Bio 215 Chapter 46 Animal Reproduction

Ch 46: Animal Reproduction

Lecture notes
Some of the goals for this chapter include:
1) Distinguish between asexual and sexual reproduction
2) list and describe the 4 forms of asexual reproduction
3) What are the advantages of asexual and sexual reproduction
4) list and describe 3 methods which increase the probability of successful fertilization
5) diagram and identity the components of the male and female reproductive system
6) outline the hormonal control of the male and female reproductive systems
7) compare and contrast oogenesis and spermatogenesis

An individual only exists for it's lifespan. For a species to remain viable its members must reproduce

1 Animals produce offspring by asexual or sexual reproduction

A. Asexual Reproduction
1. Invertebrates:
a. Fission: separation of adult into two equal sized offspring
b. budding: smaller offspring split off from parent
c. release of specialized groups of cells with protective coating
d. Fragmentation: breaking of body into several pieces which regenerates into adult. (will allow
replacement of missing body parts)
2. Advantages to asexual reproduction
a. sessile animals or low population can make individuals
b. man offspring in a short time
c. successful in stable environments, maintains successful genotypes
B. Sexual reproduction
1. two individuals produce offspring with a combination of genes
a. Female gamete (ovum)
b. Male gamete (spermatozoon)
2. Increased genetic variability, which is advantageous in a fluctuating environment

C. Reproductive Cycles and Patterns

1. cycles are set towards seasons, that favor offspring survival

2. Parthenogenesis = development of an egg without fertilization, a form of asexual reproduction, with
haploid offspring
3. Hermaphroditism: each individual has both sexes, is beneficial when mates are difficult to find.
4. Sequential hermaphroditism: individual reverses sex during lifetime (blue-head wrasse largest and
oldest in harem becomes male (a type of fish)

2 Union of gametes in sexual reproduction

1. Fertilization union of sperm and egg
A. External fertilization: eggs are shed by a female and fertilized by a male in the environment
1. mainly moist habitats
2. does not need contact between adults
3. Pheromones trigger release
4. Fertilized egg has various protection
a. gelatinous coat
b. prevents drying
c. lots of zygotes produced few survive
B. Internal fertilization: sperm deposited in or near the reproductive tract and fertilization occurs inside the
body
1. insures mating
2. allows for choice of mates

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3. Protection of embryo
a. eggs with hard shell, prevents desiccation
b. embryo develops within the parent
c. few zygotes but higher chance of survival

3 The diversity of reproductive systems

A. Invertebrate Reproductive Systems
1. Polychaetes have separate sexes without distinct gonads
a. gametes develop from undifferentiated cells lining the coelom and fill this structure
b. offspring can exit through an opening or split the parent open
2. Insects have separate sexes and complex reproductive structures
a. Male has testes that produce sperm, that is stored in seminal vesicles
(*) at copulation sperm are ejaculated into female's system
b. Female have ovaries and vagina where eggs are fertilized
(*) females can often store the sperm form a previous copulation
3. Flatworms are hermaphroditic have very complex reproductive systems, copulation occurs in a
variety of ways in different groups

B. Vertebrate Reproductive Systems

1. Similar to one another, but major differences are
a.Mammals have separate openings for digestive, excretory and reproduction, nonmammals have
the cloaca
b. Birds and snakes have one uterus, others are paired
c. Nonmammalin vertebrates do not have a well developed penis and use other mechanisms

4 Human reproduction has intricate anatomy and complex behavior

A. Reproductive Anatomy of the Human Male
1. External Male genitalia (Scrotum and Penis)
a.testes hand outside the abdominal cavity in the scrotum, where the temp is 2'C lower and sperm
production occurs
b. Movement of semen through the urethra in the penis results in the sperm being deposited in
the female system
2. internal male reproductive organs (fig 42.8)
a. Testes: highly coiled tubes surrounded by connective tissue
(*) Sperm pass form seminiferous tubules into the tubules of epididymis, where sperm are
stored and mature
b. Vas deference forms from epididymis to the ejaculatory duct, which opens into the urethra
c. 3 sets of accessory glands are associated with the male system
(*) seminal vesicles: empty into ejaculatory duct, 60% of volume, fluid contains
(a) amino acids, mucus (coagulate after deposited)
(b) fructose (energy for sperm)
(c) prostaglandins (contractions to move sperm to uterus)
(*) prostrate gland: activates sperm alkaline fluid that neutralizes acidity of female and urine
(*) Bulbourethral glands: viscous secretion before ejaculation, possibly to neutralize acidity

B. Reproductive anatomy of the Human Female:

1. females have structure for production of gametes but also to house the embryo and fetus
2. Ovaries: in abdominal cavity, enclosed in a protective capsule
a. each ovary contains many follicles (egg and support cells
b. all eggs are formed in a female at birth
3. Ovulation: or expelling of egg from follicle results in the remaining follicular tissue forming the
corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone and additional estrogen
a. uterus: thick muscular organ shaped like and inverted pear
(*) inner uterine lining endometrium rich with blood vessels
4. Cervix: neck of uterus opens into the vagina

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5. Vagina: thin walled chamber that is the repository for semen during copulation and forms the birth
canal
6. Vestibule: chamberlike are formed by the two pairs of skin folds covering the vaginal orifice and
urethral opening
7. bartholin's glands: small glands located near the vaginal opening that secret mucus into the
vestibule dung sexual arousal

C. Human Sexual Response:

1. Vasocongsetion filling of tissue with blood (i.e. penis, clitoris) due to an increase in blood flow
through the arteries of that tissue
2. Myotonia: increase in muscle tension and both skeletal and smooth muscles may show sustained or
rhythmic contractions

5 Spermatogenesis and oogenesis

A. Spermatogenesis is production of mature sperm cells in adult males (42.12)
1. 250-400 million sperm per ejaculate
2. spermatogonia in outer wall of seminiferous tubules
3. develop into primary spermatocyte during maturity
4. each primary spermatocyte forms four haploid spermatids through meiotic division
5. each spermatid becomes associated with a large sertoli cells and receives nutrients, all become
mature
6. see fig 42.11 for sperm structure
B. Oogenesis: development of ova (fig 42.13)
1. diploid oogonia are produced in a zygote
2. each oogonium develops into a primary oocyte by birth (a limited number are present at birth)
3. each diploid oocyte enlarges and stops in prophase I
4. After puberty, FSH stimulates a follicle to enlarge and oocyte completes meiosis I to produce
haploid secondary oocyte and first polar body (meiosis stops)
5. LH triggers ovulation and the secondary oocyte is released form the follicle
6. if a sperm cell penetrates the secondary oocytes membrane, meiosis IIK will occur and the second
polar body will separate from the ovum
C. Important differences:
1. in spermatogenesis all 4 products of meiosis become sperm, in oogenesis only one becomes an egg
2. spermatogenesis occurs throughout the life of a male, females are borne with the total number of
eggs they will produce
3. Spermatogenesis is continual, oogenesis has long resting periods

6 A complex interplay of hormones regulates reproduction

A. Male pattern
1. androgens are responsible for formation of primary sex characteristic (reproductive organs) and
secondary sex characteristics (depending of voice, hair growth pattern, muscle growth
a. testosterone is the most important androgen
b. determine sexual and aggressive behaviors
B. Female pattern
a. Female have a cyclic nature of reproduction
1. Estrous cycles: non-primate mammals
a. Ovulation occurs after endometrium thickens and vascularizes, if pregnancy does not occur
endometrium is reabsorbed by the uterus
b. Estrus: period of sexual activity surrounding ovulation and is the only time most mammals
will copulate
2. Menstrual cycles: humans and other primates
a. Ovulation occurs after the endometrium thickens and vascularizes
b. if pregnancy does not occur the endometrium is shed form the uterus during menstruation
c. Term refers to the changes that occur in the uterus during the reproductive cycle
(*) 20-40 days depending on the woman, average is 28

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(*) regularity depends on the individual

C. The 3 phases of the menstrual cycle (fig 42.15)
1. menstrual flow phase: menstruation is occurring
a. last a few days
b.first day of this phase is usually designated by day 1 of the cycle
2. Proliferative phase: one to two weeks, regeneration and thickening of the endometrium
3. Secretory phase: 2 weeks endometrium continues to develop
a. if embryo does not implant in the uterine lining by the end mistral flow begins
D. ovarian cycle parallels the menstrual cycle
1. follicular phase: several follicles in ovaries begin to grow
a. one becomes dominant and continues others degenerate, forms bulge on ovary surface
2. ovulatory phase occurs when ovulation occurs
3. Luteal phase occurs after ovulation occurs
a. remaining tissue becomes corpus luteum and secretes hormones

E. five hormones work to coordinate menstrual and ovarian cycles]

1. see fig 42.15 GnRH from hypothalamus stimulates ant pituitary to secrete FSh and LH
2. FSH stimulate follicles to grow and secrete estrogen
3.mature follicles secrete lots of estrogen
4.Estrogen stimulates hypothalamus to increase GnRH which increases FSH and LH
5. High LH causes follicles to ovulate and ruptured follicular tissue to become corpus luteum
6. corpus luteum continues to secrete estrogen and increasing amount of progesterone
7. estrogen and progesterone inhibit GnRH secretion with concurrent loss of FSH and LH
8. loss of FSH and LH results in a drop of estrogen and progesterone
9. GnRH is made again and a new follicular phase begins.

F. Hormones and sexual maturation

1. Mammals can not reproduce until they reach sexual maturity
a. onset of reproductive ability is puberty
b. for humans is in-between 8 and 14 years of age
c. when hypothalamus secretes increasing amounts of GnRH, leading to higher FSH and LH
levels. These trigger maturation of the reproductive system and development of the secondary
sex characteristics.

7 Embryonic and fetal development

A. From conception to birth
1. Conception: fertilization of an egg by spermatozoon
2. Pregnancy (gestation): condition of carrying one or more developing embryos
3. humans have 266 days
4. Human pregnancy is divided into 3 trimesters
a. first trimester
(*)Fertilization in oviduct, first cell division in 24 hours
(*)developing zygote travels to uterus and implants
(*)up to 4 weeks nutrients are obtained form endometrium
(*) placenta forms and functions in exchange
(*) main period of organogenesis
(*) at 8 weeks is an adult in rudimentary form
(*) secretes human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
(a) maintains progesterone and estrogen secretin
(b) progesterone prevents pregnancy form being terminated
b. second trimester
(*) rapid growth fetus is very active
(*) fetus secrete its own progesterone to maintain the pregnancy

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c. Third Trimester
(*) rapid growth and fetal activity decreases
5. Parturition (birth)
a. first stage of labor involves the opening and thinning of the cervix until it is completely dilated
b. second is expulsion of baby form the uterus
c. last stage is expulsion of placenta form the uterus
6. Mammals are unique in the lactation component of postnatal care
a. under hormonal control
(*) decreasing levels of progesterone, stop inhibition of prolactin that stimulates milk
production for 2-3 days then oxytocin controls the release of milk form the mammary glands.

B. Reproductive Immunology
1. Even though the developing embryo contains foreign markers from the father, the real reason it is
not destroyed by the mother is unknown
2. Trophoblast: protective layer that forms a physical barrier and prevents the embryo from actually
contacting maternal tissues.
3. multiple miscarriages may be due to rejection of the embryo

Multiple choice Questions

1) Sexual reproduction results in offspring that have not gone through the process of meiosis and the mixing of
chromosomes. The resultant offspring are genetic clones of one another. What are the advantages of producing
clones rather than genetically diverse offspring?
a) an organism is able to reproduce when a mate is not available
b) the clones are better able to resist pathogens
c) many offspring can be produced in a short time to take advantage of resources
d) if a genotype works, stay with it. The clones are best suited to a stable environment.
e) Clones are best able to adapt to diverse conditions.
2. Internal fertilization allows for the protection of the embryo that could not occur with external fertilization. Which of
the following are typical protections afforded internally fertilized oocytes
a) A gelatinous shell that prevents desiccation
b) Eggs with a resistant hard shell that prevents desiccation
c) Thousands of offspring can be produced ensuring that a few will survive
d) Fewer offspring are produced but they each have a higher chance of survival
e) The embryo may develop within the parent, making it better adapted for survival.
3. Which of the following are differences between Spermatogenesis and oogenesis
a) Each copulation results in the union of 400 million sperm and 400 million eggs
b) Each primary oocyte and spermatocyte forms four haploid spermatids through meiotic division
c) A primary spermatocyte forms four haploid spermatids, Each oocyte produce only one egg and 3 polar bodies
d) Males will produce many gametes throughout their lifetime, women are born with a fixed number of gametes
e) Females will produce many gametes throughout their lifetime, men are born with a fixed number of gametes
4. five hormones work to coordinate human menstrual and ovarian cycles. Which of the following are correctly
matched?
a) FSH stimulate follicles to grow and secrete estrogen
b) Estrogen stimulates the hypothalamus to decrease GnRH which increases FSH and LH
c) GnRH from the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH
5. Vertebrates have a well defined immune system. If the growing embryo is genetically different from the mother then
why doesn’t the mothers immune system destroy the growing fetus?
a) during pregnancy the immune system is repressed
b) the true reason has not been discovered yet
c) The trophoblast forms a protective layer that physically separates the embryo and the maternal tissues
d) All miscarriages are due to rejection of the embryo
e) The fetus produces antibodies that neutralize the maternal antibodies
Answers 1) a,c,d 2)a,d,e 3)c,d 4) a,c 5) b,c

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