Ancient Khorezm

VN. Yagodin & A.V.G. Betts

UNESCO
 Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Lonely Planet for permission to use the
visitor's map of Khiva which was adapted with permission from Central
Asia, Edition 3 © 2004 Lonely Planet Publications. Dr Gairatdin
Khozhaniyazov provided valuable advice in the preparation of the
manuscript. Maps and Site Plans were prepared by M.Negus Clearywith
assistance from the Archaeology Computing Laboratory, University of
Sydney. Line drawings of Ayaz-kala, Dzhanbas-kala and Toprak-kala
are taken from S.P. Tolstov, Drevnii Khorezm, Izdanie MGU, Moscow,
1948. The reconstruction of Koi-kril-gan-kala is taken from S.P.Tolstov
and B.I. Vainberg (eds) Koi-Kr'ilgan-kala. Pamyatnik kul'turii drevnego
Khorezma, 1967, Moscow. Images of traditional Turkman jewellery
are taken from Y. R. Vinnikov, Khozyaiistvo, Kul'tura i B'it Sel'skogo
Naseleniya Turkmenskoii SSR, 1969, Moscow. Lithographs of Khiva and
the Khorezmian landscape and people have been reproduced from J.A.
MacGahan, Campaigning on the Oxas and the Fall ofKhiva, 1874, Harper
and Brothers, New York. The text was prepared under the auspices of the
University of Sydney Central Asian Programme.

The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the
authors and are not necessarily those of UNESCO. The designations
employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not
imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or
concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Published by UNESCO 2006 within the framework of the UNESCO

Cross-Cutting project, Innovative and Intersectoral Approaches to the
Aral Sea Basin.

Designed by Ben Churcher, Astarte Resources, Australia

Ancient Khorezm 2
^t Introduction

Central Asia is a land of oases, formed

by rivers filled with snowmelt from
the mountains, flowing out to end in
marshes in the desert or in inland seas.

Khorezm is one of the largest of these

oases, formed by the great river Amu-
dar'ya, the ancient Oxus recorded by
Greek historians over two thousand

years ago, known in medieval times as

the Jeihun. Although still massive today,
it is a shadow of its former splendour,
sapped of its energy by hundreds of
canals diverting its waters to the towns
and fields along its banks. Where once it
filled the Aral Sea, nourishing a thriving
fishing industry, now there is little left
but dry salt pans. To left and right of
the river lies the desert, the Kara-kum,
Black Sands, and the Kiz'il-kum, the Red
Sands. To the north, between the Aral and
Caspian seas, is a long line of stark white
cliffs marking the edge of the Ustiurt
plateau, the border between the lands of the
northern steppic nomads and the settled
In the oasis at Khiva.
farmers of the oasis towns and villages.

^r The Region Today

Much of ancient Khorezm falls within modern day Karakalpakstan, a semi-
autonomous republic with its own local administration, based in the major city
of Nukus.The population today is around one and a half to two million people
and comprises a rich mix of Karakalpaks, Uzbeks and Kazakhs, together with
smaller numbers of Russians, Turkmen, Tartars and other ethnic groups. More
than 80 per cent of the land in Karakalpakstan is desert, but along the river
canals support extensive agricultural communities, while cattle and sheep are
herded in the Kiz'il-kum steppe. Cotton is the main cash crop, while rice, alfalfa
and maize are grown for food and livestock fodder. Most farmers also grow a
variety of fruits and vegetables for both home and market. Karakalpakstan has a
variety ofmineral resources including oil and gas fields on the Ustiurt plateau and
economically significant geological deposits, particularly in the Sultan-uiz-dagh
range. On the west bank of the Amu-dar'ya is the modern administrative region
that still bears the ancient name of Khorezm. The main city is Urgench, while a
few kilometers away to the south-west lies the medieval capital of Khiva.

Ancient Khorezm 3
>n Historical Background
The Amu-dar'ya river, the lifeblood of Khorezm, has changed its course many
times over the years and in places the ancient river beds can be traced by
lines of archaeological sites. The earliest settlements are Paleolithic, Neolithic
and Bronze Age encampments, used by hunter-fishermen who lived a simple
life among the marshes and scrub of the river banks. The first Neolithic sites
date from around six thousand years BCE, but this simple fashion of living
continued almost unchanged until the 7th century BCE. At this time, quite
suddenly, the first fortified sites appear in the region. From around the 6th to
the 4th century BCE, the region was known as Khorezm and was a vassal state
or satrapy of the Persian/Achaemenid Empire. From the 4th century BCE up
to the 1st century CE, it seems likely that Khorezm freed itself from Persian
power, and flourished as an independent state. When Alexander the Great
marched his armies into Central Asia, he made no effort to control Khorezm.
It was during this period that the Greek historian Arrian records the visit
of a Khorezmian king, Pharasmenes, to Alexander the Great in Markanda
(Samarkand) where he offered the conqueror assistance in subjugating the
lands he claimed bordered Khorezm. Despite the fact that these included
the fabled homeland of the Amazons, Alexander declined and went on to
India, leaving Khorezm untouched by the Hellenistic influence that changed
so much of southern Central Asia.

Following the death of Alexander, the kingdoms he conquered became the

subject of numerous power struggles among his successors, while Khorezm
quietly prospered in the western reaches of Central Asia. Meanwhile, a
new wind was blowing out of the east. Nomadic tribes displaced by wars
along the Chinese frontier began to move westwards into the region around
Samarkand. Out of these tribes grew a new and powerful empire, that of the
Kushans, who became fully established in northern Afghanistan by about the
1st century CE. The Kushan kings eventually ruled over lands from Central
Asia to northern India. To the north and west, their influence was felt in
Khorezm, although it is not clear as to whether the region became a formal
part of the empire. This was a time of prosperity, when trade flourished and
merchants traveled across Central Asia, trading goods from China to Rome,
and from the Baltic Sea to India.

Following the decline of the Kushan Empire and its absorption by the rising
power of the Sasanians in Persia, Central Asia suffered another of numerous
invasions from the northern steppes, this time by the Huns in the 4th century
CE. In the 6th century CE, the Huns were followed by the Turks. From
the Hunnish period up until the 10th century, Khorezm was ruled by the
Afrighids, a long period punctuated by the turmoil of the Arab conquest in
the 7th century CE, when the Muslim armies brought a new and powerful
faith to the region. Finally, in the 13th century, when Khorezm was part of the

Ancient Khorezm 4
 Crossing the Oxus River.

kingdom of the Khwarezmshahs, the whole region was ravaged and destroyed
by the Mongols under Genghiz Khan. The population was slaughtered,
the cities were burned to the ground, the canals broken, villages and fields
devastated, and the whole region reverted to desert. However, the lands on
the west bank of the river recovered and under the Golden Horde became

important nodes for international trade. This renewed prosperity lasted

until the end of the 14th century when Tamerlane once again laid waste to
the country.

It was not until the middle of the twentieth century, under Soviet rule, that
the canals were rebuilt and the land became settled again. While this brought
people back to the region, the construction of new canals on a massive scale
also brought about the destruction of many archaeological sites and led to
severe ecological problems which still trouble the area today. In 1924 the
Karakalpak Autonomous Region was created within the Kazakh Republic
and in 1932 it was converted to the Karakalpak Autonomous Republic within
the structure of the Russian Federation. In 1936 the Karakalpak Autonomous
Republic was reassigned to the Republic of Uzbekistan and retains this
status today.

TheHazarAsp Gate at Khiva.

Ancient Khorezm 5
^r Khorezmian Time Chart

neolithic period 6,000-4,000 BCE

Bronze Age 4,000-900 BCE

Early Iron Age 8 -7"1 Centuries bce

archaic period 7"' - 5 Centuries bce

Early Antique Period 4,H Century bce - lST Century Ce

late antique period Pr-5 Centuries Ce

Early Middle ages

Afrighid, Early Kerder 6 Centuries Ce

Arab [Muslim] Conquest 9th century Ce

Middle Ages

Afrighid-samanid, Late Kerder 9-H Centuries Ce

Khorezmshah 12th - Early 13 Centuries Ce

golden horde 13-14 Centuries Ce

Interior ofa tent.

Ancient Khorezm 6
*% Advice for the Visitoi

To make your visit easier, places of interest described here have been given a
Star Rating. Three Stars (***) means that the site is highly recommended and
easily accessible. Two Stars (**) means that the site is of interest to the more
serious visitor or those with more time to spend in the region. Some Two Star
sites are slightly less easily accessible. One Star sites (*) may have little visible
on the surface or are relatively inaccessible and are recommended only for the
historical specialist.

<n Suggested Basic Itineraries

From Urgench:

te- Half day visit to Toprak-kala and Ayaz-kala. Approx. 3 hrs driving and
one hour at each site.

te- Full day visit to Toprak-kala, Bustan, Ayaz-kala and Karakalpak State
Museum of Arts. Approx. 5-6 hrs driving and one hour at each location
(30 mins at Bustan).

te Full day visit to Toprak-kala, Baday-Tugai Reserve, Chil'pyk and

Karakalpak State Museum of Arts. Approx. 4-5 hrs driving and one hour
at each location (30 mins at Chil'pyk).

From Nukus:

te- Half day visit to Mizdakh-khan. Approx. 2 hours driving and one hour at
the site.

te Full day visit to Chil'pyk, Toprak-kala, Bustan and Ayaz-kala. Aprox. 4-5
hours driving and three hours visiting all the sites.

te- Full day visit to Muynak. Approximately 6 hours driving and 2 hours
at Muynak.

Ancient Khorezm 7
T

tri

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vKHODZHEYLl

'mjzdakhan/
JCUNYA URGENttH

\f" KAI^yAKSTAN - ~". /Xx *h5Sp

XCHIL'P'IK

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Places ofinterest in the Nukus region.

Ancient Khorezm 8
 Places ofinterest in southern Karakalpakstan.

Ancient Khorezm 9
KHIVA

To National Bank of To Post & Telephone Office (300m);

Uzbekistan (300m); Bengali Internet Office (650m)
Urgench (35km)

AUabergenov (Budermogo)
03 s
n

Isfandiyar b¿
Palace m .£

S3 f

Ichon-Qala

Alloquilihon
Dost Alimjob Bazaar &
Medressa _. ,_ . Caravanserai
Mohammed 0 Tosh-Khovli
Dekhon
Rakhim Khan
DostAlyam PaJ*ce Bazaar
_ . . Medressa _ Medressa Ï1U
Tourist #
Information Arabhana
Zindon Office Medressa Alloquli Khan
Kutlimurodinok
Medressa
O Camel MatpanaBay Medressa
East
Pen Medressa
Gate
Mahmud 408
Square Pahlavoi To Koy Darvoza
Abdulla Khan Hark Gate (650m);
Medressa
Cotton Factory (1km);
3
Chaudra Hauli (11km)

1
Sayid Aiauddin Mau soleum
S & Music Museum

Qozi-Kalon
2
Medressa

3 Matniyaz Divanbeg
Medressa

4 3 Aq Mosque

City map ofKhiva.

ffi Regional Centres
The main cities of the region today are Nukus and Urgench. Both are modern
administrative centres with little of historical interest. However, Nukus is
home to the Karakalpakstan Museum of Arts which houses the Savitsky
collection, one of the finest collections of early 20th century Russian art, and
the Museum of Applied Arts which has extensive collections relating to the
culture and lifestyle of the peoples of the lower Amu-dar'ya region. A few
kilometres out of Urgench lies the well preserved late medieval city of Khiva,
the seat of the Emirs of Khorezm until the early 20th century. Across the
border in Turkmenistan, but linked historically to Khorezm, is the medieval
capital of Kunya Urgench (Gurgandje).

Ancient Khorezm 10
Khi-
uva ***

The site of Khiva dates back to

the Antique period at the end of

the 5th century BCE. Excavations
revealed double brick walls with

rectangular towers, complete

with outer defensive works such

as ditches and cover walls. The

ancient walls essentially followed

the same plan as the later medieval
walls of the Ichon-Qala of Khiva
that can be seen reconstructed

today, and encompassed an

area of 26 hectares. Ancient

Khiva is considered to have

been one of a system of border

fortresses defending the southern
boundaries of ancient Khorezm. . . , .
A vtew of the citadel at Khiva.
This early fort is now deeply buried
and the site that today's visitor sees is the much later medieval settlement.

The Khanate of Khiva was established in 1511 by nomadic Uzbeks and

survived until 1920. At the end of the 16th century Khiva became the capital
of the Khanate. The region was always fairly poor and Khiva developed a
reputation for brigandry, slavery and barbarism, but despite this the capital
city contains a rich array of late medieval minarets, madrassehs, mosques
and palaces. During the late 19th century tension grew between Russia and
Khiva. The Khivans raided Russian trading caravans and held a great number
of Russian slaves. After a number of military expeditions, Khiva became a
Russian protectorate in 1887, but continued to exist largely independently
until 1920 when the last Khan abdicated and the Khanate was proclaimed the
Khorezm People's Soviet Republic.

The old city, the Ichon-Qala, has been extensively restored to provide a rich
impression of a medieval city tucked within huge mud walls. Near the main
gate is the Kalta Minar, a wide blue-tiled stub of an unfinished 18th century
minaret which, if ever completed, would have been one of the largest in
Central Asia. The Kunya Ark is the fortress and residence of the Khans of
Khiva, much of which dates from the 17th century onwards. The buildings
include the beautiful Summer Mosque and the Khan's audience chamber with
an elaborately painted roof. In front stands a circular platform that housed the
Khan's yurt. The Tosh-Khovli palace was built as a replacement to the Kunya
Ark. Inside is a series of courtyards decorated with tiled recesses. Perhaps the
most beautiful of these is the harem, decorated with ornate wooden columns,

Ancient Khorezm 11
 a bewildering array of geometric tiles and elaborate
painted and gilded wooden ceilings. One of the most
unusual buildings is the Juma Mosque. The first mosque
was built on the site in the 10th century but the present
building dates from the 18th century. It consists of a vast
hall with a timber roof supported by over two hundred
carved wooden columns. Some date back to the original
10th century building and one or two of the stone column
bases may have been taken from even earlier structures.
An open space or clair storey in the centre allows light
to filter in, while the cool shady interior provides a
wonderful sense of calm away from the heat and bustle
of the streets. The Islam Khodja madrassah and minaret
date to the early 20th century. The minaret is decorated

Chest ornamentation.
with a graceful banding of baked brick and glazed tiles
and visitors can climb to the top for a view of the city.
Khiva's most revered mausoleum is that of Pahlavon Mahmud, a poet and
man of great strength, reknown for his protection of the poor. His tomb rests
among those of later rulers and adjacent to the tomb is a lovely little garden
courtyard with a well containing water with miraculous properties.

Kunya Urgench **
Kunya Urgench was a major regional centre from the 10th to the 13th
centuries and in the 12th century became the capital of the Khanate of
Khorezm. The city was destroyed by the Mongols in the early 13th century,
rebuilt under the rule of the Golden Horde following the death of Genghiz
Khan, destroyed again in the 14th century by Timur, partially rebuilt and
then finally abandoned in the 16th century when the river changed its course
and a new city was established at the site of Khiva near modern day Urgench,
150 kilometres upstream. The remains of the city today, although very much
ruined, are still significant. There are a number of mausolea, a minaret and
traces of the ancient walled city, including a monumental gateway. While
Kunya Urgench is well worth a visit, special arrangements must be made as it
is in Turkmenistan.

Karakalpakstan State Museum of Arts ***

The Museum is a stunning surprise for any visitor unfamiliar with the
story of its background. It houses a world class collection of early 20th
century art, together with a rich ethnographic assemblage and a selection
of archaeological finds from the numerous sites in the region. The collection
owes its existence to the courage and enthusiasm of one man, Igor Vitalevicha
Savitsky (1915-1984). Savitsky first came to Central Asia during the Second

Ancient Khorezm 12
World War when he was at the Moscow Art Institute and was evacuated to

Samarkand. Some years later he had the fortunate opportunity to return when
he was invited by the ethnographer T. Zhdanko to work as an artist for the
Archaeological and Ethnographic Khorezm Expedition in Karakalpakstan.
For Savitsky, Karakalpakstan was a place of peace and beauty and he left
Moscow, moving to Nukus permanently. From 1956 to 1966 Savitsky was
an employee of the Karakalpak branch of the Academy of Sciences of the
USSR, and he devoted his time to assembling a collection of Karakalpak
applied arts. He was especially fond of traditional textiles and the forms of
art associated with the nomadic way of life. Karakalpak embroidered dresses
are particularly beautiful. The decoration is used to indicate age and status
but within the strict canons laid down by this, each dress is an individual
work of art. To further ornament the dresses, Karakalpak women used to wear
elaborate silver jewellery including bracelets, rings, necklaces, pendants and
head dresses.

With the opening of a Museum of Fine Arts in Karakalpakstan, a local

school of art began to develop. The Museum encouraged artists, and
through the inspiration of the collections creative work flourished. Many
Karakalpak artists and sculptors, Z.Kuttymuratov, D.Turenijazov, B.Serekeev,
A.Utegenov, E.Zholdasov and others, were among Savitsky's pupils. The wide
desert horizons encouraged landscape artists, while the colour of domestic
life at home, in the fields and the bazaar was also the focus of many works.
Wood carving is another local Karakalpak tradition and the Museum houses
a number of beautiful examples. The natural shape of the tree informs the
sculptures so that images seem to grow out of the living wood. Stavitsky's
artistic enthusiasm survived years of repression under the Stalinist regime
when the only acceptable subject matter was Soviet Realism. Many artists
underwent ruthless persecution because their works did not correspond to the
narrow frameworks of Soviet ideology. Paintings were hidden and art went
underground. Savitsky managed to find many works of persecuted artists
and bring them to Nukus where he could keep them safe. When conditions
improved the works could be brought out once again into the daylight, but
much had been lost. Yet the works that have survived are a magnificent
collection showcasing Russian artists of the first half of the 20ih century.
Today, for early 20th century Russian art, the Museum collection is recognized
as second in importance only to that in Saint Petersburg. Items from the
collections are sought by art curators across the world for exhibitions.

Karakalpak State Regional Museum **

This building originally housed the Savitsky Art Collection before it was
moved to the new premises. For art enthusiasts, there is still a display of work
by Karakalpak artists on the first floor, while the ground floor has a display of
ethnographic and natural history collections.

Ancient Khorezm 13
^f Other Places of Interest

The Aral Sea and Muynak **

The Aral Sea was once one of the world's largest inland salt seas. Today it
is reduced to a bare shadow of its recent size through extensive irrigation
which has seriously depleted the flow of the Amu-dar'ya and the Syr-dar'ya,
the two major river systems on which the Aral Sea depends for regeneration.
Yet the sea has also gone through a considerable number of changes over
many thousands of years through natural causes. The beds of the rivers are
constantly shifting and satellite photographs clearly show traces of ancient
river beds flowing into different parts of the sea. Sometimes they bypassed
the Aral Sea altogether, turning south and west to run into the Caspian Sea.
The ancient branch of the Amu-dar-ya that once drained into the Caspian
sea is known as the Uzboi. The dry river bed now runs through empty desert
but archaeological research has found traces of settlements along its banks,
showing that it was flowing relatively recently in historical terms.

The effects of the shrinking Aral Sea are very serious indeed for the people
who live around it. The town of Muynak was once a flourishing fishing port
with a large cannery. First the fish began to die as the lake became increasingly
saline, and then the shoreline began to retreat until today Muynak is in the
middle of the desert, surrounded only by the rusting hulks of the fishing
vessels that once plied the lake. Storms passing over the dry lake bed pick
up salty dust contaminated with pesticides, fertilizers and industrial waste
and blow over the towns and villages of Khorezm, creating long term health
issues for their inhabitants and stifling the growth of crops. The climate of
the region has also changed. Once the sea acted as a buffer against the bitter
winter winds from the north, while summer evaporation cooled and added
moisture to the dry desert air. Now the summers are dryer and shorter, while
the winters are longer and colder. In a vicious cycle of destruction the dust
is also contributing to the degradation of the mountain glaciers in the Pamir
and Tien-Shan Mountains that feed the rivers flowing into the Sea. Once
the Aral Sea region was rich in wildlife. The sea supported over twenty species
of fish, while the river delta was home to over 70 varieties of mammals and
over 300 kinds of birds. Today the figure for mammals is reckoned at 32 and
the birds at 160. Plant life has suffered equally. Invaluable wetlands have dried
up or turned into salt marsh and increasing salt levels in the groundwater have
killed off many species of fodder and flowering plants.

Some measures are now being taken to attempt to alleviate the problems of
the Aral Sea. In Kazakhstan, a barrier has been built to contain the water
flowing into the northern end of the sea from the Syr-dar'ya. This has allowed
the small lake thus created to start to grow in size again, with a noticeable
improvement in local environmental conditions. The southern part of the sea

Ancient Khorezm 14
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is much larger and such measures are not feasible, so that Karakalpkstan does
not have this option. However, plans are in place to construct a major canal
along the Akcha-dar'ya, the line of the old river bed flowing from south¬
eastern Karakalpakstan into the eastern side of the Aral Sea. The canal will
drain irrigation water from the fields in the south of the region, helping to
lower the water table and reduce salinisation.

Baday-Tugai Reserve **
The Tugai forests are the original vegetation of the river banks and their
preservation is critical for the ecological and environmental well-being of the
region. Within Karakalpakstan, on the road from Biruni to Nukus, a park
covering some six and a half thousand hectares has been established to protect
one of the last relatively pristine stretches of Tugai forest along the eastern
bank of the Amu-dar'ya River. The reserve is a haven for a variety of birds and
small mammals as well as a herd of endangered Bukhara deer.

Bustan - Elli-kala **

Bustan is the small but pretty regional centre of the administrative district of
Elli-kala (Fifty Castles). The town lies beside a scenic lake and is home to a
small museum that showcases some of the principal fortresses in the region.
The displays include dioramas and some artifacts from the excavations.

Ancient Khorezm 15
y Major Sites
Many ofthe most important sites in Khorezm date in the late Archaic and Early
Antique periods, the time of the floruit of Khorezmian independence. By the
beginning of the 4th century BCE, the Early Antique period, ancient Khorezm
had reached a high level of cultural development. By now independent of
Persian control, Khorezm was clearly strong and prosperous. This period saw
major developments in military architecture with the construction of a series
of imposing frontier fortresses on the boundaries of the settled lands. Most of
these are in the south-east of the region but in the north the frontier towns
of Bol'shoi Aibuiir-kala and Dèvkesken faced the Ustiurt plateau, winter
grazing grounds of the nomads. The material culture experienced a period of
conservatism lasting until the late 1st or early 2nd century A.D. which suggests
little outside influence until contact with the Kushan empire effected a major
cultural shift. By the early 1st century A.D. Khorezm fell under the cultural
influence of the expanding Kushan empire, most clearly manifest in the
construction of the magnificent fortified citadel and township ofToprak-kala.
There is a new pattern of construction in this period with the appearance of
smaller fortresses within the settled lands. A good example of this is the site
of Kz'il-kala which lies among fields within sight of Toprak-kala. This new
pattern may be indicative of a different political structure.

The Khorezmians adopted religious practices which had their origins in

Iran and are linked to the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster. Some scholars
believe that Khorezm may even have been the homeland of the ministry of
Zoroaster. Archaeological remains reflecting these religious beliefs include
fire temples and funerary monuments. The Zoroastrian doctrine is based on
the duality of good and evil represented by Ahura Mazda, the Wise Lord,
and Ahriman, who embodies the principles of evil. For practitioners of the
faith, the four elements of the universe, fire, water, earth and air, were sacred.
This notion of purity is reflected in funerary rituals. The bones of the corpse
were deemed to have been created by Ahura Mazda and were therefore pure,
while the soft tissue was believed to have been created by Ahriman and was
impure. After death it was necessary to purify the body by removing the
flesh. To achieve this, the body would be placed in a special building open to
the sky known as a dachma, where the birds could come and clean the flesh
from the bones. The bones were then gathered up and placed in an ossuary,
usually made of baked clay, and then buried. A very fine example of an early
dachma can be seen at the site of Chil'pyk, overlooking the east bank of the
Amu-dar'ya River.

Ancient Khorezm 16
Ayaz-kala ***
Ayaz-kala is one of the most
spectactular fortresses in
Khorezm. There are in fact,
not one but three fortresses

clustered together ' on and

around a prominent hill at
the eastern end of the Sultan-

uiz-dagh range. The earliest

is Ayaz-kala I, located on
the top of the hill, one of the
forts along the edge of the
K'iz-il-kum desert, providing
defence against nomad raids
and the Saca lands of the

Syr-dar'ya delta to the north.

The site is best approached
from the back. A gravel road
leads up to a small cluster
of yurts, a tourist rest centre
overlooking a shallow but
picturesque lake. From here
visitors can walk across the

sand and up the slope to

enter over the walls at the Plan ofAyaz-kala I.
north-west corner of the

fortress. A better option, however, is to follow the track leading eastwards

from the rest centre. This curves round to come out at the main gate on the
south side. From here there is a spectacular view of the surrounding country,
and stretching away to the west can be seen the next links in the chain of
frontier defence, the sites of Mal'ii and Bol'shoi K'irk-k'iz-kala.

Ayaz-kala I has an area of 2.7 hectares and is rectangular in plan. The walls
are well preserved up to 10 metres in height with regularly spaced towers,
double storey archer's galleries and arrow slits that can still be seen clearly. The
lower gallery was entered at ground level next to the gate. The galleries would
have provided cover and ease of movement for the many archers needed to
defend the fort. The arched vaults of the lower galleries are still preserved
in places and the visitor can walk along inside them. Construction began in
the 4th century BCE when the galleried enclosure was built. Later, in the 3rd
century BCE, rounded towers were added. The complex gateway is typical of
Khorezmian frontier fortresses. The approach lies parallel to the south east
wall where invaders would be vulnerable to attack from above. A massive

gateway defended by two rectangular towers leads into a small rectangular

Ancient Khorezm 17
Plan ofAyaz-kala II.

chamber overlooked on all sides by high walls from which bowmen could
shoot at the enemy should the first gate be breached. A right angle turn
towards the second gate leading directly into the fort would break the force
of a charge through the first breach. The fortress is thought to have continued
in use up to around the 1st century CE, although it may have provided refuge
for local inhabitants well into the early medieval period.
For the hardy visitor, a steep rocky path leads down the scree slope from
the south west corner of Ayaz-kala-I to the saddle between the hill and the
smaller peak on which sits Ayaz-kala II. The less sure footed are recommended
to return to the rest centre and walk down the gravel road to the bottom of
the hill. Ayaz-kala II is a small, roughly oval fortress linked by a steep ramp
to an open settlement down on the plain to the west. The site can be entered
from the gate on the south west side either by climbing up the ramp or by
following a path which leads around the base of the walls from the northern
side. The fort dates to medieval times. It was probably founded in the Afrighid
period, some time around the late 7th to early 8th centuries CE. The walls are
built of mud brick on apakhsa socle and the tops of the walls were protected
by battlements with arrowslits in the crenellations. The interior structures
are well preserved and the interior surface is, in fact, the roof of the rooms.
Remains of vaulted ceilings can be seen in places where some erosion has
occurred. A ramp once extended down from the gateway of the fortress to

Ancient Khorezm 18
the entrance of a large palatial
building at the base of the hill.
This palace has been described
as the most beautiful early
medieval building in all of
Central Asia, with its large
columned halls, elegant
bench seating, ceremonial
platform, wall murals, and
fire sanctuary. Coins of the
Afrighid Khorezmian kings
were found here, notably
those of King Bravik. This
palace was built around the
4th century CE and was later
destroyed by two successive
fires. It was briefly reinhabited
as a domestic dwelling in the
6th/7th centuries CE.

Plan ofAyaz-kala III.

Ayaz-kala III is a fortified enclosure in the shape of a parallelogram sited on

the open plain below Ayaz-kala I. The enclosure has a double wall defended
by rectangular towers around the whole perimeter and an elaborate gateway
in the middle of the western wall. The site is about 5 hectares in area and

the enclosure walls date to the lst-2nd centuries CE, while the monumental
building in the north-east corner may have an earlier foundation date around
the 5th - 4th centuries BCE. It is likely that Ayaz-kala III was used in Kushan
times in the first centuries CE as a garrison, or possibly as a ruler's residence
and refuge for the local farming population, while a small force may still have
manned the old Ayaz-kala I fortress on the hilltop simply as a lookout post.
Surrounding the enclosure were found the remains of many farmsteads, with
dwellings, fields, field walls and vineyards.

**
Chil'pyk
Chilpik is a circular high-walled enclosure on an isolated peak overlooking
the Amu-dar'ya River which can be seen clearly from the main road. It is a
dakhma or Tower of Silence which was used by people of the Zoroastrian
faith for exposure of the dead. The bodies were laid out under the open sky
for the birds to eat. When the bones were cleaned, the families collected them
and placed them in clay or stone ossuaries for burial. The hills surrounding
Chilpik are filled with burials, and examples of these ossuaries can be seen in
the Nukus museum. Chilpik is located 43 kilometres south of Nukus on the
road to TurtkuT. It lies on the right bank of the Amu-dar'ya River and can be
approached by a sandy track from the main Nukus road.

Ancient Khorezm 19
 The walls form a slightly
irregular circle some 65
metres in diameter with an

opening to the north-west.

Leading up the steepest part
of the hill to the entrance

is a 20 metre long staircase.

From the base of this a ramp
leads down towards the river.

The walls are preserved to

as much as 15 metres in

places and are of pakhsa

construction, measuring 2-
3 metres in thickness at the

top and a little over 5 metres

at the base. The building was
originally constructed in the
first centuries CE but saw

Plan ofChil'pyk. a phase of rebuilding in the

7th - 8th centuries and again
in the 9th- 10th centuries.

Dzhanbas-kala **

Dzhanbas-kala is a frontier fortress on the south east border of ancient

Khorezm on the way to Turtk'ul. It is a spectacular ruin on a slope overlooking

an old branch of the Amu-

dar'ya river. Many Bronze

Age sites were found in the
vicinity but most have now
disappearedunderagriculture.
The fort is rectangular in
plan, measuring 200 by 170
metres. Like many of the
fortresses, the site dates to the
Early Antique period. It was
founded in the 4th century
BCE and was occupied
until about the 1st century
CE. It has well preserved
walls still standing up to 20
metres high in places and a
monumental gateway, but
Dzhanbas-kala differs from

most of the other fortresses

Plan ofDzhanbas-kala.

Ancient Khorezm 20
in having no towers on its
outer walls. Yet the site was

still well defended. The walls

are double to provide an inner

corridor with two levels for

archers to fire from and the

outer faces are well supplied

with over a thousand arrow

slits. One of the special

features of this site are the

embrasures located at several

points along the upper wall Reconstruction ofDzhanbas-kala.

galleries. These are the precursors to towers and they allow a single archer to
fire down along the face of the walls through arrow slits positioned at three
different angles. From the main gate in the south-east wall a street lined on
either side with residential blocks led up to the top of the town where there
was a monumental building, believed to be a Fire Temple. Finds from the site
suggest that it was in use from the 4th century BCE to the first century CE.
Dzhanbas-kala is visible from the road but the track leading up to it is very
sandy and is only suitable for high clearance vehicles.

Dzhanpyk-kala **
The archaeologist S.PTolstov
called Dhzanpyk-kala the
most beautiful fortress in

Khorezm. It is located on the

south-western slopes of the

Sultan-uiz-dagh range, near
the banks of the Amu-Dar'ya
river. The earliest foundations

are ancient (4thBCE -1st CE)

but the walls visible today
date to the medieval period,
in the 9th to 10th centuries

CE. There are domestic and

industrial areas within the

fortress which date to the

12th to 14th centuries CE.

On the northwest side of the

fortress is a palace building

or citadel with walls that

preserve the elegant fluted

façade mouldings indicative
Plan ofDzhanpyk-kala.

Ancient Khorezm 21
 of medieval architecture in

Khorezm.

The plan of the site is complex

as it is not regular but follows
the lie of the land. On top of
the fortifications was once

an open shooting gallery

protected at the front by a
low wall. Access to the gallery
would have been by means of
steps set against the inside
of the walls. There are five

towers preserved, set roughly

70 metres apart. Only the
tower on the east wall has an

internal chamber; the others

are solid. It is likely that there
were once two entrances. One

in the north wall leads out to

a cemetery while the second

Plan ofGuVdursun-kala Bolshaya.
is in a bend of the wall on the

southern side. At the highest point of the site is a rectangular citadel. On the
southern wall are traces of a breach created and repaired during the Mongol
invasions. The site can be reached by a road leading off" the Nukus- Turtku'l
highway at the end of the Sultan-uiz-dagh range. The first part of the road is
sealed but the last section of track requires a high clearance vehicle.

Gul'durstin-kala Bolshaya **
The fortified town of Gul'dursun lies beside the road running from Bustan
to Turtku'l. Although founded in the Early Antique period, the ruins visible
today at Gul'dursun-kala show one of the best examples of a major centre of
the Khorezmshah period. The site is one of the largest fortresses of ancient
Khorezm. The exterior walls and towers date to the 12th century CE. It has
complex fortifications and a monumental gateway located in the middle of
the east wall. The curtain wall has rounded towers at the corners on one side.

This section of wall also has the only gateway, flanked by rounded towers. The
outworks consist of a low parapet incorporating mini-towers and detached
oval towers. Various structures are still visible within the fortifications and

there are outworks dating to the 12th to 13th centuries CE. Much ancient
and medieval pottery and many bronze items and coins were found within the
site during archaeological excavations. The coins indicate that the last period
of occupation is related to the year 1220, during the rule of Muhammed
Khorezmshah and the time of the Mongol invasion of Khorezm.

Ancient Khorezm 22
Gyaur-kala Sultan-
uizdaghskaya *
The fortress of Gyaur-kala
lies on the right bank of
the Amu-dar'ya river 80
kilometres south of Nukus

on the road to Turtku'l. It

can be approached by a small

tarmac road leading down
towards the river that turns

and runs immediately by

the site. It was founded in

the Early Antique period

and continued in use until

the 4th century CE. Today

all that can be seen of the

fortress is the north wall and

a short section of the western

one. The fortress originally

had a trapezoidal plan, with
typical Khorezmian double
walls and double storey
archer's galleries, towers,
and arrow slits. The walls

are built of mud brick on

pakhsa socles. Only the base

of the eastern wall remains,
while the southern side has

disappeared completely,
washed away by the river. Plan ofGyaur-kala Sultan-uizdaghskaya.

This gives a plan of a cross

wall with two long walls on either side. However, the remains are preserved
to an impressive height and give a good indication of how forbidding these
walls must once have been. The northern wall is about 200 metres long while
the east and west walls were once over 400 metres long. A monumental
building was preserved within the north-western corner of the citadel walls.
In this were found several small halls, with ornate sandstone column bases,
finely plastered walls with wall paintings in niches, and what appears to have
been an altar. This building was probably a cultic fire sanctuary. Gyaur-kala
remained in use into the Kushan period, around the 3rd century CE.

Ancient Khorezm 23
 KazakTi-yatkan **
Kazakl'i-yatkan is one of
the largest, most complex
sites to be found in ancient

Khorezm. The site was

founded possibly around

the early 2nd century BCE
and continued in use until

the lst/2nd centuries CE. The

site comprises a rectangular

fortified enclosure with

outworks, to which was later

added a huge outer enclosure,
also well fortified. The earlier

enclosure lies in the north¬

west corner of the later

city. Both enclosures were

defended by galleried walls
with regularly spaced arrow
Plan ofKazakVi-yatkan. slits and towers. Two complex
gateways give access from
the upper (earlier) enclosure into the lower (later) one. Traces of monumental
buildings can be seen in the upper enclosure. In the north-west corner is
a temple or palace, a rectangular building with a massive outer wall lined
on the interior and exterior by a colonnade. The bases of the columns were
supported by ornate stepped and drum pedestals. Traces of painted plaster
and ornamental stucco work have been found in the interior. In the exact

centre of the site is a building interpreted as a mausoleum, consisting of two

square towers flanking a partly preserved barrel vault.

The site lies on a minor road to the east of the Biruni-Nukus highway and
very close to the back road from Biruni to Elli-kala. A one kilometre sandy
track leads from the tarmac road to the site. Visitors can either walk or use a

high clearance vehicle.

**
Kz'il-kala

Kz'il-kala is 1.3 kilometres west of Toprak-kala, and was built and occupied
during the same period as the larger site. The site lies about 500 metres off the
tarmac road among fields. Visitors can reach it via a sandy track. The fortress
stands on level ground among canals and fields, and is nearly square in plan.
It has towers on two of the four sides while the walls are well preserved and
still stand 13-16 metres in height. The entrance to the fort is in the south
east wall and is approached by a ramp. Kz'il-kala was originally constructed

Ancient Khorezm 24
in the Late Antique period,
1st to 4th centuries CE, but
was abandoned and then

rebuilt in the 12th-13th

centuries on the eve of the

Mongol invasions. The walls

are elaborate, built with
square unfired bricks, and
the outer wall has arrow-

shaped embrasures. There is

some debate about how this

fortress may have been used

in ancient times, with some
scholars proposing that it
was a garrison barracks for
troops, whilst others suggest
it was an early example of
one of the many fortified
manor houses that were

typical of Khorezm in the

early medieval periods. Plan ofKz'il-kala.

Bol'shoi K'irk-k'iz-kala *"

Large K'irk-k'iz-kala dates from the 4th century BCE to the 7th-8th
centuries CE. The site lies on the edge of the irrigated lands and forms part
of the chain of frontier fortresses running eastwards from Ayaz-kala. It lies
close to a minor road to the north of the main Bustan to Turtku'l road. It

was founded in the Early Antique period, saw reconstruction in the Kushan
period in Late Antique times and further rebuilding in the 7th-8th centuries
CE. The fortress is rectangular in plan with double walls containing a double
storey archer's gallery with arrow-shaped embrasures. The walls are defended
by rectangular two-storeyed towers. The entrance was in the middle of the
north-east wall and the fortifications were protected by an external cover wall
some ten metres further out. Within the walls are preserved the ruins of a
farmstead or manor house, while outside the fields contain scatters of sherds
over a wide area, indicating an extensive suburban complex, now destroyed by
ploughing. In the Afrighid period the area within and around the fortress was
a pottery production centre.

Mal'ii K'irk-k'iz-kala *

Small K'irk-k'iz-kala was founded around the 4th - 3rd centuries BCE

and was abandoned at the end of the 3rd or the early 4th century CE. The
fortifications consist of western and eastern parts, abutting each other and

Ancient Khorezm 25
 with different plans. The
western part has a sub-
circular ring of fortifications
with double walls, protected
by two tiers of arrow slits.
The eastern part forms a
segment of a circle abutting
the inner fortified enclosure.

The wall is preserved only

as a thick foundation block

some 3 metres wide. It lies

quite close to Bol'shoi K'irk-

k'iz-kala and can be reached

from the same road. Mal'ii

K'irk-k'iz-kala was a border

fortress, forming part of the

system of defense at the edge
of the oasis. It can be seen

from Ayaz-kala I to the west,

and from Kurgashin-kala
Plan of'Mal'ii K'irk-k'iz-kala. to the east, and the garrison
may have used smoke signals to warn of enemy incursions. Some scholars
also believe that border fortresses such as this one performed an additional
commercial role as centres of trade and exchange with the nomadic peoples
roaming the desert and steppe to the north.

Koi-krylgan-kala *
One of the most enigmatic of Khorezmian monuments, Koi-krylgan-kala,
lies 22 kilometres north-east of Turtk'ul. While today little is visible but a
dusty mound, the original plan of the site consisted of a rounded, two storey
building 45 metres in diameter fortified by a double ring wall with arrow slits
and towers. There was an elaborate gateway flanked by semi-circular towers
in the east of the fortress with a ramp leading into the main building. The
ground floor of the central building was divided into eight sectors forming
two separate complexes. The building stood eight and a half metres at its
highest point. Access to the upper floor was only possible from the second
floor of the archer's gallery by means of ladders. Between the fortifications and
the central building storehouses and informal dwellings were gradually built
up. Finds from excavations at the site suggest that the purpose of the main
building was not residential. Its circular plan and perfectly aligned internal
chambers, as well as terracotta figurines and other artifacts, led the excavators
to conclude that the building was originally constructed as a sacred building
used for astronomical observations.

Ancient Khorezm 26
 Reconstruction ofKoi-krylgan-kala.

There later followed a pe¬

riod of abandonment when

squatters used it as a location

for pottery production, but
its original purpose appears
not to have been forgotten
and later it was rebuilt again
for cult practices. Storage of
grain and other commodities
again became important. The
site saw continuous growth
and change, during which
the fortifications became

redundant and it became

an open settlement. The site

proved very rich in artifacts
including terracotta figu¬
rines, statues and fragments
of wall paintings, as well as
ornate clay ossuaries. Among
the finds were also examples Plan ofKoi-krylgan-kala.

of some of the oldest written

documents in Central Asia. The site was founded around the 4th century
BCE but continued in use into the 4th century CE.

Kurgashin-kala **
This fortress lies seventeen kilometres north of Dzhanbas-kala, on the same
line of hills. The site is well preserved and some of the towers still stand up
to two storeys high. It is 1.4 hectares in size, and was built in the 4th to 3rd

Ancient Khorezm 27
centuries BCE, remaining in use up to the 4th century CE. The fortress has
a rectangular plan. The walls are double thickness with a central corridor and
the outer faces are pierced by arrow slits. The defences are strengthened by a
combination of rounded and rectangular towers. This fortress is unusual in its
combination of rounded and rectangular defensive towers, with a different
treatment used at each corner. The gate was in the centre of the south-east
wall, reinforced by a protecting barbican. Outworks complete the defences.
The site is located in a strategic position, guarding the north-east sector of
the ancient Khorezmian state. According to local herders the name is derived
from the Turkic word for 'lead', which is supposed to have been mined nearby.
Located right beside the fortress were several large farmsteads, with houses,
storehouses, fields, canals, and extensive vineyards.

**
Mizdakh-khan

Mizdakh-khan is a large complex first established in the Early Antique period

and reoccupied extensively in the medieval period, up to the 14th century. The
ruins sprawl across the road towards Kunya-Urgench on the western border
of Karakalpakstan. Medieval Mizdakhan was mentioned by Persian historians
and the writings of the Arab geographers in the 10th century. The various
monuments are sited on and between three small hills and the complex has
a number of sectors including a citadel, an outer town and a necropolis. The
oldest settlement was established on the west hill around the 4th century
BCE. The town was destroyed by fire and a new town was built on top in
Kushan times. Finds from the necropolis show that the city continued in use
from the 5th to the 8th century CE and during this time new public buildings
were constructed.

From the 9th to the 11th century the city saw a period of major renaissance
with the construction of a fortified citadel. During this time changes in
burial practices indicate the introduction of Islam to the region. Bodies were
no longer exposed before burial in ossuaries but were interred according to
Muslim rites. New Mausolea and Mosques were built, but in the early 13th
century the Mongol invasions caused a short abandonment of the city. By the
later part of the century a new lower town spread across the site, with bazaars
and craft workshops. Medieval Mizdakhan was a flourishing craft centre on
the trade route to Kunya Urgench, and was destroyed by Tamerlame on his
way through to Kunya Urgench in 1388 CE. The main monuments of the site
are located on the northern side of the "Eastern Hill" where there are several

medieval mausolea and tombs. The most notable is the restored Mazlum

Khan Slu mausoleum and ablutions hall which dates to the 14th century
CE, and was constructed underground. Other monuments at the site are the
25m long sarcophagus of the giant Shamun Nabi which is still considered a
sacred place. The holy place of Djumarat Khasab, ("Djumarat the butcher") is
a high place on the eastern hill, which may have once been used as dakhma.

Ancient Khorezm 28
There is also the crumbling
tomb of the Caliph Yerejeb
(or Erezhep), dating to the
11th century CE. The tomb
displays fine architectural
construction with its use of

mud brick and fired brick. A

layer of reeds was placed in

the base of the walls to add

to their seismic stability.

Tash-k'irman-tepe *
Tash-k'irman-tepe is a re¬
ligious complex lying a few
kilometres east of Kazald'i-

yatkan. The site is located

on an ancient canal system
and covers an area of about

10 hectares. The parts visible

on the surface today include
a monumental mud brick

platform with a centrally lo¬

Plan ofTash-k'irman-tepe .
cated temple and some out-
lying features. The platform is made with alternating layers of sterile sand and
mud bricks. An earlier building has been found under the existing temple
platform which may date back to the 6th century BCE,while the mainbuildings
visible date to the end of the Early Antique Period. The temple lies at the
centre of the platform and consists of a complex of corridors surrounding a
central chamber which probably housed the main fire altar. In the later stages
of use, the corridors were used to store the sacred ash from the main altar.

Toprak-kala
Toprak-kala lies a few kilometres south of the Sultan-uiz-dagh range of
hills just beside the main road from Nukus to Turtk'ul. It is a vast ruin, still
standing over twenty metres above the surrounding farmland. Ancient canal
systems led water to the site from a now dry branch of the Oxus. The site is
dated in the Kushan period, around the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE and was
the royal residence of the kings of Khorezm. The site consists of five parts: a
domestic sector laid out in regular streets within the fortifications; a témenos;
a large monumental building identified as a palace or temple area; an external
palace complex; and a large enclosure, possibly meant to be a palace garden.
The principal fortified enclosure is rectangular in shape with the walls still
preserved to 8 or nine metres in height. The fortifications consist of straight

Ancient Khorezm 29
 walls with archer's galleries,
regularly spaced rectangular
towers along the flanks and a
larger tower at the north-east
corner. A central street some

9 metres wide ran up the long

axis of the city with smaller
side streets delineating blocks
of domestic quarters on either
side. These have been dated

in the period from the 2nd to

the 6th centuries CE. Part of

these was used for workshops

and manufacturing areas. One
quarter was given over to a
temple complex which, by the
volume of ash in and around

the buildings, was identified as

a Fire Temple. In an adjacent
building a great number of
Plan ofToprak-kala . precious objects were found
including bracelets with rams
horn fmials, glass vessels, beads and rings. There were also fragments of plaster statues
and slivers of gold leaf. Both buildings were dated to the period from the 4th to 6th
centuries CE.

The palace at the north-west corner of the settlement is one of the largest and
best preserved monumental buildings of the Kushan era in Central Asia. The
entire complex is built on a man-made platform 14 metres high on which
rested a central square building with a series of formal chambers protected by
towers. The walls are now quite heavily eroded but they may have originally
stood some 9 metres high. Many of the chambers in the central structure
contained niches with the remains of almost life-sized sculptures in clay which
are thought to represent kings. Others were painted with ornate frescoes of
various subjects including humans, mythological themes and animals. The
largest chamber had a roof supported by wooden columns on ornate stone
pedestals. An inner courtyard was decorated with rounded niches and was
surrounded by four two-roomed sanctuaries with altars and niches, indicating
a cultic area. One aspect of the cultic practice within the palace may have been
a royal cult. One room, the so-called "Hall of Kings" had a fire altar in the
centre while the walls were lined with statues which have been interpreted
as the "Rulers of Khorezm". Another, the "Hall of Victories" had images in
low relief of seated rulers with goddesses above. The themes of the decoration
in the palace rooms reflected military prowess and royal power. The "Hall
of Stags" was decorated with images of deer above which was a panel of

Ancient Khorezm 30
 Reconstruction ofToprak-kala .

griffins. Other wall decorations depicted plenty in the form of grape vines
and pomegranates. There was the "Hall of Dancing" with images on the walls
of men and women dancing. The main niche held an image of the mother
goddess with a wild animal. It seems likely that these rooms were used for
Royal fertility cult practices. This sanctuary complex was associated with a
throne room set in a courtyard with a triple-arched doorway. To the north¬
west was a corridor with paintings on the walls of water and fish, suggesting
its connection to a water cult. The most important find from the palace was
a set of written documents, the largest collection of only a handful known
in the Khorezmian language. Texts were written on parchment and wood,
while their content was mostly economic, including receipts and lists of slaves
and workers. The palace, having first served as a Royal sanctuary, was briefly
abandoned in the early 4th century CE and then after some restoration, was
used as the administrative citadel for the city.

Ancient Khorezm 31
 Wallpaintingfrom Toprak-kala.

Ancient Khorezm 32
 UNESCO

Published by UNESCO 2006 within the framework of the UNESCO Cross-

Cutting project, Innovative and Intersectoral Approaches to the Aral Sea Basin.