Appendices

1 APPENDIX A – ESTIMATION OF BASIC EQUIPMENT COST

1.1 PURCHASED COST OF EQUIPMENT
Figures A1–A9 are based on the report of the US Department of Energy (Loh et al., 2002) calculated
using the professional Aspen Icarus Process Evaluator software. The original prices in USD valid for
January 1998 have been updated to the end 2012, by means of the CEPCI index, which is 1.4884. Stan-
dard material is carbon steel A285. Correction factors for other materials are indicated on the captions
of figures. Table A1 gives the material factors for the cost of heat exchangers in Figure A6. The ac-
curacy is ‘order of magnitude’ suitable for preliminary estimations (Table A1).

1.2 COST EQUATIONS

The cost of various equipment items can be estimated with the relations of type Ce ¼ a + bSn. Ce is
the purchased equipment cost, S is the size characteristics expressed in specific units, n is the exponent
for a certain type of equipment, while a and b are cost constants. Table A2 presents cost equations for
the most encountered items (Towler and Sinnott, 2013, reproduced with permission from Elsevier).
The costs are USD Golf Coast basis January 2010 with CEPCI Index 532.9.

1,000,000
Purchased cost, $

y = 103.92x0.7096
100,000

10,000

1000
100 1000 10,000 100,000
Weight, kg
FIGURE A1
Vertical and horizontal pressure vessels. Material factors: Table 19.5.

831
832 Appendices

10,000,000

y = 8380.1x0.5378

Purchased cost, $
10,00,000
Floating roof
y = 1226.9x0.7154

100,000 Cone roof

10,000
100 1000 10,000
Volume, m3
FIGURE A2
Storage tanks. Material factors: coating 1.1–1.3, SS clad 1.5.

80,000 100,000
1–5 bar 1.05 m
90,000
5–15 bar
70,000 1.05 m
Purchased cost, $

Purchased cost, $

80,000
60,000
0.9 m 70,000
50,000 60,000 0.9 m
0.75 m
40,000 50,000 0.75 m
0.6 m 40,000
30,000 0.6 m
0.45 m 30,000 0.45 m
20,000
0.3 m 20,000
10,000 0.3 m
10,000
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Packed height, m Packed height, m

FIGURE A3
Packed columns purchased cost.

2,000,000 3,000,000
1–5 bar 5–15 bar 6m
6m
2,500,000
Purchased cost, $

Purchased cost, $

1,500,000
2,000,000
4.5 m
4.5 m
1,000,000 1,500,000

3m 1,000,000 3m
500,000
1.5 m 500,000 1.5 m

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of trays Number of trays

FIGURE A4
Sieve-tray columns purchased cost.
 Appendices 833

2,000,000 3,000,000
1–5 bar 6m 5–15 bar 6m
1,800,000
2,500,000
Purchased cost, $

Purchased cost, $
1,600,000
1,400,000 4.5 m 2,000,000
1,200,000 4.5 m
1,000,000 1,500,000
800,000 3m
1,000,000
600,000 3m
1.5 m
400,000
500,000
200,000 1.5 m

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of trays Number of trays

FIGURE A5
Valve columns purchased cost.

Horizontal
evaporator
1,000,000 Vertical
evaporator
Purchased cost, $

Shell and tube

100,000

Air cooler

Spiral plate

10,000
1 10 100 1000 10,000
Area, m2

FIGURE A6
Heat exchangers purchased cost.

Table A1 Material Factors for Shell-and-Tubes Heat Exchangers

Heat Exchanger Multiplication Factor

Carbon steel shell and tubes 1.00

Carbon steel shell, aluminium tubes 1.25
Carbon steel shell, monel tubes 2.08
Carbon steel shell, 304 stainless steel tubes 1.67
304 Stainless steel shell and tubes 2.86
 Reciprocating Centrifugal
100,000 triplex

Purchased cost, $
10,000
Reciprocating
duplex

Rotary and inline

1000
10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
Capacity, l/min

FIGURE A7
Pumps purchased cost.

100,000
Purchased cost, $

2 stages
10,000
1 stage

1000
100 1000 10,000
Capacity, l/min

FIGURE A8
Vacuum pumps purchased cost.

10,000,000 3 stages 3 stages

100,000,000
Reciprocating 1 stage Centrifugal
Purchased cost, $

Purchased cost, $

10,000,000

1,000,000
9 stages

1,000,000 7–9 stages

4 stages

100,000 100,000
1 10 100 1000 10,000 1 100 10,000
3
Capacity, m /min Capacity, m3/min

FIGURE A9
Compressors purchased cost.
Table A2 Purchased Equipment Cost for Some Plant Equipment Items
Equipment Unit for Size Size a b n

Agitators and mixers

Propellers kW 5–75 17,000 1130 1.06
Spiral ribbon kW 5–35 30,800 125 2.0
Static l/s 1.0 570 1170 0.4
Boilers
Packaged, 15–40 bar tonne/h steam 5–200 124,000 10 1
Field erected, 10–70 bar tonne/h steam 20–800 130,000 53 0.9
Centrifuges
High-speed discs Diameter 0.26–0.49 57,000 480,000 0.7
Suspended basket Power (kW) 2.0–20 65,000 750 1.5
Compressors
Blower m3/h 200–5000 4450 57 0.8
Centrifugal Power (kW) 75–3000 580,000 20,000 0.6
Reciprocating Power (kW) 93–16,800 260,000 2700 0.75
Conveyors
Belt, 0.5 m wide Length (m) 10–500 41,000 730 1.0
Belt, 1 m wide Length (m) 10–500 46,000 1320 1.0
Bucket elevator Height (m) 10–30 17,000 2600 1.0
Crushers
Hammer mill tonne/h 30–400 68,400 730 1.0
Ball mill tonne/h 0.7–60 23,000 242,000 0.4
Crystallizers
Scraped surface Length (m) 7–280 10,000 13,200 0.8
Distillation columns Assembled from vessels, heat exchangers and internals
Dryers
Direct contact rotary m2 11–180 15,000 10,500 0.9
Atmospheric tray batch Area (m2) 3–20 10,000 7900 0.5
Spray dryer Evap. rate (kg/h) 400–4000 410,000 2200 0.7
Evaporators
Vertical tubes Area (m2) 11–640 330 36,000 0.55
Agitated falling film Area (m2) 0.5–12 88,000 65,500 0.75
Exchangers
U-tube shell and tube Area (m2) 10–1000 28,000 54 1.2
Floating head shell and tube Area (m2) 10–1000 32,000 70 1.2
Double pipe Area (m2) 1–80 1900 2500 1.0
Thermosyphon reboiler Area (m2) 10–500 30,400 122 1.1
U-tube kettle reboiler Area (m2) 10–500 29,000 400 0.9
Plate and frame (303 SS) Area (m2) 1–500 1600 210 0.95
Continued
836 Appendices

Table A2 Purchased Equipment Cost for Some Plant Equipment Items—cont’d

Equipment Unit for Size Size a b n

Filters
Plate and frame Capacity (m3) 0.4–1.4 128,000 89,000 0.5
Vacuum drum Area (m2) 10–180 73,000 93,000 0.3
Furnaces
Cylindrical Duty (MW) 0.2–60 80,000 109,000 0.8
Box Duty (MW) 30–120 43,000 111,000 0.8
Packings
304 Raschig rings m3 0 8000 1.0
Ceramic Intalox saddles m3 0 2000 1.0
304 SS Pall rings m3 0 8500 1.0
PVC structured packing m3 0 5500 1.0
304 SS structured packing m3 0 7600 1.0
Pressure vesselsa
Vertical, CS Shell (kg) 160–250,000 11,600 34 0.85
Horizontal, CS Shell (kg) 160–5000 10,200 31 0.85
Vertical, 304 SS Shell (kg) 120–250,000 17,400 79 0.85
Horizontal, 304 SS Shell (kg) 120–50,000 12,800 73 0.85
Pumps and drivers
Single stage centrifugal Flow (l/s) 0.2–126 8000 240 0.9
Explosion proof Power (kW) 1–2500 1100 2100 0.6
Condensing steam turbine Power (kW) 14,000 1900 0.75
Reactors
Jacketed, agitated Volume (m3) 0.5–100 61,500 32,500 0.8
Jacketed, agitated, glass lined Volume (m3) 0.5–25 12,800 88,200 0.4
Tanks
Floating roof Capacity (m3) 100–10,000 113,000 3250 0.65
Cone roof Capacity (m3) 10–4800 5800 1600 0.70
Trays
Sieve trays Diameter (m) 0.5–5.0 130 440 1.8
Valve trays Diameter (m) 0.5–5.0 210 400 1.9
Bubble cap trays Diameter (m) 0.5–5.0 340 640 1.9
Utilitiesb
Cooling tower and pumps Flow (l/s) 100–10,000 170,000 1500 0.9
Mechanical refrigeration Duty (kW) 50–1500 24,000 3500 0.9
Water ion exchange plant Flow (m3/h) 1–50 14,000 6200 0.75
a
Not including heads, ports, brackets, internals, and so on. Wall thickness calculation in Section 20.2.3.
b
Field assembled.
 Appendices 837

2 APPENDIX B – COST OF UTILITIES

The prices of natural gas and oil products have a strong influence on the price of utilities. Correlations
based on thermo-chemical calculations can be developed for steam generation, electricity production,
refrigeration and water treatment, taking into consideration the efficiency of conversion of different
forms of energy.
Steam is the most employed utility in process industries. A quick estimation of the minimum cost of
steam generation can be found by using the following relation:
Cs ¼ Pe  Hs = + CBFW (B-1)

in which Cs is the cost per unit amount of steam, Pe the cost per unit of energy (GJ/tonne), Hs the energy
needed to generate the unit amount of steam (GJ tonne fuel),  the efficiency of converting energy in
steam and CBFW the cost of boiling feed water (BFW) for make-up and treatment. Hs includes the en-
ergy for BFW pre-heating and the heat of vaporization for saturated steam, as well as the heat for super-
heating and reheat in the case of steam for combined heat and power generation. These data are
available from steam tables, as given in Appendix D. The input data are the cost of energy, steam pres-
sure, BFW and superheating temperatures.
Alternatively, the cost of steam can be determined from the amount of fuel used, obtained in turn by
dividing the energy used for steam generation by the low heating value (LHV).
Hs
Cs ¼ Pf + CBFW (B-2)
LHV  

in which Pf is the price of fuel per unit of sales. Table B1 illustrates the combustion characteristics of
some fuels (International Energy Agency, wds.iea.org). The table contains density, net calorific heat
(LHV), gross calorific heat (HHV) and carbon intensity.
A common unit in energy in USA is BOE (barrel oil equivalent) based on of 5.88  106 Btu or 6.1 GJ
(1 Btu ¼ 1.055 kJ). Note that 1 barrel is 42 gallon or 0.159 m3. Heating fuel oils are No.1 fuel (35 API
or 850 kg/m3) similar to kerosene or No.2 fuel (30 API or 876 kg/m3) comparable to diesel.
As simple example, let us consider the generation of saturated steam at 40 bar and 250 C with
BFW at 220 C. From Appendix D, one gets:

H s ¼ ðHl, 250  Hl, 220 Þ + DHv, 250 ¼ ð1086  944Þ + 1716 ¼ 1858MJ=t ¼ 1:858GJ=t:

For energy conversion, one may consider an overall efficiency of 0.80. If the price of energy is, for
example, 10 $/GJ, then the cost of steam is Cs ¼ 10  1.858/0.80 ¼ 23.2 $/tonne.

Table B1 Combustion Characteristics of Some Fuels

Coal NG H2, lq Crude Gasoline Kerosene Diesel LPG Fuel Oil

Density (kg/m3) 0.768 72 858 741 803 844 539 944

LHV (GJ/tonne) 25.7 45.8 120 45.0 44.7 44.6 43.4 45.3 40.7
HHV (GJ/tonne) 27.0 50.8 142 47.4 47.0 46.9 45.7 47.7 42.8
CO2 (g/MJ LHV) 96 57 0 73 71 72 74 64 78
838 Appendices

Various steam pressures are practiced in industry, in general as follows:

• 100 barg for power generation
• 40 barg for high pressure distribution
• 20 barg for medium pressure distribution
• 2–5 barg for low pressure distribution.
The boilers for steam generation are mainly of two types: water tube (or industrial boilers) and fire tube
(or package boilers). Most of the steam in industry is obtained by firing natural gas, followed by coal
and oil. Lignocellulosic and waste materials can be burned too.
The spot price of the essential utilities, natural gas, oil products and electricity can be found by re-
search on the Internet. Longer-term trends can be found on the websites of governmental or international
agencies. For USA, reliable statistics can be found on the site of the US Energy Administration (www.eia.
gov). It can be found that in the period 2008–2013, the price of natural gas for industrial consumers falls
from 10 to 5 $/1000 ft3 because of massive production of cheaper shale gas. In Europe, the prices of nat-
ural gas, electricity and oil products over the EU, and for each country, can be found by following the
statistics of the European Commission at www.epp.eurostat.ec.europe.eu. For example, the EU average
price of natural gas in the second part of 2011 was 0.038 €/kW h.
From the above examples, it comes out that, in view of getting consistent prices of energy, it is
necessary to use suitable conversion factors. Table B2 illustrates how different forms of energy can
be converted from sales units to scientific units. Particularly important is the conversion from US units
to European units. Note that for the conversion of volume or mass units, it is necessary to know the
characteristics of the fuel, namely density and LHV.
Table B3 presents comparatively the cost of the main utilities in Europe and USA. The figures have
only an indication value. The price of steam can be scaled direct proportionally with the price of fuels.
The price of electricity is more complex, since it incorporates a mix of sources, transportation fees and
contractual conditions. The cost of water depends strongly on local conditions. The cost of refrigeration
can be correlated with the cost of energy for compression.
Waste treatment is today an important cost issue. We recommend the method proposed by Ulrich
and Vasudevan (2007), which makes use of the correlation:
Ct, ww ¼ aI C + bPE (B-3)

where Ct,ww is the cost of treatment in $ per unit of waste, IC the Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index
(CEPCI) and PE the price of energy per GJ.

Table B2 Conversion of Different Units of Energy

Energy Source Conversion Factors

Coal 1 short tonne ¼ 19.86  106 Btu ¼ 21.28 GJ ¼ 0.907 metric tonne
Electricity 1 kW h ¼ 3412 Btu ¼ 3.6 MJ ¼ 800 kcal
Natural gas 1000 ft3 ¼ 1.023  106 Btu ¼ 1.084 GJ ¼ 28.317 m3
Crude oil 1 bbl ¼ 5.8  106 Btu ¼ 6.12 GJ ¼ 0.1364 metric tonne ¼ 0.159 m3
Diesel and heating oil 100 gal ¼ 13.87  106 Btu ¼ 14.633 MJ ¼ 0.3192 metric tonne ¼ 0.3785 m3
Gasoline 100 gal ¼ 12.42  106 Btu ¼ 13.11 MJ ¼ 0.2791 metric tonne ¼ 0.3785 m3
Note: The conversion from mass and volume units to energy follows the average composition of fuels in USA in 2013.
 Appendices 839

Table B3 Cost of Utilities

Utility Europe (2011) USA (2012)

Natural gas a
38 E/MW h 10–5 $/ft3; 35–17 $/100 m3 std
10.6 E/GJ 9.2–4.6 $/GJ
Fuel oil 450–500 E/tonne 3–2 $/gal; 793–528 $/m3
4 E/GJ 20.7–13.9 $/GJ
Steamb
HP distribution 35 E/tonnec 31–15 $/tonne, 42 bar, 400  C/BFW, 130  C
Electricity 0.130 E/kW h public 0.11 $/kW h public
0.066 E/kW h industry 0.07 $/kW h industry
Process waterd 0.15 E/m3 0.10 $/m3
Cooling water (tower)d 0.025–0.05 E/m3 0.02–0.03 $/m3
Chilled water (10  C)d 0.15–0.30 E/m3 0.2 $/m3
Demineralised waterd 1.0–1.5 E/m3 0.5–0.9 $/m3
Compressed air (9 bar)d 0.01 E/m3 0.50 $/100 Nm3
Refrigerationd 12–15 E/GJ
Biodegradationd 20–30 E/tonne 200–500 $/tonne organics
Landfilld 62 E/tonne 50 $/tonne
a
The trend in USA over 2008–2012 shows a strong fall in energy prices due to shale gas.
b
The cost of steam considers the cost of energy supplied by burning natural gas per 1 GJ heat used for steam generation: BFW
pre-heating 22%, vaporisation 63%, 15%.
c
Price overestimated since higher cost of energy. Onsite cost may drop significantly when using lower cost fuels.
d
Compilation from various sources.
Sources: www.eia.org and www.epp.eurostat.ec.europe.eu

Wastewater treatment consists in primary (filtration), secondary (plus activated sludge) and tertiary
(plus chemical cleaning) processing. The cost ($/m3) equations are:
• Primary treatment: Ct,ww ¼ (0.0001 + 2  107q1)IC + 0.002PE
• Secondary treatment: Ct,ww ¼ (0.0007 + 2  106q1)IC + 0.003PE
• Tertiary treatment: Ct,ww ¼ (0.0001 + 2  104q1)IC + 0.1PE
where q is total water capacity (m3/s), in the range 0.001 < q < 10 m3/s.
Wastewater treatment by membrane technology removes the solids by ultrafiltration. The cost can
be estimated by the following equations:
• Concentration of solids 2–4% w/w: Ct,ww ¼ (0.0015 + 6  105q0.6)IC + 0.13PE
• Concentration of solids 0.5–2% w/w: Ct,ww ¼ (0.0015 + 5  105q0.6)IC + 0.08PE
• Concentration of solids up to 0.5% w/w: Ct,ww ¼ (0.0015 + 4  105q0.6)IC + 0.02PE
Gaseous emissions can be treated by endothermic flaring and catalytic incineration or as waste fuel.
The cost ($/Nm3) equations are:
• Endothermic flaring: Ct,ww ¼ 1  106Q0.23 + 0.004PE
• Thermal or catalytic incinerator: Ct,ww ¼ 1  105Q0.23 + 0.002PE
• Combustion as fuel: Ct,ww ¼ 3.0  105(LHV)0.77Q0.23  6.0  104(LHV)
• Combustion with flue gas cleaning: Ct,ww ¼ 5.0  105(LHV)0.77Q0.23  5.0  104(LHV)
840 Appendices

in which Q is the gas flow rate in Nm3/s and LHV the lower calorific value in MJ/s. Note the negative b
coefficient meaning that the waste fuel burning returns credit.
Waste incineration cost can be evaluated by the equations:
• Supplementary fuel: Ct,ww ¼ 3.0  105(HHV)0.77m0.23  5.0  104(HHV)
• With gas cleaning: Ct,ww ¼ 5.0  105(HHV)0.77m0.23  5.0  104(HHV)
where m is the waste’s flow rate in kg/s and HHV the higher calorific value in MJ/s.

3 APPENDIX C – MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

Here we discuss only some basic aspects regarding the preliminary selection of materials with respect
to equipment design and costing evaluation. More information can be found in Green and Perry (2008),
as well as in Ullmann’s Encyclopaedia (2005).
The following criteria should be kept in view:
1. Resistance to process conditions, such as corrosion, erosion, stress variation as well as extreme
temperatures.
2. Processability of material in the form of parts used in equipment manufactures, such as sheets,
piping, profiles, including welding properties.
3. Contamination properties regarding the interaction between material and fluid and its consequence
on both process and mechanical behaviour of the equipment.
4. The cost of materials and processing.
The materials of construction can be classified as follows:
1. Ferrous metals and alloys, such as cast iron, low-alloy steels, stainless steel and higher-alloy steel.
2. Nonferrous metals and alloys, such as nickel and nickel alloys, copper and alloys, titanium,
zirconium.
3. Inorganic non-metallic materials, such as glass and glassed steel, porcelain and stone.
4. Plastic and thermoplastic materials, such as PVC, PE, rubber and thermosetting plastics.
Here we refer only to the first two categories that dominate process equipment manufacture, more par-
ticularly to ferrous metals and alloys. Resistance to fluid corrosion is by far the most important aspect.
This topic is discussed in detail in the mentioned references, where extensive corrosion tables are given.
From the point of view corrosion, fluids can be classified as follows:
1. Hydrocarbon mixtures usually non-aggressive for carbon and low-alloy steel, but aggressive for
plastics.
2. Non-oxidising and reducing media
a. Acid solutions excluding hydrochloric, phosphoric and sulphuric acids.
b. Neutral solutions, such as non-oxidising salts, chlorides, sulphates.
c. Ammonium hydroxide and amines.
3. Oxidising media
a. Acid solutions, for example, nitric acid.
b. Neutral or alkaline solutions, for example, persulphates, peroxides, chromates.
c. Pitting media, such as acid ferric chloride solutions.
 Appendices 841

4. Neutral waters
a. Freshwater supply, slow moving or turbulent.
b. Seawater, low moving or turbulent.
5. Gases
a. Steam, dry or wet.
b. High-temperature (furnace) gases with oxidising effect.
c. Hydrogen-rich gases with pitting effect.
d. Halogens and halide acids.
Besides fluid corrosion, a particular attention has to be given to extreme temperature conditions in
which the equipment should work or ensure safety operation. Temperatures higher than 600  C require
special high-temperature steels. The same is valid for cryogenic conditions, where material still should
have good toughness at low temperatures. The mechanical strength of steels degrades significantly with
increasing temperature, particularly near to the creep limit.
When wall thickness is calculated, care should be given to correct estimation of the tensile strength
(stress) at the design temperature. This aspect is important when selecting high-alloy and special steels
that are much more expensive than carbon steel and mild alloy (see Table C1). Note that the thermal
conductivity of stainless steels is considerably lower than of carbon steel, implying much higher heat
transfer resistance. For example, thermal conductivity of carbon steel is about 50 W/m K, but only
10–15 W/m K for stainless steels.
Common metallic materials of constructions are discussed briefly below. Specific information
about properties and applications can be found in quality standards practiced in each country, as for
example, SAE, AISI, ASTM (USA), BS (UK), DIN (Germany), NF (France), UNI (Italy), and
NEN (The Netherlands).

3.1 IRON AND CARBON STEEL

The most used and cheapest engineering material is low-carbon steel (CS). It is suitable for hydrocar-
bon and organic solvents, except chlorinated solvents. Concentrated sulphuric acid and caustic alkalis
can be stored occasionally in CS. High-silicon irons can be used for storing acids. Surface treatment
(quenching, tempering, nitriding, age hardening) can be used to improve the resistance to corrosion or
to higher temperature. Coating with protected sheets of more resistant materials can be also applied,
leading to important cost reduction.

3.2 STAINLESS STEELS

A wide range is available in a great variety of compositions that can be tailored for specific appli-
cation. According to their microstructure, the stainless steels can be classified into three main
categories:
1. Ferric steels, with 13–20% Cr, <0.1% C, but no nickel
2. Austenitic steels, with 18–29% Cr, >7% Ni
3. Martensitic, with 10–12% Cr, 0.2–0.4% C, and up to 2% Ni.
Adding nickel improves considerably the resistance to corrosion, which can be enhanced further
by adding molybdenum. Both ferric and austenitic alloys cannot be hardened by heat treatment.
842 Appendices

Among different types of stainless steels, the most used in process industries are of austenitic
types. The main are briefly described.
1. Type 18Cr/8Ni SS type (304 in USA, 801B in UK and by X5CrNi18-9 in Germany) is the most used
in process industry. It is suitable for most of the applications except furnace gases, static seawater
and pitting media. It has a fair to good resistance to acidic solutions. The low-carbon variant 304L is
recommended for thicker welded parts. The version 321 stabilised with titanium is more suitable for
higher temperatures.
2. Type 18Cr/8Ni/2Mo (316 in USA, 845B in UK, X5CrNiMo18-12) where molybdenum has been
added to improve the resistance to reducing media, and dilute acid solutions, is almost an universal
steel. However, mechanical processing is more difficult. For welding thick parts, the low-carbon
version 316L is more suitable.
Table C1 shows some typical values for the stress that may be considered in mechanical design
calculation as function of temperature. It can be seen that a safety factor of about five is taken into
account at higher temperatures compared with the nominal tensile strength. Although the
corrosion resistance of standard steels 304 and 316 types is good, their thermal resistance above
600  C is not satisfactory. Heat-resistant steels for furnaces and cracking units are discussed in
Ullmann (2005).

3.3 NICKEL ALLOYS

Three classic nickel alloys are the most known in process industry. Monel, a nickel–copper alloy in
the ratio 2:1, is the most popular, after stainless steel. It stands better than stainless steel against
ferric chloride, acid solutions, alkalis, reducing media and seawater. Inconel (76% Ni, 7% Fe,
15% Cr) can be used for high-temperature applications and furnace gases (sulphur free). Hastelloy
alloys are high resistant to strong mineral acids and strong oxidising media. However, all these
materials are more expensive than the stainless steel, so their use should be restricted to strictly
necessary.
A price scale with reference to carbon steel was presented in Table 19.5. The price of steel is very
variable depending on country, process, shape, etc. Examples of mean prices on the period
2012–2013 recorded by the inspection of the specialised Internet site www.com are: 730 USD/tonne
for hot-rolled sheets and 830 USD/tonne for cold-rolled sheets.

Table C1 Typical Design Stress

Design Stress at Temperature  C in N/mm2

Tensile Strength
Material (N/mm2) 100 200 300 400 500
Carbon steel 360 125 105 85 70
Low-alloy steel 550 240 240 235 220 170
Stainless steel series 340 (18Cr/8Ni) 510 145 115 105 100 90
Stainless steel series 316 (18Cr/8Ni/2Mo) 520 150 120 110 105 95
 Appendices 843

4 APPENDIX D – SATURATED STEAM PROPERTIES

Specific Volume Enthalpy Entropy

Vl Vv Hl DHv Hv Sl DSv Sv
T ( C) P (kPa) (m3/kg) (m3/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg K) (kJ/kg K) (kJ/kg K)

0 0.6106 0.000999 206.42 0.017 2501.3 2501.3 0.0031 9.1572 9.1541

5 0.8724 0.001000 147.09 20.432 2490.2 2510.6 0.07178 8.9528 9.0246
10 1.2287 0.001000 106.3 41.105 2478.8 2520.0 0.14592 8.7545 8.9005
15 1.7071 0.001001 77.846 61.946 2467.2 2529.2 0.21916 8.5624 8.7815
20 2.3414 0.001002 57.726 82.909 2455.5 2538.4 0.29143 8.3761 8.6676
25 3.1728 0.001003 43.313 103.96 2443.5 2547.5 0.36265 8.1957 8.5583
30 4.2505 0.001004 32.862 125.06 2431.5 2556.6 0.43278 8.0208 8.4536
35 5.6330 0.001006 25.196 146.18 2419.4 2565.6 0.50180 7.8513 8.3532
40 7.3890 0.001008 19.511 167.32 2407.2 2574.5 0.56971 7.6871 8.2568
50 12.355 0.001012 12.028 209.56 2382.7 2592.2 0.70220 7.3733 8.0755
60 19.946 0.001017 7.6696 251.71 2358.0 2609.7 0.83041 7.0779 7.9083
70 31.196 0.001023 5.0418 293.76 2333.1 2626.9 0.95460 6.7991 7.7537
80 47.404 0.001029 3.4067 335.73 2308.0 2643.7 1.07510 6.5354 7.6105
90 70.169 0.001036 2.3600 377.66 2282.5 2660.2 1.19220 6.2853 7.4774
100 101.33 0.001044 1.6722 419.61 2256.5 2676.1 1.3062 6.0473 7.3535
110 143.38 0.001052 1.2095 461.65 2230.0 2691.6 1.4175 5.8201 7.2376
120 198.70 0.001061 0.8912 503.85 2202.7 2706.5 1.5263 5.6026 7.1289
130 270.34 0.001070 0.6680 546.26 2174.5 2720.7 1.6328 5.3937 7.0265
140 361.64 0.001080 0.5084 588.93 2145.2 2734.2 1.7373 5.1924 6.9297
150 476.30 0.001091 0.3924 631.92 2114.8 2746.8 1.8399 4.9979 6.8378
160 618.38 0.001102 0.3068 675.25 2083.2 2758.4 1.9408 4.8093 6.7501
170 792.32 0.001114 0.2426 718.96 2050.0 2769.0 2.0401 4.626 6.6661
180 1002.9 0.001127 0.1939 763.07 2015.4 2778.4 2.1379 4.4474 6.5853
190 1255.2 0.001141 0.1564 807.60 1979.0 2786.6 2.2343 4.2729 6.5072
200 1554.7 0.001156 0.1273 852.59 1940.8 2793.3 2.3295 4.1018 6.4312
210 1907.3 0.001172 0.1044 898.05 1900.5 2798.6 2.4235 3.9337 6.3572
220 2319.1 0.001189 0.0861 944.05 1858.2 2802.2 2.5166 3.768 6.2845
230 2796.6 0.001208 0.0715 990.63 1813.4 2804.0 2.6088 3.6041 6.2129
240 3346.6 0.001228 0.0597 1037.9 1766.0 2803.9 2.7005 3.4415 6.1420
250 3976.2 0.001251 0.0501 1086.0 1715.7 2801.6 2.7918 3.2795 6.0714
260 4692.8 0.001275 0.0421 1135.0 1662.1 2797.1 2.8831 3.1175 6.0006
270 5504.3 0.001302 0.0356 1185.1 1604.8 2789.9 2.9745 2.9546 5.9291
280 6418.7 0.001332 0.0301 1236.6 1543.3 2779.8 3.0665 2.7899 5.8565
290 7444.6 0.001366 0.0255 1289.6 1476.8 2766.4 3.1595 2.6224 5.7819
300 8591.0 0.001404 0.0216 1344.7 1404.6 2749.3 3.2538 2.4507 5.7045
310 9867.7 0.001447 0.0183 1402.0 1325.6 2727.6 3.3499 2.2732 5.6232
320 11,286 0.001499 0.0155 1462.0 1238.4 2700.4 3.4484 2.0879 5.5362
330 12,858 0.001560 0.0130 1525.4 1140.7 2666.1 3.55 1.8913 5.4413
Continued
844 Appendices

Specific Volume Enthalpy Entropy

Vl Vv Hl DHv Hv Sl DSv Sv
T ( C) P (kPa) (m3/kg) (m3/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg K) (kJ/kg K) (kJ/kg K)

340 14,599 0.001637 0.0108 1593.7 1028.6 2622.2 3.6572 1.6775 5.3347
350 16,527 0.001740 0.0088 1669.8 894.27 2564.0 3.7744 1.4351 5.2094
360 18,668 0.001895 0.0069 1760.9 720.17 2481.1 3.9133 1.1374 5.0507
370 21,052 0.002219 0.0049 1895.5 438.99 2334.5 4.1202 0.6826 4.8028
374 22,090 0.003155 0.0031 2099.3 0 2099.3 4.4298 0 4.4298

Adapted from Moran and Shapiro (2000).

5 APPENDIX E – VAPOUR PRESSURE OF SOME HYDROCARBONS

Methane Ethane
Propane n-Butane
n-Pentane n-Hexane
n-Heptane n-Octane
n-Decane Benzene
Toluene Xylene
Ethylbenzene Ethylene
Propylene 1-Hexene
1-Pentene 1-Butene
1,2-Butadiene 1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene
100
Vapour pressure, bar

10

1
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Temperature, K
 Appendices 845

6 APPENDIX F – VAPOUR PRESSURE OF SOME ORGANIC COMPONENTS

Methanol Ethanol
Propanol N-Butanol
1-Pentanol Formic acid
Acetic acid Acetone
Methyl ethyl ketone Water
Carbon tetrachloride 1,2-Dichloroethane
Acrylonitrile Cyclohexanol
Benzoic acid Aniline
Benzaldehyde Ethylene glycol
100
Vapour pressure, bar

10

1
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
Temperature, K

7 APPENDIX G – CONVERSION FACTORS TO SI UNITS

Other unconventional units
Mass units 1 metric ton ¼ 1 tonne ¼ 1000 kg; 1kt ¼ 1000 tonnes ¼ 106 kg;
1 short ton (US) ¼ 907 kg; 1 long ton (British) ¼ 1016 kg

Energy Ton of Equivalent Oil (TOE) ¼ 41.868 GJ ¼ 11.63 MWh

Refrigeration Standard ton of refrigeration (USA) ¼ 12000 BTU/h ¼ 3517 W

 energy to melt/freeze 1 short ton ice at 0  C per day
To Convert from Unit To SI Unit Multiply by

Length
in. m 2.5400  102
ft m 0.3048
Mass
lb kg 0.45359
Force
lbf N 4.4482
kgf N 9.81
Temperature
 
C K C + 273.15

F K ( F + 459.67)/1.8
 
R K R/1.8
Pressure
in. of water (60  F) Pa 2.4884  102
atm Pa 1.0133  105
psi Pa 6.8948  103
torr (mmHg, 0  C) Pa 1.3332  103
Volume
ft3 m3 2.8317  102
in.3 m3 1.6387  103
gal m3 3.7854  103
bbl (42 gal) m3 0.15899
Density
lb/in.3 kg/m3 2.7680  104
lb/ft3 kg/m3 16.018
Energy
Btu J 1.0544  103
Btu/lb J/kg 2.3244  103
Btu/lb/ F J/kg/K 4.1840  103
kcal J 4186.8
Power
HP (550 ft lbf/s) W 7.457  102
Btu/h W 0.2931
kcal/h W 1.1622
tonne of refrigeration kW 3.517
Heat transfer coefficient
Btu/h/ft2/ F W/m2/s 5.6783
kcal/h/m2/ C W/m2/K 1.162
Pressure drop
psi/ft kPa/m 2.2621  101
 Appendices 847

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Loh, H.P., Lyons, J., White, C.W., 2002. Process Equipment Cost Evaluator. Department of Energy, Pittsburgh
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Moran, M., Shapiro, H., 2000. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, fourth ed. Wiley.
Towler, G., Sinnott, R.K., 2013. Chemical Engineering Design: Principles, Practice and Economics
of Plant and Process Design, second ed. Butterworth-Heinemann (Elsevier).
Ullmann’s Encyclopaedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2005, seventh ed. Wiley-VCH.
Ulrich, G., Vasudevan, P.T., 2007. Predesign for pollution prevention and control. Chem. Eng. Prog. 53–60.