s k i l l and i n t e r e s t

program . Based upon survey feed b ack , th e com m ittee developed a program

of w orkshops in C h ild Abuse, M e tr ic s , In v e s tm e n ts , F i r s t Aid and

H andicapped C h ild re n . C ourses w ere open to a l l em ployees, and w ere

conducted by l o c a l p eo p le. 10% of a l l employees p a r t i c i p a t e d i n th e

f i r s t round of c o u r s e s .

In a d d itio n to th e s e two m ajor p r o je c ts th e com m ittee h eard

p r e s e n ta tio n s on sc h o o l system b u d g ets, d e c lin in g e n ro llm e n ts, in s u r a n c e

p la n s , and en erg y management. Comm ittee members a l s o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a

workshop f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e i r JALMC t h i r d p a r ty . T h is fo cu sed upon

in t e r - g r o u p com m unication and m u tu al u n d e rsta n d in g of r o le s w ith in th e

sc h o o l sy stem , r e f l e c t i n g th e o v e r a l l theme of th e com m ittee program .

The com m ittee c o n tin u e d to grow and m a tu re. I t c o n tin u e d to

in c r e a s in g ly em phasize inform ed a c t io n , in s te a d of sim ply in fo rm a tio n .

A lso , i n December 1978, th e com m ittee h e ld i t s f i r s t in - d e p th s e s s io n on

p r o f e s s io n a l- n o n p r o f e s s io n a l te n s io n s i n th e sch o o l system .

To enchance i t s c a p a b i l i t y to a c t , th e Jamestown com m ittee s p l i t

in t o subcom m ittees to d eal w ith fo u r m ajo r a r e a s i n w hich g o a ls and

a c t io n p la n s were a r t i c u l a t e d : E d u c a tio n , C ost R ed u ctio n and

Involvem en t, Work Improvement and I n te r - U n it R e la tio n s , and System

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Communication and R e la tio n s h ip s . The f i n a l a r e a , r e f l e c t i n g th e o v e r a ll

theme of th e program i s p re s e rv e d a s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e whole

com m ittee. Subcom m ittees a re f a i r l y autonomous, m a in ta in in g l a t e r a l

com m unication a t m onthly m eetin g s to keep people inform ed of w h a t's

hap p en in g .

A f te r t h i s d eco m p o sitio n th e r e developed a c t i v i t y i n a l l a r e a s . A

seco n d , expanded round of i n t e r e s t and s k i l l c o u rse s was h e ld w ith

in c re a s e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n . A v a r ie ty o f c o s t re d u c tio n in v e s t ig a t io n s and

p ro p o s a ls were o f f e r e d . A n o v el job exchange program was i n i t i a t e d

a c r o s s p r o f e s s io n a l l i n e s by 50-60% of a l l em ployees in two ex p erim en tal

s c h o o ls . The program w i l l be expanded i n 1980. Committee a c t i v i t i e s

review ed a t s t a f f m e etin g s in a l l f a c i l i t i e s to b eg in expanding th e

c i r c l e of people d i r e c t l y lin k e d to th e p ro c e s s . The e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e

to d a te i s summarized on th e fo llo w in g page in f ig u r e A -4. A n e w s le tte r

fo r improved r e l a t i o n s w ith th e p u b lic has been s t a r t e d .

O u tp u ts

The Jamestown S chool System Committee h a s produced a v a r i e t y of

s p e c i f i c o u tp u ts . These have a r i s e n from b o th th e ongoing com m ittee/

subcom m ittee u n i t , and from open p lan n in g m eetin g s a t d i f f e r e n t

fa c ilitie s :

- M yriad changes to enhance job s a t i s f a c t i o n .

- C o n tin u in g employee s k i l l and i n t e r e s t program.

- I n i t i a t i v e to red u ce d i s p a r i t y between d if f e r e n t p en sio n p la n s fo r

d i f f e r e n t b a rg a in in g u n i t s .

- Job r e t e n t i o n and u p g rad in g of sch o o l n u rs e s .

- In fo rm a tio n g a th e rin g on r e le v a n t is s u e s .
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Figure A-4

Jamestown School System

Labor-Management Committee S tr u c tu r e

I n d iv id u a l
F a c ility
Survey Feedback
&

P lan n in g
Groups
(open m eetin g s & membership)

Ongoing Committee
On
System Communications

- 28 members -
from 8 f a c tio n s
a c ro s s 14 f a c i l i t i e s

S ubcom m ittees;

- E d u catio n
- C ost R ed u ctio n
And Involvem ent
- Work Improvement
And I n t e r u n i t
R e la tio n s

O utreach
To
S ta f f M eetings
To
In v o lv e More P eople
 260

- Cost re d u c tio n i n i t i a t i v e s .

- Jo b exchange program on a re p e a tin g b a s is .

- N e w sle tte r to p u b lic .

Few, i f any o f th e se i n i t i a t i v e s would have been ta k en w ith o u t th e

com m ittee program .

In a d d itio n to s p e c if i c p r o j e c t s , th e Jamestown School System la b o r-

management com m ittee has produced w ider e f f e c t s . I t s theme of

a p p r e c ia tin g o th e r r o l e s in a whole system h a s g iv e n a p o s iti v e g o al to

la b o r r e l a t i o n s im provem ent. T his i s more th a n th e avoidance of

d i f f i c u l t y betw een la b o r and management. I t i s a c h a lle n g e t h a t i s a

c o n tin u in g is s u e fo r a system employing d i f f e r e n t ty p es of p r o f e s s io n a ls

and n o n p ro fe s s io n a ls . The com m ittee to d a te h as engendered rem arkable

improvement in openness and u n d e rsta n d in g co n c e rn in g such in te r - g r o u p

is s u e s . These have a p p re c ia b ly upgraded la b o r r e l a t i o n s in th e eyes of

em ployees.
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CITY OF TROY, MICHIGAN

C ontext

Troy l i e s o u ts id e D e tr o it . I t was in c o rp o ra te d a s a home r u le c ity

i n 1955. T ro y ’s p o p u la tio n h as doubled ap p ro x im ately every te n y e a r s .

I t i s now around 80,0 0 0 p e o p le . Growth sh o u ld ta p e r o f f i n t h i s decade

to a p o p u la tio n p ro je c te d around 130,000 by 1990. S o u th e a s te rn M ichigan

h a s a t r a d i t i o n of la b o r o r g a n iz a tio n a s s o c ia te d w ith heavy in d u s tr y i n

th e D e tr o it a r e a . The S t a t e 's p u b lic employee law r e f l e c t s t h i s

tra d itio n . Except f o r p r o h ib itin g a l l p u b lic em ployees from s t r i k i n g ,

th e l e g i s l a t i o n c l o s e l y resem b les th e N a tio n a l Labor R e la tio n s A c t. It

p r o t e c t s th e r i g h t to o rg a n iz e and b a rg a in , and allo w s f o r agency shop

to be e s ta b l is h e d th ro u g h c o n t r a c t .

The C ity o f Troy employs about 400 p e o p le , 100 of whom a r e

r e p re s e n te d by AFSCME L ocal 574. These p eo p le work in th e D epartm ent o f

P u b lic Works, The D epartm ent of P arks and R e c re a tio n , and th e B u ild in g

M aintenance D epartm ent. T h is work fo rc e i s young and s k i l l e d , r a t e d a s

one of th e b e s t m u n ic ip a l s e r v ic e s in th e a r e a .

H i s t ory Of The Committee Program

D uring 1975 n e g o t ia ti o n s , th e C i t y 's P e rso n n e l D ir e c to r proposed

t h a t th e c o n tr a c t in c lu d e a j o i n t labor-m anagem ent com m ittee to in c re a s e

p r o d u c tiv ity . The u n io n was i n i t i a l l y s k e p ti c a l. S ubsequent d is c u s s io n

le d to expanding th e c o m m ittee's scope to a ls o in c lu d e jo b en rich m en t.

D e c lin in g to provide fo r th e com m ittee in th e c o n t r a c t, th e Union agreed

to sig n a s e p a r a te l e t t e r of i n t e n t allo w in g th e com m ittee to proceed on

a t r i a l b a s is .
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The com m ittee was c a lle d JEEP (Jo b E nrichm ent and Employee

P r o d u c ti v ity ) . S in ce AFSCNE lo c a l 574 p r im a r ily r e p r e s e n ts em ployees in

the D epartm ents of P u b lic Works and P ark s and R e c re a tio n , th e D ir e c to r s

of th e se two d e p artm en ts, p lu s the P e rs o n n e l D ir e c to r w ere named manage­

ment com m ittee members. T hree union r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s were a ls o named.

The i n i t i a l m eeting was h e ld on n e u t r a l grounds a t a lo c a l h o t e l . A

l o c a l Commissioner of th e F e d e ra l M ed ia tio n and C o n c ilia tio n S e rv ic e

a tte n d e d a s a t h i r d p a r ty f a c i l i t a t o r . R u les and p ro c e d u re s were s e t a t

t h i s m e e tin g , a llo w in g fo r s e p a r a tio n of JEEP from b a rg a in in g and

g rie v a n c e i s s u e s .

Because th e homebase o r g a n iz a tio n was so sm all one com mittee d id n o t

get lo s t. C o n s u lta tio n and a d v ic e c o u ld be sought in f o r m a lly , because

t h e r e was n o t a g re a t d is ta n c e between to p and bottom in th e

o r g a n iz a tio n . T h is le d the Troy com m ittee to be surrounded by a netw ork

s tr u c t u r e t h a t deeply tap p ed th e sm all o r g a n iz a tio n a s d e p ic te d in

F ig u re A-5 on th e follo w in g p a g e .

E a rly com m ittee a c t i v i t i e s in c lu d e d a su rv e y of employee m orale and

p re lim in a ry t a l k s about t r a i n i n g . The com m ittee a lso m onitored a

P erso n n el D epartm ent jo b p r o d u c tiv ity s tu d y , to be s u re i t d id n o t

become sim ply a "tim e and m otion" e x e r c is e to e lim in a te p eo p le.

In th e l a t e summer of 1977, JEEP was approached to jo in P r o je c t

Network. A d r a f t of o n e p o s s ib le ag reem en t to o f f i c i a l l y f i l e w ith the

NCPQWL was r e j e c t e d by th e u n io n as b ein g e x c e s s iv e ly "pro-m anagem ent".

S ubsequent d is c u s s io n s re v e a le d th e r e was a deep er is s u e b eing voiced

h e re . The union f e l t Jeep was m o stly b e n e f i t t i n g management, not union

members. The u n io n c o n s id e re d w ith d ra w in g .

 Figure A-5

Troy Labor-Management Committee S tr u c tu r e

Employees (100 Workers & M anagers)

in fo rm a l lin k a g e s

JEEP
I S ix Members |
I
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D isc u ssio n s of w hat m ight be done d i f f e r e n t l y d r i f t e d back to

tra in in g . T h ere was a s tro n g employee d e s ir e to re c e iv e f i r s t a id

t r a i n i n g , e s p e c i a ll y c ard io -p u lm o n a ry r e s u s c i t a t i o n (CPR). To

d em o n strate re s p o n s iv e n e s s a CPR program was s t a r t e d w ith in a month, and

a more g e n e ra l program was on th e way to developm ent. T his provided a

b ase from which an e x te n s iv e tr a in in g program was to grow.

T his n ear c o lla p s e of th e Troy com m ittee was a r e a l w a te rsh e d . It

moved la b o r and management to take the com m ittee s e r io u s ly . S in ce th e

f i r s t com m ittee m eetin g in a h o t e l , th e g e n e ra l theme of JEEP was

"im proved com m unication." T h is was a t f i r s t j u s t a slo g a n , in tro d u c e d

by th e FMCS Com m issioner. I t i n i t i a l l y meant l i t t l e . But a f t e r th e

n e a r c o lla p s e i t became a g e n u in e co n cern , and became an e x t r a dim ension

o f meaning t h a t developed th ro u g h com m ittee a c t i v i t y , and t h a t r e q u ir e d

c o n tin u in g e l u c id a t io n through ta k in g a c t io n .

Troy jo in e d P r o je c t Network a f t e r t h i s ep iso d e i n 1978, when netw ork

had a lre a d y b e e n going f o r one y e a r . When jo in in g th e P r o je c t T roy,

li k e Columbus, r e f u s e d to have netw ork r e s e a r c h e r s a n a ly z e one i s o l a t e d

change p r o je c t. I t was f e l t t h i s would o v erlo o k th e g e n e ra l theme of

improved com m unications, and damage JEEP em phasis upon i t .

A f te r t h i s c r i t i c a l e v e n t, th e JEEP com m ittee developed r e s o lv e ,

en co u rag in g o th e r m u n i c ip a litie s t h a t m ight choose to begin t h e i r own

labor-m anagem ent com m ittee program . They th e r e f o r e began to e x te r n a liz e

t h e i r com m ittee. I n May 1979 members of th e com m ittee made a

c e n te r p ie c e p r e s e n ta tio n a t a p u b lic s e c to r q u a l ity o f w o rk life workshop

i n D e tr o it ( t h i s was a ls o a tte n d e d by r e p r e s e n t a tiv e s from th e Columbus

program ). The p r e s e n ta tio n s tr e s s e d labor-m anagem ent c o o p e ra tio n as a

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way o f making c o n c re te im provem ents th a t c a r r ie d fo rw ard more g e n e ra l

developm ent of improved com m unications.

E a r l i e r in F e b ru a ry , 1979 th e com m ittee planned f o r th e coming

y e a r 's a c t i v i t i e s . They rev iew ed p re v io u s m inutes and a s s e s s e d t h e i r

accom plishm ents r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y , i n term s of s p e c if ic outcomes and t h e i r

more g e n e ra l theme of improved com m unication. In a d d itio n to c o n tin u in g

em phasis upon t r a i n i n g , members d ecid ed to e x p lo re tr a i n in g program s in

o th e r c i t i e s an d , a s in d ic a te d above, to encourage labor-m anagem ent

com m ittees else w h e re .

O u tp u ts

The Troy JEEP Committee produced a number of s p e c i f i c outcomes s in c e

i t s in c e p tio n in 1975, in c lu d in g :

- S h if t to a fo u r day work week

- M yriad t r a i n i n g p ro g ram s

- Work a n a ly s is y ie ld in g 69 recom m endations im plem ented to improve

p r o d u c tiv ity

- E x t e r n a l i z a t i o n of th e lab o r-m an ag em en t co m m ittee c o n c e p t to o t h e r

a re a s.

In a d d itio n to th e se s p e c if ic accom plishm ents, th e JEEP com m ittee

c o n tin u e d to develop more p e rv a s iv e and g e n e ra l change i n w orkplace

r e l a t i o n s , i n acco rd w ith t h e i r theme of im proving com m unications.

T h is , agreed com m ittee members, had r e s u l t e d i n more p le a s in g and

e f f e c t i v e r e l a t i o n s betw een and w ith in la b o r and management.

 Index 266

A c tio n
13, 14, 16, 19, 2 2 , 28, 3 1 , 53, 56, 6 0 , 71, 7 2 , 73, 75, 76, 8 0 , 81,
107, 127, 128, 129, 131, 132, 134, 135, 167, 201

A c tio n R e s e a rc h A ssesm ent

55, 57

A d a p tiv e P la n n in g
137, 138, 148, 149, 150, 151, 162, 163, 168, 180
A nalog C oding
17
A r t i c u l a t e d In c re m e n ta lis m
163, 164, 190

C o l l a b o r a ti o n
20, 3 4 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 5 5 , 102

C o o p e ra tio n
2, 3 , 5, 8 ,1 8 , 19, 2 0 , 2 5 , 27, 29, 30, 31, 33, 3 4 , 35, 37, 3 8 , 39, 43
4 4 , 102

C r a ig m il l e r F e s t i v a l S o c ie ty
119

C y b e rn e tic System s P la n n in g
161, 191

D e u te ro -L e a rn in g
14, 15, 2 7 , 29, 3 0 , 35, 170, 171, 199

D i g i t a l C oding
16, 1 7 , 1 8 , 19, 27

D ire c tiv e C o rre la tio n

148, 149

D i s j o i n t e d I n c re m e n ta lis m
137, 138, 139, 14 0 , 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 165, 174, 175, 177

D is p la y B e h a v io r
87, 8 8 , 9 0 , 119
 267

D iv e rg e n t F a c tio n s
1, 5 , 7 , 8 , 1 0 , 11, 2 8 , 29, 3 0 , 31, 3 3 , 34, 35, 3 6 , 41, 4 2 , 43, 58, 105
166, 172, 182, 183, 1 8 7 , 199

F i t t i n g B e h a v io rs
8 2 , 85, 88, 8 9 , 90, 201

G r e a te r P h i la d e lp h i a P a r t n e r s h i p
117

Id e a liz a tio n
159, 160, 161, 175, 1 8 1 , 191

I n c r e m e n ta l N o n -P la n n in g
177, 178, 186, 187, 1 8 8 , 189, 190, 19 1 , 197

I n t e r - C o r p o r a t e P la n n in g
173, 190, 191

I n t e r e s t - B a s e d P la n n in g
174, 177, 190, 191

Jam estow n A rea Labor-M anagem ent Com m ittee

116

L o g ic a l In c re m e n ta lis m
1-65, 191

M a ste r P la n n in g
1 3 8 , 148, 176, 177, 1 7 8 , 180, 186, 18 8 , 189, 190, 194, 202

N o n -S y n o p tic
114, 144, 148, 150, 1 5 8 , 160, 161, 16 2 , 165, 172, 173, 1 7 4 , 175, 176
181, 183, 188, 193, 1 9 4 , 195, 197, 19 8 , 202, 203, 204

N o n -S y n o p tic S ystem s Change

178, 187, 188, 189, 1 9 0 , 195, 197, 20 3 , 207

N orm ativ e I n c re m e n ta lis m

5 8 , 59, 6 0 , 6 2 , 63, 6 6 , 67, 7 1 , 72, 7 3 , 75, 80, 9 1 , 92, 9 3 , 94, 136,
138, 139, 144, 145, 1 4 6 , 147, 148, 14 9 , 150, 151, 156, 1 5 7 , 158, 160,
161, 162, 163, 164, 1 6 5 , 171, 172, 1 7 3 , 174, 175, 176, 1 9 0 , 191, 193,
195, 196, 197, 198, 2 0 0 , 201, 202, 2 0 4 , 205, 207
 268

N orm ative P la n n in g
151, 154, 1 5 6 , 157, 158, 161, 175, 181, 190, 191, 1 9 2 , 198

N orm ative S ystem s R e d e sig n

177, 179, 18 7 , 189, 190, 191, 203

N orw egian I n d u s t r i a l Democracy P r o j e c t

122, 123

O r g a n iz a tio n a l L e a rn in g
170, 171, 1 7 5 , 190, 191

O u ts id e W itn e ss
56, 83

P a i t e n t C are Teams
121

P rim a ry M e d ia tin g S o c ia l R e la tio n

20, 2 2 , 23, 2 4 , 25, 2 7 , 2 9 , 30, 3 3 , 35, 41, 43

P r o a c tiv e N o rm ativ e M o b iliz a tio n

102

P r o j e c t N etw ork
36, 4 4 , 45, 4 8 , 51, 52, 5 5 , 58, 100, 111

P u rp o s e fu l S ystem s Model
149, 150

R a tio n a l I n c r e m e n ta lis m
190, 191

R e a c tiv e Em ergency M o b iliz a tio n

102

R efram ing
15, 1 6 , 27, 9 5 , 96

R i t u a l C om m unication
89, 90
 269

R i t u a l E v e n ts
8 5 , 86

S e a rc h C o n fe re n c e
162, 190, 191

S e l f - R e c o n te x t u a t i n g C o n tro l
98

S ensem aking
109

So c i a l P arad o x
7 , 1 0 , 18 2 , 183, 184, 186, 187, 189, 190, 191, 1 9 3 , 1 9 4 , 195, 197

Sudbury 2001
118

S y n o p tic
114

T hem atic F i t t i n g
8 5 , 9 0 , 111, 167, 168

Theme S e t I n t e r v e n t i o n
166, 190, 191

T heory o f L o g ic a l Types
1 , 11

T r a n s a c tiv e P la n n in g
171, 191

T u rb u le n c e
3, 7

V is io n
6 3 , 6 6 , 6 7 , 134, 167, 200
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